MECHANICS OF SOLIDS AND MECHANICS OF FLUIDS … Manuals/AE/II-I/MECHANICS OF SOLIDS AND... · 4...

MECHANICS OF SOLIDS AND

MECHANICS OF FLUIDS

LABORATORY MANUAL

B.TECH

(II YEAR – I SEM) (2017-18)

Prepared by: Mr. K. Durga Rao, Associate Professor

Mr. I. Ramakrishnudu, Associate Professor

Department of Aeronautical Engineering

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India) Recognized under 2(f) and 12 (B) of UGC ACT 1956

Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE - Accredited by NBA & NAAC – ‘A’ Grade - ISO 9001:2015 Certified)

Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Hakimpet), Secunderabad – 500100, Telangana State, India. R15 MECHANICS OF SOLIDS & FLUIDS LAB II – I(AERONAUTICAL) 1

R15 MECHANICS OF SOLIDS & FLUIDS LAB II – I(AERONAUTICAL) 2

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)

Recognized under 2(f) and 12 (B) of UGC ACT 1956

Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE - Accredited by NBA & NAAC – ‘A’ Grade - ISO 9001:2015 Certified)

Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Hakimpet), Secunderabad – 500100, Telangana State, India.

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY

VISION

� To establish a pedestal for the integral innovation, team spirit, originality and

competence in the students, expose them to face the global challenges and become

technology leaders of Indian vision of modern society.

MISSION

� To become a model institution in the fields of Engineering, Technology and

Management.

� To impart holistic education to the students to render them as industry ready

engineers.

� To ensure synchronization of MRCET ideologies with challenging demands of

International Pioneering Organizations.

QUALITY POLICY

� To implement best practices in Teaching and Learning process for both UG and PG

courses meticulously.

� To provide state of art infrastructure and expertise to impart the quality education.

� To groom the students to become intellectually creative and professionally

competitive.

� To channelize the activities and tune them in heights of commitment and sincerity, the

requisites to claim the never ending ladder of SUCCESS year after year.

For more information: www.mrcet.ac.in

R15 MECHANICS OF SOLIDS & FLUIDS LAB

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL

Department of Aeronautical Engineering aims to be indispensable source in Aeronautical

Engineering which has a zeal to provide the value driven platform for the students to acquire

knowledge and empower themselves to shoulder higher responsibility in building a strong

nation.

a) The primary mission of the department is to promote eng

(b) To strive consistently to provide quality education, keeping in pace with time and

technology.

(c) Department passions to integrate the intellectual, spiritual, ethical and social development

of the students for shaping them into dynamic engineers.

MECHANICS OF SOLIDS & FLUIDS LAB II – I(AERONAUTICAL)


ENGINEERING

VISION




MISSION

a) The primary mission of the department is to promote engineering education and research.



them into dynamic engineers.

3





ineering education and research.




PROGRAM OBJECTIVES (PO’S)

Engineering Graduates will be able to:1. Engineering knowledge

engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the complex engineering problems.

2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,

3. Design / development of solutions

problems and design system components or processes that with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.

4. Conduct investigations of complex problems

research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid co

5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with

6. The engineer and societyto assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.

7. Environment and sustainabilityengineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.

8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.

9. Individual and team

member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with

the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.

11. Project management and financethe engineering and management a member and leader in a team, to environments.

12. Life- long learning: Recognize the need for, and have tto engage in independent and lifetechnological change.


PROGRAM OBJECTIVES (PO’S)

will be able to:

Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the complex engineering problems.

: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first

mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.Design / development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,

etal, and environmental considerations. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.

: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.

society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.

: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and orms of the engineering practice.

Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.

and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of management principles and apply these to one’s

and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multi disciplinary

: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of

4

: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of

: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first

g sciences. : Design solutions for complex engineering

the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,

based knowledge and including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of

: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to

understanding of the limitations. : Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge

to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent

e impact of the professional engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the

to professional ethics and

Function effectively as an individual, and as a

: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to

make effective

knowledge and understanding of principles and apply these to one’s own work, as

projects and in multi disciplinary

he preparation and ability long learning in the broadest context of


PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO’S)

PEO1: PROFESSIONALISM & CITIZENSHIP

To create and sustain a community of learning in which students acquire knowledge and learn

to apply it professionally with due consideration for ethical, ecological and economic issues.

PEO2: TECHNICAL ACCOMPLISHMENTS

To provide knowledge based services to satisfy the needs of society and the industry by

providing hands on experience in various technologies in core field.

PEO3: INVENTION, INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY

To make the students to design, experiment, analyze, interpret in the core field with the help

of other multi disciplinary concepts wherever applicable.

PEO4: PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

To educate the students to disseminate research findings with good soft skills and become a

successful entrepreneur.

PEO5: HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

To graduate the students in building national capabilities in technology, education and

research.


PROGRAM SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES (PSO’s)

1. To mould students to become a professional with all necessary skills, personality and

sound knowledge in basic and advance technological areas.

2. To promote understanding of concepts and develop ability in design manufacture and

maintenance of aircraft, aerospace vehicles and associated equipment and develop

application capability of the concepts sciences to engineering design and processes.

3. Understanding the current scenario in the field of aeronautics and acquire ability to apply

knowledge of engineering, science and mathematics to design and conduct experiments in

the field of Aeronautical Engineering.

4. To develop leadership skills in our students

business and technical worlds.


PROGRAM SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES (PSO’s)

To mould students to become a professional with all necessary skills, personality and

sound knowledge in basic and advance technological areas.

To promote understanding of concepts and develop ability in design manufacture and



tanding the current scenario in the field of aeronautics and acquire ability to apply


the field of Aeronautical Engineering.

To develop leadership skills in our students necessary to shape the social, intellectual,

business and technical worlds.

6

To mould students to become a professional with all necessary skills, personality and

To promote understanding of concepts and develop ability in design manufacture and



tanding the current scenario in the field of aeronautics and acquire ability to apply


necessary to shape the social, intellectual,


(R15A0384) MECHANICS OF SOLIDS AND MECHANICS OF FLUIDS

LAB Objectives:

• To supplement the theoretical knowledge gained in Mechanics of Solids with practical testing for determining the strength of materials under externally applied loads.

• This would enable the student to have a clear understanding of the design for strength and stiffness.

