Slide 1

MEMORY Slide 2 Take a minute to list all the things that our memory is useful for. Take a minute to list all the things that our memory is useful for. Now think about all the things that we wouldnt be able to do if we did not have our memory. Now think about all the things that we wouldnt be able to do if we did not have our memory. -tying shoelaces -remembering faces -no friends -no self-concept -no personal identity Slide 3 Human memory is not a single organ. Human memory is not a single organ. Technically we do not actually have a memory- we have different memory systems. Technically we do not actually have a memory- we have different memory systems. Memory consists of a collection of complex interconnected systems, each of which serves a different purpose and operates in a very different way. Memory consists of a collection of complex interconnected systems, each of which serves a different purpose and operates in a very different way. Slide 4 Despite these differences, all memory systems have some functions in common- they each receive, process and store information for future use. Despite these differences, all memory systems have some functions in common- they each receive, process and store information for future use. When we receive sensory information the brain must select what information will be attended to, processed and stored in the various memory systems and what will be eliminated and therefore not stored in memory. If this process did not occur our memory systems would be overloaded with unimportant information. When we receive sensory information the brain must select what information will be attended to, processed and stored in the various memory systems and what will be eliminated and therefore not stored in memory. If this process did not occur our memory systems would be overloaded with unimportant information. Slide 5 In terms of people who are said to have lost their memory- this is generally a reference to a situation where one or more memory systems have malfunctioned. In terms of people who are said to have lost their memory- this is generally a reference to a situation where one or more memory systems have malfunctioned. To have no memory at all you would probably be unconscious or dead. To have no memory at all you would probably be unconscious or dead. Slide 6 MEMORY AS AN INFORMATION PROCESSING SYSTEM Most psychologists view memory as an active information-processing system that receives, organises, stores and recovers information. This description compares memory to a computer in terms of the way information is processed. This description compares memory to a computer in terms of the way information is processed. Slide 7 Slide 8 Like a computer, memory does not passively receive and store new information. Like a computer, memory does not passively receive and store new information. Instead, it actively alters and organises incoming information so that it can be stored in a way that is relatively easily retrieved. Instead, it actively alters and organises incoming information so that it can be stored in a way that is relatively easily retrieved. Memory and a computer are also comparable in the way that they each deal with information in a sequence involving three key processes: encoding, or conversion of information into a useable form; its storage or retention after being encoded; and its recovery or retrieval when needed. Memory and a computer are also comparable in the way that they each deal with information in a sequence involving three key processes: encoding, or conversion of information into a useable form; its storage or retention after being encoded; and its recovery or retrieval when needed. Slide 9 ENCODING Information that is received and stored in memory must be converted from its raw sensory state to a form that the brain can process and use. Information that is received and stored in memory must be converted from its raw sensory state to a form that the brain can process and use. New information must also be placed, or represented, in some form- sound, visual image, touch or meaning- in the memory system. New information must also be placed, or represented, in some form- sound, visual image, touch or meaning- in the memory system. The entire process of converting information into a useable form or code that can be stored in memory is called encoding. The entire process of converting information into a useable form or code that can be stored in memory is called encoding. Slide 10 STORAGE Next, information must be retained by the information-processing system. Next, information must be retained by the information-processing system. Storage is the retention of information over time. Storage is the retention of information over time. Personal computers usually store information on a hard drive, whereas human memory stores information in the brain. Personal computers usually store information on a hard drive, whereas human memory stores information in the brain. Slide 11 RETRIEVAL Finally, the information is retrieved, or located and taken out of storage when it is needed. Finally, the information is retrieved, or located and taken out of storage when it is needed. Retrieval is the process of locating and recovering the stored information from memory so that we are consciously aware of it. Retrieval is the process of locating and recovering the stored information from memory so that we are consciously aware of it. Slide 12 The retrieval of some information is very easy and quick, such as your name or birth date. The retrieval of some information is very easy and quick, such as your name or birth date. Other information is harder to retrieve such as something you learnt in year 7 science. Other information is harder to retrieve such as something you learnt in year 7 science. In these instances we often rely on cues to retrieve information that has been stored in memory. In these instances we often rely on cues to retrieve information that has been stored in memory. Slide 13 Copy out this diagram Slide 14 MEASURES OF RETENTION What methods do we use to test what has been retained in memory? What methods do we use to test what has been retained in memory? Teachers generally use tests or exams. But is your performance on a test or exam a reliable measure of how much information you have retained in memory? Teachers generally use tests or exams. But is your performance on a test or exam a reliable measure of how much information you have retained in memory? Slide 15 There are different types of questions teachers ask, including multiple-choice questions, true/false questions, fill-in-the-blanks, short answer, and essay questions. There are different types of questions teachers ask, including multiple-choice questions, true/false questions, fill-in-the-blanks, short