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Notker Mgeni & Hadinani Ungite. May, 2015

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DRAMA What is Drama?

The word drama comes from the Greek

word dran which means to act or to perform

(Meyer, 1993). Many scholars trace the

origin of drama to wordless actions like

ritual dances and mimes performed by

dancers, masked players or priests during

traditional festivals or ceremonies. One

account traces the origin to ritual.

Drama usually begin by describing the time

and place of action and giving information

about the opening scene. The names of the

characters are included here as are the

sounds and sights that the audience will

experience when the curtain rises (Chin, et

al, 2001). From this concept, the key words

here are time, setting and at rise. Drama is a

form of literature that asks you, the reader,

to play many roles (Kinsella, et al, 2003).

This definition is indeed lacking some

important concepts like performance, setting

and actors, thus it is unsatisfactory to

become a definition of drama. Applebee, et

al, (2001) defined drama as a story that is

intended to be performed for an audience,

either on stage or before a camera. Stage

direction, plot, characters and dialogue are

the elements of drama. This means that

drama is a story that should be performed

before the audience or a camera. For it to be

effectively performed by actors, stage and

the audience are important. Meyer, (1993)

defined drama as a story written to be

performed by actors on a stage before an

audience. From his definition, the key

concept is that for a drama to be effective, it

needs; a story, performance, actors, stage

and the audience. Glowka, (2001) defined

drama as a story written to be performed by

actors. He further added that although drama

is meant to be performed one can read the

script or written version and imagine the

action. The script of a drama is made up of

dialogue and stage direction. Iwuchukwu,

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(2008) defined drama as an adaptation,

recreation and reflection of reality on stage.

Drama is different from other genres of

literature. It has unique characteristics that

have come about in response to its peculiar

nature. It is difficult to separate drama from

performance because during the stage

performance of a play, drama brings life

experiences realistically to the audience.

From these concepts we, therefore, conclude

by defining drama as the artistic live

performance demonstrated by actors on the

dramatic stage before the audience for a

particular purpose. It is an artistic action that

is deliberately demonstrated as an art form

in order to attain the beautiful effect.

TYPES OF DRAMA

Different scholars have categorized drama

into several kinds/types. Mobley (1996)

categorized drama into four types, namely;

tragedy, melodrama, comedy and farce. He

further emphasized that each type has

subgenre because of differences among time

periods and production style. Meanwhile

Iwuchukwu (2008) classified drama into

four types which include; tragedy, comedy,

tragic-comedy and melodrama. Apart from

that Cheever (2015) divided drama into five

types, namely; comedy, Tragedy, farce,

melodrama and musical drama. Musical

drama is an additional one from those given

by Mobley. Not only that but also Bukagile,

et al, (2008) have presented five types of

drama which are; tragedy, comedy, tragic

comedy, melodrama and historical drama.

Here historical drama is not mentioned by

Mobley, Iwuchukwu and Cheever. From

those types given by the above scholars, we

can conclude by categorizing drama into

main six types which include tragedy drama,

comedy drama, melodrama, farce drama,

tragic comedy and historical drama.

Tragedy

Tragedy is a serious play that ends

unhappily (Mobley, 1996). This means that

tragedy drama have bad or sad endings like

death and the likes. Cheever, (2015) defined

tragedy drama as a types of drama which

involves serious subject matter and the death

of one or more main characters. Tragedy is a

drama which shows serious action and

always a hero leads into danger (Meyer,

1993). Tragedy is a serious play that deals

with the misfortunes of man. It presents a

man (tragic hero) who is not too virtuous or

too vicious but one who aspires for higher

ideals. He tries to improve himself and the

world around him (Iwuchukwu, 2008).

Therefore, tragedy is a type of drama with

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serious, sometimes impressive or elevated

style, in which things go wrong and cannot

be set right except at great cost or sacrifice.

It is characterized by a tragic hero who is

attempted to face some difficulties

especially when he wants to make decisions

over a certain burning issue.

Melodrama

Melodrama is a drama that relies heavily on

sensations and sentimentality. The

characters are clearly heroes with no blued

lines or mixed motives. It includes stock

characters (Mobley, 1996). Melodrama is a

play that has serious action caused by a

villain and a destruction of the villain which

brings about a happy resolution in the play.

The hero is usually involved in very

dangerous circumstances but is rescued or

he disentangles himself at the last possible

moment (Iwuchukwu, 2008). Melodrama is

a drama which represents confrontation

between good and devil and in which in turn

the good normally wins over the devil. Its

main purpose is to make people behave well.

It is a play in which the characters are types

rather than individuals, the story and

situations exaggerated to the point of

improbability or sensationalism and the

language and emotion over-emphasized.

