THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF MAN LE MUSEE NATIONAL DE L'HC)MME

Material History Bulletin 9 Bulletin Whistoire de la culture materielle

OTTAWA, FALL-AUTOMNE,1979

BOARD OF TRUSTEES NATIONAL MUSEUMS OF CANADA

Dr . Sean B . Murphy Juge Rene J . Marin Mr . Gower Markle Mr . Richard M .H . Alway Mr . Robert G . MacLeod Monsieur Roger B . Hamel~ Madame Ginette Gadoury Monsieur Paul H . Leman Mr . Michael C .D . Hobbs M . Charles A . Lussier Dr . William G . Schneider

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DIRECTOR NATIONAL MUSEUM OF MAN

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CHIEF HISTORY DIVISION

CHEF DIVISION DE L'HISTOIRE

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EDITORIAL BOARD MATERIAL HISTORY BULLETIN

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Gerald L . Pocius

T .D . MacLean Kathleen A . Kuusisto Gary Hughes Corneliu Kirjan

David Newlands Jean-Pierre Hardy Cornell Wynnobel Diana Matthews Frances Roback James Wardrop

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CONSEIL DE RPDACTION BULLETIN D'HISTOIRE DE LA CULTURE MAT9RIELLE

National Museum of Man Vancouver Centennial Museum

Memorial University of Newfoundland

Fortress of Louisbourg Halifax, N .S . New Brunswick Museum Direction de 1'archeologie

et de 1'ethnologie University of Toronto Musee national de 1'Homme Lower Fort Garry Western Development Museum Glenbow Museum British Columbia Provincial Museum

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THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF MAN LE MUSEE NATIONAL DE L'HOMME

Material History Bulletin n Bulletin d'histoire de la culture materielle

TABLE OF CONTENTS - TABLE DES MATIERES

Articles

An Evaluation of Iconographic and Written Sources in the Study of a Traditional Technology : Maple Sugar Making Anita Campbell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Reviews - Comptes rendus

Patricia Baines, Spinning Wheels, Spinners and Spinning (Reviewed by Judy Keenlyside . . . . 37

Bus Griffiths, Now You're Logging (Reviewed by Robert Griffin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

David L . Newlands and Claus Breede, An Introduction to Canadian Archaeology (Reviewed by Dianne Newell) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

D .R . Richeson, ed ., Western Canadian History : Museum Inter retations (Reviewed by Alan F .J . Arti ise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Vancouver Centennial Museum, "The World of Children : Toys and Memories of Childhood" (Reviewed by Zane Lewis) . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . 51

Musee du Quebec, "Cordonnerie traditionnelle" (Compte rendu d'Yvan Chouinard) . . . . . . . 61

Notes and Comments - Nouvelles breves . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Contributors - Collaborateurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

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OTTAWA, FALL-AUTOMNE, 1979 ISSN 0703 - 489X

MATERIAL HISTORY BULLETIN

The Material History Bulletin is designed to meet the needs for a publication to encourage and disseminate research on Canada's material history . It publishes short articles, research notes and comments, and reviews of exhibits, publications, and historic sites . The Bulletin aims to reach, both as authors and subscribers, an audience which includes historians, museum curators, historical archaeologists, and others interested in the material evidence of Canada's history . Submissions should be sent to either of the co-editors or to one of the regional editors .

The Material History Bulletin is published twice a year, in late spring and late fall . Two pilot issues, which appeared as History Division Papers Nos . 15 and 21 in the National Museum of Man's Mercury Series, are now out of print . Beginning with the tenth issue the Bulletin is available on a subscription basis at $4 .00 for two issues annually or at $2 .50 for a single issue . Bulletin no . 8, a special issue containing the papers presented at Canada's Material History : A Forum is available for 5 .00. Subscriptions or individual copies may be obtained by forwarding a cheque or money order in the appropriate amount payable to the Receiver General for Canada (Special Account) . Mail to :

Order Fulfilment Publishing Division National Museums of Canada Ottawa, Ontario . KlA OM8

BULLETIN D'HISTOIRE DE LA . CULTURE MATERIELLE

Le Bulletin d'histoire de la culture materielle vise a encourager et a faire connaitre la recherche sur 1'histoire de la culture materielle du Canada . I1 publie de courts articles, des notes et des observations de recherches, des critiques d'expositions et de publications, ainsi que des etudes de lieux historiques . Le Bulletin cherche a atteinc:ire le plus grand nombre d'auteurs et d'abonnes, notamment les historiens, les conservateurs de musee, les archeologues et les autres personnes interessEes par les vestiges materiels de 1'histoire du Canada . Les demandes doivent etre envoyees a un des deux redacteurs en chef ou a 1'un des redacteurs regionaux .

Le Bulletin d'histoire de la culture materielle parait deux foi.s par annee, a la fin du printemps et a la fin de 1'automne . Deux numeros-pilotes, qui ont paru a titre de dossiers de la Division de 1'histoire dans les numeros 15 et 21 de la collection Mercure (Musee national de 1'Homme), sont maintenant epuis6s . A compter du dixiE)me numero le Bulletin est offert aux abonnes a raison de $4 par annee pour deux numeros ou de $2 .50 pour un seul numero . Le Bulletin no 8, edition speciale des communications du Colloque sur 1'histoire de la culture materielle du Canada, est offert a raison de 5 .00 . On peut s'abonner ou commander des numeros a 1'unite en envoyant la somme necessaire sous forme de ch6que ou de mandat-poste a 1'ordre du Receveur general du Canada (Compte special) . Envoyer a

Service des commandes Division de 1'edition Musees nationaux du Canada Ottawa (Ontario) K1A OM8

AN EVALUATION OF ICONOGRAPHIC AND WRITTEN

SOURCES IN THE STUDY OF A TRADITIONAL

TECHNOLOGY : MAPLE SUGAR MAKING

by Anita Campbell

L'auteur evalue 1'utilite des sources iconographiques dans 1'etude des techniques traditionnelles, en comparant un ensemble de ces sources avec des documents traitant de la fabrication du sucre d'erable . Les deux types de references fournissent des donnees precises et detaillees, les sources iconographiques 1'emportant en ce qui concerne la description des outils (style, forme) mais le cedant aux textes pour ce qui est des instructions relatives aux methodes et techniques . L'etude a demontre que les competences de 1'artiste ou de 1'auteur revetaient une plus grande importance que le type de reference comme tel . De plus, dans 1'etude des techniques traditionnelles, il est evident que le chercheur a interet a consulter la .plus grande variete de sources possible .

Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the contribution of iconographic sources to the study of a traditional technology, maple sugar making, by comparing information from such sources with information from written sources . The eight iconographic and seven written sources chosen for the study date from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries except for one from the early twentieth century . A number of these sources are of special interest in that they refer to or illustrate innovations in the traditional methods of maple sugar making . The comparison is

1

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Fig . 1 . Cornelius Kreighoff, Cabane a sucre au Canada . (Photo : Public Archives of Canada, neg . no . C-11041 .

This lithograph by Krieghoff appears to represent a family group employed in all the steps of maple sugar production . Sap runs from a long, undetailed spile into a wooden trough . A man or boy empties a trough into a wooden bucket while another man empties a bucket into a large wooden reservoir barrel located immediately outside the cabin . The cabin, portrayed as a three-sided, plank structure supported by a frame of poles, has a slightly sloped roof with a hole through which the smoke and steam escape . Inside the cabin a large kettle with a bail handle is suspended over the wood-burning fire . The handle is looped over a horizontal pole which in turn rests on the forked ends of two vertical poles, one of which is placed on either side of the fire . A man, possibly the father, is tending the contents of the kettle with a long-handled utensil while a woman, possibly the mother, is holding a bowl from which she appears to be extending, with her free hand, some of the bowl's contents . Outside the cabin are an axe and a few pieces of wood while to the left a child is in the process of transferring the contents of a wooden bucket into sugar moulds with a short-handled, wooden ladle . The bucket and four square wooden moulds, one of which is divided into four sections, rest on an improvised bench .

3

based on four steps in the maple sugar process : tapping the

tree, transporting the sap from the tree to the location of

boiling, boiling down the sap to syrup and sugar, and moulding

the sugar .

Icon ographic Sources

Of the numerous iconographic sources which depict the

traditional methods of maple sugar making, eight works were

chosen because they portrayed contemporary techniques and

equipment . Although several later artists such as Clarence Gagnon, Horatio Walker, and J . Edmond Massicotte also depicted the fabrication of maple sugar, their works were not included

because they tended to illustrate techniques which were no longer

contemporary but considered traditional at the time .

The earliest iconographic source to be described is Kreighoff's Cabane a Sucre au Canada (fig . 1) . Except for

uncertainty concerning the activity of the woman, who may be

testing the readiness of the sugar or simply illustrating its

consistency, the artist's rendition appears to be accurate .

Kreighoff has been criticized for being a townsman and thus not

intimately familiar with the subject of his works and for

incorporating European culture and articles into his paintings .l However, European prototypes of maple sugar equipment did not

exist to copy and Krieghoff's accurate depiction implies that he had a good knowledge of the process .

Six of the iconographic sources, all dating from the 1870s,

are from the Canadian Illustrated News and L'Opinion Publique , English and French editions of a journal printed by a Montreal publisher . 2 The artists working for these journals were illustrators employed to draw accurate renditions of newsworthy events before photography was commonly used . We can assume that in many cases the illustrator was at the site, as indicated in an article which accompanied figure 2 and stated that "our artist having occasion recently to be present at one of these sugar-making ;

5

in the bush at Ste . Genevieve took the opportunity of making a

few sketches which we reproduce . . . ." . 3 All of the illustrations

were full-paged, black and white etchings or engravings of the

artists' sketches . It seems likely that the illustrations were

published soon after being sketched as all of them appear in the

sugar-producing months or shortly afterwards .

Figure 3 is confusing in that it presents several possible

interpretations . First, the two kettles may be an attempt to

represent two steps in sugar production : the boiling down of the

sap over a fast fire and the boiling down of the syrup to sugar

over a slower fire . However, perhaps Edson was simply illustrating

the presence of two kettles which, in turn, revealed two types of

suspension or one suspension frame which was out of order . The

presence of the cabin with kettles placed in the open is also

confusing . Edson may have been attempting to illustrate the

replacement of old types of equipment with new, an interpretation

supported by the kettles' unused appearance and the presence of

Fig . 2 . Anonymous, "The Maple Sugar Season -- Manufacturing the Sugar in the Bush at Ste . Genevieve" in the Canadian Illustrated News (6 May 1871) . (Photo : Archives du CgLAT, Universite Laval, neg . no . D .C .8 C123 .)

The lower illustration shows a man tapping a tree with a brace-and-bit or auger . Sap is running from long spiles into troughs . One man is emptying a trough into a bucket while several other men are carrying buckets by hand towards the sugar cabin . The cabin is depicted as a crudely constructed structure of poles and planks which appears to be enclosed on all sides and to have a peaked roof . The upper scene portrays the interior of the cabin . A man is emptying a bucket into a wooden reservoir barrel which is located next to the door . Three medium-sized kettles hanging over an open fire are being tended by a man holding a long-handled utensil . The kettles are suspended by wooden brimbales hooked over a horizontal pole which rests on top of the cabin wall . Smoke and steam are escaping from the open area below the peaked roof . An axe rests against an unidentified stone structure next to the fire . A small scene in the upper right corner, entitled "Moulding the Sugar," depicts a man pouring syrup from a small kettle into a large, rectangular-shaped mould resting on the ground .

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Fig . 3 . Allan Edson, "A Sugar Bush" in the Canadian Illustrated News (11 May 1872) . (Photo : Archives du CELAT, Universitd Laval, neg . no . D .C .8 C293 .)

In the centre of the scene a substantial, permanent sugar cabin and a smaller auxiliary building are illustrated . The cabin appears to be built of planks and has a steeply sloped, peaked roof which supports a built-up chimney or vent . Pails or buckets are suspended from some trees and in the background a man appears to be carrying two buckets by means of a yoke . Outside the cabin are two kettles, apparently not in use . One kettle is suspended from a three-sided pole frame, as in figure 1, while the other is suspended by a slanted pole resting on a tree stump . The means of suspension is indicated by a thin line which may represent a chain . Grouped in the same area are other buckets or pails, a trough, and an axe in a wood pile .

an unused trough . Again, he may have been trying to illustrate both the exterior of the cabin and the activities inside . Although

Edson's depictions of the equipment and the cabin appear to be correct, it is difficult to determine the techniques used because

of the ambiguity of the artist's rendering .

E . Haberer's depiction of the tapping process is also

confusing (fig . 4) . One tree has several small tubs or buckets

at its base . A small receptacle appears to be attached to the

tree over one of the tubs but this could also represent the end

of a larger receptacle placed at the base of the .other side of

the tree . A man at another tree is pouring sap from a small tub

into a larger tub or wooden bucket . There may be a spile

projecting from this tree but if a receptacle is present under it,

it is hidden from view . The artist's depiction of,the sugar cabin

is ambiguous . It is shown as a very crude pole and plank shelter

which is open at the roof and at least one side . Two kettles

appear to be sunken as only their handles are visible while the

means of their suspension is not evident . A wooden reservoir

barrel outside of the cabin is also slightly sunken . The confusion

in this illustration suggests that Haberer viewed and illustrated

a procedure which he did not entirely understand . This may explain

the poorly defined cabin as well as the proliferation of vessels

below a tree which has no definite evidence of spiles . However,

nothing is obviously inaccurate and the man-drawn sledge is very

clearly depicted .

Figure 5, like figure 3, offers several possible inter-

pretations . The presence of the kettle as well as the feu de

roche may be an attempt to illustrate the replacement of old

techniques by new . However, it may also illustrate two steps in

sugar fabrication, the boiling down of the sap to syrup by means

of the feu de roche and the boiling down of syrup to sugar in a

small kettle over a smaller fire . The last example from the

Canadian Illustrated News , by illustrator J . Weston (fig . 6), is

an attempt to portray all the steps in sugar production . Except

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Fig . 4 . E . Haberer, "Making Maple Sugar in Canada" in the Canadian Illustrated News (20 March 1875) . (Photo : Archives du C LAT, Universite Laval, neg . no . D .C .9 C67 .)

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for the confusion presented by the vaguely portrayed trough,

this illustration clearly and accurately depicts the fabrication

of maple sugar . Henri Julien's illustration in the 31 May 1877

issue of L'Opinion Publique (fig . 7) is similar in style to

Weston's .

These illustrations indicate that in spite of problems with

interpretation iconographic sources contain much information on

all aspects of maple sugar production . Several sources indicate

that the tree was tapped using an axe or a brace-and-bit, while

figures 6and 7 provide good illustrations of the sloped gash .

Although spiles are often shown, their small size makes it

difficult for the artist to show details of shape or material .

Krieghoff (fig . 1) and the anonymous illustrator (fig . 2)

represent the spiles as long, thin lines while Weston (fig . 6)

sketches what may be long tongues of wood and Barraud (fig . 5)

depicts short, round-looking spiles . Julien, however, manages

to provide excellent illustrations of spiles in both his works :

thin, slightly hollowed tongues of wood in figure 7 and long,

wooden, trough-shaped spiles

hollowed wooden troughs used

illustrated and Weston (fig .

in figure 8 . The placement of

for collecting the sap is abundantly

6) shows details of their construction .

