MERCURY - CADMIUM - LEADHANDBOOK FOR SUSTAINABLE HEAVY METALS POLICY AND REGULATION

ENVIRONMENT &POLICYVOLUME 31

For further information about the series and how to order, please visit our Websitehttp ://www .wkap.nUseries.htm/ENPO

Mercury - Cadmium - Lead

Handbook for Sustainable Heavy Metals Policy and Regulation

Edited by

Michael J. Scoullos University 0/ Athens Division III Environmental and Marine Chemistry Group

Authors:

Michael J. Scoullos, Gerrit H. Vonkeman, Iain Thornton, Zen Makuch

Additional contributors: S. Arsenikos, V. Constantianos, P. Docx, S. Karavoltsos, K.E. Mac Donald, B. Mantzara, R. Rautiu, S. Roniotes, A. Sakellari, C. Zeri

SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

A C.!.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN 978-94-010-3896-6 ISBN 978-94-010-0403-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-010-0403-9

Cover design is based on a painting Mi tierra, se cae (My Earth falls), created specially for the cover of this book by the Peruvian artist Walter Giraldo. The editor wishes to thank his good friend Walter for permission to use this beautiful print to illustrate the theme of the book.

© Walter Giraldo (cover illustration)

Printed on acid1ree paper

All Rights Reserved © 2001 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2001 Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 1st edition 2001 No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, e1ectronic or mechanical, including photocopying, reeording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.

v

Table of contents (condensed)

Table ofcontents (condensed) V

Table ofcontents vrn

Preface : XVII

Chapter 1 - Introduction 1

1.1. About this book 11.2. Environmental policy in the ED 51.3. Heavy metals and the ED 5

Chapter 2 - Methodology 7

2.1. General 72.2. Specific research activities 82.3. Practical findings 9

Chapter 3 - Mercury 11

3.1. Introduction 113.2. World production, resources and reserve bases 143.3. World stocks and strategic stockpiles of mercury 203.4. Mercury prices 243.5. Factors that influence mercury trade : 233.6. Global trade flows of mercury 253.7. Mercury uses in the world economy 343.8. Mercury flows through the environment 393.9. The chlor-alkali industry 423.10. Mercury flow sheets 533.11. Technical and economic options for policies and legislation 603.12. References 66

Chapter 4 - Cadmium 71

4.1. Presence and sources 714.2. Cadmium world resources and estimates for reserve bases 754.3. Cadmium world production 764.4. World stocks and prices of cadmium I 174.5. World cadmium supply 1264.6. World consumption of cadmium 1294.7. Cadmium batteries 137

VI Table ofcontents

4.8. Cadmium pigments 2064.9. Stabilizers 2124.10. Electroplating and coating 2154.11. Cadmium alloys 2204.12. Cadmium in solar cells 2234.13. Emissions from Cd production and processing in the EU 2264.14. Other sources of cadmium 2324.15. Cadmium flows and balance in the EU 2644.16. References 268

Chapter 5 - Lead 273

5.1. Global lead material flows through economy and environment....2735.2. Primary lead production in market economy countries 2755.3. Secondary lead production in market economy countries 2815.4. Lead smelting and refining 2845.5. Exports and imports of lead metal 2865.6. Lead uses and applications 2895.7. Production of lead metal in EU Member Countries.

Smelting and related emissions 2945.8. Lead recycling schemes:

A review of current system within the EU. 3045.9. Lead substitutes and alternatives 3135.10. References 321

Chapter 6 - Key human and environmental risks associated withmercury, cadmium and lead: (Eco)toxicology of

heavy metals 323

6.1. Human health and environmental risks 3236.2. Exposure and risk assessment models 3426.3. Ecotoxicology of heavy metals 3466.4. References 354

Chapter 7- Theoretical backgroundfor framing policies andlegislation on heavy metals 357