• Upon Completion of this subject, the students can able to have hands on experience in flow measurements using different devices

(A) MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB: 1. Direct tension test 2. Torsion test 3. Hardness test a) Brinells hardness test b) Rockwell hardness test 4. Test on springs 5. Compression test on cube 6. Impact test 7. Punch shear test (B) MECHANICS OF FLUIDS LAB 8. Calibration of Venturimeter 9. Calibration of orifice meter 10. Calibration of Triangular notch 11. Verification of Bernoulli’s apparatus. 12. Pipe friction. 13. Determination of co-efficient of loss of head in a sudden retraction. Equipment needed MOS – lab

1. UTM – 20 / 40 Tons with load Vs Elongation graphical attachment and provision for Bending and sheering along with accessories and end grips

2. Deflection test rig (Fabricated hardware + precession dial gauge) 3. Torsion testing Machine 4. Hardness testing Machine ( Brinnel and Rockwell) 5. Impact Testing Machine 6. Spring testing Machine.

MOF – lab 1 Venturimeter test rig 2.Test rig for Flow over notch 3.Pipe friction apparatus 4.Bernoulli’s apparatus 5.test rig for Orifice meter


Outcomes:

• Ability to characteristic materials

• Ability to use the measurement equipments for flow measurement


CONTENTS

MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LABORATORY

S.No NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT PAGE No EQUIPMENT USED

1 Impact Izod Test 10 Izod impact testing machine

2 Rockwell Hardness Test 13 Rockwell hardness testing machine

3 Brinells Hardness Test 16 Brinell’s hardness testing machine

4 Spring Test 19 Spring testing machine

5 Torsion test 22 Torsion testing machine

6 Tensile Test 25 Universal testing machine

7 Punch Shear Test 53 Punch Shear Setup

MECHANICS OF FLUIDS LABORATORY

S.No NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT PAGE No EQUIPMENT USED

1 Calibration of Venturi meter 31 Venturi meter test rig

2 Calibration of Orifice meter 35 Orifice meter test rig

3 Pipe friction factor 40 Pipe friction apparatus

4 Verification of Bernoullis Theorem 45 Bernoullis apparatus

5 Calibration of Triangular notch 48 Triangular notch test rig

6 Calibration of Coefficient of Discharge meter

50 Mouth piece setup


MECHANICS OF SOLIDS

EXPERIMENT -1

IZOD IMPACT TEST

AIM: To perform the izod impact test on materials. APPARATUS: Izod impact test machine, test specimen, vernier calipers, steel rule. IMPACT STRENGTH: The resistance of a material to fracture under sudden load application

MATERIALS: Two types of test pieces are used for this test as given.

1) Square cross-section 2) Round cross-section.

THEORY: The type of test specimen used for this test is a Square Cross-section The specimen may have single, two or three notches. The testing machine should have the

following specifications.

The angle between top face of grips and face holding the specimen

vertical=900 The angle of tip of hammer =750±10

The angle between normal to the specimen and underside face of the hammer atstriking

point=100±10

Speed of hammer at impact=3.99m/sec Striking energy=168N-m or Joules Angle of drop of

pendulum =900 Effective weight of pendulum=21.79kg

Minimum value of scale graduation=2 Joules.

Permissible total friction loss of corresponding energy=0.50%

Distance from the axis of rotation of distance between the base of specimen notch and the

point of specimen hit by the hammer=22mm±0.5mm

The longitudinal axes of the test piece shall lie in the plane of swing of the center of gravity

of the hammer. The notch shall be positioned so that it is in the plane of the hammer .the

notch shall be positioned its plane of symmetry coincides with the top face of the grips .for

setting the specimen the notch impact strength I is calculated according to the following

relation.

where I= impact strength in joules/m2


PROCEDURE:

1. For conducting Izod test, a proper striker is to be fitted firmly to the bottom of the

hammer with the help of the clamming piece.

2. The latching take for izod test is to be firmly fitted to the bearing housing at the side of

the columns.

3. The frictional loss of the machine can be determined by free fall test, raise the hammer

by hands and latch in release the hammer by operating lever the pointer will then indicate the

energy loss due to friction. From this reading confirm that the friction loss is not exceeding

0.5% of the initial potential energy. Otherwise frictional loss has to be added to the final

reading.

4. The specimen for izod test is firmly fitted in the specimen support with the help of

clamping screw and élan key. Care should be taken that the notch on the specimen should

face to pendulum striker.

5. After ascertaining that there is no person in the range of swinging pendulum, release the

pendulum to smash the specimen.

6. Carefully operate the pendulum brake when returning after one swing to stop the

oscillations.

7. Read-off position of reading pointer on dial and note indicated value.

8. Remove the broken specimen by loosening the clamping screw.

The notch impact strength depends largely on the shape of the specimen and the notch. The

values determined with other specimens therefore may not be compared with each other.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S .No A(Area of cross K Impact energy I Impact Strength section of observed

specimen)


RESULT:

Calculation Part:


EXPERIMENT -2

ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

AIM: To determine the Rockwell hardness of the given test specimen.

APPARATUS: Rockwell hardness testing machine, test specimen.

THEORY: Hardness-the resistance of a metal to plastic deformation against

indentation scratching, abrasion or cutting.

The depth of penetration of the indenter measures the hardness of a material by this

Rockwell’s hardness test method. The depth of penetration is inversely proportional to the

hardness. Both ball or diamond cone types of indenters are used in this test. There are three

scales on the machine for taking hardness readings.

Scale „A- with load 60kgf or 588.8N and diamond indenter is used for performing tests on

steel and shallow case hardened steel.

Scale „B- with load 100kgf or 980.7 N and 1.588mm dia ball indenter is used for performing

tests on soft steel, malleable iron, copper and aluminum alloys.

Scale „C- with load 150kgf or 1471 N and diamond indenter is used for performing tests on

steel, hard cost steel, deep case hardened steel , other metals which harder.

First minor load is applied to overcome the film thickness on the metal surface. Minor load

also eliminates errors in the depth of measurement due to spring of the machine frame or

setting down of the specimen and table attachments.

The Rockwell hardness is derived from the measurement of the depth of the impression. This

method of test is suitable for finished or machined parts of simple shapes.

PROCEDURE:

1. Select the load by rotating the nob and fix the suitable indenter. 2. Clean the test piece and place on the special anvil or worktable of the machine. 3. Turn the capstan wheel to evaluate the test specimen into contact with the indenter point. 4. Further turn the wheel for three rotations forcing the test specimen against the indenter. This will ensure the minor load has been applied. 5. As soon as the pointer comes to rest pull the handle in the reverse direction slowly. This

releases the major but not the minor load. The pointer will now rotate in the reverse direction.


6. The Rockwell hardness can read off the scale dial, on the appropriate scale, after the pointer comes to rest.

OBSERVATIONS: Material of the specimen = Thickness of test specimen = Hardness scale used =

Test Material Rockwell Scale of weights Rockwell number Average

no Rockwell

no.

Scale weight indent 1 2 3

PRECAUTIONS:

1. For testing cylindrical test specimens use V-type platform.

2. Calibrate the machine occasionally by using standard test blocks.

3. For thin metal prices place another sufficiently thick metal piece between the

test specimen and the platform to avoid any damage, which may likely occur to the

platform.