Comedy

Comedy is a play with a happy bending

(Mobley, 1996). Comedy refers to the plays

that are light in tone and that typically have

happy endings. Its intent is to make the

audience laugh (Cheever, 2015). Comedy is

a story that ends with happy resolution of

the conflicts faced by the main character or

characters (Probst, et al, 2000). Not only that

but also Glowka, (2001) defined comedy as

a play which is light, often humorous or

satirical and ends happily. He then came up

with two types of comedy namely; romantic

comedy and comedy of manner. All these

scholars share the same concept that comedy

is a drama which ends happily. From these

concepts the term comedy refers to the light

play or drama with a happy ending. It is a

type of drama or play written in a kindly or

humorous, perhaps bitter or satiric vein, in

which the problems or difficulties of the

characters are resolved satisfactorily,

regarding the point of view of the audience.

Low characters as opposed to noble;

characters not always changed by the action

of the play; based upon observation of life.

Comedy is characterized by comic actions,

comic relief, satire and laughter.

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Farce

Farce is an extreme form of comedy that

depends on quick tempo and flawless timing

by the actors (Mobley, 1996). Farce is a type

of comedy in which ridiculous and often

stereotyped characters are involved in silly,

far-fetched situation (Probst, et al,

2000).Farce is a comedy in which story,

character, and especially situations are

exaggerated to the point of improbability;

the situation begins with a highly

improbable premise, but when that is

accepted everything that follows is

completely logical. Fast moving; uses such

theatrical devices as duplications,

repetitions, surprises, disguises, chance

encounters, often many doors and closets.

Tragic-comedy

Tragic comedy is a kind of drama which

combines elements of tragedy and comedy

but the hero does not end in death or danger

(Bukagile, et al, (2008). Tragic comedy is a

kind of drama which combines elements of

tragedy and comedy (Meyer, 1993). Tragic-

comedy is a play that mixes both comic and

tragic elements in equal proportion of each.

It therefore elicits both tragic and comic

emotions (Iwuchukwu, 2008).

Historical drama

Historical drama is a kind of drama which

expresses the history of a certain society, but

the reader will always find some elements of

tragedy and comedy (Bukagile, et al, (2008).

FUNCTIONS OF DRAMA

Drama is among literary genres in which

what it conveys is the reflection of life in

political, social, economic and cultural

aspects. It expresses the people‟s feelings,

emotions and attitudes in relation to their

environments and even the relationships

among themselves and the world. The drama

of any society, usually, reflects the

problems, aspirations, philosophy and

cultural background of the people. Here are

the functions of drama in the respective

society concern.

Drama is used to entertain people; Drama

forms part of the communal rites, in Africa,

reenactment of some feats like hunting,

warfare, and other events, are usually parts

of bigger festivals. Some of these events are

presented in form of drama to entertain the

audience. Also campaigns against Aids,

drug abuse, child abuse and so on, are

presented in form of drama aimed at

educating and at the same time entertaining

the people (Iwuchukwu, 2008).Drama is

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used for entertainment purpose (Conklin and

Mccable, 1989). Usually, through reading,

listening and watching the dramatic acts

people get pleasure and enjoyment. For

example, in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi,

Ngugi has shown this through the Fruitseller

when she advertises her orange as in;

“…….. Tamu-uuuuuu!

Ukimezachozilajimwaga

Thandaraita-i

Thandaraita-aaaaaaaa

On your way to heaven

You gonna get an orange.”(Pg.30)

From such advertisement, the use of the

phrases like “tamu-uuuuuu” and “ukimeza

chozi lajimwaga” attracts and entertains the

readers.

Drama is used to inform and educate people;

it is the most effective tool for mass

mobilization by the government and private

agencies. For instance, most campaigns

against Aids, drug abuse, child abuse and

soon, are presented in form of drama to

educate and enlighten the people

(Iwuchukwu, 2008). Drama can sometimes

teach about the value of knowledge and our

personal responsibility in pursuing it

(Conklin and Mccable, 1989). For instance,

Ngugi in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi, he has

shown this through his character, a Woman,

as in; “Sit down and eat slowly. Nobody is

going to steal it from you. If I were your

mother, I would have you washed your filthy

hands thoroughly, mend your clothes, wash

them and teach you how to eat

properly.”(Pg.18). Here a Woman is

educating a Boy the eating etiquette, that

before starting eating one need to wash

his/her hands properly and then during

eating he/she need to sit down and eat

slowly. The woman also is educating the

boy the important of washing and mending

clothes. Thus drama educates people in the

society. Also in the Antigone, Sophocles has

portrayed that drama educates people

especially through the characters like

Haimon, the son of Kreon and Theiresias, an

old and blind woman. This can be seen

scene 5 when Haimon tells his father that he

thinks that he knows everything and the

most wiser than ever since he is the king, as

in;

“….. You are not in the position to

know everything,

That people say or do, or what they

feel:

Your temper terrifies everyone

Will tell you only what you like to

hear.