Figure 4 depicts the use of wooden tubs in place of troughs . The

first illustration to show a pail or bucket suspended from the

tree is Edson's (fig . 3) and he may have been trying to emphasize

the new method by also illustrating an unused trough . The sugar

camp depicted by Barraud (fig . 5) appears to be open to innovation,

as indicated by the feu de roche and the used of buckets, together

with short spiles, suspended from the tree . However, Julien

depicts the use of a trough in the twentieth century (fig . 8) .

In summary, although a brace-and-bit were used to tap the tree

by some sugar-makers, the hatchet was still common in 1880 .

Wooden tongues or trough-shaped spiles were also common but

shorter spiles seem to have

buckets . Troughs made from

the twentieth century while

in the early 1870s .

been used with suspended pails or

hollowed, split logs were used into

suspended,wooden buckets were used

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Fig . 5 . A .T . Barraud, "Maple Sugar Making" in the Canadian Illustrated News (26 April 1879) . (Photo : Archives u C LAT, Universite Laval, neg . no . D .C .9 C327 .

In the foreground a small, unsheltered kettle is suspended over a wood-burning fire by a short chain which is attached to a slanted pole resting on a short, Y-shaped, upright pole . In the centre ground is a feu de roche . The arch is made of stone while the chimney is of bricks with a cylindrical, metal flue . Resting on the arch, is a shallow evaporating pan as well as a square-shaped, sap-feeding container . The structure is protected by a crude plank roof . A man appears to be feeding a log into the end of the feu de roche from a small plank structure which apparently houses the firewood . Nearby a man is shown chopping wood . A wooden reservoir barrel is located next to the feu de roche . Also depicted in the illustration are short spiles and wide-bottomed wooden pails suspended from the trees .

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Fig . 6 . J . Weston, "Sketches in the Sugar Bush", in the Canadian Illustrated News (17 April 1880) . (Photo : Archives du C LAT, Universite Laval, neg . no . D .C .9 1231 .

"Manufacturing Troughs" (upper left) shows one man splitting logs while another, who is holding a small axe or hatchet, displays a completed trough . The presence of hollowed and unhollowed, cut and split logs further demonstrates the technique . In "Tapping Trees" (lower right) a man is using a mallet or hammer to strike what can assumed to be a spile into the base of a sloped gash in the side of a tree . An axe and a trough rest at the base of the tree . "Gathering Sap" (lower left) shows a long, undetailed spile projecting from a gashed tree and a man emptying a trough into a wooden, tub-like bucket . "Gathering Sap on Snow Shoes" (upper right) depicts a man on snowshoes transporting two barrel-shaped wooden buckets by means of a yoke . In the background a man is pouring the contents of a bucket into what appears to be a large, long trough . The central scene, "Boiling the Sap," illustrates a crude three-sided plank shelter . The top of the walls appear to be open and the vent on the sloped roof is built up . Within the shelter two large and one smaller kettle are hooked by brimbales to a horizontal pole which rests on two vertically placed forked poles . Outside the cabin are two wooden reservoir barrels, a man chopping wood, and possibly a reservoir trough .

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Methods of transporting the sap from the collecting receptacle to the boiling-down container are well illustrated and depict several techniques . The earliest and simplest method, emptying the trough into a wooden bucket and transporting it by hand to the reservoir barrel, is illustrated in figures 1 and 2 . Figures 3 and 6 imply that sap was transported in the same manner but with the aid of a yoke . Figure 4 depicts the transfer of the sap from a small collecting tub to a larger tub, to the upright barrel on the man-drawn sledge, and finally to the reservoir beside the shelter . Julien's 1877 illustration (fig . 7) shows the transfer of the sap from the trough to a wooden bucket, to a horse-drawn reservoir,and finally to the reservoir by the cabin, while his later work (fig . 8) depicts the same methods but with the additional use of the yoke .

The illustrations also provide details about the objects used foi transportation . The containers in figures 4 and 6 resemble wooden tubs more than buckets while figure 7 is the first to provide definite evidence of the use of a metal bucket . Figure 7 also portrays in detail the yoke and the special buckets used with it ; the barrel-shaped buckets in figure 4 may also be a special type . Although not numerous the examples of man- and horse-drawn sledges are clearly illustrated in some detail . A large wooden barrel, which is assumed to serve as a reservoir for collected sap, is shown in all sources except figure 3 . The use of a long trough-shaped reservoir is suggested in figure 6 .

The iconographic sources provide some evidence of an evolution in the means of transporting sap : hand-carried buckets, a yoke, man-drawn sledges with unstable, vertically-placed reservoirs, and finally a horse-drawn sledge with a horizontally-placed reservoir . Also, the sources reveal that metal buckets were used in 1877 but that wooden ones were still in use in the twentieth century . However, details about the objects are often lacking and illustrations such as figures 2 and 3 make it impossible to determine what the objects are made of . As well,

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it has been necessary to make several assumptions during the

interpretation of the procedures which may not be correct . For

example, the viewer cannot be certain that the large barrel so

frequently illustrated is a sap reservoir . Also, when several

modes of transportation are illustrated, the viewer can only

assume the order of their use or that no other unillustrated

steps were used as well .

The first item to be analyzed in the boiling-down process

is the sugar cabane . Most sources depict the boiling-down

procedure taking place inside or immediately outside the cabin

or shelter . The three-sided plank shelter appears to be a popular

variety and is shown by the earliest source as well as the latest

(figs . 1 and 8) . These crudely built shelters all appear

impermanent in nature . The one in figure 4 is similar in its

appearance of impermanence and its crudeness although-it is of

indeterminable shape and may be sunken . Figure 5 shows only a

roof protecting the feu de roche . The cabin in figure 2 is the

first enclosed, permanent-looking shelter illustrated though it

too is crudely constructed from upright planks and poles . Figure

3 is the only source in which the cabin is depicted as a permanent,

well constructed building . Figures 3 and 5 both illustrate

auxiliary buildings which probably were used to store wood .

The cabins and shelters were used to protect the fire, to

provide storage, and, as illustrated in figure 7, to house the

sugar-makers . All were constructed of planks and pole frames,

materials abundantly available in the sugar bush, and had means

to let the smoke and steam escape . Several styles are illustrated

although the simple, three-sided shelter appears most frequently .

The style of shelter constructed seems to have been dictated by

desire or need rather than date since a substantial cabin is

depicted in 1872 (fig . 3) while a three-sided shed is illustrated

in 1907 (fig . 8) . However, it should be noted that the three-

sided shelter as well as the roof in figure 4 allow the artist to

show the inside and the outside of the shelter at the same time

and it is possible that this would affect his choice of cabin style .

Fig . 7 . Henri Julien "Fabrication du sucre d'erable en Canada" in L'Opinion Publique (31 May 1877) . (Photo : Public Archives of Canada, neg . no . C-65854 .)

In one scene a man is tapping a tree with what appears to be an axe or hatchet held at a slant while another man holds the spile to be inserted in the gash . In another small scene a man empties a wooden trough into what appears to be a metal bucket while a child watches . A third scene depicts a man emptying the contents of a bucket into a hole in a horizontally-placed wooden reservoir barrel mounted on a horse-drawn sledge . In another two women are shown filling moulds ; one is pouring sugar from a large spoon into a rectangular-shaped, six-sectioned wooden mould . To the side is a small fire consisting of a Y-shaped, upright pole on which rests a slanted pole . From this hangs a hook but the kettle seems to have been removed from the fire and placed on the ground by the women . A man appears to be resting in a three-sided shelter depicted in the background . A wooden reservoir barrel and three kettles suspended over a stone-surrounded fire are portrayed outside the shelter . The major central scene illustrates the shelter and the fire in more detail . Outside the shelter two kettles are suspended by wooden brimbales to a three-sided frame of horizontal and vertical poles . The fire is surrounded by rocks . A man is depicted chopping wood . Hanging from or resting by the cabin walls are a rifle, powder horn, basket, bag, metal bucket, wooden trough, mould, and a long-handled skimmer with a perforated, disc-shaped head . At the bottom of the page are grouped various tools and articles : large metal kettle, metal pail or bucket, frying pan, six-sectioned wooden mould, long-handled skimmer which appears to be of metal, wooden testing spatula with a hole in its centre, hatchet or hammer, wooden trough, knife, large spoon, wooden spiles which are long and slightly hollowed-looking in shape, and provisions including eggs and bread .

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Fig . 8 . Henri Julien, "Le temps des sucres" (1907 ; Collection Jacques Simard) in Robert-Lionel Seguin, "Petite et grande histoire de la cabane a sucre," Vie des Arts 45 (hiver 1967), p .42 .

This is particularly interesting because it clearly shows a yoke used in transporting sap . The wooden buckets appear to have been specially constructed for use with a yoke since instead of bail handles they have wooden pegs to which the yoke can be securely hooked . Also well illustrated are long, trough-shaped wooden spiles, wooden collecting troughs, and a horse-drawn sledge carrying a horizontally-placed collecting barrel . Indistinctly displayed in the background are a shelter, a reservoir barrel, two kettles, and a man chopping wood .

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Variations are less frequent in illustrating the fire and

kettle . All the sources show large, footed or unfooted kettles

which vary from one to three in number . Figures 6 and 7 seem to

illustrate the use of several sizes of kettles at the same time .

There are two suspension systems . The first and most prevalent

consists of a frame made from two vertical Y-shaped poles on

which rests a horizontal pole . Figure 2 portrays a variation in

which the horizontal pole rests on top of the cabin wall . The

other system, shown in figures 5 and 7, consists of a kettle

attached to a slanted pole which rests on a short Y-shaped pole .

The fire used here seems to indicate, especially in figure 7, the

further boiling-down of syrup to sugar as a separate step . This

second step may also be indicated in figure 3 where a similar

two-sided frame is portrayed . Brimbales , usually wooden in

appearance, are the most frequently illustrated means of suspension although chains also appear to have been used . Krieghoff (fig . 1)

illustrates the awkward arrangement of suspending the handle of the bucket directly on the horizontal pole . The importance of

maintaining the fire is emphasized by the frequent presence of a

wood pile and axe or of a man chopping wood . The large rocks

surrounding the fire in figure 7 and the fact that it may be

sunken in figure 4 suggest various ways of protecting the fire . Finally, the feu de roche in figure 5 clearly indicates that by 1879 this system was well developed but may have been used in

conjunction with the open fire and kettle arrangement .

The only good representation of the tools used in the boiling-down process are found in Julien's 1877 illustration (fig . 7) which depicts in detail the long-handled metal utensil with a large, perforated, disc-shaped end probably used as a skimmer . He also illustrates a palette which has a hole in its centre for testing the readiness of the sugar . Julien is also the only artist to illustrate eggs which were sometimes used as a clarifying agent . Other illustrations indicate the use of a

long-handled utensil for stirring the contents of the kettle,

but usually the ends of these utensils are hidden from view as they are immersed in the kettles .

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The iconographic sources offer general information and

some details on the boiling-down process . Information about

the sugar cabane has already been summarized . The feu de roche

was in use by 1879 but the use of a large kettle suspended over

an open fire continued into the twentieth century . The kettles

were most frequently suspended by using a three-sided pole frame

and wooden brimbale , objects which could be easily obtained in

the sugar bush . All of the illustrators indicate the importance

of the fire . Several of the illustrations imply that two steps

were involved in the boiling-down procedure, that of boiling sap

to syrup and, in a smaller kettle over a smaller fire, boiling

syrup to sugar . Except for the two shown in detail in figure 7, the tools used in the boiling-down procedure are not well illustrated, nor is it possible to determine the material and

volume of the kettles .

The moulding process is well illustrated in figures 1, 2, and 7 which all depict approximately the same process . In one

instance (fig . 1) a child fills the moulds while in another (fig . 7) it is the work of two women . This work is done on the ground or on an improvised bench . Figures 2 and 7 imply that the sugar is still in the kettle in which it was boiled down, while figure 1 shows the sugar in a wooden bucket . A wooden ladle and a spoon

are used in figure 1 ; in figure 2 the sugar is poured directly

from the kettle into the mould . Square- or rectangular-shaped moulds, sometimes sectioned into four or six parts, appear in

figures 1 and 7 . The large, rectangular-shaped mould in figure 2 appears to be of bark rather than wood . Two types of sugar are implied -- that which is liquid and poured into the moulds to form cakes and a granulated form which must be ladled into the

moulds .

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Written Sources

Writings on the exploitation of maple sap are numerous

and date as early as the seventeenth century . 4 Of the seven

chosen for comparison with the iconographic sources, four are

excerpts from memoirs of visitors to Canada, two are memoirs

of North American inhabitants, and one is a journalist's report . 5

The earliest is the memoir which Peter Kalm, a Swedish professor

of natural history who visited Canada in 1749, presented to the

Royal Academy of Sweden . Another is the journal of an uniden-

tified French soldier, known as J .C .B ., who lived in North

America from 1751 to 1761 and who is noted for presenting the

view of an ordinary person . Also chosen were the memoirs of

Isaac Weld, an educated Irish traveller who visited Canada from

1775 to 1777 . A critical observer, Weld not only described maple

sugar fabrication but also suggested how it could be improved .

The fourth memoir, by Lieutenant W .O . Carlile and Colonel

Martindale, dates from the late nineteenth century . Accounts

written by North American inhabitants are by Elizabeth Therese

Baird on maple sugar production on the Detroit River and by

Nicolas-Gaspard Boisseau who lived from 1765 to 1842 . Boisseau's

memoirs provide information which is "presque exactement le

procdde en usage jusque dans les dernit~res annees du dix-neuvieme

siecle ."6 The last source is an unidentified Canadian reporter

who quoted extensively from Bouchette in a 1871 issue of the

Canadian Illustrated News .

The method of tapping tree is well described by almost all

the writers . Three refer to axe-produced gashes . J .C .B . states

that "on fait une entaille au bas, a la hauteur de trois pieds

environ en forme de talus ;"7 Carlile and Martindale mention a

"deep slit through the bark of the tree about two feet from the

ground," 8 while Boisseau states that "ils font avec leur hache

une entaille oblique de quatre pouces sur deux ."9 Weld states

that "piercing a hole with an auger in the side of the tree, of

one inch or an inch and a half in diameter, and two or three

20

inches in depth, obliquely upwards" 10 was the preferred method since the less mangled tree lasted longer . However, he adds that the most common method was to cut a gash with an axe since the sap flowed faster and the busy farmer could finish his sugar making in less time . The descriptions of Peter Kalm and the CIN reporter imply the use of a brace-and-bit or an auger instead of an axe . 11

The name and description of the spile vary . Kalm mentions the incision of an auget . J .C .B . describes it in more detail, mentioning the incision of "une lame de couteau ou un morceau de bois taille de la meme maniere,"12 while Boisseau refers to "un petit morceau de bois de huit pouces de long, sur un de large, qui est fait en faCon dalle (qu'ils appellent goudrilles )," 13

Weld describes the placement of a spout, apparently wooden, at the bottom of the cut . The CIN reporter refers to a "slender spigot" while Carlile and Martindale describe the more modern use of a "small, semicircular tin trough" although they add that small wooden spouts were still used in some sugar camps .

Unlike the spile, the sap-collecting receptacle is not well described . It is termed a " grand vase " by J .C .B ., a " chaudiere " by Kalm, and simply a "vessel" by Weld . References to the use of . a wooden trough are more frequent and precise . Weld suggests the . use of a "small wooden trough" and Boisseau provides a short description of its fabrication -- "ils font des auges de deux pieds de long, sur dix pouces de large ."