answer, and essay questions. Research shows that the amount of information that will be retrieved from memory is, at least partly, dependent on the type of question asked. Research shows that the amount of information that will be retrieved from memory is, at least partly, dependent on the type of question asked. There are three main kinds of measures that are used to determine how much information has been retained: recall, recognition and relearning. There are three main kinds of measures that are used to determine how much information has been retained: recall, recognition and relearning. Slide 16 RECALL What are the names of the 7 dwarfs? What are the names of the 7 dwarfs? In order to answer this question, you would have searched through your long-term memory, tried to locate the information required, and either have produced or not produced the correct information. In order to answer this question, you would have searched through your long-term memory, tried to locate the information required, and either have produced or not produced the correct information. Slide 17 RECALL This approach to measuring the amount of information retained in memory is a test of recall. This approach to measuring the amount of information retained in memory is a test of recall. Recall involves being asked to reproduce information with the fewest possible cues to assist retrieval. Recall involves being asked to reproduce information with the fewest possible cues to assist retrieval. Slide 18 In an experiment used to measure recall as a measure of retention, participants might be required to learn a list of randomly selected words. Then, after a period of time, they may be required to write, in any order, as many of the words off the list as they can. In an experiment used to measure recall as a measure of retention, participants might be required to learn a list of randomly selected words. Then, after a period of time, they may be required to write, in any order, as many of the words off the list as they can. This method is called free recall. Free recall is involved when participants are only asked to remember as much information as possible, in no particular order. This method is called free recall. Free recall is involved when participants are only asked to remember as much information as possible, in no particular order. Slide 19 If participants were asked to recall a list of words in the order in which they were presented, researchers would be asking for serial recall. If participants were asked to recall a list of words in the order in which they were presented, researchers would be asking for serial recall. Sometimes the general cue we are provided with to search information in our long-term memory is too general and the list of possible matches is too long. Sometimes the general cue we are provided with to search information in our long-term memory is too general and the list of possible matches is too long. Cued recall makes use of specific cues to aid retrieval. For example; being given the first letter of each of the 7 dwarfs names. Cued recall makes use of specific cues to aid retrieval. For example; being given the first letter of each of the 7 dwarfs names. Slide 20 RECOGNITION Which of the following are the names of the 7 dwarfs? Which of the following are the names of the 7 dwarfs? -Bashful-Goofy -Happy-Dopey -Grumpy-Sneezy -Pop-Doc -Sleepy-Grouchy Slide 21 RECOGNITION Recognition involves identifying the correct information from among alternatives, such as in the previous question. Recognition involves identifying the correct information from among alternatives, such as in the previous question. Generally we can retrieve more information when tested by the recognition method than we can with the recall method because the recognition method provides more cues that assist in the location and retrieval of information from long-term memory. Generally we can retrieve more information when tested by the recognition method than we can with the recall method because the recognition method provides more cues that assist in the location and retrieval of information from long-term memory. Slide 22 In an exam situation, students typically prefer M/C questions or true/false questions to an essay or short answer questions. In an exam situation, students typically prefer M/C questions or true/false questions to an essay or short answer questions. M/C and true/false questions involve recognising the correct response from among a small number of alternatives, whereas essay question require recall, where there are very few cues. M/C and true/false questions involve recognising the correct response from among a small number of alternatives, whereas essay question require recall, where there are very few cues. Slide 23 RELEARNING Most people have times when they are unable to recall or to recognise information that has been stored in long-term memory. Most people have times when they are unable to recall or to recognise information that has been stored in long-term memory. Even though they are unable to retrieve this information, it does not necessarily mean that it has been forgotten. Even though they are unable to retrieve this information, it does not necessarily mean that it has been forgotten. Relearning or the method of savings, involves learning information again that has been previously learned and stored in long-term memory. Relearning or the method of savings, involves learning information again that has been previously learned and stored in long-term memory. Slide 24 If information is learned more quickly the second time it is assumed that there must be some information retained from the first learning experience, whether we realise it or not. If information is learned more quickly the second time it is assumed that there must be some information retained from the first learning experience, whether we realise it or not. Slide 25 HERMANN EBBINGHAUS Ebbinghaus did an experiment using nonsense syllables (eg. Jux, kuv). Nonsense syllables are often used in memory research instead of words so that retention is not affected by the words having some sort of meaning or association with words already stored in memory. When Ebbinghaus measured his memory for what he had learned, he found that even if he could not remember a single item from the original list, he could relearn the list much quicker a second time than he had been able to with the original list. This indicated that some information had been retained from the initial learning. Ebbinghaus did an experiment using nonsense syllables (eg. Jux, kuv). Nonsense syllables are often used in memory research instead of words so that retention is not affected by the words having some sort of meaning or association with words already stored in memory. When Ebbinghaus measured