7.1. Introduction 3577.2. Fundamental considerations 3587.3. EU policy making methodology 3707.4. References 405

Handbook for Sustainable Heavy Metals Policy andRegulation VII

Chapter 8 - Policy optionsfor mercury 409

8.1. Questions directing policy options 4098.2. Long-term mercury policy 4108.3. Medium-term mercury policy 410804. Short-term mercury policy .4128.5. Policies in the USA, the EU and elsewhere 4148.6. Recommendations for the EU .4218.7. References 425

Chapter 9 - Policy optionsfor cadmium .427

9.1. Questions directing policy options .4279.2. References 456

Chapter 10 - Policy optionsfor lead 457

10.1. Scientific and technical basis for understanding the human andenvironmental risks oflead 457

10.2. Tentative policy principles 45910.3. Long-term policy approaches 46210.4. Medium-term policy considerations 46410.5. Key instruments for short-term policy action .46510.6. European Community policy and regulatory reform measures:

Sound practice and its Implementation value in the EuropeanCommunity over the short-term 493

10.7. Conclusion 50510.8. References 506

Chapter 11- Conclusions 507

11.1. Introduction 50711.2. The most serious problems 50811.3. Polices and legislation 5071104. Recommendations 51511.5. References 518

Annex 1 The partner institutes 519

Annex 2 Authors and contributors 521

Acknowledgements 525

VIII

Table of contents

Table ofcontents (condensed) v

Table ofcontents VIII

Preface XVII

Chapter 1 - Introduction 1

1.1. About this book 11.2. Environmental policy in the EU 51.3. Heavy metals and the EU 5

Chapter 2 - Methodology 7

2.1. General 72.2. Specific research activities 82.3. Practical findings 9

Chapter 3 - Mercury 11

3.1. Introduction 113.2. World production, resources and reserve bases 14

3.2.1 General overview 143.2.2 World mercury reserves 163.2.3 Mercury recovery 173.2.4 Mercury production in Europe 18

3.3. World stocks and strategic stockpiles of mercury 203.4. Mercury prices 243.5. Factors that influence mercury trade 23

3.5.1 Introduction 233.5.2 Mercury supply 233.5.3 Mercury demand 243.5.4 Conclusions 243.5.5 The role of transit points 25

3.6. Global trade flows of mercury 253.6.1 Mercury flows in the United States 273.6.2 Mercury flows in the rest of the world, except the EU 283.6.3 Mercury flows in the European Union 32

3.7. Mercury uses in the world economy 343.7.1 Typical uses of mercury 34

Handbookfor Sustainable Heavy Metals Policy andRegulation IX

3.8. Mercury flows through the environment 393.8.1 Introduction 393.8.2 Natural flows of mercury 393.8.3 Mercury flows from impurities and contaminants 403.8.4 Mercury flows from economic uses of mercury 42

3.9 . The chlor-alkali industry 423.9.1 General overview 423.9.2 Recent developments in the chlor-alkali industry 51

3.10. Mercury flow sheets 533.10.1 Introduction 533.10.2 A simplified flow sheet for the USA 543.10.3 A mercury flow sheet for EU 12 563.10.4 A mercury flow sheet for the Netherlands 573.10.5 Comparisons of and conclusions from the flow sheets 58

3.11 . Technical and economic options for policies and legislation 603.11.1 Introduction 603.11.2 General options for various uses 60

3.12. References 66

Chapter 4 - Cadmium 71

4.1 . Presence and sources 714.1.1 General 714.1.2 Cadmium presence in minerals 724.1.3 Cadmium sources in the environment... 724.1.4 Natural emissions of cadmium 734.1.5 Cadmium in sulphite deposits; mining 734.1.6 Emissions from mining (of non-ferrous metal concentrates) 74

4.2. Cadmium world resources and estimates for reserve bases 754.3. Cadmium world production 76

4.3.1 Mine cadmium production 774.3.2 Refined cadmium production 794.3.3 Cadmium production in the EU Member States 874.3.4 Union Miniere and la Vieille Montagne S.A.:

the world 's major cadmium producers 1014.3.5 Cadmium recovery 104

4.4. World Stocks and prices of cadmium 1174.4.1 World stocks 1174.4.2 Strategic stockpiles 1184.4.3 Cadmium price 1194.4.4 Impact of US strategic stockpile sales on prices 124