14 Carlile and Martindale

again mention the use of new modes of equipment : "In many sugaries small wooden spouts and 'dug-out' wooden troughs are used instead of the tin troughs and buckets ." 15 They also refer to "tin buckets and tubs" with "close-fitting covers ."

In summary, the written sources provide a good description of the tapping procedure . A drilled or augered hole was used as early as the late eighteenth century although axe cuts, often on a slant, were still made in the late nineteenth century . The approximate distance of the cut from the base of the tree and the

21

exact measurement of the size of the cut or the hold drilled are

indicated . Spiles were found in the form of a small trough, a

knife blade, or wooden slabs shaped like knife blades ; wooden

spiles are mentioned several times while the first reference to

metal spiles is in 1873 . The eighteenth century sources are

vague in their descriptions of sap-collecting receptacles and

imply the use of everyday vessels . The use of a wooden trough

is first mentioned in the late eighteenth century and it seems

to have been the most common receptacle used for the purpose

until the 1870s when reference is made to tin troughs or large

buckets .

Baird does not describe how the sap is transported and Kalm and Carlile and Martindale mention it only briefly . Boisseau

states that "sur les cinq heures apr6s-midi, ils charoyent 1'eau

dans des seaux, a leur cabane, et ce en raquette ."16 Weld

indicates that the common practice of transporting the sap by

hand hindered profitable sugar production and he suggests

improvements such as the use of wooden troughs, wooden tub

reservoirs scattered throughout the grove, and cleared avenues

through the trees which would allow the passage of carts carrying

a collecting vessel . Weld indirectly refers to the use of horses

in discussing the problem of carrying food into the woods ;

Boisseau, however, states the impossibility of using horses :

lice Cprovisions7 qu'ils transportent sur une petite traine a

leur cou, etant impossible d'y aller avec des chevaux ." Modern

collecting techniques are inferred by the CIN reporter who

mentions the use of tubes of bark or saplings to transport the

sap . The only direct reference to the use .of a reservoir for sap

storage is by Boisseau who states that "ils mettent cette eau

dans des cuves ou bariques ." To summarize, the written sources

indicate that transporting the sap was a problem,that it was

often carried by hand, and that snowshoes were sometimes needed .

Since maintaining horses was difficult and in some places

impossible, man-drawn sledges were sometimes used . However,

22

improvements were being considered in the late eighteenth century and by the 1870s it seems that piping or tubing systems were starting to appear .

The sources describe a variety of structures in which maple sugar making took place, including the use of one's home, crude temporary shelters, and large permanent cabins . They were constructed from materials readily available in the sugar bush and frequently had roof openings to allow for the escape of smoke and steam . Weld implies that families who made maple sugar some-times boiled it down in their homes while his suggestions for improvement involve the construction

boil down the sugar and the erection

workers . Boisseau briefly describes

"le haut au milieu est a jour de the steam and smoke . He implies

of "mere sheds" in which to

of a "few huts" to house the

a small, round cabin in which

deux pieds"17 for the escape of that it was about twenty feet in

area and, from the context, it is assumed to be temporary . Baird describes what seems to be a permanent cabin which houses the sugar making as well as the sugar makers and is constructed of poles and small trees enclosed with sheets of cedar bark . This cabin, approximately thirty feet by eighteen feet, has a large door at each end, platforms, an open, peaked roof, and a large, central fire-which extends to within six feet of the doors .

Carlile and Martindale refer to rough sheds made of branches, birch bark, and fir tops ; they also mention "log huts ."

The actual production of maple syrup and sugar is described in detail in the written sources . Weld, J .C .B ., the CIN reporter,

and Carlile and Martindale all basically state that the sap is boiled down until it becomes syrup . If a sugar loaf or cake is desired it is boiled longer and poured into a mould . If granulated sugar is desired the syrup is boiled even longer and constantly stirred .

According to Baird the boilingrdown of sap to syrup takes twenty-four hours and a brisk fire must be kept going at all times . Two women tend the process and their major concerns are to keep

23

the sap from boiling over and from burning ; the first is

accomplished by dipping a hemlock branch in the kettle and the

second by transferring the contents of each kettle to another

kettle when it is boiled down halfway . The syrup is stored in

barrels until it is time to make the sugar . It cannot be done

in one step because boiling sap to syrup requires a brisk fire

while boiling syrup to sugar requires a slow fire . For sugar

cakes three gallons of syrup are boiled down and poured into

moulds . For granulated sugar two gallons of syrup are cooked

and stirred for a longer time and then packed in a "mocock"

while warm . 18

first

point

until

Kalm describes two methods of boiling down the sap . The

is to boil the sap until it is difficult to stir at which

it is removed from the fire and stirred energetically

"il n'est pas tout a fait refr.oidi ."19 The sugar is then

put in moulds . The second method is similar to the one mentioned

by Baird and consists of boiling down the sap in several smaller

kettles and then transferring the contents to one large kettle .

When the sugar is boiled adequately it is removed from the fire

and stirred continuously, so that the contents will not burn or

stick, until it resembles "un sucre brun farineux ou mouscouade ."

However, if loaves or solid pieces are desired, the stirring is

stopped while the sugar is still in a liquid state and poured

into the moulds .

Boisseau provides similar instructions . A full kettle is

boiled until it is reduced to syrup . To keep it from boiling

over it is stirred continuously with a " spatule ou palette "

until it becomes sugar . It is then quickly carried from the

fire, placed in the snow, and stirred until it stops boiling .

It is then placed into moulds with a "gamele ou cueiller ."20

Weld is the only author to mention the addition of

clarifying agents, including lime, egg whites, and blood, to

the boiling syrup . He also states that the addition of milk or

egg whites is agreeable to the taste . Kalm, on the other hand,

24

states that the sugar "n'a pas besoin d'@tre melange 9 aucune autre substance pour epaissir . I1 provient uniquement de la seve de 1'erable et est entierement pur ."21 Carlile et Martindale suggest passing the sap through flannel strainers to produce a purer product .

Several methods for testing the readiness of the sugar are described . Kalm mentions observing the foam diminish or cooling a small amount of the boiling sugar, but adds that a person with experience knows with ease the moment when the sugar is done . Boisseau describes the use of a special spatule or palette which has a hole in its centre . When one blows on the hole, the syrup will form a dry ball if it is cooked sufficiently . Carlile and Martindale state that the sap is ready if it becomes crisp and hard when poured on the snow . Baird does not describe a technique but mentions that boiling down the sugar was difficult work and was always done under her grandmother's immediate supervision .

The utensils and containers used in the boiling down

process are described in some detail while two of the authors

note the method of suspending the kettle over the fire . According

to Baird,

At each corner of the fireplace were large posts, firmly planted in the ground and extending upwards about five feet or more . Large timbers were placed lengthwise on top of these posts, and across the timbers extended bars from which, by chains and hoops, were suspended large brass kettles, two on each bar . . .22

The CIN reporter indicates that a beam from which to suspend the

kettle was made by a "spar laid across between the 'crotches' of

two neighbouring trees ." Both methods are based on the same

principle although Baird refers to a permanent arrangement while

the reporter describes a temporary one .

Kalm refers to an iron or copper "chaudron " in various sizes as the vessel used .in boiling down the sap . J.C .B . mentions

25

" grandes chaudieres " and Boisseau states that a " grand chaudron

de 10 seaux " was transported into the woods . Baird writes of

the use of "four large brass kettles," the reporter describes

the use of a "potash kettle or other convenient utensil," and

Carlile and Martindale mention "large iron boilers ." Evidently

one or several large kettles of to boil down the sap. However, problems of interpretation . It "potash" kettle is of cast iron

copper, brass, or iron were used some of the descriptions present can only be assumed that a and that a "grande chaudiOre" is

a chaudron . Also, a boiler could be interpreted as either a

kettle or an evaporating pan .

Kalm refers to the use of a spoon for stirring and testing

the syrup . Baird states that the stirring was done with a long

paddle which looked like a "mush-stick" while Boisseau provides

a description of a " spatule ou palette de bois franc . . :qui est percee au milieu ."

23 He also mentions the use of a1 a

g mele -- a

pannikin or tin can -- or a spoon for transferring the sugar into

the moulds .

Moulds are described in all the sources . Kalm mentions the

use of "bols ou autres plats selon la forme desiree ."24 J .C .B .

states that the sugar was put in "des jattes de bois ofl elle se

durgit en forme de pain rond"25 while for sugar from the late

runs small, chocolate-like tablets were made . Although not

describing moulds directly, Weld states that the sugar was most

frequently seen in loaves or in thick, round cakes . The CIN

reporter describes wooden or birch bark vessels of various sizes

and adds that tin moulds were in general use . Boisseau and

Carlile and Martindale also refer to birch bark moulds of various

sizes . Boisseau adds that they were prepared by a boy and left

in the snow for about half an hour at which time the sugar forms

were removed and left to finish drying on nlanches aerees . Only

Baird refers to decorative wooden moulds : "for the sugar cakes

a board of basswood is prepared, about five or six inches wide,

with moulds gouged in, in the form of bears, diamonds, crosses, rabbits, turtles, spheres, etc ."26

26

Comparison of the Iconographic and Written Sources

Both iconographic and written sources provide abundant, though different, information on the techniques and tools used in the traditional methods of maple sugar fabrication . They indicate that the axe and the brace-and-bit or auger were both

used in tapping trees and that the axe continued to be used at least into the 1870s . However, the written sources give more detail -- the dimensions of the cut, the size, depth, and angle

of the drilled hole, and the distance of the cut from the base of the tree . The iconographic sources can provide only an

approximate idea of the size of the cuts or their distance from the base of the tree and information such as the upward slope of the drilled hole is impossible for them to depict . The writers

also provide more information on the shape, dimensions, and material of the spiles, since objects that small were difficult

to depict in detail, with the exception of Julien's close-up (fig . 7) .

Collecting troughs are well described in both sources with the written sources also giving dimensions and the number of troughs made . Less precise information is available about other

containers though the written sources imply that everyday vessels were used as sap-collecting receptacles earlier than troughs and Carlile and Martindale refer to covers and tin troughs and buckets . However, the illustrations do inform the viewer that these other containers were made of wood, were varied in style, and were sometimes suspended from the tree .

The important step of transporting sap from the tree to the boiling-down container is hardly mentioned by the writers, except for Weld and Boisseau, while it is a popular subject for

the artists who have illustrated several modes of transportation

in detail . The writers do not mention the use of a yoke and

even descriptions such as "petite traine a leur cou" or "ils

charoyent 1'eau dans des seaux . . .et ce en raquette" give no

information on the type of sledge or toboggan, .the type or

27

material of the seaux , or the style of the snowshoes . Even

Weld's account is largely a suggestion for improvement, not a

description of what he observed . Only the CIN reporter in

1871 mentions the use of piping or tubing, an innovation which

is not depicted in any of the illustrations, even those dating

after 1871 . Julien's 1877 illustration (fig . 7) is the only

source to indicate the use of metal pails or buckets for

transporting sap .

The presence of a wooden barrel close to the fire is

illustrated by all but one of the artists and is almost ignored

by the writers . However, the viewer can only assume that this

illustrated barrel was a sap reservoir ; it might also have been

used for storing syrup, as mentioned by Baird .

Two authors give detailed descriptions of the sugar cabin --

the shape, dimensions, and materials used, the presence of a roof

vent, and the interior arrangement . Reference to the use of the

sugar maker's home is also found in the written sources . However,

the variations in shape and size of the cabin and the methods,

materials, and general crudeness of construction are more clearly

indicated by the iconographic sources even though they are not

well drawn in many cases . The same is apparent in comparing the

means of suspending the kettle . Baird and the CIN reporter

provide excellent descriptions of the procedure, yet the

illustrations provide the same information more accurately and

with much less possibility of confusion .

The iconographic sources clearly depict large, footed and

unfooted kettles~but do not indicate either their material or

volume . The written sources are more specific in these details

but tend to be ambiguous when terms such as "potash" or "boiler"

are used .

Although the writers mention a "slow," "brisk," or " bon "

fire, they seem to take the fire for granted . The artists not

only depict the fire, including the use of the feu de roche , but

also emphasize its importance by illustrating a wood pile or a

man chopping wood .

28

The procedures followed in boiling down maple sap to syrup

and sugar are much .better described in the written sources . Boisseau, Kalm, and Baird in particular provide information on the length of the process, precautions taken to avoid boiling over or burning, ways of testing the readiness of the sugar, the production of two kinds of sugar, and various other procedures . The use of clarifying agents is also discussed .

In comparison most of the iconographic sources simply

portray one or more kettles being tended with a long-handled

utensil . Additional information must be inferred and is open

to interpretation . For.example, the suspension of more than one

kettle over the fire, especially when they are of different sizes

as in figure 6, may indicate the process of emptying partially

boiled-down kettles into other kettles, as described by Baird and

Kalm . On the other hand, the artist may simply be illustrating the presence of several kettles over the fire . As another example, figure 5 and possibly figure 3 may indicate the practice of boiling

down the sap to sugar in two stages, requiring two fires, as described by Baird . However, the presence of two fires in figure 3 and the portrayal of both a feu de roche and a kettle in figure 5 could also have other interpretations (see pages 5, 7) . Julien more definitely indicates the use of a fast and a slow fire in his illustration of moulding (fig . 7), but the eggs shown in the same work could be interpreted either as a clarifying agent or as provisions for the sugar makers .

Most of the information available on tools used in the boiling-down process is provided in Julien's 1877 close-up (fig . 7) . Many writers adequately describe the tools but Boisseau's reference to a " spatule ou palette de bois franc . . .percee au

milieu . . ." is not as informative as Julien's illustration of the

same thing . However, Julien has not informed the viewer how and for what purpose the tool is used . Problems of interpretation are

again present in Baird's description of a "long handled paddle

which looks like a mush-stick ." Without knowing what a mush- stick looks like the description is of little value .

29

Interestingly, both types of sources indicate that moulding

the sugar required little experience since Boisseau mentions that

a young boy prepared the moulds while Krieghoff illustrates a

young child filling the moulds . Both sources also indicate that

the sugar could be poured or spooned into the moulds . The methods

shown in the illustrations suggest two kinds of maple sugar --

loaf sugar which could be poured and dry, granulated sugar which

had to be placed in the moulds with a utensil . Written sources

describe different kinds of moulds including bowls, birch bark

vessels of various sizes, basswood boards with gouged-out shapes,

and tin moulds . The iconographic sources do not indicate the

same variety but do provide details of a sectioned wooden mould .

Both iconographic and written sources indicate that new

modes of fabrication were being introduced long before the end of

the nineteenth century and that sugar producers were at least

thinking of improvements in the late eighteenth century .

The artists illustrate the use of the feu de roche and of

metal pails or buckets while the writers mention tubing and

piping, tin moulds and troughs, covered containers, and the use

of felt to strain the syrup . Since innovations are shown or

mentioned in conjunction with traditional methods and traditional

methods continue to be described long after references to

innovations, it is evident that the traditional and the new

were used simultaneously and that the adoption of new methods

was gradual and inconsistent .

Neither source provides detailed information on the type

of sugar camp represented and the personnel involved in sugar

making . Figure 1 seems to illustrate a family group while figure

7 may be suggesting it by the presence of women and a child .

Weld refers to families who were involved in sugar production .