his memory for what he had learned, he found that even if he could not remember a single item from the original list, he could relearn the list much quicker a second time than he had been able to with the original list. This indicated that some information had been retained from the initial learning. Slide 26 This is also called the method of savings because it can be calculated using the following formula. This is also called the method of savings because it can be calculated using the following formula. Savings = (no. of trials for original learning) (no. of trials for relearning) x 100 Savings = (no. of trials for original learning) (no. of trials for relearning) x 100 (no. of trials for original learning) 1 Eg. 10 5 x 100 = 50% 10 1 10 1 A savings score can also be calculated on the basis of the time taken to relearn information. A savings score can also be calculated on the basis of the time taken to relearn information. Savings = (time taken for original learning) (time for relearning) x 100 (time for original learning) 1 Slide 27 RELATIVE SENSITIVITY OF MEASURES OF RETENTION Recall, recognition and relearning differ in their relative sensitivity as measures of retention. The sensitivity of a measure of retention refers to its ability to assess the amount of information that has been stored in memory. Recall, recognition and relearning differ in their relative sensitivity as measures of retention. The sensitivity of a measure of retention refers to its ability to assess the amount of information that has been stored in memory. Slide 28 Recall tends to be the least sensitive measure of retention, relearning tends to be the most sensitive measure of retention, and recognition tends to be less sensitive than relearning but more sensitive than recall. Recall tends to be the least sensitive measure of retention, relearning tends to be the most sensitive measure of retention, and recognition tends to be less sensitive than relearning but more sensitive than recall. Slide 29 In a study by Nelson (1978) on the three measures of retention, 24 university students were used as participants. In a study by Nelson (1978) on the three measures of retention, 24 university students were used as participants. The experiment consisted of three stages- the initial learning stage, a stage in which recall and recognition of the initial learning were tested and finally a relearning stage. The experiment consisted of three stages- the initial learning stage, a stage in which recall and recognition of the initial learning were tested and finally a relearning stage. In the first stage, participants were given a series of number-word pairs to learn, such as 49-party and 95- horse. In the first stage, participants were given a series of number-word pairs to learn, such as 49-party and 95- horse. The second stage of the experiment required the participants to participate in the testing and relearning stages of the experiment. The second stage of the experiment required the participants to participate in the testing and relearning stages of the experiment. Slide 30 In the testing stage, participants were required to complete two different types of tests. The first was a test of recall where the participants were given the original number as a cue and were asked to provide the association word that went with it. The second test was similar but required the participants to name the associated words from a list of 20-10 of which were the original words and 10 of which were new, unrelated words. The third stage of the experiment involved relearning the words from the previous list which had been incorrectly recalled and 10 new word pairs. They were then given a recall test on both the new information and the old information. In the testing stage, participants were required to complete two different types of tests. The first was a test of recall where the participants were given the original number as a cue and were asked to provide the association word that went with it. The second test was similar but required the participants to name the associated words from a list of 20-10 of which were the original words and 10 of which were new, unrelated words. The third stage of the experiment involved relearning the words from the previous list which had been incorrectly recalled and 10 new word pairs. They were then given a recall test on both the new information and the old information. Slide 31 The results showed that a mean score of 48% of the target words were correctly recalled, and 69% were correctly recognised in the testing. Furthermore the percentage of target words correctly recalled during the relearning stage was significantly higher for the old items (88%) than for new items. The results showed that a mean score of 48% of the target words were correctly recalled, and 69% were correctly recognised in the testing. Furthermore the percentage of target words correctly recalled during the relearning stage was significantly higher for the old items (88%) than for new items. Slide 32 v Slide 33 STAGES OF MEMORY The Atkinson-Shiffrin model (named after two psychologists) describes human memory as consisting of three distinguishable kinds of memory, with each one representing a stage through which information passes in a sequential way. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model (named after two psychologists) describes human memory as consisting of three distinguishable kinds of memory, with each one representing a stage through which information passes in a sequential way. -Sensory memory -Short-term memory -Long-term memory Slide 34 Although these three memory systems are viewed as separate sub-systems of memory, they each operate simultaneously and interact in many ways. Although these three memory systems are viewed as separate sub-systems of memory, they each operate simultaneously and interact in many ways. Within each stage of memory, information processing involves encoding, storage and retrieval of information. Within each stage of memory, information processing involves encoding, storage and retrieval of information. Slide 35 According to this model, when information is received from the environment, it passes from sensory memory to short-term memory and then to long-term memory. According to this model, when information is received from the environment, it passes from sensory memory to short-term memory and then to long-term memory. Each stage of memory differs in terms of its function (the role it plays), its capacity (the amount of information it can hold at any given moment) and its duration (the length of time it can hold information). Each stage of memory differs in terms of its function (the role it plays), its capacity (the amount of information it can hold at any given moment) and its duration (the length