McGraw-Hill© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.McGraw-Hill© 2003 The...

McGraw-Hill © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.McGraw-Hill © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Chapter

13 Motivating forPerformance


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Motivating For PerformanceMotivating For Performance

Motivation forces that energize, direct, and sustain a person’s efforts highly motivated people, with adequate ability and

understanding of the job, will be highly productive managers must know what behaviors they want to motivate

people to exhibit


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Setting GoalsSetting Goals

Goal setting theory people have conscious goals that energize them and direct their

thoughts and behaviors toward a particular endGoals that motivate

goals should be acceptable to employees goals should be challenging but attainable goals should be specific, quantifiable, and measurable

Limitations of goal setting individualized goals create competition and reduce cooperation single productivity goals interfere with other dimensions of

performance


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Reinforcing PerformanceReinforcing Performance

Law of effect behavior that is followed by positive consequences will likely

be repeatedReinforcers

positive consequences that motivate behaviorOrganizational behavior modification (OB Mod)

application of reinforcement theory in organizational settings influences people’s behavior and improves performance by

systematically managing work conditions and the consequences of people’s actions


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Reinforcing Performance (cont.)Reinforcing Performance (cont.)

Consequences of behavior positive reinforcement - applying valued consequences that

increase the likelihood that a person will repeat the behavior that led to it

negative reinforcement - removing or withholding an undesirable consequence can involve the threat of punishment

punishment - administering an aversive consequence extinction - withdrawing or failing to provide a reinforcing

consequenceReward system has to support the firm’s strategic intent


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Behavior

Positive reinforcementor

negative reinforcement

Same behaviorlikely to be

repeated

Same behaviorless likely to be

repeated

Punishmentor

extinction

The Consequences Of BehaviorThe Consequences Of Behavior


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Performance-Related BeliefsPerformance-Related Beliefs

Expectancy theory proposes that people will behave based on their perceived

likelihood that their effort will lead to a certain outcome and on how highly they value that outcome effort-to-performance link

expectancy - employees’ perception of the likelihood that their efforts will enable them to attain their performance goals

performance-to-outcome link instrumentality - perceived likelihood that performance will be

followed by a particular outcome valence - value an outcome holds for the person contemplating it

for motivation to be high, expectancy, instrumentalities, and total valence of all outcomes must all be high


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OutcomeEffort Performance

InstrumentalityExpectancy

Basic Concepts Of Expectancy TheoryBasic Concepts Of Expectancy Theory


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Performance-Related Beliefs (cont.)Performance-Related Beliefs (cont.)

Expectancy theory (cont.) managerial implications of expectancy theory

increase expectancies provide a work environment that facilitates good performance set realistically attainable performance goals

identify positively valent outcomes understand what people want to get out of work

make performance instrumental toward positive outcomes good performance should be followed by personal recognition and

praise, favorable performance reviews, and other positive results


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Understanding People’s NeedsUnderstanding People’s Needs

Content theories indicate the kinds of needs that people want to satisfy the extent to which and the ways in which a person’s needs are met

or not met affect her/his behavior on the jobMaslow’s need hierarchy

human needs are organized into five major types physiological - food, water, sex, and shelter safety or security - protection against threat and deprivation social - friendship, affection, belonging, and love ego - independence, achievement, freedom, recognition, and self-

esteem self-actualization - realizing one’s potential


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Understanding People’s Needs (cont.)Understanding People’s Needs (cont.)

Maslow’s need hierarchy (cont.) postulates that people satisfy these needs one at a time, from

bottom to top people motivated to satisfy lower needs before they try to satisfy

higher needs once satisfied, a need is no longer a powerful motivator

not altogether accurate theory of human motivation nonetheless, made three major contributions

identified important need categories helped to think in terms of lower- and higher-level needs increased salience of personal growth and self-actualization


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Alderfer’s ERG theory postulates that people have three basic need sets

Existence needs - material and physiological desires Relatedness needs - involve relationships with other people

satisfied by the process of mutually sharing thoughts and feelings Growth needs - motivate people to productivity or creativity

satisfied by fully utilizing personal capacities and developing new capacities

postulates that several different needs can be operating at once has greater scientific support than Maslow’s hierarchy

both theories remind managers of the types of reinforcers or rewards that can be used to motivate people



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GrowthSelf-actualization

Comparison Of Maslow’s Need Comparison Of Maslow’s Need Hierarchy And ERG TheoryHierarchy And ERG Theory

Relatedness

Ego

Social

Existence

SafetyPhysiological

MaslowAlderfer


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McClelland’s needs achievement - strong orientation toward accomplishment and

an obsession with success and goal attainment affiliation - strong desire to be liked by other people power - desire to influence or control other people

personalized power - negative force expressed through the manipulation and exploitation of others

socialized power - positive force channeled toward the constructive improvement of organizations and

societies

managerial success associated with low need for affiliation and moderate to high need for power


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Need theories: International perspectives need importance varies from country to country not all people are motivated by the same needs

achievement, growth, and self-actualization are profoundly important in the U.S. and other Anglo-American countries

these needs are not universally important, however


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Designing Motivating JobsDesigning Motivating Jobs

Rewards may be available from the nature of the job extrinsic reinforcers - reinforcers given to a person by the

boss, the company, or some other person intrinsic reward - derived directly from performing the job

itself essential to the motivation underlying creativity

the result of a challenging problem the result of work that is exciting in and of itself

‘mechanistic’ approach to job design - characterizes a demotivating job highly specialized, simple and routine results in employee dissatisfaction, absenteeism, and turnover


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Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.)Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.)