4.5. World cadmium supply 1264.6. World consumption of cadmium 1294.7. Cadmium batteries 137

X Table ofcontents

4.7.1 The principle- General technical information 1374.7.2 Vented cells 1384.703 Sealed cells 1394.7 .4 The trends in Ni-Cd battery production and use 1434.7.5 Nickel- Cadmium batteries recycling 1644.7.6 The availability and dcvelopmentof substitutes and alternatives

to the Ni-Cd battery 1964.7.7 Forecast of cadmium demand for Ni-Cd batteries 202

4.8. Cadmium pigments 2064.8.1 Development, present levels and fate 2064.8.2 Properties and uses of pigments 2064.803 Restrictions and their impact on the development of alternatives

and trends 2094.8.4 Development of inorganic alternatives to cadmium pigments 2104.8.5 Organic substitutes to cadmium pigments 211

4.9. Stabilizers 2124.9.1 Development, present levels and fate 2124.9.2 Properties and uses 2124.903 Restriction s and alternatives 213

4.10. Electroplating and coating 2154.10.1 Development, present levels and fate 2154.10.2 Properties and main uses 2164.1003 Disadvantages of cadmium coatings; environmental consequences ..2174.10.4 Restriction s on and alternatives of cadmium coatings 2184.10.5 Cadmium content in zinc coatings and other zinc products 218

4.11. Cadmium alloys 2204.11.1 Developmen t, present levels and fate 2204.11.2 Properties and main uses 2204.11.3 Restrictions and alternatives 222

4.12. Cadmium in solar cells 2234.12.1 Development properties and prospects 2234.12.2 Recyclability of photo-voltaics 225

4.13. Emissions from Cd production and processing in the EU. 2264.13.1 The available data 2264.13.2 Emissions to the atmosphere 2294.13.3 Emissions to the aquatic environment... 2304.13.4 Emissions to land 231

4.14. Other sources of cadmium 2324.14 .1 Iron and steel metallurgy 2324.14.2 Non-ferrous metal refining 2354.14.3 Phosphorites - Phosphate industry - Phosphate fertilisers 2374.14.4 Cadmium in manure 251

HandbookforSustainable Heavy Metals Policy andRegulation XI

4.14.5 Cadmium in sewage treatment sludge 2524.14.6 Solid waste disposal ., 2634.14.7 Dredge spoil 2594.14.8 Fossil fuels 2604.14.9 Traffic and transport 2624.14.10 Limestone and cement 262

4.15. Cadmium flows and balance in the EU 2644.16 . References 268

Chapter 5 - Lead 273

5.1. Global lead material flows through economy and environment.... 2735.1.1 Introduction 2735.1.2 Lead in the environment- baseline data 2745.1.3 Emissions to the environment... 274

5.2. Primary lead production in market economy countries 2755.2.1 Sources and Production 2755.2.2 Principal users of lead metal 280

5.3. Secondary lead production in market economy countries 2815.3.1 Influence ofrecycling 2815.3.2 Refined lead metal production 2825.3.3 Main producers of refined lead 282

5.4. Lead smelting and refining 2845.4.1 Primary smelting and refining 2845.4.2 Secondary plants 285

5.5. Exports and imports of lead metal 2865.5.1 Introduction 2865.5.2 Exports of lead metal 2865.5.3 Imports of lead metal 288

5.6. Lead uses and applications 2895.6.1 Lead acid batteries 2895.6.2 General constructional uses: sheet and pipe 2895.6.3 Lead shot, weights and miscellaneous products 291

5.7. Production of lead metal in EU Member Countries.Smelting and related emissions 2945.7.1 Introduction 2945.7.2 Lead processing facilities in the European Union 2945.7.3 Quantities oflead ore mined in the EU 2955.7.4 Primary production of lead metal in the EU 2965.7.5 Recovery of secondary lead 2975.7.6 Sources of feedstock and recycling processes 2985.7.7 Lead emissions from smelters in the EU 300