Baird implies the presence of a family group augmented by many

of the local inhabitants but also adds that three men and two

women were employed to do the work . Baird describes a five-mile

journey to a permanent sugar camp while Boisseau refers to an

30

impermanent camp some distance in the forest . The illustrations suggest both permanent and impermanent sugar camps and the presence of a man-drawn sledge may indicate the camp's inaccessibility . However, little else can be extracted from the iconographic sources on the type and location of the camps represented .

Evaluation of Sources

Iconographic sources have several important limitations

which hinder their usefulness in studying a traditional techno-logy . A major hindrance is the artistic rendition itself . No matter what the medium, the depiction of details or the repre-sentation of texture or material is difficult . The problem is reinforced if engravings have been made from the sketches as is the case in the illustrated news .journals . Distortion is increased even more if the researcher is working from a reproduction of the original, especially if it is a black and white reproduction of a coloured original or if the original has been reduced in size in the reproduction . Artistic liberties, such as exaggeration of size, affect the information presented . For example, the observer cannot be sure if the three-sided shelter was a very common style or if the artists preferred it in order to portray

simultaneously both the inside and the outside of the cabin .

Another limitation is the inability to illustrate small objects or details and objects which are not entirely visible . For example, the viewer is not informed of the shapes of utensils shown dipped in the kettles . Nor is it possible for the sources to indicate that the hole drilled in the tree slants upwards .

The iconographic sources are limited in the information they can provide on volume and exact measurements and dimensions . Only relative or comparative information is available on size and

distances and this is affected greatly by the artist's technique

and use of perspective . Also, it is possible that an artist may increase the size of a small object to aid in its depiction . Such distortion may be evident in some of the illustrations of spiles .

31

Another obvious shortcoming is the difficulty of depicting

types of material . The presence of wood is often successfully

shown but it is not possible to indicate the type of wood used .

In the same manner metal can be successfully illustrated, as in

figure 7, but a specific type of metal is not possible to

represent, at least not in a black and white illustration . In

many cases, however, it is not even possible to determine whether

an object is made of wood or metal .

The major limitation of iconographic sources is in inter-

preting the objects and procedures illustrated . This problem is

very apparent in the various interpretations which can be made

from figures 3 and 5 . Further, to interpret correctly the various

steps and procedures portrayed the researcher must have previous

knowledge of maple sugar fabrication . For example, even though

figure 7 carefully illustrates a palette with a hole in it, its

function cannot be properly interpreted unless it is known from other sources that it was used to test the readiness of the syrup .

It is of interest that the short titles used in figure 6 aid in

proper interpretation .

However, the iconographic sources also have advantages for the researcher . Most important is the information they contain

on shape, style, method of construction, and arrangement and

relation of parts of an object, details which can be described

in written sources only with difficulty . The use of artistic

devices such as close-ups also assist the viewer . Finally,

iconographic sources do provide evidence about the procedures

and techniques involved in a traditional technology although

intelligent interpretation is necessary to extract the information .

Written source :t also have a number of limitations . Even a

very detailed written description of an object cannot indicate

its exact style and shape and may even confuse the reader . This is apparent to some extent in the descriptions of the cabin or

of the means of suspending the kettle . Writers also tend to

forget to mention the obvious or everyday, a very serious limitation

32

in understanding a traditional technology . For example, the importance of transporting the sap or maintaining the fire is , almost ignored in the written sources . Although the written sources are capable of providing exact dimensions or measure-ments, or information on the type of material used, more often than not the writer does not include these useful details . The interpretation of very general words such as "vessel" or "utensil," or of very specific but uncommon words such as "mocock" or "mush-stick" is another problem .

On the. other hand, written sources provide time and

duration . We are informed by two precise, though contradictory

statements that it takes twenty-four hours for the sap to boil

down to syrup and that "il faut deux bonnes heures de cuisson

pour la former en sirop et deux autres heures pour le sucre . . . ."27

The sources indicate when the sap season occurs as well as very specific~times such as the transportation of the sap to the place of boiling at five o'clock .

The written sources are also able to describe processes

which are difficult if not impossible for the iconographic sources

to depict and to describe them in proper order . For example,

Boisseau informs the reader that the cabin is built first, then

the troughs are made, and when conditions are right the trees

are tapped .

Cause and function are also more evident in written material

which, for example, may not describe the man-drawn sledge in

detail but can inform the reader why it was used . Similarly the

writers explain why the axe continued to be used even though the

auger or brace-and-bit was less harmful or why it was necessary

to stir the sugar constantly . The urgency of the process, the

need for care and cleanliness, the necessity of hard work, and

the proper weather conditions are also described in written sources as are other aspects of maple sugaring such as the uses and marketing of the final product .

33

The sources chosen for this study may not always have

depicted or described the subject clearly, but nothing appears

to have been intentionally distorted . It should be emphasized

that a more random selection of sources could have lowered the

overall quality of the content and thus greatly altered the

final evaluation . Only sources which were judged to be fairly

accurate and detailed were considered in the initial selection

while a number of others of dubious value were discarded . In

many respects both iconographic and written sources are equally

helpful to the researcher studying a traditional technology,

the degree of usefulness depending not on the type of source

but on the ability of the individual artist or author .

It is apparent that iconographic sources can include large

amounts of detailed and accurate information on the tools and

techniques of a traditional technology . Although written sources

can describe many more aspects of a technology and can more easily

provide information on procedures, iconographic sources are more

useful in describing the objects used . It is also apparent that

when studying a traditional technology the researcher should use

as many types of sources as possible since each has its weaknessess

as well as its advantages .

NOTES

1 . Raymond Vezina, Cornelius Kreighoff (Ottawa : tditions du Pe1ican, 1972), pp-185, 188 .

2 . Marius Barbeau, Henri Julien (Toronto : Ryerson Press, 1941), p .39 .

3 . Canadian Illustrated News, 6 May 1871 .

4 . Benjamin Sulte, Melanges Historiques (Montreal : G . Ducharme, 1921), p .38 .

34

5. Pierre Kalm, Memoire adresse A 1'Academie Royale de Suede . Cited in Joseph-No8l Fauteux, Essai sur 1'Industrie au Canada sous le regime frangais . , vol . 2 (Quebec : Proulx, 1927) ;

J .C .B ., Voy age au Canada dans les Nord de L'Ameri ue Septentrionale fait depuis L'An 1751 1761 (Quebec : Leger Brousseau, 1887) ;

Isaac Weld, Travels through the States of North America, and the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada during the years 1795, 1796 and 1797, vol . 1 (1807 ; reprint New York : Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1968) ;

Lieut. W.O . Carlile and Col . Martindale, Recollections of Canada (London : Chapman and Hall, 1873) ;

Elizabeth Therese Baird, Reminiscences of Early Days on Mackinac Island, 1802 . Cited in Marius Barbeau, "Maple Sugar : Its Native Origin," Royal Society of Canada Transactions , 3d ser ., vol . 40, section 11 (1946), pp .83-86 ;

Nicolas-Gaspard Boisseau, Memoires de Nicolas-Gaspard Boisseau (Levis : n .p ., 1907 ) ;

Canadian Illustrated News (hereafter CIi1 ), 6 May 1871 . (The work cited may have been Joseph Bouchette, A Topographical Dictionary of the Provinces of Lower Canada [London : Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green and Longman, 18327 .)

6 . Fauteux, Essai , p .400 .

7 . J .C .B ., Voyage , p .150 .

8 . Carlile and Martindale, Recollections , p .45 .

9 . Boisseau, Memoires , p .82 .

10 . Weld, Travels , p .381 .

11 . Fauteux, Essai , p.258 ; CIN , 6 May 1871 .

12 . J.C .B ., Voyage , p.150 .

13 . Boisseau, Memoires , p .82 .

14 . Ibid .

15 . Carlile and Martindale, Recollections, p .45 .

16 . Boisseau, Memoires , p .82 .

17 . Ibid .

35

18 . Barbeau, "Maple Sugar," pp .84-85 .

19 . Fauteux, Essai , pp .397-400 .

20 . Boisseau, Memoires , pp .81-83 .

21 . Fauteux, Essai , p .398 .

22 . Barbeau, "Maple Sugar," p .84 .

23 . Boisseau, Memoires , p .82 .

24 . Fauteux, Essai , p .400 .

25 . J .C .B ., Voyage , p .100 .

26 . Barbeau, "Maple Sugar," p .85 .

27 . Boisseau, Memoires, p .82 .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

In addition to the sources mentioned in the notes and captions, the following works were also consulted :

Barbeau, Marius . Painters of Quebec . Toronto : Ryerson Press, 1945 .

Brissot de Warville, J .P . New Travels in the United States of America 1788 . Translated by M . Soceanu Vamos and D . Ec everri.a . Cambridge, Mass . : Harvard University Press, 1964 .

Chateaubriand, Franrois-Rene de . Travels in America, 1791 . Translated by R . Switzer . Lexington, Ky . : University of Kentucky Press, 1969 .

Dupont, Jean-Claude . Le Sucre du Pays . Montreal : tditions Lemeac, 1975 .

Fellows, Myrtie . Maple-Sugaring, The Way We Do It . Brattleboro, Vt. : Stephen Greene Press, 1972 .

Seguin, Robert-Lionel . La Civilisation Traditionnelle de L'"Habitant" aux XVII et XVIII si cles . Montreal : Fides, 1967 .

36

Seguin, Robert-Lionel . Les Moules du Quebec . Musee National du Canada, Bulletin no . 188 . Ottawa : 1963 .

"Petite et Grande Histoire de la Cabane a Sucre ." Vie des Arts 45 (hiver 1967), pp .40-45 .

Snell, J .F . Maple Sap Products and the Canadian Standards . London : Vacher and Sons, Ltd ., 1914 .

Spencer, J .B . L'Industrie du Sucre D'trable au Canada . Ottawa : Ministere Federal de 1'Agriculture, 1913 . .

Vaillancourt, C . Nos trablieres . Quebec : Ministere de 1'Agriculture, 1927 .

37

REVIEWS - COMPTES RENDUS

Spinning Wheels, Spinners and Spinning . Patricia Baines . London, B.T . Batsford, 1977 . 252p ., illus . ISBN 0-7134-0821-9 . Z7 .50 Reviewed by Judy Keenlyside .

One's immediate impression upon reading through a book

such as this is one of pleasure -- the pleasure of digestion,

of chewing through the depth and breadth of details, ideas, and

descriptions . Upon reaching the final page the lasting

impression is one of immeasurable respect for the hours of

research and writing which the author must have devoted to this

work . This scholarly treatise uses every possible source in

assembling data on spinning, spinning wheels, and spinners in

Europe since the advent there of the wheel-driven spindle :

first-hand inspection of the artifacts of spinning ; early

paintings, drawings, and engravings of spinning, spinners, and

their effects ; original or primary documents on spinning and

textile concerns ; early records and comparative descriptions of

the conditions, methods, preferences, organization, and results

of spinning in various regions of Europe ; previous studies of

wheels and spinning ; folklore, oral traditions, and linguistic

evidence ; and the author's own practical knowledge of spinning .

The information which Patricia Baines can extract from

an illustration is a lesson for everyone . A woman pictured at

a spinning wheel becomes a mine of data for the author who

examines not only the wheel, its orientation, height, setting,

and accessories but also the arrangement, appearance, and

location of the unspun fibre, the spinster, her clothes, her

chair, her position, the way she holds her arms, turns her body,

and uses her hands and feet . Baines's talent for pulling

together such a variety of data from illustrations reflects the

strongest feature of her study -- her ability to observe and

38

reconstruct a composite of artifact, fibre, and spinning

technique when attempting to establish a temporal, regional,

or situational framework . Throughout the book there is a

continuing and implicit assumption that the artifact -- the

spinning wheel -- is merely a material manifestation of the

process of hand spinning on a wheel . As a machine the spinning

wheel was and is part of a complex of tools ; it has an operator

the spinner, a manufacturer -- the spinning wheel maker, some-

thing to operate on -- the fibre, and something to produce --

the final yarn . This yarn is produced under domestic or

industrial conditions and, being a primary product, has a final

destiny which involves secondary (domestic or industrial)

manufacture such as knitting, weaving, netting, lacemaking, etc .

All these considerations are incorporated in the book . As

Baines states in the preface :

In writing this book I have attempted to give some indication of the evolution of the spinning wheel, some of the differences in its design, something of the people who used them, and some of the techniques that have been used . The history of the spinning wheel is closely linked to the various textile industries in which its efficiency as a work tool was of first importance . However, it has been no less valuable in domestic life, and both spheres have contributed to its evolution, the two often interdependent .

By virtue of the book's theme, cross-referencing,and

careful use of myriad sources the author has attempted to portray

the spinning wheel in context . In tracing the origins of European

spinning wheels, the author emphasizes the evolution of a

process . How a wheel was used, for what purposes, and by whom

are details recognized as having a history of regional and

cultural variation as great and as important as the wheel itself .

Quite apart from the basic thrust of the study, Baines

must also be complimented on her finely honed abilities in

morphological description, always a problem area for anyone

39

writing in material history . The clarity and precision of the

author's descriptions of the shapes, parts, composition, and

appearance of individual (and usually unique) spinning wheels,

distaffs, or what-have-you, are beyond criticism . At several

points the written description precedes an accompanying

illustration ; each time I was astonished to find that the image

conjured up in my mind by Baines's careful prose matched almost

exactly the black and white image on the following page .

In the event that this book may be gaining a reputation

for perfection, it is necessary to note some errors . On pages

130 and 131 two plates are mislabelled ; figure 50 actually

refers to the photograph on page 130 and figure 49 to the photo

in the upper, left-hand corner of page 131 . Also, alas, there

is a typesetting error in which line 10 should be line 13, 11

should be 14, 12 should be 15, 13 should be 10, 14 should be 11,

and 15 should be 12 . These particular lines focus on a doubled

band drive flyer wheel and its mechanism for drawing in the

twisted yarn . The point is made that the greater the difference

in circumference between the bobbin and spindle whorls, the

greater the strength of draw-in . Though the author uses the

term ratio in this context she relies on absolute figures in her

examples, stating, for instance, that a difference of 1 .3

centimetres would give a slow draw-in whereas a difference of

7 .5 centimetres would give a strong draw-in . It would have been

more accurate and more meaningful to have expressed this

difference in relative terms and emphasized the two speeds

(i .e ., circumferences) as a ratio . .

One point of organization which I question is the inclusion

of the Picardie wheel as one of five principal types of flyer

spinning wheels . Essentially Baines's typology is based on a

combination of two traits : first, the wheel's arrangement of

essential parts (wheel and flyer mechanism), of which there are

basically two forms -- a vertical or a horizontal orientation,

and secondly the construction of the frame (legs, supports, and

other parts exclusive of wheel and flyer mechanism), of which

40

there are also basically two forms -- a frame or a stock (base) construction . These traits combine to give four main categories : horizontal spinning wheel with stock, horizontal spinning wheel with frame, vertical spinning wheel with base, and vertical spinning wheel with frame . Since these four were not formulated with data derived from the flyer mechanism itself, the categories could be equally well applied to spindle wheels* (which lack

flyers) or even to bobbin winders or other non-spinning, wheel-driven machines . The three different types of flyer drive (outlined earlier in the book), along with other details of the wheel such as tensioning and treadling, are referred to within the confines of these four main categories . Only the Picardie wheel is isolated for special treatment . Actually it is a horizontal spinning wheel with stock and one expects to find it discussed in this category . In addition, the mechanics of its flyer drive falls within Baines's three-point classification system . (The Picardie has bobbin drag ; the other two drives are flyer drag and doubled band drive .) The only point of departure from other flyer wheels is that the Picardie wheel does not incorporate the flyer mechanism between the two maidens (spindle supports) but outside them . However, one expects this singular and interesting characteristic to be discussed as an important feature of a wheel that otherwise fits into the author's classification system . The creation of a special, fifth category

for the Picardie wheel strains an otherwise workable and inspired system .