But I, at any rate, can listen: and I

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have heard them

Muttering and whispering in the

dark about this girl.

They say no woman has ever, so

unreasonable,

Died so shameful a death for

generous act:

She covered her brother’s body. Is

this indecent?

She kept him from dogs and vulture.

Is this a crime?

Death? She should have all the

honor that we can give her!”

Here, Haimon informs his father, Kreon,

that his judgment and decision he has taken

towards Antigone is incorrect, hence, he is

supposed to get an advice from others than

depending on his own mind.

Drama mirrors the society and to effect

social reforms; playwrights usually are

influenced by their socio-cultural

backgrounds. They draw their themes or

subject matters from myths, legends, history

or contemporary issues. Of all the creative

artists, the dramatist is in the best position to

mirror his society and to effect social

reforms. This is because his work has a

unique characteristic of presenting events in

a vivid, picturesque and realistic manner.

This helps to imprint social conditions

realistically in the minds of the audience. Its

message is therefore immediate

(Iwuchukwu, 2008). The rich and the poor,

the young and the old, the literate and the

illiterate enjoy and assimilate the message of

drama once it is presented in the appropriate

language as the actors live out the story on

stage. Drama reveals the evils or problems

that are happening in a particular society.

For example, in the Antigone, Sophocles has

depicted this in scene 5 through the

conversation between Kreon and Teiresias,

as when Teiresias says;

“… I tell you, Kreon, you yourself

have brought

This new calamity upon us. Our

hearths and altars

Are stained with the corruption of

gods and carrion birds…”

Here, the author intends to reveals the

source of all problems facing a respective

society in a dramatic form.

It shapes the future of the society.

Dramatists can use their works to help to

shape the future ofthe societies. They can do

this not only by reflecting the ugly sides of

the societies but also by promoting the

positive aspects of the people‟s way of life

that are worth emulating or cultivating

(Iwuchukwu, 2008). Drama points out the

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weaknesses and strengths that exist in the

society concern by emphasizing the society

to eliminate those weaknesses and bad

things prevailing within it and encouraging

that society to preserve those strengths and

good things. For instance, in The Trial of

Dedan Kimathi, Ngugi has disclosed that

during colonialism the Kenyans were

maltreated as they were completely

oppressed, exploited, alienated and

humiliated. Thus for them to freed

themselves they had unite and drive away

their enemies. This can be verified through

the conversation between Kimathi and

Henderson (colonialist) especially when

Kimathi says;

“Life. My life. Give up my life for

your life.

Who are you, imperialist cannibal, to

guarantee my life?

My life is our people

Struggling

Fighting

Not like you to maintain

Slavery

Oppression

Exploitation

But

To end slavery, exploitation, modern

cannibalism. Out. Rat.

Go back to your masters and tell

them:

Kimathi will not sell Kenya to the

British……” (pg. 35-36)

Here drama has played a role pointing out

the problems which faced the Kenyans and

in turn it has suggested ways of eliminating

them so that it would have better future life.

Drama strengthens imaginations in people‟s

mind. Actors always know really that they

are not real characters in the drama/play but

through imagination they act as if they are

characters. Through such imaginations, the

audiences are able to believe in characters

and situations (Tanner, 1987). Drama

arouses and dispels certain emotions (Abel,

1999:531). Drama as a work of art employs

creative language in a form of conversation

that in turn evokes an emotional response in

the mind of reader‟s. In creating effective

imaginations, feelings and attitudes, authors

use sensory details or descriptions that

appeal to one or more of the five senses

namely; sight, hearing, touch, taste and

smell. This is seen in Sophocles‟ Antigone

for instance when Antigone talks with

Ismene about the death of their brotherin the

first part „Prologue‟ as in;

“….. But I will bury him; and if I

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must die,

I say that this crime is holy: I shall

lie down

With him in death, and I shall be as

dear

To him as to me

It is the dead,

Not the living, who make the longest

demands

We die for ever….

Here such quotation is indeed arouses and

even creates an image in the mind of the

reader‟s to the extent of becoming coward

less in doing things and in that case it

creates confidence to the people‟s mind.

Also in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi, Ngugi

has shown this through his character a Boy

when he encounters the death of his father to

the Woman as in; “….. Father and I went to

Nairobi. He found a job with a firm of

timber merchants. A tiny room, a tiny salary.

……. His ambition was to earn enough to

come back to Nyeri and buy a piece of land.

But he never made it. The machine cut off

his right hand … and …. He died of

bleeding. No medical care from his

employers. I was thrown out of the room he

had rented.” (Pg.18-19). This narration

makes a reader to create an image or

pictures on how the room and salary were

and even the way the settlers maltreated

black Africans.