4. After applying major load wait for some time to allow the needle to come to rest.

The waiting time may vary from 2 to 8 seconds.

5. The surface of the test piece should be smooth and even and free from oxide scale and

foreign matter.

6. Test specimen should not be subjected to any heating of cold working.

7. The distance between the centers of two adjacent indentation should be at least 4

times the diameter of the indentation and the distance from the center of any indentation

to the edge of the test piece should be at least 2.5 times the diameter of the indentation.


RESULT:

Calculation Part:


EXPERIMENT -3

BRINELLS HARDNESS TEST

AIM: To determine the Brinells hardness of the given test specimen.

APPARATUS: Brinells hardness machine, test specimen, Brinells Microscope.

THEORY:

Indentation Hardness-A number related to the area or to the depth of the

impression made by an indenter or fixed geometry under a known fixed load.

This method consists of indenting the surface of the metal by a hardened steel ball

of specified diameter D mm under a given load F kgf and measuring the average diameter d

mm of the impression with the help of Brinell microscope fitted with a scale. The Brinell

hardness HB is defined, as the quotient of the applied force F divided by the spherical area of

the impression.

HB= Test load in kgf/surface area of indentation

=2F/ {πD (D- D2- d2)} kg/mm2 PROCEDURE: 1. Select the proper size of the ball and load to suit the material under test.

2. Clean the test specimen to be free from any dirt and defects or blemishes.

3. Mount the test piece surface at right angles to the axis of the ball indenter plunger.

4. Turn the platform so that the ball is lifted up.

5. By shifting the lever applies the load and waits for some time.

6. Release the load by shifting the lever.

7. Take out the specimen and measure the diameter of indentation by means of the Brinell

microscope.

8. Repeat the experiments at other positions of the test piece.

9. Calculate the value of HB.


OBSERVATIONS:

Test piece material =

Diameter of the ball” D “

=

Load section F/D2 =

Test load =

Load application time =

Least count of Brinell Microscope =

Diameter Average

Impression

F D HB

S. No in kg in mm Kg/mm2

(d1) (d2) (d1+d2)/2

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The surface of the test piece should be clean 2. The testing machine should be protected throughout the test from shock or vibration. 3. The test should be carried out at room temperature.

4. The distance of the center of indentation from the edge of test piece should be at least 2.5

times the diameter of the indentation and the distance between the center of the two adjacent

indentations should be at least 4 times the diameter of the indentation. 5. The diameter of each indentation should be measured in two directions at right angles

and the mean value readings used the purpose of determining the hardness number. RESULT:


Calculation Part:


EXPERIMENT -4

SPRING TEST

AIM: To determine the rigidity modulus of the spring

APPARATUS: Spring testing machine, vernier calipers, spring specimen.

THEORY: Closed coiled helical springs are the springs in which helix angle is very small or in

other words the pitch between two adjacent turns is small, a closed coiled helical spring

carrying an axial load.As helix angle in case of close coiled helical springs are small, hence

the bending effect on the spring is ignored and we assume that the coils of close coiled helical

springs are to stand purely tensional stresses.

Let d=diameter of the spring wire

P= pitch of the helical spring N= number of coils

R= mean radius of the spring coil

W=axial load on spring C=modulus of rigidity

τ=maximum shear stress induced in the wire θ=angle of twist in the

spring wire and

x= deflection of spring due to axial load l= length of wire

Net twisting moment on the wire T=WR

But twisting moment is also given by T= (π/16) τd3

From (1) and(2)

WR = (π/16) τd3 ; τ =16WR/πd3

above equation which gives the maximum shear stress induced in the wire

(1)

Length of one coil=2πR

Total length of the wire=2πRn

(2)

Strain energy stored by the spring due to torsion

U= (τ /4C) [(π/4)d 2πRn] (3)

Work done on the spring =average load x deflection

= (1/2) Wx (4)


Equating (3) and(4)

(1/2) Wx = (32W2R3n)/Cd4

x=64WR3n/Cd4

Rigidity modulus of the spring C=64WR3n/xd

4

PROCEDURE:

1) Consider the spring and find out its mean coil radius R with the help of vernier calipers.

2) Find the diameter of the spring and number of turns.

3) Fix the spring between two hooks.

4) Now load is gradually applied.

5) Note the deflection from the deflection scale for different loads applied.

6) Calculate the rigidity modulus using above formula.

PRECAUTIONS:

1) Dimensions should be measure accurately with the help of vernier calipers.

2) Deflection from the scale should be noted carefully and accurately

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.no Load applied deflection Rigidity modulus

C

Average rigidity modulus C =


RESULT:

Calculation Part:


EXPERIMENT -5

TORSION TEST

AIM: To conduct torsion test on mild steel or cast iron specimen to find modulus of rigidity

or to find angle of twist of the materials which are subjected to torsion.

APPARATUS: 1. A torsion test machine along with angle of twist measuring attachment.

2. Standard specimen of mild steel or cast iron.

3. Steel rule.

4. Vernnier caliper or a micrometer.

THEORY:

For transmitting power through a rotating shaft it is necessary to apply a turning

force. The force is applied tangentially and in the plane of transverse cross section. The

torque or twisting moment may be calculated by multiplying two opposite turning moments.

It is said to be in pure torsion and it will exhibit the tendency of shearing off at every cross

section which is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.

Torsion equation: Torsion equation is given by below T / IP = Cθ/L = τ/R

T= maximum twisting torque

(Nmm) IP = polar moment of

inertia (mm4)

τ =shear stress (N/mm2)

C=modulus of rigidity (N/mm2)

θ=angle of twist in radians

L=length of shaft under torsion (mm) Assumptions made for getting torsion equation

1. The material of the shaft is uniform throughout.

2. The shaft, circular in section remain circular after loading.


3. Plane sections of shaft normal to its axis before loading remain plane after the torque

have been applied.

4. The twist along the length of the shaft is uniform throughout.

5. The distance between any two normal-sections remains the same after the application

of torque.

6. Maximum shear stress induced in the shaft due to application of torque does not

exceed its elastic limit. PROCEDURE:

1. Select the suitable grips to suit the size of the specimen and clamp it in the machine

by adjusting sliding jaw.

