Under the Supervision of:

Mr. Vivek Trivedi (DPM)

Mr. Varun Sood

Ms. Sonia Kararha

Mr. Jay Ramesh Kumar Somani

EN4B,

Engineering Research and Development,

Maruti Suzuki India Limited,

Palam road, Gurgaon. bksay1@gmail.com

Vocational Training Report

of Training done at MSIL,

Gurgaon, Haryana

INDEX

Introduction

Maruti Suzuki India Limited………………………………………………………………………………………………..1

Suzuki Motor

Corporation………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..2

Vehicles in India………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….3

Plant Layout MSIL……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….9

General process of assembly…………………………………………………………………………………………….10

Research & Development – Braking System (EN4B)

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..12

Basic types of braking systems………………………………………………………………………………………….13

Characteristics…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..14

Components

Tandem Master Cylinder…………………………………………………………………………………………….15

Proportionating Valve…………………………………………………………………………………………………16

ABS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..16

Disc Brakes………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….19

Drum Brakes……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….19

EM- Brakes………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….20

Pedal ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….22

Parking Brake………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……22

Brake fluid………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....23

Noise……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………...24

Inefficiency…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…24

Project I

Objective………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….27

Theory………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………27

Experiment/ theory…………………………………………………………………………………………………….…..35

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..36

Project II

Objective………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...37

Introduction to UG…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..37

Current situation……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...39

Benchmark……………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………...39

Proposals & Remarks…………………………………………….…………………………………………………………40

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………..…..43

Acknowledgement

I express my deepest sense of gratitude to Sir I.V.Rao, Sr. MEO (ENGG), for providing me

with the opportunity to pursue my 6 weeks Vocational Industrial Training at MSIL (Maruti

Suzuki India limited), Gurgaon, Haryana.

I would also like to thank our DPM Mr. Vivek Trivedi for his kind co-operation & support; and for making my stay at MSIL a pleasure.

This report has been possible only because of the benevolent cooperation of Mr. Varun

Sood, under whose guidance I initiated my training. It has been truly inspirational and

encouraging experience of visiting each shop and finding out all details about the different

operations. I specially thank him for sparing his valuable time from his extremely busy

schedule and answering my questions; especially for the trouble he took to introduce me to

different people at different times of my training so that I have a better knowledge of the

operations. Sir, words are not enough to thank you.

I would most definitely, like to convey my gratitude to, Mr. Varun Sood, Ms. Sonia Kararha, Mr. Jay Ramesh Kumar Somani (Project Guides) for their immense patience, support and active interest in the projects that were assigned to me.

I wish to express my gratitude to all the staff of EN4B, who have provided me with valuable

inputs about process details and countless other people who have directly or indirectly

contributed in helping me complete my training successfully and submit this report. I desire

to specially salute the technicians who are skilfully operating under such circumstances, and

doing their work so precisely. It requires lot of enthusiasm, deftness and dedication to do

such an adroit job.

Last but not the least; I thank my parents who have been my pillars of support and my

reservoir of inspiration.

PREFACE

This is an observational summary report of the functioning of MSIL (Maruti Suzuki India

Limited), Gurgaon, Haryana, where I underwent a 6-weeks vocational industrial training

from 19.06.2012 to 31.07.2012 as a part of the College Curriculum (Paper Code ME-411:

Vocational Industrial Training) for partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering from M. M. University, Mullana, Ambala.

The report deals with the basic operation of different shops and Departments under MSIL,

Gurgaon. Special emphasis has been laid on equipment specifications, process capabilities

and operation parameters. Data and information put down are mostly obtained from first

hand sources.

The technical orientation and observational training provided at the plant was immensely

beneficial to me in understanding the basic procedures and steps followed while designing,

analysing, manufacturing, assembling, Re-checking, Rectifying and Implementing; of

concepts and ideas for the customers satisfaction, who uses automobiles. It has helped in

bridging up the gap between my theoretical knowledge and the practical experience and

has answered a number of queries. This has helped increase my fundamental knowledge of

Mechanical Engineering as well as other related fields.

Sincere effort has been made to produce correct and factual data. However, bringing to

notice the misrepresentation of any information shall be appreciated. All errors are

regrettable and subjected to your forgiveness. Although some of the Data may have been

procured from the internet, all the facts presented in here are correct to my knowledge.