Job rotation changing from one routine task to another to alleviate boredom

can benefit everyone when done properly

Job enlargement giving people additional tasks at the same time to alleviate

boredom additional tasks at the same level of responsibility

Job enrichment changing a task to make it inherently more rewarding,

motivating, and satisfying adds higher levels of responsibility


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Herzberg’s two-factor theory distinguished between two broad categories of factors that affect

people working on their jobs hygiene factors - characteristics of the workplace

make people unhappy will not make people truly satisfied

motivators - characteristics of the job itself when present, jobs presumed to be both satisfying and motivating

theory has been widely criticized nevertheless, highlights the distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic

rewards reminds managers that worker motivation depends on more than

extrinsic rewards


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The Hackman and Oldham model of job design well designed jobs produce three critical psychological states

meaningfulness - believe that work is important to other people responsibility - feel personally responsible for how the work turns

out knowledge of results - know how well the job was performed

psychological states produced by five core job dimensions skill variety - different job activities involving several skills task identity - completion of a whole, identifiable piece of work task significance - important impact on the lives of others autonomy - independence and discretion in making decisions feedback - information about job performance


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The Hackman and Oldham model of job design (cont.) effective job enrichment increases all five core dimensions effectiveness of a job enrichment program depends on a

person’s growth need strength growth need strength - degree to which individuals want

personal and psychological development


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Skill varietyTask identityTask significance

Autonomy

Feedback

Experienced meaningfulness

of the work

Experienced responsibility for work outcomes

Knowledge of results

Employee growth

need strength

Core jobdimensions

Criticalpsychological

states

The Hackman And Oldham Model The Hackman And Oldham Model Of Job EnrichmentOf Job Enrichment

Personal and work

outcomes

High internal work motivation

High-qualitywork performance

High jobsatisfaction

Low absenteeismand turnover


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Empowerment process of sharing power with employees, thereby enhancing

their beliefs about being influential contributors employees perceive meaning in work employees feel competent employees derive a sense of self-determination employees believe they have an impact on important decisions

empowering environment provides information required to perform at one’s best knowledge available about how to use the information employees have the power to make decisions employees receive rewards for contributions


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Specificactions toempower

Provide morefreedom of access

to resources

Provide morefreedom of access

to people

Allowindependent

judgment

Assignnonroutine

jobs

Reduce thenumber of

approval steps

Reduce thenumber of rules

Increase signature authority

at all levels

Define jobsmore broadly as

projects

Actions That Empower EmployeesActions That Empower Employees


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Achieving FairnessAchieving Fairness

Equity theory two factors used to assess how fairly one has been treated

outcomes - various things the person receives on the job inputs - contributions the person makes to the organization

people expect the outcomes they receive to be proportional to the inputs they provide people also pay attention to the outcomes and inputs of others

Assessing equity

equity exists when the ratios are equal assessments of equity are subjective perceptions or beliefs

Inputs

OutcomesOthers'versus

Inputs

OutcomesownTheir


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Achieving Fairness (cont.)Achieving Fairness (cont.)

Restoring equity inequity causes dissatisfaction and leads to attempts to restore

balance to the relationship a variety of behavioral and perceptual options may be used to

restore equity alter Person’s ratio

reduce inputs - give less effort, perform at lower levels, quit increase outcomes - request higher grade, better pay

alter Other’s ratio decrease outcomes increase inputs


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Achieving Fairness (cont.)Achieving Fairness (cont.)

Fair process procedural justice - using a fair process in decision making

and making sure others know that the process was as fair as possible

fair processes make unfair outcomes more palatable explain how a decision is made make an unbiased decision offer a chance to voice complaints collaborate in making decision


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Job SatisfactionJob Satisfaction

Correlates of job satisfaction job satisfaction is unrelated to job performance the greater the job dissatisfaction:

the higher turnover the higher absenteeism the lower corporate citizenship the more grievances and lawsuits the higher the probability of a strike the more likely that stealing and/or vandalism will occur the poorer the mental and physical health of the workers


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Job Satisfaction (cont.)Job Satisfaction (cont.)

Quality of work life (QWL) programs designed to create a workplace that enhances

employee well-being goal is to satisfy the full range of employee needs organizations differ drastically in their attention to QWL in assessing the effects of QWL, productivity is defined

broadly to include turnover, absenteeism, accidents, theft, sabotage, creativity, and quality of work


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Qualityof Work

Life

Constitutionalism

Minimum infringe-ments on personaland family needs

Chance for personalgrowth and security

Jobs develophuman

capacities

Socially responsibleorganizational

actions

Safe andhealthy

environment

Adequate and faircompensation

Supportivesocial

environment

Categories Of Quality Of LifeCategories Of Quality Of Life


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Job Satisfaction (cont.)Job Satisfaction (cont.)

Psychological contracts a set of perceptions of what employees owe their employers, and

what their employers owe them

has important implications for employee satisfaction/motivation historically, this relationship has been stable in many companies

now, mergers, layoffs, and other disruptions have undermined the ‘old deal’

versus

Benefits provided bythe organization

Benefits promised bythe organization

Contributions providedby the employee

Contributions promisedby the employee

McGraw-Hill© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.McGraw-Hill© 2003 The...

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