of time it can hold information). Slide 36 Sensory memory is the entry point for new information into the memory system. Sensory memory is the entry point for new information into the memory system. Anything that is not attended to in sensory memory is then lost. Anything that is not attended to in sensory memory is then lost. If the information is attended to it is then passed on to short-term memory where it is stored for up to 20 seconds. If the information is attended to it is then passed on to short-term memory where it is stored for up to 20 seconds. If an effort is made to retain this information it is then transferred to long-term memory, if not it is lost. If an effort is made to retain this information it is then transferred to long-term memory, if not it is lost. Slide 37 Slide 38 SENSORY MEMORY Sensory memory is the entry point of memory-the initial stage of the memory system in which all of the stimuli that bombard our senses are retained in their original sensory form (not encoded) for a very brief time. Sensory memory is the entry point of memory-the initial stage of the memory system in which all of the stimuli that bombard our senses are retained in their original sensory form (not encoded) for a very brief time. It is assumed to be unlimited in capacity. It is assumed to be unlimited in capacity. Slide 39 An important function of sensory memory is that it stores sensory impressions long enough for them to slightly overlap one another. An important function of sensory memory is that it stores sensory impressions long enough for them to slightly overlap one another. This means that we see the world as continuous and not as a series of disconnected visual images or sounds. This means that we see the world as continuous and not as a series of disconnected visual images or sounds. Sensory information remains in sensory memory just long enough for it to be attended to and selected to be transferred to short-term memory (STM). Sensory information remains in sensory memory just long enough for it to be attended to and selected to be transferred to short-term memory (STM). Slide 40 We are not consciously aware of the majority of information that enters our sensory memory. We are not consciously aware of the majority of information that enters our sensory memory. However when we direct our attention to it in order to store it in STM we become consciously aware of it. However when we direct our attention to it in order to store it in STM we become consciously aware of it. Incoming sensory information is stored in separate sub-systems called sensory registers and it is believed that there is a separate sensory register for each of the senses. Incoming sensory information is stored in separate sub-systems called sensory registers and it is believed that there is a separate sensory register for each of the senses. Slide 41 ICONIC MEMORY Iconic Memory is the name given to visual sensory memory, or the memory of visual sensory information. Iconic Memory is the name given to visual sensory memory, or the memory of visual sensory information. Visual images in their original sensory form are usually retained in iconic memory for one-third of a second. Visual images in their original sensory form are usually retained in iconic memory for one-third of a second. Sperlings experiment. Sperlings experiment. Slide 42 Slide 43 Slide 44 PHOTOGRAPHIC MEMORY Some people are able to remember highly detailed scenes as if the actual event were occurring before them. Some people are able to remember highly detailed scenes as if the actual event were occurring before them. These people are said to have eidetic memory. These memories are said to be an exact replica of a visual image that persists over time without distortion. These people are said to have eidetic memory. These memories are said to be an exact replica of a visual image that persists over time without distortion. These can last sometimes for days or weeks. These can last sometimes for days or weeks. Slide 45 View this image for 30 seconds and then answer the following questions. View this image for 30 seconds and then answer the following questions. Slide 46 1. How many bows are on the girls apron? 2. Is the hemline of the girls dress above or below her knees? 3. How many flowers are in bloom on the taller plant? 4. How many whiskers are there on the cat in the tree? 5. How many stripes are on the cats tail? 6. What is the girl wearing in her hair? Slide 47 ECHOIC MEMORY Echoic Memory is the name given to auditory sensory information, or the memory of auditory sensory information. Echoic Memory is the name given to auditory sensory information, or the memory of auditory sensory information. It is called echoic memory because the sounds linger in it like an echo. It is called echoic memory because the sounds linger in it like an echo. Slide 48 The main difference between iconic and echoic memory is the duration of time that they are able to hold on to information. Iconic (visual) Memory About 0.2-0.4 seconds Echoic (auditory) Memory About 3-4 seconds Slide 49 The availability of this information for 3-4 seconds is generally long enough to select what has been heard for further processing and interpretation before the sound disappears completely. The availability of this information for 3-4 seconds is generally long enough to select what has been heard for further processing and interpretation before the sound disappears completely. Auditory information must also be held for long enough for all parts of speech within a list of words to be identified. Auditory information must also be held for long enough for all parts of speech within a list of words to be identified. Slide 50 Slide 51 SHORT-TERM MEMORY Short-term memory (STM) is a memory system with a limited storage capacity in which information is stored for a relatively short period of time (unless renewed in some way). Short-term memory (STM) is a memory system with a limited storage capacity in which information is stored for a relatively short period of time (unless renewed in some way). STM stores information temporarily but for a longer time than sensory memory. STM stores information temporarily but for a longer time than sensory memory. Slide 52 Generally items in STM can be retained fairly well for the first few seconds. Generally items in STM can be retained fairly well for the first few seconds. After 12 seconds, recall begins to decline and by about 18 seconds almost all of the information disappears entirely if it has not been renewed in some way. After 12 seconds, recall begins to decline and by about 18 seconds almost all of the information disappears entirely if it has not been renewed in some way. Information can be renewed in STM and retained for longer through use or by constantly repeating