5.8. Lead recycling schemes:A review of current system within the EU 304

XII Table ofcontents

5.8.1 Recycling processes 3045.8.2 Recycling of major lead products 3045.8.3 National policies and collecting strategies 3095.8.4 Future opportunities 311

5.9. Lead substitutes and altematives 3135.9.1 Introduction 3135.9.2 Alternatives for lead-acid batteries 3135.9.3 Alternatives for lead sheet, pipe and as building materials 3145.9.4 Alternatives for lead sheathing for electrical cable 3145.9.5 Alternatives to the use of lead in radiation shielding 3155.9.6 Alternatives for lead shot, weights, and miscellaneous products 3155.9.7 Alternatives for lead solders 3165.9.8 Alternatives for lead use in bearings 3175.9.9 Alternatives for lead use in bronzes, steels and aluminium alloys 3175.9.10 Alternatives for lead use in lead crystal and optical glass 3175.9.11 Alternatives for lead use in radiation shielding glass, cathode

ray tubes, fluorescent tubes and electrical glass 3185.9.12 Alternatives to lead use in ceramic glazes and enamels 3195.9.13 Alternatives to leaded pigments and paints 3195.9.14 Alternatives to lead-based PVC stabilisers 3195.9.15 Alternatives for lead use in petrol and fuel additives 320

5.10. References 321

Chapter 6 - Key human and environmental risks associatedwithmercury, cadmium and lead: (Eco)toxicology ofheavy metals 323

6.1. Human health and environmental risks 3236.1.1 Mercury 3236.1.2 Cadmium 3296.1.3 Lead 334

6.2. Exposure and risk assessment mode1s 3426.2.1 Introduction 3426.2.2 Exposure models 3436.2.3 Common features of the models 3446.2.4 Conclusion on risk assessment... 3466.2.5 Implications to developing countries 346

6.3. Ecotoxicology of heavy metals 3466.3.1 Ecotoxicology of mercury 3466.3.2 Ecotoxicology of cadmium 3486.3.3 Ecotoxicology oflead 351

6.4. References 354

Handbookfor Sustainable Heavy Metals Policy andRegulation XIII

Chapter 7- Theoretical backgroundfor framing policiesand legislation on heavy metals 357

7.1. Introduction 3577.2. Fundamental considerations 358

7.2.1 Basic environmental observations 3587.2.2 Sustainable development 3597.2.3 Long-term policy principles 3637.2.4 Summary of environmental goals 3677.2.5 Accumulated stocks in the economic compartment.. 369

7.3. EU Policy making methodology 3707.3.1 Some basic elements 3707.3.2 Additional considerations , 3887.3.3 The cycling of heavy metals in the environmental and economic

compartments 3957.3.4 Long-term policy options , 3977.3.5 Medium-term policy options 4007.3.6 Short-term policy options 403

7.4. References 405

Chapter8 - Policy optionsfor mercury .409

8.1. Questions directing policy options .4098.1.1 Introduction 409

8.2. Long-term mercury policy 4108.3. Medium-term mercury policy 410

8.3.1 Discontinuation of mining 4108.3.2 Restriction to essential uses 4118.3.3 Recovery and recycling or disposal 411

8.4. Short-term mercury policy 4128.4.1 Instruments , wiring and switches 4128.4.2 Lighting 4128.4.3 Dentistry 4138.4.4 Lighthouses 4138.4.5 Chlor-alkali production 414

8.5. Policies in the USA, the EU and elsewhere .4148.5.1 Introduction 4148.5.2 Measures within the US 4148.5.3 EU policy 4168.5.4 More advanced measures 421