The final chapter of the book -- a how-to-spin section --is followed by appendices on sheep breeds and on choosing and sorting wool . This section might be considered by some readers as a separate theme and indeed these last forty-six pages could well stand on their own .

In sum, the student of spinning and spinning wheel history is treated to a book crammed cover to cover with well-documented

* This, however, is not done in Baines's study .

41

and well-organized detail . Those wishing to make instant

diagnoses of specific wheels may be disappointed at the

organization of the detail, but such is obviously not the goal of the publication . While any attempt to reduce or abbreviate the information in this study would be almost sacrilegious,

a sampling of pertinent information includes the following

points . We learn, among much else, that the earliest known

representation of a spinning wheel is a hand-turned, rimless

wheel from China dating from 1270, and that rimless spindle

wheels, common also to India, are not unknown in Europe,

specimens being noted from such places as Greece, Bulgaria,

Yugoslavia, Switzerland, Italy, Germany, and Scandinavia .

Hoop rim spindle wheels on legs have been recorded pictorially

from the early 1300s in Germany and England . Hand-turned flyer

wheels have been known from at least 1480 (doubled band drive

type) in Germany, while Dutch and Flemish examples of the bobbin

drag Picardie wheel are depicted as early as 1513 . The author

finds no direct evidence for the addition of a treadle to the

spinning wheel prior to the seventeenth century and notes that

the earliest known treadle flyer wheel, dating from 1604, is a

vertical frame type . She thinks spindle wheels may have arrived

in Europe associated with spinning cotton and silk but were very

soon adapted for wool . Flyer wheels appear to have been used

for wool and flax equally . (Early illustrations leave no doubt

that wool is being used though in some countries flax came to

be more closely associated with flyer wheels .) The author makes

the interesting speculation that self-winding flyer and bobbin

mechanisms -- particularly the flyer drag system -- may have

been influenced by Italian silk-throwing machines which employed

similar principles at a very early date . In spite of the long

history of wheels in Europe the author believes that "the

majority of spinning wheels still in existence date from not

earlier than the second half of the eighteenth century and

mostly from the nineteenth century ."

42

The association

methods with specific

to Canadian trying to

spinning technologies

of Baines's study and

of certain wheel types and spinning areas of Europe is of particular interest trace the evolution and diffusion of in this country . The scope and methodology the scrutiny and integration of the

artifactual as well as the documentary material make this worthwhile example for any curator or student of material history .

a

Now You're Logging . Bus Griffiths . Madeira Park, B .C ., Harbour Publishing, 1978 . 124p ., illus . Cloth ISBN 0-920080-40-5, $15 .95 . Paper ISBN 0-920080-38-3, $10 .95 . Reviewed by Robert Griffin .

Recently a number of books and papers have been published on British Columbia's forest industry . Most of these efforts are mediocre and of little value to the serious researcher studying British Columbia's forest history . Now You're Logging is an exception, an enjoyable story of the past glory of truck logging when all a logger needed to dream about was cutting a "forest full of trees ." Bus Griffiths was a logger who loved working in the woods ; it was a work he learned and remembers cell . His delightful drawings portray not some strange imaginative tale but rather a part of the life he and his friends lived during the 1930s . The story, initially written in the 1940s as a comic book, is based on a high rigger Griffiths knew . This man possessed the qualities of daring and adventure personified in the book's two central characters, A1 Richards and Art Donnegan .

The story opens with Al and his friend Red starting work at a logging operation where Al is trained in the mysteries of logging . Following a shutdown, caused by the injury of two bosses, A1 and Red go on a fishing trip during which Al not only finds his

43

"dream-girl" but also the timber upon which to build his future . The researcher will find this aspect of the story frustrating as much of the text is spent on inconsequential dialogue at the

expense of solid, logging facts . The story suffers because of

its two-part purpose . The author has attempted to write an

interesting adventure-love story, while at the same time provide

the reader with a view of logging practice during the 1930s and

early 1940s . As might be expected, he is not entirely successful .

The logging story, partly as a result of the romantic story, is

somewhat disjointed ; necessary information occasionally .comes

after the page upon which it is first required, a-case in point

being that falling and bucking are described near the end of the

story when it is the first job undertaken by the logging crew .

The most significant aspects of the book are the explanations

of logging technology and the accompanying illustrations . If one

wants to understand how to top a spar tree this is the book to

examine . Written descriptions are frequently comprehensible only

to the initiated but illustrations such as Griffiths provides

make the explanation clear and simple . It is unfortunate that

space and story did not permit detailed descriptions, similar to

those on topping a spar tree, falling and bucking, and the duties

of the whistle punk, for all aspects of logging . It is necessary

to examine the story and each related illustration closely in

order to make the whole panorama of a 1930s truck-logging show

come clear . Griffiths has filled each panel with splendid detail,

from the caulk boots, to Molly Hogans (the logger's cotter pin),

to shattered trees and other debris . Thus the text and illustra-

tions together portray many facets of logging, including such

procedures as rigging a spar (though even here certain points,

such as the reason for tree shoes, are left to the reader's

imagination), setting chokers, and moving donkeys . Many other

aspects, however, must be detected solely in the illustrations

without the aid of text : the necessity of falling and bucking

well in advance of the yarding crews ; the frequent use, during

the 1930s, of steam yarder and gasloader combinations ; the

44

difficulties of road construction ; and the neatly piled loads

of logs carried by the trucks to the dumps (unfortunately we do not see the dump) . The detail in the illustrations is so exceptional that each panel should be examined several times .

One very regrettable element is the almost total neglect

given to the social life of a logger . We are only allowed one

brief glimpse of the cookhouse and a vague reference to town but

are told nothing of the frequent bouts of rough fun or the hard living conditions . The men present a tough joviality but it is

only seen at work . Even the several scenes in which we see A1 Richards relaxing always take place at his girl friend's isolated camp and not at the logging camp .

A very necessary part of the book are the concise definitions

which Griffiths supplies for the many logging terms used . However,

these must be approached with caution as there is no differentia-

tion between terms such as "skidroad," which originated in the

industry, and terms such as "donkey engine" and "bulldozer" which

originated outside the industry and were sometimes more commonly

used in other economic spheres . Nor can the terms he uses be

accepted as final . "Bunch it," meaning to quit, is only one of

several such expressions ; "pull the pin," "catch the boat," "mix

it up" all had the same meaning as "bunch it" and were in equally

common usage .

Such cautions are of relatively small concern when weighed

against the total worth of the book and are meant more for the

researcher than the general reader . The story is not a complete

portrayal of logging but many aspects are covered and, perhaps

more importantly, Griffiths creates the atmosphere and feeling

of the times . The bulk of the logs hauled to the coast during

the 1930s was moved by the big railroad outfits such as Bloedel,

Stewart and Welch Ltd . ; in this book, however, we witness the

struggles of a small operation using the early gas technology

which, following development in the 1920s, revolutionized

British Columbia logging .

45

An Introduction to Canadian Archaeology . David L . Newlands and Claus Breede . Toronto, McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1976 . 151p ., illus . ISBN 0-07-082339-1 . $8 .95 . Reviewed by Dianne Newell .

An Introduction stems from Newlands's and Breede's concern

for the practice and teaching of historical archaeology in Canada .

It is a primer of sports, a Canadian layman's manual on certain

aspects of belowground historical archaeology similar in scope

to Ivor Nodl Hume's 1969 classic, Historical Archaeology .

The book's success as an introductory text depends on what

level we examine it . As a widely distributed handbook on Canadian

archaeology it is, of course, unique . In terms of its design and

presentation it is exemplary . When it comes to a question of

substance, however, this book has a number of problems . An

Introduction is supposed to be a guide for those breaking into

the field and as such the authors can mislead readers as much by

what they leave out as by what they put in . This book excludes

any discussion of why archaeology is valuable, why artifacts and

their spatial context are worth recording in the first place, and

also excludes all reference to current thinking in the field .

This failure to discuss archaeology as a discipline somewhat

limits its potential as an introductory text or work of reference .

Some archaeologists will be critical of the "how to" aspect

of this book because only a single excavation technique is

described . Whether that technique is widely .accepted within the

profession or not is a matter for archaeologists to debate, but

an introduction to a discipline should at the very least outline

the range of techniques available to its practitioners . If such

a list on .the real world of archaeology had been included it

would reflect the growing concern among archaeologists about a

basic fact of excavation -- that it effectively destroys the

site excavated and hence an essential aspect of the archaeological

record . Recognition of the destructive aspect of excavation has

led in the past decade to considerable rethinking about what,

,

46

when, and how to dig . Indeed, some of the work of North American

archaeologists is devoted to identifying and preserving archaeolo-

gical sites as cultural and historical resources, excavating them

only as a last resort . Often excavation undertaken as a last

resort falls into the category of salvage archaeology, where

front-end loaders are more practical than the toothbrushes

required by more tranditional procedures . Newlands and Breede

could also mention the research potential of standing, or above-ground, remains to archaeological inquiry . As a final note on

significant omissions in this book, Canadian historic sites

archaeologists will be justifiably surprised by its exclusive

reference to museum-related archaeology . Specifically, it over-

looks the extensive archaeological projects and important

publication series, Canadian Historic Sites : Occasional Papers in Archaeology and History, sponsored by Parks Canada .

The book's real strength lies in the thought and details poured into those chapters which precede and follow the ones on field work and excavation, for it is in them that Newlands and Breede surpass the routine contributions of Canadian historio-graphy . The information on historical sources and on the preparation of illustrations and reports is commendably generous

and detailed . Where else does a material culture researcher or

a local historian, let alone an archaeologist, learn of the

background to land records in Canada or what nineteenth-century mercantile reference books are all about . Even here, though,

I qualify my praise : the authors do not go far enough . For one thing, they are remarkably uncritical in their presentation .

They do not discuss the built-in biases and limitations in any

type of historical evidence, including artifacts . For another,

the importance of historical sources to archaeological research

will change with the questions being posed . Newlands and Breede

mention (p .7) the value of asking questions of a site . Examples

of the sorts of questions archaeologists raise and the historical

sources appropriate for answering them would have been welcomed .

47

An Introduction is enterprising -- in that it was under-

taken in Canada at all -- and intellectually promising . It also is timid and unfinished . We need a revised and somewhat expanded version of this book, one that brings us up-to-date with the

field and one that is willing to discuss the full potential of archaeology -- below, on, and above the ground -- for advancing our understanding of what happened to people in the past .

Western Canadian History : Museum Interpretations . D .R . Richeson, ed . Ottawa, National Museums of Canada, 1979 . National Museum of Man Mercury Series, History Division Paper No . 27 . 158p ., illus . ISSN 0316-1900 . Reviewed by Alan F .J . Artibise .

It is a fond assumption of academic historians that the

public read their books . It is not a very accurate one . Best-

sellers in the field of scholarly publishing are volumes that

sell in the neighbourhood of 5,000 copies . Since one of the major

goals of historians is to interpret and present a society's past

to all its citizens, concerned practitioners of the craft of history must look to other means to get their messages to the

general public . There are many ways that this goal can be

achieved . Some historians are frequent public speakers ; others

act as consultants for films and television . In recent years a

significant number have contributed to Canada's Visual History ,

a joint project of the National Film Board and the National Museum of Man . This series produces slide sets which are now in use

all teaching levels, providing the results of recent academic

research to large numbers of primary, secondary, college, and

university students . Yet, in terms of impact and of numbers

reached, museums remain the most effective way to reach the

at

general public . For this reason alone, academic historians can no longer afford to ignore these institutions .

48

In western Canada historians have particularly strong opportunities to work with and learn from museums . Not only are there numerous museums, but many institutions -- ranging from the large, government-sponsored, provincial museums to small, privately operated, local museums -- are still relatively flexible in terms of their programmes of artifact collection and research, the delineation of exhibit themes, and the provision of background publications . In each of these areas cooperation between museum curators and professional historians would be of benefit to both the curators and the historians, and, most importantly, to the museum visitors . A key area where cooperation is needed is in the provision of synthesis . Provincial and local museums, by their very nature, concentrate on limited geographical areas and the theme of interdependence between the West and the rest of Canada, or between the West and the rest of the world, is dealt with only rarely . While it is probably neither feasible nor desirable to deal with such broad themes in particular institutions, the exhibits that already exist or are planned can be supplemented and complemented by audio-visual presentations or attractive publications . Professional historians can act as partners in museum work by orienting their research in specific directions and by,preparing material that relates directly to museum exhibit.s . (A not unimportant side benefit is that if such publications find their way into museum bookshops, the historian will have greatly expanded the market for his work .) But if such cooperation is to take place, historians have a good deal to learn about museums . Fortunately, there is now an excellent place to start this education in the most recent addition to the National Museum of Man's Mercury Series . Not only is the volume distributed gratis, but it is a fine introduction to the West's major museums and it should be required reading for all historians .

Western Canadian History : Museum Interpretations consists of an introduction by the editor and six articles . The intro-duction, written by David Richeson who is Western Canadian Historian in the History Division of the National Museum of Man,

49

is an especially valuable summary of the reasons for a lack of

understanding between professional historians and museums .

Perhaps the key to the sharp separation of academic historiography

and museum historiography has to do with the use by museums of

artifacts . For most historians, material history is a new area

and, not surprisingly, it is either ignored or dismissed since

these approaches to it are more convenient than attempting the

difficult task of understanding . It is to be hoped that the

publication of this volume (together with the Material History

Bulletin itself) will break down some of the existing barriers

so that a point will soon be reached where material history is

seen to be as legitimate and as necessary a branch of the broader

field of human history as, say, cliometrics has become . Richeson's

introduction also contains an overview of the factors that affect

the development of museum exhibits (such as the quality of the

artifact collection, size of budget, and availability of resource

people), and a survey of the themes presented in western museums .

The introduction also mentions themes that are conspicuous by

their absence, including labour, education, religion, secondary

industry, commercial activity, and the service industries .

The editor's succinct overview is followed by six detailed

discussions of how segments of western Canadian history have been

presented in particular museums : "Exhibits as Overviews : The

Case of British Columbia Modern History," by Daniel T . Gallacher ;

"Vancouver Centennial Museum History Galleries : A Critique," by

Robert D . Watt ; "Glenbow's 'History of Western Canada' Gallery,"

by Hugh A . Dempsey ; "History Gallery Themes : The Provincial

Museum of Alberta," by Robert B . Davidson ; "A Survey of Trans-

portation in Saskatchewan : An Exhibit Storyline, Western Develop-

ment Museum, Moose Jaw," by Diana Matthews ; and "Interpretative

Themes in Socio-Economic History at the Manitoba Museum of Man

and Nature," by Philip L . Eyler . It is impossible in a few pages

to discuss each of these articles properly, but, taken together,

the contributions to this volume do suggest several overarching

themes that can be discussed .