2. Measure the diameter at about the three places and take average value.

3. Choose the appropriate loading range depending upon specimen.

4. Set the maximum load pointer to zero

5. Carry out straining by rotating the hand wheel or by switching on the motor.

6. Load the members in suitable increments, observe and record strain reading.

7. Continue till failure of the specimen.

8. Calculate the modulus of rigidity C by using the torsion equation.

9. Plot the torque –twist graph (T Vs θ)

OBSERVATIONS:

Gauge length L =

Polar moment of inertia IP =

Modulus of rigidity C =TL/ IP θ =

S.No Twisting Moment Angle of Twist Modulus Average 2

Kgf Nm Degrees Radians of rigidity C N/mm

C


RESULT:

Calculation Part:


EXPERIMENT -6

TENSILE TEST

AIM:

To conduct tensile test on a mild steel specimen and determine the following

1. Limit of proportionality 2. Elastic Limit

3. Upper yield point 4. Lower yield point

5. Ultimate strength 6. Fracture strength

7. Young`s Modulus 8. Percentage elongation

9. Percentage reduction in area 10. Ductility

11. Toughness 12. True stress & true strain

13. Malleability APPARATUS: Universal testing machine, specimen, steel rule, vernier caliper, micrometer THEORY:

The tensile test is most applied one of all mechanical tests. In this test, a test specimen is

fixed into grips connected to a straining device and to a load-measuring device. (One end in

stationary grips and the others are in movable grips). If the applied load is small enough, the

deformation of any solid body is entirely elastic. An elastically deformed solid will return to

its original form as soon as load is removed. However if the load is too large, the material can

be deformed permanently. The initial part of the tension curve, which represents the manner

in which solid undergoes plastic deformation is termed as plastic. The stress below which the

deformation is essentially entirely elastic is known as the elastic limit of the material. In some

materials like mild steel a sudden drop in load indicating both an upper and lower yield point

denotes the onset of plastic deformation. However some materials do not exhibit a sharp yield

point. During plastic deformation at lager extensions, strain hardening cannot compensate for

the decrease in section and thus the load passes through a maximum and then begins to

decrease. At this stage the ultimate strength, which is defined as the ration of the load on the

specimen to the original cross-section area, reaches a maximum value. Until this point the

deformation is uniform at all the sections of the specimen. Further loading will eventually

cause „neck‟ formation and rupture follows.Usually a tension test is conducted at room

temperature; the tensile load is applied

slowly. During this test either round or flat specimens may be used. The load on the specimen


is applied mechanically or hydraulically depending on the type of testing machine.

1. Nominal/Engg stress and Nominal/Engg strain:

Original C/S area = A0 (mm2)

Original gauge length = L0 (mm)

Increase in gauge length = δL0

Nominal stress = P/A0 (N/ mm2)

Nominal strain = δL0/L0

2. Limit of Proportionality:

Stress is proportional to strain up to this point.

Normal Stress = PA/ PO

Normal Strain = (δ LO) A/LO

3. Elastic limit:

When the load is removed at “B” , the specimen will go back to original

Dimensions i.e LO and δ

AO Nominal stress =

PB/AO

Normal Strain = (δ LO) B/LO

If the specimen is loaded beyond elastic limit it will undergo permanent strain

ie. Plastic deformation.

4. Upper yield point:

Nominal stress = PC/AO

Nominal strain = (δ LO) D/LO

5. Lower yield point:

Nominal stress = PD/AO

Nominal strain = (δ LO) D/LO

6. Ultimate load or maximum load point:

Nominal ultimate stress = PE/AO

Nominal strain = (δ LO) E/LO

7. Fracture Load point F:

Nominal fracture stress = PF/AO


Nominal strain at fracture = (δ LO) F/LO

8. Young`s modulus (E):

Young`s modulus (E) = Stress/Strain

(In elastic region, limit of proportionality=Nominal stress at A/Nominal strain at A

9. Modulus of resilience = (Nominal stress at elastic limit)2 /2E

Area under Engg. Stress - Strain diagram up to elastic limit

10. Resilience = Modulus of Resilience x Volume of specimen undergoing Tensile stress.

11. Yield point Elongation:Elongation taking place in the specimen from C to D. this is

taking place without increase in stress.

12. Modulus of toughness:

Area under engineering stress – strain diagram up to fracture 13. Toughness = Modulus

of toughness x Volume of specimen. This indicates the amount of energy absorbed by the

specimen before fracture take place.

14. Ductility= (Final length at fracture – original length 10) x 100

15. Malleability:

It is the ability of the material to undergo plastic deformation prior fracture under

compressive loading conditions. In a tensile test it is approximated as percentage

reduction in cross sectional area of the specimen. Malleability =

{(AO - Af)/AO) x 100

True stress – true strain diagram

Engineering stress is calculated based on original cross sectional area (AO)

But not on the actual cross sectional area at load „P‟

True stress = P/A = P/AO x AO/ A

Since volume remains constant during plastic deformation we have AO LO = AL

True stress = P/AO x L/ LO

= P/AO x ((LO + δLO) /LO)

= P (1+e)

= Nominal stress (1+ nominal strain)

True strain = Є = 1n (1+e)

These relations are valid up to ultimate load i.e., up to which the strain is

uniform all along the gauge length.


1. True Stress at upper yield point = Nominal stress at upper yield point (

1+eO) True strain at C = 1n (1+eo)

2. True stress at ultimate load (E1)= Nominal ultimate stress (

1+eE) True strain at ultimate load = 1n (1+eE)

3. True stress at fracture (E1) = Pf / Af

Where Af is the area of cross section at fracture can be

measured. True strain at fracture = 1n(Ao/Af)

Area relation is taken instead of lengths because the strains are localized in the

region between ultimate load point and fracture point.

4. Strain Hardening :

From lower yield point onwards increase in load is required for increase in

strain. Thus the stress required for further deformation is more. This

phenomenon is called strain hardening.

5. True – stress – true strain curve in log – log co – ordinates.

When the true – stress and true – strain are plotted on log – log co – ordinates

the curve is a straight line.

6. Ductile and Brittle Materials

If a material fails without much plastic deformation it can be called brittle.

If the percentage elongation at fracture is less than 2.5 the material is

classified as brittle.

Usually the metals with F.C.C and CPH structures are highly ductile.

PROCEDURE:

1. Measure the original gauge length and diameter of the specimen.

2. Insert the specimen into grips of the test machine.

3. Begin the load application and record load vs elongation data.

4. Take the readings more frequently as yield point is approached.

5. Measure elongation values.

6. Continue the test till fracture occurs.

7. By joining the two broken halves of the specimen together measure the final length

and diameter of specimen at fracture.


RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

1. Plot the Engg. Stress strain curve and determine the following

Limit of proportionality = (N/mm2)

Yield strength = (N/mm2)

Ultimate strength = (N/mm2)

Young`s modulus = (N/mm2)

Percentage elongation = %

Percentage reduction in area = %

Fracture strength = (Nominal /Engg)

Toughness = Area under stress – strain curve up to

fracture

Malleability

2. Plot True Stress, True strain curve after calculating true – stress and true strain values at

various points.