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 1 | P a g e

Maruti Suzuki India Limited

Maruti Suzuki India Limited (MSIL, formerly known as Maruti Udyog Limited) is a subsidiary of Suzuki Motor

Corporation, Japan. Maruti Suzuki has been the leader of the Indian car market for over two and a half decades. The

company has two manufacturing facilities located at Gurgaon and Manesar, south of New Delhi, India. Both the facilities

have a combined capability to produce over a 1.5 million (1,500,000) vehicles annually. The company plans to expand its

manufacturing capacity to 1.75 million by 2013.

The Company offers 15 brands and over 150 variants ranging from people's car Maruti 800 to the latest Life Utility

Vehicle, Ertiga. The portfolio includes Maruti 800, Alto, Alto K10, A-star, Estilo, WagonR, Ritz, Swift, Swift DZire, SX4,

Omni, Eeco, Kizashi, Grand Vitara, Gypsy and Ertiga. In an environment friendly initiative, in August 2010 Maruti Suzuki

introduced factory fitted CNG option on 5 models across vehicle segments. These include Eeco, Alto, Estilo, Wagon R and

Sx4. With this Maruti Suzuki became the first company in India to introduce factory fitted CNG vehicles.

In terms of number of cars produced and sold, the Company is the largest subsidiary of Suzuki Motor Corporation.

Cumulatively, the Company has produced over 10 million vehicles since the roll out of its first vehicle on 14th December,

1983.

Maruti Suzuki is the only Indian Company to have crossed the 10 million sales mark since its inception. In 2011-12, the

company sold over 1.13 million vehicles including 1,27,379 units of exports.

The Company employs over 9000 people (as on 31st March, 2012). Maruti Suzuki's sales and service network is the largest

among car manufacturers in India. The Company has been rated first in customer satisfaction in the JD Power survey for

12 consecutive years. Besides serving the Indian market, Maruti Suzuki also exports cars to several countries in Europe,

Asia, Latin America, Africa and Oceania

Maruti Suzuki's revenue over the years:

Year Net Sales Year

Net Sales (Rs. in Million)

2006-07 2007-08 2008-09

1,45,922 1,78,603 2,03,583

2009-10 2010-11 2011-12

3,01,198 3,58,490 3,47,059

The company is listed on Bombay Stock Exchange and National Stock Exchange.

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 2 | P a g e

SUZUKI Motor Corporation

The Company started its business in the year 1909 as Suzuki Loom Works and then

was incorporated as Suzuki Motor Corporation in the year 1920.

With headquarters at Hamamatsu, Japan, Suzuki has steadily grown and expanded

its business across geographies. During the post WW II period, the company's

'Power Free' motorized bike earned a good reputation.

Post the success of its first motorized bike 'Power Free', the company launched a

125cc motorcycle 'Colleda', and later launched its first lightweight car 'Suzulight'

that marked the start of Japan's automotive revolution. Each of these products

were epoch- making in their own right as they were developed and manufactured by

Optimizing the most advanced technologies of that period.

Suzuki today offers its customers a wide range of motorcycles, automobiles,

outboard motors and related products such as generators and motorized

wheelchairs.

Suzuki's trademark is recognized throughout the world as a brand that offers

high quality, reliable and genuine products. Suzuki stands behind this global

symbol with a determination to maintain this confidence in the future as well,

never stopping in creating such advanced 'value-packed' products.

Suzuki develops products for the new generation and changeable lifestyles, constantly creating new technologies and applying

them to products with affluent imagination. The team covers a wide range of latest advances in energy, environment, electronics,

communication, information and control applications.

Suzuki positively tackles environmental issues with all its products and

business activities. Suzuki is continually carrying out research for the

further development of four-wheel vehicles particularly in the

improvement of fuel economy and the reduction of gas emissions and noise.

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 3 | P a g e

Vehicles in India

Maruti 800 :

Alto :

Alto K10 :

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 4 | P a g e

Omni :

Gypsy :

Estilo :

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 5 | P a g e

Wagon R :

Eeco :

A-Star :

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 6 | P a g e

Ritz :

Swift :

SX4 :

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 7 | P a g e

Swift DZire :

Ertiga :

Grand VITARA :

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 8 | P a g e

Kizashi :

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 9 | P a g e

Plant Layout at MSIL

Assembly

Plant – 1

Assembly

Plant – 2

Assembly

Plant – 3

Mezzanine – 1 & 2

Wel

din

g Sh

op

& B

od

y

Sho

p

R &

D

Engi

ne

- 1

& 2

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 10 | P a g e

General process of assembly

TRIM :

TRIM-1 :

1) Doors are removed from the body.