it. Information can be renewed in STM and retained for longer through use or by constantly repeating it. Slide 53 STM AS WORKING MEMORY Many psychologists prefer to use the term working memory rather than STM. Many psychologists prefer to use the term working memory rather than STM. Working memory is the active part of memory where information you are consciously aware of is actively worked on. Working memory is the active part of memory where information you are consciously aware of is actively worked on. Slide 54 Working memory works on information from sensory memory and LTM. Working memory works on information from sensory memory and LTM. Information from sensory memory is processed in working memory and information is extracted from LTM to be used and manipulated in working memory. Information from sensory memory is processed in working memory and information is extracted from LTM to be used and manipulated in working memory. - Imagining - Problem-solving - Analysing - Reasoning - Comprehending - Planning all involve working memory. Slide 55 Psychologist Allan Baddeley proposed that working memory consists of three sub-systems. Psychologist Allan Baddeley proposed that working memory consists of three sub-systems. - One system for verbal memory - Another for visual information - And a central executive that processes the information from the other two sub-systems. Verbal working memory (also called phonological loop) stores a limited number of sounds (phonemes), such as words, for a short period of time. Slide 56 Baddeley argued that the longer it takes to pronounce each word impacts on the amount of information you can retain in short-term memory. Baddeley argued that the longer it takes to pronounce each word impacts on the amount of information you can retain in short-term memory. BurmaSwitzerland GreeceNicaragua TibetAfghanistan IcelandVenezuela MaltaPhilippines LaosMadagascar Slide 57 Visual working memory (also called the visuospatial sketchpad) temporarily stores visual information, such as the location and nature of objects in the environment. Visual working memory (also called the visuospatial sketchpad) temporarily stores visual information, such as the location and nature of objects in the environment. The central executive integrates information from the verbal and visual storage systems, as well as information received from long-term memory. The central executive integrates information from the verbal and visual storage systems, as well as information received from long-term memory. It works on the information from the other two sub- systems. It works on the information from the other two sub- systems. Slide 58 The central executive has a role in: The central executive has a role in: - Calculating mental arithmetic tasks - Decision making - Analysing an image of modern art - Planning strategies - Coordination of behaviour - Suppressing (holding back) irrelevant information from our conscious thinking - Helps decide what to do and what not to do next Does not store information. Slide 59 Slide 60 DURATION OF STM Information can be kept in STM for longer than the usual maximum of 18-20 seconds by maintenance rehearsal. Slide 61 CAPACITY OF STM Compared to sensory memory and long-term memory, STM is very limited in storage capacity. Compared to sensory memory and long-term memory, STM is very limited in storage capacity. If you have an average storage capacity you should be able to recall around seven numbers in a row. If you were given eleven numbers this would not be quite as easy. If you have an average storage capacity you should be able to recall around seven numbers in a row. If you were given eleven numbers this would not be quite as easy. The limited capacity of seven bits of information in short-term memory was first described by George Miller in 1956. The limited capacity of seven bits of information in short-term memory was first described by George Miller in 1956. Slide 62 Millers research indicated that STM has a capacity of holding between five and nine units of information at any one time. Millers research indicated that STM has a capacity of holding between five and nine units of information at any one time. 7 + 2 7 + 2 Rarely are we able to hold any more than 7 + 2 pieces of information in STM regardless of what type of information it is. Rarely are we able to hold any more than 7 + 2 pieces of information in STM regardless of what type of information it is. Information stored in STM is lost primarily through decay (not being used) and displacement (being pushed out) by new information. Information stored in STM is lost primarily through decay (not being used) and displacement (being pushed out) by new information. Slide 63 Chunking Information We can get around the limited capacity of long-term memory. We can get around the limited capacity of long-term memory. One way is to learn the information well enough to transfer it to long term memory, which has an unlimited storage capacity. One way is to learn the information well enough to transfer it to long term memory, which has an unlimited storage capacity. Another way is to put more information into each of the 7 + 2 units that can be stored in STM. Another way is to put more information into each of the 7 + 2 units that can be stored in STM. Slide 64 D N V R C E W V D C S V NSW VCR VCE DVD NSW VCR VCE DVD People are usually able to recall more of the second set of letters even though it is made up of exactly the same letters. People are usually able to recall more of the second set of letters even though it is made up of exactly the same letters. This is a demonstration of chunking. This is a demonstration of chunking. Slide 65 Slide 66 Chunking is the grouping or packing of separate bits of information into a larger single unit or chunk of information. Chunking is the grouping or packing of separate bits of information into a larger single unit or chunk of information. Chunks can be take many forms. They can be numbers, images, words, sentences, phrases or abbreviations. (BHP, RACV, CSIRO). Chunks can be take many forms. They can be numbers, images, words, sentences, phrases or abbreviations. (BHP, RACV, CSIRO). What examples of chunking have you come across in everyday life? What examples of chunking have you come across in everyday life? Phone numbers Phone numbers Car registration number plates Car registration number plates Slide 67 In sum, STM is a working memory system with limited capacity and duration in which information- often stored in verbal form-is lost rapidly unless it is rehearsed. In sum, STM is a working memory system with limited capacity and duration in which information- often stored in verbal form-is lost rapidly unless it is rehearsed. STM is used to work on new information or information retrieved from LTM, to select and process ongoing information and to store memories for a short duration. STM is used to work on new information or information retrieved from LTM, to select and process ongoing information and to store memories for a short duration. Slide 68 Effects of rehearsal Rehearsal is the process of actively manipulating information so that it can be retained in memory. Rehearsal is the process of actively manipulating information so that it can be retained in memory. There are two types of rehearsal: There are two types of rehearsal: - Maintenance rehearsal - Elaborative rehearsal Slide 69 Maintenance Rehearsal Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating the information being remembered over and over again to retain it in short term memory. Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating the information being remembered over and over again to retain it in short term memory. When you hear something for the first time and go over it and over it so that you dont forget it, you are using maintenance rehearsal. When you hear something for the first time and go over it and over it so that you dont forget it, you are using maintenance rehearsal. Maintenance rehearsal can be verbal, which involves the use of words. It can also be non-verbal, involving visual or spatial information. Maintenance rehearsal can be verbal, which involves the use of words. It can also be non-verbal, involving visual or spatial information. Slide 70 When the information is verbal, maintenance rehearsal can occur vocally, by saying the information aloud over and over; or sub-vocally, by silently repeating the information in your head. When the information is verbal, maintenance rehearsal can occur vocally, by saying the information aloud over and over; or sub-vocally, by silently repeating the information in your head. Whether maintenance rehearsal is verbal, visual or spatial, provided it is not interrupted, information can be retained indefinitely in STM. Whether maintenance rehearsal is verbal, visual or spatial, provided it is not interrupted, information can be retained indefinitely in STM. This does not necessarily mean that this information will automatically be transferred into LTM. This does not necessarily mean that this information will automatically be transferred into LTM. When information is continually renewed in STM through the rehearsal process, the amount of new information that can enter is restricted because of the limited capacity of STM. When information is continually renewed in STM through the rehearsal process, the amount of new information that can enter is restricted because of the limited capacity of STM. Slide 71 Elaborative rehearsal Elaborative rehearsal generally involves organising and dealing with new information in terms of its meaning. Elaborative rehearsal generally involves organising and dealing with new information in terms of its meaning. Elaborative rehearsal is the process of linking new information in a meaningful way with information already stored in memory or with other new information, to aid in its storage and retrieval from long term memory. Elaborative rehearsal is the process of linking new information in a meaningful way with information already stored in memory or with other new information, to aid in its storage and retrieval from long term memory. Slide 72 Elaborative rehearsal is a more active process than maintenance rehearsal. Elaborative rehearsal is a more active process than maintenance rehearsal. It is also more effective than maintenance rehearsal as it helps to ensure that information is encoded well. It is also more effective than maintenance rehearsal as it helps to ensure that information is encoded well. When we relate new information to personal experiences and our personal situation, encoding is enhanced and therefore we are more likely to remember it. This is called the self-reference effect. When we relate new information to personal experiences and our personal situation, encoding is enhanced and therefore we are more likely to remember it. This is called the self-reference effect. Slide 73 Using elaborative rehearsal to improve your memory Elaborative rehearsal has a number of practical applications for students. The learning of new information is more likely to be retained in LTM when you: Elaborative rehearsal has a number of practical applications for students. The learning of new information is more likely to be retained in LTM when you: Think about what the new information means Think about what the new information means Ask questions about the new information Ask questions about the new information Link new information to previously learned information Link new information to previously learned information Create visual images relevant to the new information Create visual images relevant to the new information Link the new information to personal experiences or your personal situation. Link the new information to personal experiences or your personal situation. Slide 74 Consolidation theory Consolidation theory proposes that physical changes to the neurons in the brain occur when something new is being learned, and immediately following learning. Consolidation theory proposes that physical changes to the neurons in the brain occur when something new is being learned, and immediately following learning. This theory also proposes that if memory is disrupted during the consolidation phase, information may not be processed in LTM and will therefore be lost. This theory also proposes that if memory is disrupted during the consolidation phase, information may not be processed in LTM and will therefore be lost. Material being transferred into LTM is vulnerable to disruption for up to 30 minutes. Material being transferred into LTM is vulnerable to disruption for up to 30 minutes. Slide 75 LONG-TERM MEMORY Long-term memory is the relatively permanent memory system that holds vast amounts of information for a long period of time. Long-term memory is the relatively permanent memory system that holds vast amounts of information for a long period of time. It is a different kind of memory system to STM. It is a different kind of memory system to STM. LTM differs from STM in several ways: how information is retrieved, the form in which information is stored and the way in which information is forgotten. LTM differs from STM in several ways: how information is retrieved, the form in which information is stored and the way in which information is forgotten. Slide 76 LTM has to be organised in a way that enables the efficient retrieval of information. LTM has to be organised in a way that enables the efficient retrieval of information. We retrieve information from LTM using retrieval cues. This can be intentional or unintentional. We retrieve