Estimate

1) Strength coefficient

2) Strain hardening coefficient

3) Determine whether the material is ductile or brittle

4) Comment on the results.

S.No Load Deformation Stress Strain E


Calculation part:


MECHANICS OF FLUIDS

EXPERIMENT 1

VENTURIMETER TEST RIG Introduction A VENTURI METER is a device that is used for measuring the rate of flow of fluid through a pipeline. The basic principle on which a Venturi Meter works is that by reducing the cross -sectional area of the flow passage, a pressure difference is created between the inlet and throat & the measurement of the pressure difference enables the determination of the discharge through the pipe.

A Venturi Meter consists of,

• An inlet section followed by a convergent cone,

• A cylindrical throat,

• A gradually divergent cone. The inlet section of the Venturi Meter is of the same diameter as that of the pipe, which is followed by a convergent one. The convergent cone is a short pipe, which tapers from the original size of the pipe to that of the throat of the Venturi Meter. The throat of the Venturi Meter is a short parallel side tube having its cross – sectional area smaller than that of the pipe. The divergent cone of the Venturi Meter is a gradually diverging pipe with its cross – sectional area increasing from that of the throat to the original size of the pipe. At the inlet and the throat, of the Venturi Meter, pressure taps are provided through pressure rings. General Description: The apparatus consists of (1) Venturimeter (2) Piping system (3) supply pump set (4) Measuring tank (5) Differential manometer (6) Sump Constructional Specification:

• Flow Meters: Consists of Venturimeter of size 25 mm provided for experiments. The meter has the adequate cocks also with them

• Piping System: Consists of a set of G.I. piping of size 25 mm with sufficient upstream and down stream lengths provided with separate control valves and mounted on a suitable stand. Separate upstream and down stream pressure feed pipes are provided for the measurement of pressure heads with control valves situated on a common Pipe for easy operation.

• Supply Pump Set: Is rigidly fixed on sump. The mono block pump with motor, operating on single phase 220/240 volts 50 Hz AC supply.

• Measuring Tank: Measuring tank with gauge glass and scale arrangement for quick and easy measurement.

• Differential Manometer: Differential manometer with 1 mm scale graduations to measure the differential head produced by the flow meter.

• Sump: Sump to store sufficient water for independent circulation through the unit for


experimentation and arranged within the floor space of the main unit. Before commissioning:

• Check whether all the joints are leak proof and water tight.

• Fill the manometer to about half the height with mercury

• Close all the cocks, pressure feed pipes and manometer to prevent damage and over loading of the manometer.

• Check the gauge glass and meter scale assembly of the measuring tank and see that it is fixed water height and vertically.

• Check proper electrical connections to the switch, which is internally connected to the motor.

Experiments:

• The apparatus is primarily designed for conducting experiments on the coefficient of discharge of flow meters. Each flow meter can be connected to the manometer through the pressure feed opening and the corresponding cocks.

• While taking readings, close all the cocks in the pressure feed pipes except the two (Down-stream and upstream) cocks which directly connect the manometer to the required flow meter, for which the differential head is to be measured. (Make sure while taking reading that the manometer is properly primed. Priming is the operation of filling the manometer upper part and the connecting pipes with water and venting the air from the pipes).

• First open the inlet gate valve of the apparatus. Adjust the control valve kept at the exit end of the apparatus to a desired flow rate and maintain the flow steadily.

• The actual discharge is measured with the help of the measuring tank. The differential head produced by the flow meter can be found from the manometer for any flow rate.

"


CALIBRATION OF VENTURIMETER Aim: - To calibrate a given venture meter and to study the variation of coefficient of discharge of it with discharge. Apparatus: - Venturimeter, manometer, stop watch, experimental set-up. Procedure:-

1. Start the motor keeping the delivery valve close. 2. The water is allowed to flow through the selected pipe by selecting the appropriate

ball valve. 3. By regulating the valve control the flow rate and select the corresponding pressure

tapings (i.e. of orifice meter). 4. Make sure while taking readings, that the manometer is properly primed. Priming is

the operation of filling the manometer’s upper part and the connecting pipes with water by venting the air from the pipes. Note down the difference of head “h” from the manometer scale.

5. Note down the time required for the rise of 10cm (i.e. 0.01m) water in the collecting tank by using stop watch. Calculate actual discharge using below formula. Discharge: - The time taken to collect some ‘R’ cm of water in the collecting tank in m³/sec.

act

A x RQ =

t

Where: A = area of the collecting tank in m² (0.3m X 0.3m) t = time taken for rise of water level to rise ‘R’ in‘t’ seconds.

6. Using difference in mercury level “h”calculate the theoretical discharge of venturimeter by using following expression.

1 2

th2 2

1 2

a xa 2gHQ =

a -a

Where

H= difference of head in meters = m

1 2 1 2

w

S(h -h ) x ( -1) = (h -h ) x 12.6 m

S

a1 = area of venturi at inlet =

2

1

4

dπ

a2 = area of venturi at throat =

2

2

4

dπ

g =Acceleration due to gravity d1 =Inlet diameter in meters. d2 =Throat diameter in meters. 7. Calculate the coefficient of discharge of orifice meter (Cd):


act

theo

QCd=

Q

8. Repeat the steps 3 to 7 for different sets of readings by regulating the discharge valve.

S. No. Venturi inlet diameter

d1 Throat Diameter

d2

1. 25mm 13.5 mm

S. No.

Time for (10 cm) raise of water level in sec.

Actual discharge =

Qa

Differential head in mm of mercury Theoretical

discharge = Qt Cd = Qq/Qt

h1 h2 H

1

2

3

4

5

6 +

7

8

9

10

Precautions:

• Do not run the pump dry.

• Clean the tanks regularly, say for every 15days.

• Do not run the equipment if the voltage is below 180V.

• Check all the electrical connections before running.

• Before starting and after finishing the experiment the main Control valve should be in close position.

• Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause Damage to the whole system. Results and Conclusions:


EXPERIMENT 2

ORIFICE METER TEST RIG

Introduction An ORIFICE METER is a simple device used for measuring the discharge through pipes. The basic principle on which an Orifice meter works is that by reducing the cross – sectional area of the flow passage, a pressure difference between the two sections before and after Orifice is developed and the measure of the pressure difference enables the determination of the discharge through the pipe. However an Orifice meter is a cheaper arrangement for discharge measurement through pipes and its installation requires a smaller length as compared with Venturi Meter. As such where the space is limited, the Orifice meter may be used for the measurement of discharge through pipes. General Description The apparatus consists of (1) Orifice meter (2) Piping system (3) supply pump set (4) Measuring tank (5) Differential manometer (6) Sump Constructional Specification

• Flow Meters: Consists of Orifice meter of size 25 mm provided for experiments. The meter has the adequate cocks also with them.