50

All the articles mention the fact that museum curators do not see their exhibits as either definitive or static . Indeed, several of the authors offer frank critiques, pointing out existing weaknesses and omissions and delineating what remains to be done . Despite the fact that there is a continuing need for larger budgets and more gallery space, none of the articles dwells on these obvious facts or use them as excuses . In part, of course, this is a reflection of the museums discussed . All are relatively large and wealthy institutions . It would be

interesting to learn of the situation in regard to space and budgets in smaller, less wealthy museums . The point is, however, that the museums discussed in this volume are realistically

focusing on utilizing the space and resources they have, rather than sitting back waiting for increased funding to "solve" present problems . Indeed, the need to utilize fully existing resources -- in terms of space, staff, and artifacts -- may, in fact, be beneficial . Instead of rushing to fill new galleries with newly-acquired artifacts, and doing so without proper planning and research, the museums can concentrate on improving existing exhibits . The 1980s, then, will be an era of review and consolidation and this is to be welcomed . It is to be hoped, however, that the review process includes as wide a range of historical specialists as possible . .

Western Canadian History : Museum Interpretations is a stimulating volume that can be highly recommended . It most certainly will be welcomed by anyone interested in western Canadian museums and should be welcomed by everyone interested in western Canadian history . But as useful as this volume is, it does have weaknesses that deserve to be noted since this

collection should be followed by similar volumes that deal with other regions and other institutions . Since the volume suggests by its title that it deals with the interpretation of the history

of western Canada by museums, it would have been useful for the reader to have been provided with an annotated list of all western

museums, together with some analysis of how the ones discussed in

51

detail in this collection are or are not representative of the

larger, regional situation . A second omission, in all save the

article on the British Columbia Provincial Museum, are lists of

pamphlets, guides, books, etc . produced by the museums to

supplement their displays . Finally, a general bibliography

dealing with western Canadian museums should have been included .

"The World of Children : Toys and Memories of Childhood," Vancouver Centennial Museum . Curator: Ivan W . Sayers . Designer : Mary Paddon . Opened : May 1978 . No catalogue . Reviewed by Zane Lewis .

"The World of Children : Toys and Memories of Childhood"

opened at the Vancouver Centennial Museum on 26 May 1978 in order

to coincide with the International Children's Festival held in

adjacent Vanier Park . Originally scheduled to last for two months,

repeated requests from the public extended the exhibit to a year .

It was designed to be a random reflection on what it was like to

be a child with no attempt made to narrow the focus . A more

specific approach would have required access to a collection more

comprehensive than the Centennial Museum possessed . Instead, a

thematic approach was selected covering the major facets of a

child's world . Important gaps were filled by making some excellent

institutional and private loans . Because of the Festival, it was

also decided to include ethnological material from around the

world .

Captions were provided and some of the cases contained

appropriate poems but there was no storyline . This omission did

not adversely affect the exhibit since studies seem to indicate

that the majority of museum visitors prefer looking to reading .

I repeatedly asked myself if copy would have enhanced the exhibit

and concluded that because of its general nature it was unlikely

"Costume," "Manual Dexterity," and "Thrift" cases . (Photo : Vancouver Centennial Museum, uncatalogued .)

than an informative text could have been written . The theme of each case was clear . A text is often necessary to interpret the artifacts, but sometimes they can be left to speak for themselves .

The strength of the exhibit lay in its artifacts . The

staff successfully resisted the temptation to use only "artsy"

items at the expense of representative ones . While there were some rare and striking pieces they were balanced by others that

were mundane and plain . Objects from all social classes were

used, providing some interesting comparisons and contrasts . It

was not until I reflected upon the show that I wondered why some

of the museum's larger artifacts, such as a wagon or sleigh, were

53

not used . And yet, the exhibit captured my attention so that

I left feeling that I had been in a child's world .

The inclusion of ethnological material was frustrating.

The objects were fascinating, but once they aroused my interest

I became disappointed when there was not more to view . Additional

artifacts would have enhanced the educational aspect of the

exhibit by helping one to make some tentative conclusions

regarding the universal nature of children . Instead, I was left

with several unanswered questions : did the museum display all

its ethnological material? how representative were the artifacts?

how complete were the objects from a particular culture? By

including this material the viewer was invited to make comparisons

with the Canadian child, but was not provided with enough

information to do so properly . The one exception was the Northwest

Coast Indian section, which, as far as this non-specialist could

determine, was representative and complete .

There is an important lesson to be learned here for all

museologists . It appears that someone "suggested" that ethno-

logical material be included in the exhibit . Curators often assume

that they are free to choose the nature and content of the exhibit .

In reality, politicians, directors, administrators, and the public

often force the exhibit upon the curator . In addition, display

or conservation considerations often cause the exclusion or

inclusion of certain material since a desired artifact may be too

fragile to display or may be the wrong size . At times it may

even seem that the curator, who is ultimately responsible for the

exhibit, has the least to say about it . It is at this point that

the curator's attitude becomes of crucial importance ; an inferior

exhibit can be excused on the grounds that "it wasn't my idea"

or one can demonstrate that quality can be achieved under

difficult circumstances .

This was the dilemma facing the Centennial Museum's curator .

Ethnological material had to be included . Normally one borrows

or purchases needed artifacts, but objects of this nature are

very rare and difficult to obtain . It was decided, therefore,

54

to provide the viewer with a glimpse since the entire picture could not be shown . This was a valid decision, but a storyline or bibliography would have been helpful since the majority of museum visitors are not familiar with foreign cultures .

The major weakness of the exhibit was in its display techniques . In all fairness it must be remembered that the budget was only $1,500 and that there was a reluctance to go "all out" on an exhibit that was only going to last for two months . Consequently, the gallery was left painted black, and the false tin roof and trees, survivors of a 1968 exhibit, were retained . Some of this starkness was relieved by suspending rented merry-go-round horses from the ceiling -- an effect which I missed because the horses had been removed prior to my visit . There were twenty-eight cases ranging in size from four to forty-eight feet square ; many were five and six feet high . They had been designed for ceramics, rugs, costumes, furniture, and general household items, and were not ideal for most of the children's artifacts . Compounding these difficulties was the fact that the cases could not be arranged in the desired order . All this sounds very familiar ; display cases that are never quite right for the artifacts and inadequate budgets are endemic to museologists . Despite their banality, these problems must be tackled if one is to avoid surrendering every time such obstacles are encountered . I ignored the black walls, tin roof, and trees since I was more interested in the contents of the cases than their surroundings .

An artifact has to be particularly spectacular in order to overcome being poorly displayed . What confused me was that some cases appeared to be crammed while others were partly empty . For example, one case had so many Teddy bears that some of them were obscured ; conversely, a larger case contained a pram with a doll in it and a few other items insufficient to fill it . I have no expertise in display, but the obvious solution of adding or . subtracting items comes to mind . There are obvious difficulties in displaying a six-inch object in a case five feet high, but

55

- -.

"Animals" case . (Photo : Vancouver Centennial Museum, uncatalogued .)

unless a solution is found one is left with too much dead space .

This situation occurred with the display of cars and trucks ;

placed in too large a case they were only a few inches above

floor level -- an ideal placement for young children but one

which left four feet of disturbingly vacant space . This

emptiness was magnified since the walls were devoid of support

material such as photographs or posters . In addition, the cars

were unimaginatively arranged to remind one of a used car lot .

Assuming that it is impossible to avoid displaying small

artifacts in a large case, there are still viable alternatives .

Blocks can be used, for example, to create several visual planes .

This was effectively done with the doll collection ; blocks not

only covered a bare wall and provided several viewing levels,

>b

"Dolls" case . (Photo : Z . Lewis .)

but also isolated each doll, enabling the viewer to appreciate its uniqueness . I found this inconsistency perplexing . Why were some display problems inexpensively but adequately solved while others were allowed to triumph? One must constantly seek solutions to seemingly insurmountable problems if each exhibit is to be as effective as possible and if fellow museologists are to be provided with fresh answers to old problems .

The Centennial Museum's display difficulties illustrate the central weakness of many exhibits : lack of planning . Three hundred and eighty-seven artifacts were displayed in seventy-two hundred square feet of gallery . Why was such a large exhibit scheduled to last for only two months? Such a short display time would almost force the staff to adopt an attitude of "why bother?" . Those who apply pressure for more frequent temporary displays must be resisted diplomatically and educated to the fact that quality cannot be achieved if the staff is constantly taking down or setting up exhibits . I would suggest that a major exhibit be on display for a minimum of six months and preferably twelve .

57

Considering all the factors, one can empathize with the

museum's display problems, but not with the failure to practice

better conservation . Although I am not a conservator, I did

notice that adult-size hangers were extensively used to support

children's costumes . The hangers were made of extra thick wood

and gave sufficient support along the top of the shoulders, but

because they were too large their ends pushed out the sides of the

shoulders . Either the hangers could have been adapted to the size

of the costume, or supports should have been made so as not to strain the garment's seams and fabric . Proper conservation

practices should have been followed even if the exhibit was

scheduled to last only two months .

Despite its shortcomings, the "World of Children" was a

success . It was very popular with the public which is the

ultimate test for all exhibits . Even after my attempts to expose its weak points I must admit that I found it both informative and

enjoyable . It did succeed in its intention ; "memories of child-

hood" were evoked as I was led on a nostalgic trip into every-

one's past .

"Doll Furniture" case . (Photo : Vancouver Centennial Museum, uncatalogued .)

58

Ivan W . Sayers : Considerations on "The World of Children ."

In December 1977 the Vancouver Centennial Museum was invited to participate in the programme of the International Children's Festival planned for may 1978 . The museum decided to present a two-part exhibition dealing with various aspects of the world of children . The larger section of the exhibit was to use historical material from Canada and its parent western European cultures ; the smaller section was to contain ethno-logical material from around the world .

Drawing entirely from the museum's own collection the Ethnology Department was able to present an assortment of artifacts that represented each of the major cultural groups within the metropolitan Vancouver community . We hoped that neither local nor foreign visitors would see the display without finding at least one object with which they could identify .

Although the museum does possess many excellent toys and other souvenirs, the History Department's collection was not as comprehensive as that of the Ethnology Department . It was therefore necessary to borrow artifacts from individuals and organizations outside the institution . These lenders provided us with rare and valuable items which normally never leave private hands .

The ethnology cases were categorized by geographical area, the history cases by object or function : dolls, vehicles, collections, games, furniture, miniature figures, confections, animals, books, schooling, infancy, costume, thrift, manual dexterity, mechanical aptitude, "home-mades," theatre, and Shirley Temple and Walt Disney . We included everything from an invaluable seventeenth-century Italian figure of the infant Jesus to a valueless but very familiar pair of conkers .

Designing the exhibition was definitely a challenge . The gallery is a dark, forbidding room with a large suspended ceiling of corrugated tin, left over from an exhibition of farm machinery . To detract from the sombre dark brown walls all the cases were

59

painted bright yellow, orange, or green. The corrugated roof,

left as it was, became a platform supporting twenty-two prancing

horses from a 1902 merry-go-round . These horses were lit by a

turning mirror ball and spotlights ; calliope music played in the

background . The horses were a costly rental and had to be

returned after five months .

Each case was filled to capacity with artifacts . We hoped

that the large number of objects would impress the eye, develop

the circus atmosphere of the horses and music, and encourage the

visitor to return . Many people did come back not once but five

or six times .

Copy was restricted to a brief identification of each

object, its material, its origin, and its ownership . A text was

omitted as being unnecessary and frustratingly incomprehensible

to the many foreign adults and children expected to be in

attendance at the Festival . Strict visual communication had to

be chosen over literary communication .

The enthusiasm of the remarks in our four books for visitors'

comments proved the appeal of the exhibition and even now, when

the gallery has been cleared of the "World of Children" for

several months, there are daily inquiries about this display .

The ethnological material was included as a random complement

to the major section of the display, not as its equal or competitor .

The inclusion of a large number of Northwest Coast material was an

obvious choice since it represented our own native people and

since we possess a fine collection from which to draw . It should

be noted that this particular case also included Plains and Eastern

Woodlands material, this fact being noted on the labels .

Since the exhibition was designed with a very young audience

in mind the cases were kept at a low height whenever possible .

Steps were constructed in front of the taller cases to permit

even our youngest visitors to climb to a good viewing position .

The interiors of the cases were broken into various levels by

boxes or stands as necessary . The doll case was especially divided

60

so that these items, the rarest and most valuable of the entire exhibit, were each highlighted . This case was the only one in which the artifacts were placed in chronological order . Converse- ly, the transportation case was divided into only three levels to create a flat, sand-box effect, and the cars, trucks, and trains were arranged in rows and lines such as a child would create when playing with his own toys . Airplanes were suspended from the case ceiling to hover above the traffic jam below.

The physical problems of fitting so many artifacts into so few cases were seriously debated by the staff . The exhibit designer thought that far too many objects had been selected ; I believed, however, that "toy-box" clutter was essential to the success of the exhibition and therefore insisted on including all the artifacts selected .

The use of larger hangers to

was not considered harmful for the

of the exhibit . In fact the extra

the sleeves and made supplementary

support children's clothing original, eight-week

width of the hangers

support unnecessary .

duration extended Fortu-

nately, even after twelve months of exhibition, the costumes were not damaged by this arrangement .

"The World of Children" displayed many common and many rare souvenirs of childhood in a simple, chaotic style that entertained and occasionally educated . The exhibit was popular and a success in spite of its shortcomings

61

"Cordonnerie traditionnelle," Musee du Qu6bec . Ethnologue : Mine Merette . Date d'ouverture : octobre 1977 . Brochure . Compte rendu d'Yvan Chouinard .

Celine Merette a pr6pare

des expositions itinerantes du

exposition presentant tous les

le connaissait dans la periode

mobilier de 1'artisan jusqu'au

cette exposition pour le Service

Musee du Quebec . Il s'agit d'une

aspects de ce metier tel qu'on traditionnelle . Des outils et du produit fini, la chaussure, en

passant par des images illustrant la technologie de 1'artisan-

createur, rien ou presque n'a ete omis afin de faire connaitre

ce "petit" metier mieux connu de nos ancP-tres .

Metier du cuir par excellence, la cordonnerie a pour objet

la rEparation mais aussi et surtout la fabrication des chaussures .

A 1'epoque oa toutes les catdgories de chaussures etaient de

fabrication manuelle, aussi bien celles que 1'on portait au

travail, en foret, au champ ou a la peche, que les souliers fins

chausses par les demoiselles le dimanche matin pour se rendre a

la messe, 1'importance du travail de 1'artisan qui s'adonnait a

cette pratique prenait une dimension assez considerable . De

plus, la technique du cordonnier traditionnel se completait

souvent d'une pratique connexe qui etait celle de la sellerie,

art de confectionner et d'entretenir les attelages d'animaux .

Pour faire etat d'un metier comme celui-la, Celine Merette

a choisi de le presenter sous divers angles .

L'exposition

On trouve d'abord dans 1'exposition les outils du cordonnier .

De 1'alene pour coudre au ligneul jusqu'& 1'emporte-pi('~ce en

passant par le marteau et le tranchet, chaque extension de la

main de 1'artisan prend place dans les vitrines .

On y trouve egalement des modeles, des formes et des patrons

destines A reproduire les chaussures en dimensions precises et

exactes, ainsi que du mobilier directement relie au travail de 1'artisan comme le banc de cordonnier et la machine a coudre .

62

Chaussures artisanales et manufacturees de 1'exposition "Cordonnerie traditionnelle ." (Photo : Patrick Altman, non cataloguee .)