8.6. Recommendations for the EU 4218.6.1 Restriction of the production and use of metallic mercury and

mercury containing products 421

10.5.8

10.5.9

10.5.10

XIV Table ofcontents

8.6.2 Forbidding the export of metallic mercury and mercury containing

products 4228.6.3 Forbidding the export of mercury-containing waste .4228.6.4 Forbidding the recycling of mercury-containing waste 4228.6.5 Instruments, wiring and switches 4228.6.6 Lighting 4228.6.7 Dentistry 4238.6.8 ChIor-alkali industry 423

8.7. References 425

Chapter 9 - Policy options for cadmium .427

9.1. Questions directing policy options .4279.1.1 Policy options in general. 4289.1.2 Long-term cadmium policy options .4349.1.3 Medium-term cadmium policy options .4349.1.4 Short-term cadmium policy options 443

9.2. References 456

Chapter 10 - Policy options for lead 457

10.I . Scientific and technical basis for understanding the human andenvironmental risks oflead 457

10.2. Tentative policy principles 45910.3. Long-term policy approaches 46210.4. Medium-term policy considerations 46410.5. Key instruments for short-term policy action .465

10.5.1 The integrated pollution prevention and control (IPPC) directive 46610.5.2 The waste management framework directive 46710.5.3 The hazardous waste management directive .46810.5.4 The regulation on shipments of waste within and out of the El.J .46910.5.5 The water quality framework directive 46910.5.6 The direct ive on the quality of water for human consumption 47010.5.7 The directive on pollution caused by certain dangerous substances

discharged into the aquatic environment... 470The urban waste water treatment directive 471The air quality framework directive .472The directive on combating of air pollution from industrial plants

and the directive on pollution from large combustion plants .47310.5.11 The directive on existing municipal waste incinerators and the

directive on new municipal waste incinerators 47410.5.12 The directive relating to classification packaging and labelling

of certain dangerous substances 47510.5.13 The directive relating to restrictions on the marketing and use of

certain dangerous substances and preparations .476

Handbookfor Sustainable Heavy Metals Policy andRegulation XV

10.5.14

10.5.15

10.5.16

10.5.17

10.5.18

10.5.19

10.5.20

10.5.21

10.5.22

10.5.23

10.5.24

10.5.25

10.5.26

10.5.27

10.5.28

10.5.29

10.5.30

10.5.31

10.5.32

10.5.33

10.5.34

10.5.35

10.5.36

10.5.37

The Seveso directive on major accident hazards of certain industrial

activities 476The landfill directive 477The packaging directive 477The white paper on civil liability for environmental harm .478The environmental management and auditing regulation .478The directive on batteries and accumulators containing dangerous

substances 479The decision establishing the ecological criteria for the award of the

Community eco-label to bed mattresses 480The decision establishing the ecological criteria for the award of the

Community eco-label to soil improvers 481The directive laying down specific criteria of purity concerning

sweeteners for use in foodstuffs 482The decision on the review of the European Community programme

of policy and action in relation to the environment and sustainable

development 'Towards sustainability' 482The directive adapting to technical progress the directive on the

classification, packaging and labelling of dangerous substances .......483The directive on the classificat ion, packaging and labelling of

dangerous substances 484The directive on biological screening of the population for lead 484The decision relating to a proceeding pursuant to article 85 of the EC

treaty and article 53 of the EEA agreement

(IV/34.252 - Philips-Osram) 485The proposal for a directive on restriction of the use of certain

hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment.. .485The decision on a proceeding under article 85 of the EEC treaty

(lV/29.535 - white lead; 70/90/EEC) 487The Green Paper: Environmental issues of PVC .488DG Development, DG External Relations and Service Commun

Relex - funded report : Compilation of environment informat ion on

Egypt, June 1999 488The directive amending the directive relating to restrictions on the

marketing and use of certain dangerous substances and preparations 489Amended proposal for a directive on end of life vehicles .490The adapted directive on the quality of water intended for human

consumption 490Working document on sludge .491The directive on a limit value for lead in air .492World Trade Organisation technical barriers to trade agreement 492