• Piping System: Consists of a set of G.I. piping of size 25 mm with sufficient upstream and downstream lengths provided with separate control valves and mounted on a suitable stand. Separate upstream and downstream pressure feed pipes are provided for the measurement of pressure heads with control valves situated on a common plate for easy operation.

• Supply Pump Set: Is rigidly fixed on sump. The mono block pump with motor. Operating on single phase 220/240 volts 50 Hz AC supply.

• Measuring Tank: Measuring tank with gauge glass and scale arrangement for quick and easy measurement.

• Differential Manometer: Differential manometer with 1 mm scale graduations to measure the differential head produced by the flow meter.

• Sump: Sump to store sufficient water for independent circulation through the unit for experimentation and arranged within the floor space of the main unit.

Before Commissioning

• Check whether all the joints are leak proof and water tight.

• Fill the manometer to about half the height with mercury

• Close all the cocks, pressure feed pipes and manometer to prevent damage and over loading of the manometer.

• Check the gauge glass and meter scale assembly of the measuring tank and see that it is fixed water tight and vertically.



Experiments

• The apparatus is primarily designed for conducting experiments on the coefficient of discharge of flow meters. Each flow meter can be connected to the manometer through the pressure feed opening and the corresponding cocks.

• While taking readings, close all the cocks in the pressure feed pipes except the two (Down-stream and upstream) cocks which directly connect the manometer to the required flow meter, for which the differential head is to be measured. (Make sure while taking reading that the manometer is properly primed. Priming is the operation of filling the manometer upper part and the connecting pipes with water and venting the air from the pipes).


• The actual discharge is measured with the help of the measuring tank. The differential head produced by the flow meter can be found from the manometer for any flow rate.


CALIBRATION OF ORIFICE METER

Aim: - To calibrate a given Orifice meter and to study the variation of coefficient of discharge of it with discharge. Apparatus: -Orifice meter, manometer, stop watch, experimental set-up. Procedure:-



tapings (i.e. of orifice meter). 4. Make sure while taking readings, that the manometer is properly primed. Priming is

the operation of filling the manometer’s upper part and the connecting pipes with water by venting the air from the pipes. Note down the difference of head “h” from the manometer scale.

5. Note down the time required for the rise of 10cm (i.e. 0.01m) water in the collecting tank by using stop watch. Calculate actual discharge using below formula.

Discharge: - The time taken to collect some ‘R’ cm of water in the collecting tank in m³/sec.

act

A x RQ =

t

Where: A = area of the collecting tank in m² (0.3m X 0.3m) R = rise of water level taken in meters (say 0.1m or 10cm) t = time taken for rise of water level to rise ‘R’ in ‘t’ seconds.

6. Using difference in mercury level “h” calculate the theoretical discharge of venturimeter by using following expression.

1 2th

2 2

1 2

a xa 2gHQ =

a -a

Where,

H= difference of head in meters = m

1 2 1 2

w

S(h -h ) x ( -1) = (h -h ) x 12.6 m

S

a1 = area of orifice at inlet =

2

1

4

dπ

a2 = area of orifice at inlet =

2

2

4

dπ

g =Acceleration due to gravity d1 =Inlet diameter in meters. d2 =Throat diameter in meters.

7. Calculate the coefficient of discharge of orifice meter (Cd):

act

theo

QCd=

Q



S. No. Orifice inlet diameter

d1 Orifice diameter

d2

1. 25mm 13.0

S. No.

Time for (10 cm) raise of

water level in sec.

Actual discharge =

Qa

Differential head in mm of mercury

Theoretical discharge = Qt

Cd = Qa/Qt

h1 h2 H

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Calculation:-


Precautions:-





• Before starting and after finishing the experiment the main

• Control valve should be in close position.

• Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause

• Damage to the whole system. Results and Conclusions:-


PIPE FRICTION APPARATUS

Introduction A pipe may be of various diameters and may have bends, valves, etc. When a

liquid is flowing through such pipes, the velocity of the liquid layer adjacent to the pipe wall is zero. The velocity of the liquid goes on increasing from the wall and hence shear stresses are produced in the liquid due to viscosity. This viscous action causes loss of

energy, which is usually known as Frictional loss. Here, we are going to consider two important losses that occur during flow,

• Major Losses.

• Minor Losses.

• Major losses occur due to friction. This friction may be due to viscosity or roughness in the pipe.

• Minor losses can be due to various reasons such as Inlet and Outlet of the pipe, bends, gates, sudden expansions and contractions. The apparatus is designed to study the friction losses that appear in long pipes and the obstructions that are

encountered in the way of flow by various types of fittings. General Description The unit consists mainly of 1) Piping System 2) Measuring Tank 3) Differential Manometer 4) Supply pump set 5) Sump.

• Constructional Specification

• Piping System: Piping System of size 12.7 mm, 20 mm and 20 mm (S.S.) dia. With tapings at 1 meter distance and a flow control valve.


• Measuring Tank: Measuring tank is provided to measure the discharge of water from the unit.

• Differential Manometer: Differential manometer with 1 mm scale graduations to measure the loss of head in the pipe line.

• Supply Pump Set: Supply pump set is rigidly fixed on the sump. The pump set is mono block pump with 0.5 HP motor operating on single phase 220 volts 50 Hz AC supply.

• Sump: Sump is provided to store sufficient waters for independent circulation through the unit for experimentation and arranged within the floor space of the main unit.

Before Commissioning

• Check whether all the joints are leak proof and watertight.

• Close all the cocks on the pressure feed pipes and Manometer to prevent damage and overloading of the manometer.

• Check the gauge glass and meter scale assembly of the measuring tank and see that it is fixed water tight and vertical.


Experiments

• The apparatus is primarily designed for conducting experiments on the frictional losses in pipes of different sizes. Three different sizes of pipes are provided for wide range of experiments. Each individual pipe can be connected to the Manometer through the pressure feed pipes having individual quick operating cocks.

• While taking reading close all the cocks in the pressure feed pipe except the two ( upstream and downstream) cocks, which directly connect the manometer to the required pipe for which the loss in head has to be determined. (Make sure while taking readings, that the manometer is properly primed. Priming is the operating of filling the Manometer upper part and the connecting pipes with water venting the air from the pipes).


• The actual discharge is measured with the help of the measuring tank. For each size of the pipe the area of cross section of flow can be calculated from the known diameter of the pipes. From these two valves and the average velocity of stream through the pipe can be calculated.

• The actual loss of head is determined from the Manometer readings. The frictional loss of head in pipes is given by the Darcy's formula.The friction coefficient indicates 'f '.