On y trouve enfin des chaussures . Une gamme extr6mement

variee de modilles montre la diversite du travail d'artisans dou6s

qui transformaient le cuir en souliers de boeuf, en bottes

sauvages, en bottes de drave, en "noeuds" de boeuf, en souliers

fins et meme en bottes-culottes pour pecheurs . Le tout pr6sente

en fait 1'essentiel de ce qui se portait aux pieds dans la soci6te

traditionnelle, autant pour le travail que pour la vie religieuse

et sociale .

Toutes ces pi6ces de culture materielle qui forment en

quelque sorte le noyau museologique de 1'exposition, proviennent

63

en tres grande partie des reserves du Musee national du Quebec .

Lorsqu'on connaft les richesses, voire les tresors de ces

collections (d'outils surtout), on ne s'etonne pas que Celine

Merette ait eu 1'embarras du choix pour son travail de

demonstration . Quelques objets, notamment des chaussures, sont

des prets consentis par des collections privees .

L'ethnologue Merette a cependant voulu aller plus loin que

le simple regroupement spatial d'objets relies a la cordonnerie .

Grace a une serie d'images selectionnees avec soin dans divers

fonds d'archives dont celui du Centre d'etudes sur la langue,

les arts et les traditions populaires (CELAT) de 1'Universite

Laval, et celui de 1'Inventaire des Biens culturels, elle a voulu

preter un peu de vie a une exposition quand meme relativement

statique . Ces images tentent en particulier de devoiler certains

aspects de la technique de 1'artisan . On y voit, entre autres,

des artisans d'autrefois pris sur le vif dans leur boutique, de

meme que de veritables artisans-cordonniers d'aujourd'hui qui

montrent comment le travail de confection se faisait a 1'epoque

en reprenant, pour 1'appareil-photo, la gestuelle d'antan .

Une innovation

Loin de se borner a 1'emploi de simples photographies

illustrant le travail de 1'artisan-cordonnier, cette ethnologue

du Musde du Quebec est allee jusqu'a inviter des artisans ages

qui ont connu 1'epoque de transition traditionnelle/pre-

industrielle du debut du sibcle et, surtout, des artisans qui

se servirent autrefois des outils de 1'exposition pour realiser

des chaussures egalement en montre a cette exposition . Elle en

a invites lors de presentations, d'ouvertures ou lors mdme du

deroulement de 1'exposition en province .

Nous avons eu la chance d'assister a une de ces seances,

au passage de 1'exposition a Baie-Comeau, oa un cordonnier de

82 ans etait venu de Grandes-Bergeronnes pour servir de personne-

64

ressource, et n.ous avons apprecA vivement les explications

simples mais passionnees que donna 1'artisan aux neophytes .

La brochure

Congue pour perpetuer 1'exposition (en raison de sa courte duree) une brochure 1'accompagne . Celle-ci explique les grands traits qui caracterisent le metier . Un aperqu historique pr6c6de diverses considerations essentielles sur 1'enseigne, la boutique,

les gens du metier, 1'apprentissage, la production artisanale,

1'emprunt des techniques industrielles et les paiements . Largement illustree de dessins et de photographies anciennes et actuelles, la brochure comporte de plus une breve bibliographie . Elle est

un document bien fait et sans pretention qui saura en compl6ter

d'autres .

Souliers de boeuf . Collection : Musee du Qu6bec . (Photo : Patrick Altman, non cataloguee .)

65

Petites difficultes

Malgre une presentation d'ensemble soignee, cette exposition a eprouve de petits probAmes de parcours . Justement a cause du fait qu'elle ait ete preparee pour se deplacer, elle a rencontre les difficultes inherentes a ce genre d'exposition, soit le transport lui-meme avec les risques de bris qu'il presente, le montage et le demontage frequent et surtout 1'adaptation nouvelle a faire a chaque fois, selon la salle ott se tient 1'exposition .

Par ailleurs, on peut deplorer une certaine faiblesse du

c6te des identifications des objets contenus dans les vitrines .

En effet, les plaques sur lesquelles on lit le nom et la fonction

des objets se trouvaient sur la base des vitrines, de sorte qu'il

fallait se plier litteralement en deux ou s'accroupir pour en

prendre connaissance .

Enfin, 1'identification d'une serie de photographies a laisse

une mauvaise impression . Certaines de ces images, faussement

attribuees a 1'origine, ont ete corrigees a la main par la suite .

Ces ratures, bien que necessaires, auraient pu etre eliminees en

cours de route, en remplagant tout simplement les cartons

d'identification alteres . Compte tenu de la periode de temps

assez longue que met une telle exposition a faire le tour de la

province, ce mauvais coup d'oeil aurait du disparaitre .

Diffusion . . . . . . itin6rante

La "Cordonnerie traditionnelle" de Celine Merette a circule dans les centres et les musees regionaux au cours de 1978 et de 1979 . Dans un sens, cette formule, qui presente de petits inconvenients, n'en demeure pas moins privilegiee puisqu'elle

permet une diffusion exceptionnelle de 1'exposition et des

connaissances que celle-ci vehicule .

Somme toute, il faut feliciter celle qui a prepare et documente cette exposition . Non seulement a-t-elle su toucher

66

a - tous les aspects directement

de la matiere de base, du de 1'artisan, mais elle a du milieu pour ajouter un parfaitement un evenement

relies au metier, qu'il s'agisse produit fini, de 1'outil ou du geste su innover en invitant un representant element dynamique qui compAte comme celui-la .

67

NOTES AND COMMENTS - NOUVELLES BREVES

WAR MEMORIALS IN CANADIAN COMMUNITIES

The goal of this project has been to gather as much

information as possible concerning the origin, history, artistic

aspects, and present state of war memorials in Canada and to

offer an interpretation of their significance . In response to

information requests in Heritage Canada magazine, the Royal

Canadian Legion's journal, the Archivist's Newsletter and other

publications, hundreds of letters from individuals and institutions

have reached me . During the summer of 1978 I travelled over

16,000 miles from Newfoundland to British Columbia gathering data

and photographing memorials .

To date I have documented about 1,200 individual monuments .

For some memorials only a picture or description has been found

while for others fairly extensive background material is available .

This includes the records of memorial committees, correspondence

with sculptors, newspaper accounts, and my own interviews with

people who were involved in the construction of the memorials .

I have published several articles in both scholarly-journals and

the popular press based on this research and the National Film

Board is considering a film on the subject . I am now preparing

a book, heavily illustrated and intended for a wide audience,

that will describe the people who built the monuments, why they

did so, and what meaning memorials had then and continue to have

now .

When these projects are completed the collection, consisting

of file cards of each monument by place name, ten volumes of

cross-referenced subsidiary material, and a few thousand pictures,

will be placed in the Public Archives of Canada . It will constitute

the only extensive compilation of information on the subject of

Canadian war memorials .

68

I first began work on monuments after leaving the Armed Forces in 1976 . My visual fascination with monuments as subjects for drawing and painting combined with my historical background and desire to write when I found out that virtually nothing had ever been said about memorials in Canada . This seemed particu-larly odd in light of their omnipresence in our towns and cities .

A great deal of understanding about Canada can be gained by studying and interpreting the material aspects of our past . It is hoped that the articles and the book will stimulate further investigation in the fields of art and architectural.history, community planning, social history, and popular symbolism .

I 'have been helped immeasurably by the efforts of : Explorations Programme of the Canada Council ; Writers' Assistance Programme of the Ontario Arts Council ;

Ian Montagnes, Editor, University of Toronto Press ;

the countless people who have talked to me on the main streets of the country and who have taken .the time to write and send me information ;

my friends .

Robert Shipley

PARKS CANADA, PRAIRIE REGION

Historical Research Division

The Historical Research Division of Parks Canada, Prairie Regional Office in Winnipeg, was established in 1975 as part of the decentralization of Parks into five regions . The headquarters division in Ottawa retained responsibility for research on national themes, while the regional offices were to work closely with the sites and the parks on site-specific research .

69

The Prairie Region has responsibility for sites in Manitoba,

Saskatchewan, and northern Alberta as well as in the Yukon and

the Northwest Territories . The geographical distribution of sites

does not conform absolutely to political divisions since both the

Gold Rush Trail and Wood Buffalo Park straddle provincial

boundaries . The region has four National Historic Parks : Fort

Battleford, Fort Walsh, Lower Fort Garry, and Prince of Wales'

Fort . Its jurisdiction also includes several historic sites :

the S .S . Klondike , the Gold Rush Trail, and Klondike National

Historic Sites (including Dawson City and surrounding gold creeks) ;

Batoche, Fish Creek, the Motherwell Homestead, Wood Buffalo Park,

and the Grey Owl Cabin Site in Saskatchewan ; Prince of Wales'

Fort, York Factory, Lower Fort Garry, St . Andrews Rectory, the

Red River-Assiniboine River Junction, and Riel House Manitoba .

In addition, historic plaques and markers are scattered throughout

these provinces and territories . The designation of new sites is

an ongoing process which occurs through the auspices of the

Historic Sites and Monuments Board .

The Prairie Region has seven staff historians and a .research

assistant, each with thematic responsibilities :

Dr . Frits Pannekoek, Chief of the Historical Research Division ;

Ian Clarke, Head of Northern Site Research --history of northern mining .technology ;

Dr . Richard Stuart, Regional Structural Historian structural and materials history ;

Lyle Dick -- Motherwell Homestead and the post-fur trade prairie West ;

Walter Hildebrandt-- Fort Walsh, Fort Battleford, the R .C .M .P . ;

Diane Payment -- Batoche, Riel House, Metis and native history ;

Greg Thomas -- fur trade sites with special reference to Lower Fort Garry ;

Laura McLauchlan, Research Assistant in charge . of the Historical Research Photograph Collection .

70

Contractors also have been engaged for specific projects . In

general staff historians carry out work involving continuing

liaison with other divisions, such as Planning, Interpretation, and Engineering and Architecture while contractors tend to

concentrate on thematic studies rather than structural or

materials histories .

Recently a five-year plan has been developed in order to integrate the resources of the division with the development of sites . The plan also attempts to define the various types of appropriate historical research such as structural, land use,

materials, contextual and background, and to set standards of research depending upon the proposed level of site development . The plan attempts to bring to the planning and development of National Historic Sites the same rigour that has influenced the

natural parks .

All research undertaken has an applied function, whether it be land acquisition, planning, restoration, or interpretation . All research is designed to support Parks Canada's mandate to identify, protect, understand, and use Canada's historic resources .

Such directed research, however, does not mean that what is done

is merely utilitarian "house history ." Although the immediate

audience must of necessity be other divisions within Parks Canada,

attention is also paid to the community at large . Papers have

been presented to the Manitoba Historical Society, Canadian History Association of Winnipeg, Northern Plains Conference,

Canadian Historical Association, Society for the Study of

Architecture in Canada, and Institute for Popular Culture .

Articles have also been published in Saskatchewan History , The

Beaver, and Prairie Forum .

Further to the publications listed below, the following

historical research projects are in progress :

a) Northern History

Ian Clarke, "At the Jaws of the Bear : A History of Bear Creek Mining ."

71

Richard Stuart, "The British North America Bank Building, Dawson : A Structural History ."

, "The Annex to the Commissioner's Residence, Dawson : A Structural History ."

, "Three Structural Histories : The 'Red Feather' Saloon, The N .W .M .P . Married Officers' Quarters, and the K .T .M . Co . Warehouse ."

, "The S .S . Klondike Cargo Hold Material History ."

Hal Guest, "Four Essays on Dawson ."

Richard Friesen, "The Yukon River : Historical Themes and Resources Study ."

Ken Coates, "The Northern Yukon : Historical Themes and Resources Study ."

b) Twentieth-Century West

Lyle Dick, "Motherwell : A Social History of the Abernethy District, 1880-1920, Historiography, Methodology and Bibliography ."

Lyle Dick and Jean-Claude Lebeuf, "Social History in Architecture : The Stone House of W .R . Motherwell ."

Sarah Carter, "Motherwell Material History ."

c) National Parks

Allan Wright, "The History of the Kluane Park Region ."

Barry Potyondi, "Wood Buffalo National Park : An Historic Overview ."

James Shortt, "Grey Owl : A Biography ."

d) Metis

Diane Payment, "Riel House : Home and Lifestyle at St . Vital ."

Brian Dawson, "The Clergy at Batoche to 1885 ."

e) Fur Trade

Rodger Guinn, "The Forts at the Junction ."

72

Rodger Guinn, "An Historical Assessment of Four Structures in the Canadian National Railways East Yards, Winnipeg, Manitoba ."

Gregory Thomas, "The Bake Ovens at Lower Fort Garry."

Michael Payne, "Prince of Wales's Fort : A Social History ."

f) R .C .M .P .

Walter Hildebrandt, "Fort Battleford Officer's Quarters ."

, "Meaning in Architecture : The Building of the N .W .M .P . at Fort Battleford ."

, "Fort Battleford Social History ."

, "The Materials History of the Commissioner's Residence, Fort Walsh ."

Roger Letourneau, "A Structural History of the Commissioner's Residence, Fort Walsh, circa 1880 ."

Archaeological Research Division

The division carries out the archaeological research

programme in the Prairie Region and is responsible for historic and prehistoric remains in all National Parks and National

Historic Parks and Sites in the region . It ensures that all

archaeological remains are properly protected and managed ; it conducts research to meet regional needs relating to land acquisitions, planning, development, interpretation.,and manage-ment ; and it maintains a research facility capable of handling all archaeological research functions .

At present the staff consists of nine archaeologists and

archaeological assistants and three material culture researchers under the supervision of John Combes, Chief of the division .

Generally each archaeologist is responsible for a project

involving research of a specific area or site . One archaeologist

is also designated to handle emergency or salvage situations .

Research is currently underway on York Factory, Batoche,and

Dawson City and vicinity . Archaeological surveys are also being

carried out in Kluane National Park and the Arctic, the latter

73

Excavated foundation of a small building at Lower Fort Garry, Manitoba, which illustrates the extent of structural remains which can be found as well as a variety of more recent disturbances to which they can be subjected . (Photo : Prairie Regional Office, Parks Canada, neg . no . 1K-833M .)

in cooperation with the Polar Continental Shelf project and the

Northwest Territories Government . An archaeological assessment

in the northern Yukon Territory is scheduled . Research under-

taken in the past concerned the sites of Fort Walsh, Lower Fort

Garry, Riel House, and the Motherwell Homestead . Archaeological

surveys have been made in Nahanni National Park, Prince Albert

National Park, Riding Mountain National Park, the Chilkoot Trail

area, and the Churchill area . The division has also supported

studies of the linear mounds area in southwestern Manitoba and

74

the Gray site, a large prehistoric burial area in southwestern

Saskatchewan .

Material culture research is conducted on the large number

and variety of artifacts recovered by the various projects and

is organized into major categories based on material -- ceramic,

glass, and metal . Some research has been done on contract and

some collections have been loaned out for study .

The research facility maintained by the division includes

large quantities of notes, drawings, and photographs created by

each project ; the photographic collection, for instance, now

exceeds 7,000 items . These serve not only as a basis for the

preparation of project reports but remain available as sources

for any future research questions .