It expresses and maintains the culture of the

society. Drama helps to ensure the

continuity of the people‟s traditions and

culture. Each dramatist, therefore, tries from

his perspective to use his art to enlighten his

audience on the goodness, imbalances and

shortcomings of his society. Apart from

their thematic concerns, each dramatist, in

his own style of relaying his message, tries

to highlight his cultural background through

the use of myths, legends, music, songs,

dances, proverbs, riddles, and other local

expressions (Iwuchukwu, 2008). In this way,

dramatists all over the world are regarded as

the conscience of their societies, and

custodians of their moral and cultural

values. Drama prevail the culture of a

particular society in which it springs from.

For example, in the Antigone, Sophocles has

shown this through his character Kreon,

king of Thebe, when he declares his decision

towards the burial of Eteocle and Polyneices

as in; “…Etoecles, who died as a man

should die, fighting for his country, is to be

buried with full military honors, with all the

ceremony that is usual when the greatest

heroes die; but his brother Polyneices, who

broke his exile to come back with fire and

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sword against his native city and the shrines

of his father’s gods, …….. I say is to have no

burial: no man is to touch him or say the

least prayer for him……” (pg.112). Here, it

shows that the concerned society has a

culture of burying the people‟s corps with a

burial ceremony in relation to the status of

the person died. Also it shows that the burial

ceremonies used to be associated with

prayers to their gods. Also in The Trial of

Dedan Kimathi, Ngugi has shown that the

Kenyans used to dance freely their

traditional dances before the arrival of

colonialists, but after their arrival, their

traditional dances have been replaced by

foreign ones as when Kimathi says; “….. It

is true that I’ve always wanted to dance the

dances of my people. They used to dance

these before the white colonialist came. In

the arena….at initiation……during

funerals…..during marriage….. Then the

colonialist came. And the people danced

different dance (pg.36-37). This reflects that

the Kenyans traditional occasions like

initiations, funeral and marriage were

associated with dances.

Drama liberates people mentally and

physically as it creates awareness to the

audiences or readers. Abel, (1999:531)

stressed that drama heightens viewers‟

awareness and sense. Drama directs people

towards their problems like oppression,

exploitation, ignorance, poverty, just to

mention few and on the other hand paves the

appropriate ways of getting out of them. For

example, Ngugi in I will Marry When I

Want, has portrayed this through the

character, Gicaamba, when he tells

Kikuunda as in;

“To have factories and even big

industries

Is good, very good!

It’s a means of developing the

country.

The question is this: Who owns the

industry?

Who benefits from the industries?

Whose children gain from the

industries?

Remember also that it’s only the

industrial tycoons

Who are like that!.......” (pg.39)

Here, when a reader reads such a script,

he/she becomes aware with what faced the

society concern. So from this context, Ngugi

aimed to awaken the readers/society that

despite the fact that there were industries in

their country, Kenya, they were not

beneficial to them. They instead benefited

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only the settlers.

To sum up, drama is an imitation of life. It is

different from other forms of literature

because of its unique characteristics. It is

read, but basically, it is composed to be

performed, so the ultimate aim of dramatic

composition is for it to be presented on stage

before an audience. This implies that it is a

medium of communication. It has an

immediate message to be communicated to

the audience. It uses actors to convey this

message. Unlike the prose and poetry which

depend on narration, drama is presented

only through dialogue. The novel is divided

in chapters and the poem is written mostly in

stanzas, drama is presented in acts and

scenes, movements or parts.

REFERENCES

Abel, L. (1999). Theatre Art in Africa, USA,

National Textbook Company.

Applebee, A.N, Bermudez, A.B, Blau, S,

Caplan, R, Elbow, P, Hynds, S, Langer, J.A

and

Marshall, J. (2001). The Language of

Literature, USA, Mc Dougal Littell Inc.

Cheever, J. (2015). Different Types of

Drama. Retrieved May 16, 2015 from

http://www.live123/...es-of-drama.htlm.

Chin, B.A, Wolf, D., Copeland, J.,

Dudzinski, M.A., Ray, W., Royster, J.J. and

Wilhelm, J. (2001). Glencoe Literature: The

Reader‟s Choice, USA, Mc Graw-Hall.

Conklin, R & Mccable, M. (1989). Prentice

Hall Literature Copper, USA, Prentice-Hall

Inc.

Iwuchukwu, O. (2008). Elements of Drama,

Lagos; National Open University of Nigeria.

Kinsella, K., Feldman, K., Stump, C.S.,

Canoll, J.A and Wilson, E.E. (2003).

Prentice Hall: Literature, USA, Pearson

Education Inc.

Meyer, M. (1993). The Bedford Introduction

to Literature, 3rd

ed., New York, Bedford

Books of St. Martin‟s

Mobley, J. (1996). Play Production Today,

5th

ed., USA, National Textbook Company.

Tanner, F.A. (1987). Basic Drama Project,

USA, Clark Publishing Inc.

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