EXPERIMENT 3

FRICTION FACTOR FOR A GIVEN PIPE LINE Aim: - To calculate the friction factor for a given pipe line. Apparatus: - experimental set-up, stop watch. Procedure:-



tapings. 4. Make sure while taking readings, that the manometer is properly primed. Priming

is the operating of filling the Manometer upper part and the connecting pipes with water venting the air from the pipes. Note down the loss of head “hf” from the manometer scale.

5. Note down the time required for the rise of 10cm (i.e. 0.1m) water in the collecting tank by using stop watch. Calculate discharge using below formula.

Discharge: - The time taken to collect some ‘x’ cm of water in the collecting tank in m³/sec.

A x R

Q = t

A = area of the collecting tank in m² (0.3m X 0.3m) R = rise of water level taken in meters (say 0.1m or 10cm) t = time taken for rise of water level to rise ‘r’ in ‘t’ seconds.

6. Calculate the velocity of the jet by following formula V = Discharge . = Q/A m/sec

Area of the pipe

A = cross sectional area of the pipe= Πd² /4 d = pipe diameterType equation here.

7. Calculate the coefficient of friction for the given pipe by

h� ��²��

. Where,

hf - Loss of head of water = (h1-h2)(Sn /So – 1) = (h1-h2) 12.6/1000 m f - Co-efficient of friction for the pipe L - Discharge between sections for which loss of head is measured (1 meter) v - Average velocity of flow in m/sec g - Acceleration due to gravity 9.81m/sec d - Pipe diameter in meters



Tabular Form:

S. No. Ø of pipe

(mm) Area (a)

Time for rise of 10 cm water

Discharge Velocity Loss of Head

hf

Co-efficient of friction

f

Calculation:-

• Total Head, H

H = (h1 + h2) x 12.6 m of water Where,

12.6 = conversion factor from mercury to water head

• Discharge, Q

� � � � �

� � 100 � /"

Where, A = Area of collecting tank = 0.125 m². R = Rise in water level of the collecting tank, cm. t = time for ‘R’ cm rise of water, sec

100 = Conversion from cm to m.

• Velocity, V m/s

Where, A’ = area of the pipe/fitting in use

�′ � # � $%

4 �%

• Friction Factor,(Major Losses) F:

� � ��'�(%

( ��)


Where, H = total head, m of water V = velocity, m g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81m/s² L = Distance b/w tapping = 1.5m

• Head Loss Due To Fittings, (Minor Losses) K:

* � %+,-.

Where, H = total head, m of water V = velocity, m g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81m/s² Precautions:

1) Do not run the pump dry. 2) Clean the tanks regularly, say for every 15days. 3) Do not run the equipment if the voltage is below 180V. 4) Check all the electrical connections before running. 5) Before starting and after finishing the experiment the main control valve should be in

close position. 6) Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause damage to the whole system.

Results and Conclusions:


EXPERIMENT 4

VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLIS THEOREM

Introduction Bernoulli’s Theorem gives the relationship between pressure head, velocity head and

the datum. Here the attempt has been made to study the relationship of the above said parameters using venturimeter.

General Description

• The apparatus consists of a specially fabricated clear ACRYLIC Venturimeter with necessary tappings connected to a Multibank Piezometer also made of clear ACRYLIC.

• The apparatus consists of two overhead tanks interconnected with the venturimeter, which is placed in between the tanks.

• The overhead tanks are provided with the Head variation mechanism for conducting the experiments at various heads.

• Water in the sump tank is pumped using a Monobloc Centrifugal pump (Kirloskar make) which passes through the control valve to the overhead tank.

• The height of the water in the collecting tank is measured using the acrylic Piezometer to find the flowrate.

• The whole arrangement is mounted on an aesthetically designed sturdy frame made of MS tubes and NOVAPAN Board with all the provisions for holding the tanks and accessories.

Aim: o The experiment is conducted to o Study of Pressure Gradient at different zones. o Verification of Bernoulli's Equation. o Comparative analysis under different flow rates

Apparatus: 1) Venturimeter, 2)Piezometer, 3) Overhead Tank, 4)Sump Tank, 5) Centrifugal Pump Procedure:

1) Fill in the sump tank with clean water. 2) Keep the delivery valve closed. 3) Check and give necessary electrical connections to the system. 4) Switch on the pump & Slowly open the delivery valve. 5) Adjust the flow through the control valve of the pump. 6) Allow the system to attain the steady state. i.e., let the water pass from the second

overhead tank to the collecting tank. 7) Note down the Pressure head at different points of the venture meter on the multi-tube

piezometer. (Expel if any air is the by inserting the thin pin into the piezometer openings)

8) Close the ball valve of the collecting tank and measure the time for the known rise of water.

9) Change the flow rate and repeat the experiment.

Observation:


Sl. No

Static Head Loss, h Time for ‘R’ cm rise in

water ‘T’ sec

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1

2

3

4

5

Calculations:

1. Discharge, QA 2.

Where, A = Area of collecting tank = 0.045 m².

R = Rise in water level of the collecting tank, cm. t = time for ‘R’ cm rise of water, sec

100 = Conversion from cm to m. 3. Pressure Head,

Where,

ρ = density of water. g = gravitational constant h = head measured, m of water column

3. Velocity Head,

Where, V = Q / a, a = Area at the particular section* of the venturimeter m².

4. Verification of BERNOULLI’S EQUATION Bernoulli’s Equation is given as:

After finding,

a. Pressure Head, h b. Velocity head,

at different cross-section of the Venturimeter. Put the same in the above equation for different points and verify whether all the values obtained are same. Note: Consider the datum, z to be constant. Precautions:




/ρ�

0(%

2�0 2 � 0

� � � � �

� � 100 � /"

345""645 '57� � 3

ρ � �� 8 � 9� :7�54

(5;9<=�> '57� � (%

2� � 9� :7�54






• Damage to the whole system. Result and Conclusion:


EXPERIMENT 5

CALIBRATION OF A TRIANGULAR NOTCH

AIM: -To find the coefficient of discharge of given triangular notch THEORY:-A notch is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of liquid through a small channel or a tank .It may be defined as an opening in the side of a tank or small channel in such that a way that the liquid surfaces in the tank or channel is below the top edge of the opening. NOTCHES ARE CLASSIFIED AS:- 1. Rectangular notch 2. Triangular notch 3. Trapezoidal notch 4. Stepped notch A triangular notch is preferred to a rectangular notch due to the following reasons. The expression for discharge of triangular notch is compared to rectangular notch is simple. For measuring low discharge a triangular notch gives more accurate results than a rectangular notch. In the case of triangular notch only H is required for the computation of discharge. A trapezoidal notch is a combination of rectangular and triangular notch and thus the discharge through trapezoidal notch is the sum of above notches. A stepped notch is a combination of rectangular notch and triangular notch. The discharge through the stepped notch is equal to sum of discharges through the different rectangular notches. DESCRIPTION:- The apparatus consists of 1) Measuring tank 2) Sump tank3) Supply pump set 4) Inlet and out let valve Measuring tank: Stainless steel tank of size 0.3*0.3*0.5mm height with the gage glass, a scale arrangement for quick and easy measurements. A ball valve is provided to empty the tank and a drain is provided at the bottom of the tank to drain the waste water when the unit is not in use. Water for independent circulation through the unit for experimentation and arranged within the floor space of the main unit. Sump tank: The sump tank is a size of 0.2*0.3*0.3m stainless steel tank to store sufficient water for independent circulation through the unit for experimentation and arranged within the floor space of the main unit about 0.6*0.3*0.5m with a gauge glass and scale arrangement. A ball valve is provided to empty the tank. Supply Pump set: The pump is 25*25mm size mono block with ½ HP, 2880 RPM, single phase, 220volts AC supply. Inlet and out let valve:- These valves are used to control the flow of water at inlet and out let . PROCEDURE: 1. Allow the water to drain up to triangular notch.

2. Note down the depth of the water when the water is coinciding with the v notch point.

3. Collect water in collecting tank and close the drain valve and find the time taken for the rise of water up to 20cm.

4. Calculate the discharge by using the above results.


5. Now substituting the values in the formula for calculation of discharge for v- notch gives the required result.

Precautions:








• Damage to the whole system. Result and Conclusion:


EXPERIMENT 6

CALIBRATION OF COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE METER

1. INTRODUCTION:

All openings cannot be considered as an orifice unless the water level on the upstream side is above the opening. The purpose of the orifice is to measure the discharge. When the water comes out through the orifice, the water particles contracts to the minimum area called as the vena contracta. The diameter of this vena contracta is approximately considered as the half the diameter of the orifice. However, to view the vena contracta the head should be very high and due limitations an attempt has been made to study the process. It should be borne in mind that the results are analyzed qualitatively and not quantitatively. 2. DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS:

1. Water from the sump tank is sucked by the pump and is delivered through the

delivery pipe to the collecting tank.

2. Overflow arrangement is provided to the collecting and overhead tanks.

3. Butterfly valve is provided in the measuring tank for instant close and release.

4. The suction and delivery can be controlled by means of control valves.

5. Piezometer with Vinyl sticker scale ( For better readability) is provided to measure

the height of the water collected in the measuring tank.

6. The equipment has been designed for 0.6m of ma heads and works on closed circuit

method.

7. The equipment comes with accessories viz orifices & mouthpieces each 4nos. of

different varieties.

8. The X & Y co-ordinates are measured using the moving scale fixed by the side of the

tank.

9. The whole arrangement is mounted on an aesthetically designed sturdy frame made of

MS angle with all the provisions for holding the tanks and Accessories.

3. EXPERMENTATION: i. AIM:

The experiment is used to determine a) Co-efficient of discharge (CD) of mouthpieces.

b) Co—efficient of Velocity (CV)and

ii. PROCEDURE: 1. Fill the sump tank with water to the specified level.

2. Place the Orifice of study in the overhead tank.

3. Set the head by opening the required valve in the overhead tank.

4. Close the main control valve and give necessary electrical connections.

5. Switch on the supply pump starter after confirming the mains on indicator is

glowing.

6. Open the main control valve slowly and steadily such that the required constant

head is maintained.


7. Measure the X & Y co-ordinates using the traveling scale.

8. Measure the discharge in the collecting tank by closing the butterfly valve and

taking the time for R cm rise.

9. Open the butterfly valve after taking the readings.

10. Repeat the above steps for different orifices and heads.

11. Calculate the discharge, velocity and contraction co-efficients using the given

formulae.

12. After finishing the experiment the close the main control valve and switch off the

supply pump starter and disconnect the electrical connections.

13. Repeat the above steps for mouthpieces also.

NOTE: Only discharge is measured for mouthpieces. iv. CALCULATIONS

1. CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF THE JET:

7 ? @A .

B �%

Where, d = diameter of the orifice in study. # = constant

2. ACTUAL DISCHARGE,QA

�7 � CDEF D GHH

� / sec.

Where, A = Cross-sectional area of the tank, m2. R = Rise in water level of the collecting tank in cm. t = time for ‘R’ cm rise in water

3. THEORITICAL DISCHARGE, QTH

QTH=I2�'x 7 m /sec.

G= acceleration due to gravity, 9.81m/s2 H=head above the orifice in m of water. a= Cross-sectional area of the jet.

RESULTS:


4. PRECAUTIONS: 1. Do not run the pump dry

2. Clean the tanks regularly, say for every 15days.

3. Do not run the equipment if the voltage is below 180V.

4. Check all the electrical connections before running.

5. Before starting and after finishing the experiment the main control valve

should be in close position.

6. Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause damage to the whole

system.


EXPERIMENT 7

PUNCH SHEAR SETUP

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS The Apparatus consists of:

1. A RIGID Punch and Die Attachment in the Wagner beam setup.

2. A Heavy Die can be attached to the panel.

3. Loading is applied by means of Gear Box Assembly and the applied load indicator

which is attached with Load Cell.

4. Pins of particular dimension is provided for the test.

5. Sturdy Frame for attachment of different types of Cantilever beams is provided.

EXPERIMENTATION AIM: The experiment is conducted to determine the SHEAR STRENGTH OF THE

GIVEN SPECIMEN. PROCEDURE:

1. Fix the PUNCH AND DIE at the position.

2. Adjust the load unit at the required distance

3. Connect the pin under test in between the punch and the die.

4. Holes are provided to align the pin.

5. Connect the Load Cell cable to the Load Indicator respectively.

6. Provide necessary electrical connection (230V 1ph 5Amps with neutral and

earthing) to the indicator provided.

7. Tare the load if any on the indicator.

8. Press the peak button on the indicator so the maximum load to shear the specimen

can be noted at the end of shear.

9. Now, using the Hand wheel provided load the punch until shear of the material.

10. Note down the maximum load required to shear the specimen.

11. Now, calculate the shear stress required using the below formulas.

OBSERVATIONS:

SI NO.

Maximum Load Applied

Diameter of the

rod, d mm

Kg N

MECHANICS OF SOLIDS AND MECHANICS OF FLUIDS … Manuals/AE/II-I/MECHANICS OF SOLIDS AND... · 4...

Documents

Transcript of MECHANICS OF SOLIDS AND MECHANICS OF FLUIDS … Manuals/AE/II-I/MECHANICS OF SOLIDS AND... · 4...