The results of such archaeological research, whether in the

form of an environmental impact statement, a report on an intensive

excavation, or a report on a collection of artifacts, are prepared

primarily in support of Parks Canada activities . They are,

however, also shared with the larger professional community and

the general public through papers presented to organizations such

as the Manitoba Historical Society, Manitoba Archaeological

Society, Association of Manitoba Archaeologists, Southwestern

Manitoba Archaeological Society, Saskatchewan Archaeological

Society, Canadian Archaeological Association, Society for

Historical Archaeology, and Yukon Heritage and Museums Association .

Publications

I . Manuscript Report Series (on deposit in the Public Archives

of Canada and the provincial archives) .

MRS 171 Robert Gosman, "The Riel and Lagimodiere Families in Metis Society, 1840-1860 ; Riel House, St . Vital, Manitoba ." 186p .

MRS 196 W .D . Addison and Associates, "Nahanni National Park Historical Resources Inventory ." 2 vols . 649p .

75

MRS 203 Richard J . Friesen, "The Chilkoot : A Literature Review ." lOlp .

MRS 204 Gregory Thomas, "Lower Fort Garry Warehouse Building : Structural and Use History ." 131p .

MRS 205 David Spector, "Field Agriculture in the Canadian Prairie West, 1870-1940, with Emphasis on the Period 1870-1920 ." 174p .

MRS 219 Ian Clarke, "Motherwell Historic Park Landscape and Outbuildings - Structural and Use History ." 274p .

MRS 236 Richard J . Friesen, "The Chilkoot Pass and the Great Gold Rush in 1898 ." 224p .

MRS 237 D .M . Loveridge and Barry Potyondi, "From Wood Mountain to the Whitemud : An Historical Survey of the Grasslands National Park Area ." 565p .

MRS 239 James Shortt, "A Survey of the Human History of Prince Albert National Park, 1887-1945 ." 173p .

MRS 241 H . Guest, "Dawson, San Francisco of the North, or Boomtown in a Bog : A Literature Review ." 160p

MRS 243 Orysia J . Luchak, "Prince of Wales Fort in the Eighteenth Century: An Analysis of Trade, Construction, and Sloop Voyages Northward ." 297p .

MRS 246 Gregory Thomas, "The Men's House, Lower Fort Garry : Its Furnishings, and Place Within the Hudson's Bay Company Post Environment ." 151p .

MRS 248 Diane Payment, "Structural and Settlement History of Batoche Village ." 242p .

MRS 251 Rodger C . Guinn, "St . Andrews Parsonage, Red River : A Structural and Land Use History ." 149p .

MRS 252 Walter Hildebrandt, "Fort Battleford : A Structural History ." 2 vols . 595p .

MRS 264 James Shortt, "Grey Owl Cabin Site ." 227p .

MRS 267 David Spector, "Animal Husbandry in the Canadian Prairie West" and "W .R . Motherwell's Farming Operations" ; Lyle Dick, "W .R . Motherwell's Stone House : A Structural History ." 337p .

MRS 275 Gary Adams, "The Motherwell Farmstead, Artifact Distribution Analysis ." 227p .

MRS 276 G . Adams, S . Glover, and M . Warrack, "Motherwell Homestead Archaeological Feature Report ." 140p .

MRS 277 Charles W. Amsden, "A Preliminary Archaeological Assessment of Nahanni National Park and Vicinity ." 146p .

MRS 281 J .S . Murray and J .V . Sciscenti, "Archaeological Investigations at a Late Nineteenth Century N .W .M .P . Post, Fort Walsh, Saskatchewan : Preliminary Report on the 1975 Excavations ." 289p . ; Jeffrey S . Murray, "Archaeological Investigations at a Late Nineteenth Century N .W .M .P . Post, Fort Walsh, Saskatchewan : Preliminary Reports on the 1976 Excavations ." 194p .

Manuscripts on hand or already submitted for printing in this series include the following :

C . Amsden, A Preliminary Archaeological Assessment of Nahanni National Park and Vicinity, Stage 2, 1978 .

P . Donahue et al ., The 1976-77 Batoche Archaeological Project .

M . Forsman, Archaeological investigation at Riel House, Manitoba, 1976 .

E . Gryba, Final Report - 1973 Archaeological Survey of Prince Albert National Park .

S .M . Jamieson, A Synthesis of Archaeological Research in Riding Mountain National Park to 1973 .

K . Lunn, A Study of Glass Bottles from a Late Nineteenth Century North-West Mounted Police Post in South-western Saskatchewan : Fort Walsh National Historic Park .

D . Meyer, The Churchill Archaeological Investigations, August 1978 .

J .F .V . Millar, The Gray Site : An Early Plains Burial Ground .

S . Minni, Klondike Historic Sites : 1976 and 1977 .

G . Moat, Metal Artifacts and the 1879 Barracks at Fort Walsh, Saskatchewan .

P . Pri.ess, Archaeological Investigations at Lower Fort Garry, 1977 .

77

P . Priess and L . Sears, Archaeological Investigations at Lower Fort Garry, 1978 .

M . Stevenson, Inventory and Assessment of the Historic Resources of Kluane National Park .

L . Syms, Aboriginal Mounds in Southern Manitoba : an Evaluative Overview .

II . Research Bulletins (available to interested researchers, on

request, from Publications Section, National Historic Parks

and Sites Branch, 1600 Liverpool Court, Ottawa, Ontario,

K1A 1G2 . Beginning with no . 95, Research Bulletins are

available in both French and English .)

28 J .V . Sciscenti and J .S . Murray, "Archaeological Investigations at Fort Walsh, Saskatchewan, 1973-75 ." 1976 .

37 J .S . Murray, "Progress Report on the Archaeological Investigations at Fort Walsh, Saskatchewan, 1976 ." 1976 .

45 Gregory Thomas, "Fire in the Beaver Hills ." 1977 .

46 David Spector, "A Bibliographical Study of Field Agriculture in the Canadian Prairie West, 1870-1940 ." 1977 .

50 Richard Friesen, "The Chilkoot Pass : A Preliminary Bibliography ." 1977 .

52 S . Minni, "Survey and Test Excavation of the Klondike Historic Sites, Yukon Territory, 1976 ." 1977 .

53 P . Donahue and V . Hall, "A Report on Initial (1976) Archaeological Fieldwork at Batoche, Saskatchewan ." 1977 .

54 M . Forsman, "Archaeological Research at Riel House, Manitoba, 1976 ." 1977 .

70 Orysia J . Luchak, "York Factory and the Prince of Wales Fort : A Brief History for Visitor Reception Centre Display ." 1977 .

72 C . Amsden, "A Report on Archaeological Reconnaissance in Nahanni National Park and Vicinity, N .W .T ." 1977 .

78

73 L . Syms, "An Assessment of Mounds in Southern Manitoba ." 1977 .

74 P . Donahue and V. Hall, "Archaeology at Batoche (1977) ." 1978 .

75 S . Minni, "Klondike Historic Sites, Yukon Territory, 1977 ." 1978 .

76 G . Adams, "Motherwell Homestead Archaeology Project ." 1978 .

77, 78 David Spector, "An Annotated Bibliography for the Study of Animal Husbandry in the Canadian Prairie West, 1880-1925," (Parts A & B) . 1978 .

81 C . Parmenter, "Report on the Second Season of Archaeological Investigations of Historical Sites in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago ." 1978 .

82 J .F .V . Millar, "The Gray Burial Site ." 1978 .

84 Richard Stuart, "Quantifying the Unquantifiable : Establishing Criteria for a Building of Interest List for use in the Klondike National Historic Site ." 1978 .

85 Ian Clarke, "Yukon River Corridor : Historic Themes and Sites ." 1978 .

92 Richard Stuart, "Madame Tremblay's Store ." 1978 .

96 R . Vickers, "A Report on the 1977 Fieldwork of the Chilkoot Archaeology Project ." 1978 .

97 Diane Payment, "Monsieur Batoche ." 1978 .

114 G . Adams, "End of Season Report ; York Factory National Historic Sites ." 1979 .

The following reports have been submitted for publication in this series .

C . Amsden, Archaeological Research in Nahanni National Park, 1978 .

D . Burley, Archaeological Research of the Klondike National Historic Site : The 1978 Season .

P . Donahue, Archaeology at Batoche (1978) .

79

D . Meyer and U . Linnemae, Churchill Archaeological Research, August 1978 .

G . Moat, Carron Stoves at York Factory .

J . Murray, Preliminary Report on the 1978 Archaeology Project at Fort Walsh National Historic Park .

C . Parmenter, Historical Archaeology in the Eastern High Arctic .

P . Priess, Archaeological Investigations at Upper Fort Garry, 1978 .

M . Stevenson, Archaeological Research in Kluane National Park, 1978 .

Research Bulletins are also anticipated for current archaeological

research projects at York Factory, Dawson City, Fort Walsh, and

Kluane National Park .

Peter Priess and Richard Stuart

REQUEST FOR INFORMATION

Interpretations behind Lea and Perrins Worcestershire

Sauce bottle base markings as dating keys for archaeological

sites are being re-evaluated in light of historical and

archaeological data made available over the past decade . To

date a history of Lea and Perrins in Great Britain, Canada, and

the United States has been collated and information on thirty-

two bottles from twelve sites in the United States and Canada

collected (the data being from published sources and Parks

Canada collections) . Tests of earlier interpretations and a

revised hypothesis are to be written up as a preliminary report

although data from more sites and collections are required for

a full-scale study and to consider variables (e .g . spatial frame)

80

unaccounted for in the present sample . Hence, please send information on base markings, site, and component dates of Lea and Perrins bottles in archaeological collections to : Kevin Lunn, Archaeological Research, Parks Canada, Prairie Region, 114 Garry Street, Winnipeg, Manitoba, R3C 1G1 .

MATERIAL CULTURE COVERAGE IN THE ANNUAL M .L .A . BIBLIOGRAPHY

Since its beginnings in 1970 the Folklore Section of the Modern Language Association International Bibliography has covered among other topics a large number of books and essays on material culture in all parts of the world . All university libraries subscribe to this Bibliography . General subject headings in the current edition include Architecture, Folk Arts, Craft and Technology, Costumes and Food, and include studies by folklorists, anthropologists, art historians, culture geographers, archaeologists, museums curators, and amateur collectors . Since August 1978 coverage in this area has increased, and the next Bibliographies will contain one of the most extensive listings of current material culture research in North America . . Since I am in charge of covering this topic, I have been including a large number of studies dealing with Canadian material culture . Please forward any questions concerning this Material Culture section to Gerald L . Pocius, Lecturer, Department of Folklore, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St . John's, Newfoundland, AlC 5S7 .

81

CULTURE MATERIELLE ET BIBLIOGRAPHIE ANNUELLE

DE LA "MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION"

Depuis sa creation en 1970, la section consacree a la

culture traditionnelle dans la bibliographie internationale

publiee par la "Modern Language Association" a signale, entre

autres, un grand nombre d'ouvrages et d'articles sur la culture

materielle dans toutes les parties du monde . Toutes les

bibliotheques universitaires sont abonnees a cette bibliographie .

A 1'interieur des grandes rubriques comprises dans la derniere

edition -- architecture, arts populaires, artisanat et techno-

logie, costume et cuisine -- on trouve des etudes faites par

des folkloristes, des anthropologues, des historiens de 1'art,

des specialistes de la geographie culturelle, des archeologues,

des conservateurs de musee et des collectionneurs amateurs .

Depuis aout 1978, cette section a pris plus d'importance dans

la bibliographie, et les editions ulterieures presenteront une

des listes les plus exhaustives sur les recherches effectuees

dans le domaine de la culture materielle en Amerique du Nord .

Comme c'est a moi que 1'on a confie 1'etablissement de cette

liste, j'y ai inclus un grand nombre d'etudes portant sur la

culture materielle au Canada et je me ferai un plaisir de

repondre a toutes vos questions . S'il vous plait s'adresser a

Gerald L . Pocius, Charge de cours, Department of Folklore,

Memorial University of Newfoundland, St-Jean (Terre-Neuve),

A1C 5S7 .

82

COMMUNICATIONS DU "COLLOQUE SUR L'HISTOIRE

DE LA CULTURE MATERIELLE DU CANADA"

En mars 1979, le Musee national de 1'Homme a parraine la premiere conference nationale sur 1'histoire de la culture materielle au Canada . Quinze participants representant un echantillon de disciplines, d'etablissements et de payscnt presente des communications sur les sujets suivants :

Histoire de la culture materielle et histoire :

situation actuelle et perspectives d'avenir

Approches et realisations en histoire de la culture materielle : trois etudes de cas

Les sources en histoire de la culture materielle : expose critique

L'histoire de la culture materielle a 1'etranger :

progr6s recents et orientations futures en France, en Grande-Bretagne et aux Etats-Unis

Besoins actuels, perspectives d'avenir et application

de la recherche en histoire de la culture

materielle

Ces communications sont maintenant regroupees dans le Bulletin d'histoire de la culture materielle no 8 . Pour commander ce numero special, il suffit d'envoyer un cheque ou mandat de $5 a 1'ordre du Receveur general du Canada a 1'adresse suivante :

Service des commandes Division de 1'edition Musees nationaux du Canada Ottawa (Ontario) K1A OM8

83

PAPERS FROM "CANADA'S MATERIAL HISTORY : A FORUM"

In March 1979 the National Museum of Man sponsored the first

national conference on Canadian material history . Fifteen

participants invited from a cross-section of disciplines,

institutions, and countries presented papers on the following

topics :

- Material History and History : Present Relationship

and Future Prospects

- Approaches to and Achievements in Material History :

Three Case Studies

- Sources for Material History : A Critique

- Material History Abroad : Recent Developments and

Future Trends

- Present Needs and Future Prospects in Material History :

Training and Application of Research

These papers are now available for $5 .00 as Material History

Bulletin no . 8, a special issue which can be ordered by

forwarding a cheque or money order payable to the Receiver General

of Canada to :

Order Fulfilment, Publishing Division, National Museums of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario . K1A OM8

84

CONTRIBUTORS/COLLABORATEURS

Alan F .J . Artibise teaches Canadian history at the University of Victoria and is editor of the Urban History Review .

Anita Campbell , a graduate student in Laval University's Centre d'etudes sur la langue, les arts et les traditions populaires CC9LAT7, has worked on material culture projects at the Glenbow-Alberta Institute and for Parks Canada in Ottawa and Louisbourg .

Yvan Chouinard travaille a 1'Inventaire des Biens culturels au ministere des Affaires culturelles du Quebec .

Robert Griffin, formerly Curator of the British Columbia Forest Museum in Duncan, B .C . is Industrial History Technician at the British Columbia Provincial Museum .

Judy Keenlyside is author of a forthcoming History Division Paper in the National Museum of Man's Mercury Series,'Selected Canadian Spinning Wheels in Perspective : An Ana yt~ical Approach .

Zane Lewis , Social History Curator at the British Columbia Provincial Museum, has organized that museum's exhibit on "Yesterday's Child ."

Dianne Newell , newly appointed editor of IA : Journal of the Society for Industrial Archaeology , is completing her doctorate in history at the University of Western Ontario .

Peter Priess is an archaeologist in the Prairie Regional Office of Parks Canada who is currently working on Lower Fort Garry .

Ivan W . Sayers is Curator of History at the Vancouver Centennial Museum .

Robert Shipley has carried out research on Canadian war memorials since 1976 .

Richard Stuart , an historian with the Prairie Regional Office of Parks Canada, is presently carrying out research on buildings in Dawson, Yukon Territory .

NATIONAL MUSEUMS OF CANADA MUSfES NATIONAUX DU CANADA

ISSN 0703-489X