information from LTM using retrieval cues. This can be intentional or unintentional. In either case, only the specific information relevant to the cue is retrieved rather than the entire contents of LTM. In either case, only the specific information relevant to the cue is retrieved rather than the entire contents of LTM. Remarkably it takes only a few seconds to search through this huge storehouse of information to find the information required. Remarkably it takes only a few seconds to search through this huge storehouse of information to find the information required. Slide 77 Information retrieved from LTM is held in working memory while it is being used. Once it is no longer required, it can be returned into LTM for further storage. Information retrieved from LTM is held in working memory while it is being used. Once it is no longer required, it can be returned into LTM for further storage. If we are unable to retrieve specific information from LTM, it is because of poor organisation of the information during encoding and storage or failure to use the appropriate retrieval cue. If we are unable to retrieve specific information from LTM, it is because of poor organisation of the information during encoding and storage or failure to use the appropriate retrieval cue. If information is not properly stored it is difficult to locate and retrieve. If information is not properly stored it is difficult to locate and retrieve. Slide 78 STM stores information in terms of the physical qualities of an experience, especially sounds. STM stores information in terms of the physical qualities of an experience, especially sounds. In contrast, LTM stores information semantically, that is in terms of its meaning. In contrast, LTM stores information semantically, that is in terms of its meaning. In terms of forgetting, LTM differs from STM in that it does not only last longer but it is in fact permanent. In terms of forgetting, LTM differs from STM in that it does not only last longer but it is in fact permanent. This means that forgetting occurs in LTM not because the memory is gone, but because we are unable to retrieve it. This means that forgetting occurs in LTM not because the memory is gone, but because we are unable to retrieve it. Slide 79 Types of LTM Psychologists have distinguished between two types of LTM storage, each with distinctly different properties. Psychologists have distinguished between two types of LTM storage, each with distinctly different properties. These are procedural memory and declarative memory. Two types of declarative memory have also been described. They are called episodic memory and semantic memory. These are procedural memory and declarative memory. Two types of declarative memory have also been described. They are called episodic memory and semantic memory. Slide 80 Procedural memory Procedural memory is the memory of actions and skills that have been learned previously and involves knowing how to do something. Procedural memory is the memory of actions and skills that have been learned previously and involves knowing how to do something. How to drive a car How to drive a car How to ride a bike How to ride a bike How to use a computer How to use a computer Procedural memories are also called implicit memories because it is often difficult to recall when or how we learned to perform the sequence of actions required to do something. Slide 81 Declarative memory Declarative memory is the memory of specific facts or events that can be brought consciously to mind and explicitly stated or declared. Declarative memory is the memory of specific facts or events that can be brought consciously to mind and explicitly stated or declared. Consequently declarative memories are also called explicit memories. Consequently declarative memories are also called explicit memories. Identifying a type of flower Identifying a type of flower Explaining a statistics formula Explaining a statistics formula Describing the events of a movie you have seen Describing the events of a movie you have seen Slide 82 When distinguishing between declarative and procedural memory psychologists often refer to declarative memory as involving knowing what and procedural memory as knowing how. When distinguishing between declarative and procedural memory psychologists often refer to declarative memory as involving knowing what and procedural memory as knowing how. Slide 83 Episodic memory Episodic memory is the declarative memory system that holds information about specific events or personal experiences. Episodic memory is the declarative memory system that holds information about specific events or personal experiences. Like a mental diary, recording the autobiographical episodes we experience. Like a mental diary, recording the autobiographical episodes we experience. What you ate for breakfast What you ate for breakfast The birth of a brother or sister The birth of a brother or sister Going to the dentist Going to the dentist Slide 84 Semantic memory Semantic memory is the declarative memory system that stores the information that we have about the world. Semantic memory is the declarative memory system that stores the information that we have about the world. It includes our specialised knowledge in areas of expertise, academic knowledge of the kind learned in school, rules, everyday general knowledge, the meaning of words. It includes our specialised knowledge in areas of expertise, academic knowledge of the kind learned in school, rules, everyday general knowledge, the meaning of words. Semantic memories seem to involve facts that do not depend on a particular place or time but are simply facts. Semantic memories seem to involve facts that do not depend on a particular place or time but are simply facts. Slide 85 Slide 86 Organisation of information in LTM One of LTMs most distinctive features is its organisation of information. The task of retrieving information from LTM is very different to retrieving information from STM. One of LTMs most distinctive features is its organisation of information. The task of retrieving information from LTM is very different to retrieving information from STM. In STM there is only a choice of 7 + 2 pieces of information to choose from, however LTM stores such a vast amount of information that there is a need for some form of information to assist the storage and retrieval process. In STM there is only a choice of 7 + 2 pieces of information to choose from, however LTM stores such a vast amount of information that there is a need for some form of information to assist the storage and retrieval process. Slide 87 Research has found that information stored in LTM is organised in meaningful clusters of related categories. Research has found that information stored in LTM is organised in meaningful