XVI Table ofcontents

10.6. European Community policy and regulatory reform measures :Sound practice and its implementation value in the EuropeanCommunity over the short-term 493

10.7. Conclusion 50510.8. References 506

Chapter 11 - Conclusions 507

11.1. Introduction 50711.2. The most serious problems 50811.3. Policies and legislation 507

11.3.1 The present situation 51011.3.2 Guiding principles for future policy and legislation 513

11.4. Recommendations 51511.5. References 518

Annex 1 The partner institutes 519

Annex 2 Authors and contributors 521

Acknowledgements 525

XVII

Preface

This book is based on the results of the project 'Towards an IntegratedEuropean Union Policy for Heavy Metals' (EUPHEMET), financed throughthe EU 4th Framework Programme for Research. By means of a fundamentaland integrated approach, based on the demands of sustainable developmenton the one hand and the specific characteristics of heavy metals on the other,a new concept for policy development for different time horizons has beendesigned. Emphasis has been given to the EU scene but developments in theUSA, Japan and the rest of the world have been thoroughly reviewed, aswell. Three particular heavy metals - mercury, cadmium and lead - havebeen used as vehicles for our policy considerations. The book also contains awealth of data regarding these three heavy metals. Moreover, it is not only ascientific, technical or policy handbook. It attempts to bridge reality with avision for all relevant fields. A vision about the needed, feasible and/or visi­ble policy which, as Wendell Berry could have put it, is not good for theworld merely because it is good for us, but it is good for us because it is alsogood for the world.

From the beginning, it was clear that this work could only be successfullyaddressed by a multidisciplinary group with adequate experience in naturalscience, technology, economics, European policy-making, legislation and, ofcourse, heavy metals .

Three institutions that are known for their expertise joined forces, viz. theInstitute for European Environmental Policy-Brussels V.z.W. (IEEP-B, rep­resented by Prof. Gerrit Vonkeman), ICON Consultants Ltd. of ImperialCollege London (ICON, represented by Prof. lain Thornton and Zen Ma­kuch, Barrister), and the Environmental Group, Division III, of the Depart­ment of Chemistry of the University of Athens (UoA, represented by the un­dersigned Prof. Michael Scoullos , the latter acting also as the co-ordinator ofthe project) .

XVIII Preface

All partners have worked hard and harmoniously throughout the projectand acted as a team in the best sense of the word. Although each partnergroup had different responsibilities, to be described in Chapter 2, their mu­tual involvement was so large that this book is a product of shared author­ship rather than an edited volume. I sincerely thank the partners , as well astheir team members who produced incidental contributions, for their in­volvement and friendship.

Thanks are also due to a large circle of policy makers and stakeholderswho were involved in all major stages of the work development. Withouttheir support the fulfilment of our task might not have been possible. Thenames of both groups are mentioned in the acknowledgements of this book.

The team specially thanks the responsible supervisor of the EuropeanCommission, Dr. Michel Cornaert from DG Research, for his valuable con­tribution, guidance and support throughout the project.

I also thank the ICON staff and particularly Dr. Radu Rautiu for design­ing and maintaining our website htlp ://www.icconsultants.co.uk/euphemet/euphemet.html and organising our EUPHEMET Workshop with stake­holders in London (April 1999), Mr. Zen Makuch and Mrs. Karen Mac­Donald of Imperial College for their valuable editorial assistance as nativeEnglish speakers, my assistant Mr. Sotiris Karavoltsos for his day-to-dayinvolvement, Mr. Spyros Arsenikos for his work on the layout, MIO-ECSDEfor its contribution and co-organisation with the UoA of the EUPHEMETInternational Workshop in Athens , 18-19 April 2000, and Prof. GerritVonkeman for preparing the camera-ready manuscript.

Last but not least, we have very much appreciated the support of our pub­lisher and in particular the responsible editor Mrs. Henny Hoogervorst, whowas convinced from the beginning about the merits of publishing this book.

Michael Seoul/os, co-ordinator and editor.

Athens, June 2001.