clusters of related categories. Eg. Fruit types, names, occupations. Eg. Fruit types, names, occupations. Research findings also indicate that information is also linked or associated with other information stored in LTM. Research findings also indicate that information is also linked or associated with other information stored in LTM. There is also considerable research evidence that suggests that recall from LTM is better when we further organise the information stored there. There is also considerable research evidence that suggests that recall from LTM is better when we further organise the information stored there. Bower and Clark experiment. Bower and Clark experiment. Slide 88 Semantic network theory Information in LTM is both organised and associated with other information held in the LTM system. The semantic network theory is one theory that describes how this is done. Information in LTM is both organised and associated with other information held in the LTM system. The semantic network theory is one theory that describes how this is done. Semantic network theory proposes that information in LTM is organised systematically in the form of overlapping networks or grids of concepts that are interconnected and interrelated by meaningful links. Semantic network theory proposes that information in LTM is organised systematically in the form of overlapping networks or grids of concepts that are interconnected and interrelated by meaningful links. Slide 89 According to this model, each concept, called a node is linked with a number of other nodes. According to this model, each concept, called a node is linked with a number of other nodes. This means that when we retrieve information, the activation of one node causes other related nodes to be activated also. This means that when we retrieve information, the activation of one node causes other related nodes to be activated also. In reality, LTM contains thousands of concepts, each with very many connections. In reality, LTM contains thousands of concepts, each with very many connections. This system of storing information in terms of meaning is quite an effective means of storage which enables effective and efficient retrieval of information. This system of storing information in terms of meaning is quite an effective means of storage which enables effective and efficient retrieval of information. Slide 90 Slide 91 According to the semantic network theory: retrieval begins with someone searching a particular region retrieval begins with someone searching a particular region then tracing associations for links among memories in that region, rather than randomly searching the vast information stores in LTM. then tracing associations for links among memories in that region, rather than randomly searching the vast information stores in LTM. It also proposes that a specific retrieval cue activates relevant nodes, which in turn activate other nodes to which they are linked. It also proposes that a specific retrieval cue activates relevant nodes, which in turn activate other nodes to which they are linked. Slide 92 The shorter the link between nodes the stronger the association, the less time it takes to activate related concepts to which they are linked. The shorter the link between nodes the stronger the association, the less time it takes to activate related concepts to which they are linked. The longer the link between nodes the weaker the association between them and the longer it takes to activate the information that is further away. The longer the link between nodes the weaker the association between them and the longer it takes to activate the information that is further away. The more nodes that are activated, the quicker the retrieval of information from LTM. The more nodes that are activated, the quicker the retrieval of information from LTM. Slide 93 Serial Position Effect To test whether STM is a separate sub-system of memory from LTM, psychologists have studied peoples memory of lists of words, numbers and other information. To test whether STM is a separate sub-system of memory from LTM, psychologists have studied peoples memory of lists of words, numbers and other information. A consistent finding has occurred: which words are recalled from the list tends to depend on their serial position. A consistent finding has occurred: which words are recalled from the list tends to depend on their serial position. Slide 94 The Serial Position Effect is a research finding that suggests that recall is better for items at the end and beginning of the list than for items in the middle of the list. The Serial Position Effect is a research finding that suggests that recall is better for items at the end and beginning of the list than for items in the middle of the list. The Primacy Effect describes superior recall of items at the beginning of a list. The Primacy Effect describes superior recall of items at the beginning of a list. The Recency Effect describes superior recall of items at the end of a list. The Recency Effect describes superior recall of items at the end of a list. Together with the relatively low recall of items from the middle of the list, this pattern makes up the serial position effect. Together with the relatively low recall of items from the middle of the list, this pattern makes up the serial position effect. Slide 95 What causes the serial position effect? The most acceptable explanation relates to differences between STM and LTM. The most acceptable explanation relates to differences between STM and LTM. If recall occurs immediately after learning, the last few items are remembered first because they are still in STM. If recall occurs immediately after learning, the last few items are remembered first because they are still in STM. The first few items are remembered most because the received more attention and rehearsal than other items and are therefore transferred into LTM. The first few items are remembered most because the received more attention and rehearsal than other items and are therefore transferred into LTM. Slide 96 Items around the middle of the list are presented too late to be adequately rehearsed and transferred into LTM and too early to be held in STM without rehearsal and are therefore likely to be forgotten. Items around the middle of the list are presented too late to be adequately rehearsed and transferred into LTM and too early to be held in STM without rehearsal and are therefore likely to be forgotten. If participants are asked to recall the list 30 seconds after learning, the serial position effect is not as prominent as this goes beyond the limits of STM. If participants are asked to recall the list 30 seconds after learning, the serial position effect is not as prominent as this goes beyond the limits of STM.