2) Internal Wiring is done.

3) Accelerator, Brake, Clutch braces are attached.

4) Tandem Master Cylinder is fixed.

5) Horn is Installed.

TRIM-2 :

1) Instrument panel Attached.

2) Air-Conditioning Unit Installed.

3) Steering Joint and rod Installed.

4) Gear change stick brace attached.

5) Windshields Attached.

TRIM-3 :

1) Fuel Filter Installed.

2) Water Container Attached.

3) Tail Lamp is Installed.

Chassis :

Chassis-1 :

1) Brake Pipes Installed.

2) Fuel line Installed.

3) Rear Shock Absorbers Bolted.

4) Front McPherson Struts Attached.

5) Head Lamps Installed.

6) Swing-Arm at front wheel Installed.

7) Rear Axle Attached.

8) Rack N Pinion Assembly Bolted.

9) Mudguards Attached.

10) Drum Brakes Installed.

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 11 | P a g e

Chassis-2 :

1) Engine-Gearbox Sub-Assembly Installed.

2) Intake Manifold Attached to the Mechanical Circuit.

3) Catalytic Convertor & Muffler Bolted.

4) Axle Nuts are tightened using an Electronic Machine.

5) Bumpers Installed.

6) Steering Rod is connected to the Rack N Pinion

Assembly.

7) Wheels Are Bolted in Place.

8) Gearbox Levers Inserted.

Final :

Final-1 :

1) Gear-Shift Mechanism Completed.

2) Sensor Chips/Fuses Attached to the engine, etc.

3) Handbrake Installed.

4) Coolant Tank and associated piping Attached.

5) Brake Fluid and Engine Oil is Filled.

6) Battery Positioned and Bolted.

7) Rear Seats and Wipers Installed.

Final-2 :

1) Air Filter Bolted.

2) Front Seats Attached.

3) Door Locking Hooks Attached.

4) Gear-Stick & Handbrake Cover Placed.

5) Fuel is Filled.

6) Doors Re-Attached.

7) Coolant And A/C Fluid Filled.

8) Finishing And Electronics Are Checked.

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 12 | P a g e

Research & Development

– Braking System (EN4B)

Introduction:

A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. Its opposite component is a clutch. The rest of this article is dedicated

to various types of vehicular brakes.

Most commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat, though other

methods of energy conversion may be employed. For example regenerative

braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for

later use. Other methods convert kinetic energy into potential energy in such stored

forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields

to convert kinetic energy into electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail, which is converted into heat. Still other braking

methods even transform kinetic energy into different forms, for example by transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.

Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other forms such as the surface of a moving fluid

(flaps deployed into water or air). Some vehicles use a combination of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars with

both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes with both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing.

Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity (K = mv2 / 2), an object traveling at 10 meters per second has

100 times as much energy as one traveling at 1 meter per second, and consequently the theoretical braking distance, when

braking at the traction limit, is 100 times as long. In practice, fast vehicles usually have significant air drag, and energy lost

to air drag rises quickly with speed.

Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and shopping carts may have them for use on

a moving ramp. Most fixed-wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes on the under carriage. Some aircraft also feature air

brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight. Notable examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft,

primarily some fighter aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a safe speed in a

steep descent. The Saab B 17 dive bomber used the deployed undercarriage as an air brake.

Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake while braking then conduct it to

the air gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles can use their engines to brake.

When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed, ultimately a piston pushes the brake

pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake

shoes against the drum which also slows the wheel down.

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 13 | P a g e

Basic types of braking systems:

Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or electromagnetics. One brake may use several principles: for

example, a pump may pass fluid through an orifice to create friction:

Frictional brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into "shoe" or "pad" brakes, using an explicit wear

surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such as parachutes, which use friction in a working fluid and do not explicitly

wear. Typically the term "friction brake" is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and excludes hydrodynamic brakes,

even though hydrodynamic brakes use friction.

Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often rotating devices with a stationary pad and a rotating wear surface. Common

configurations include shoes that contract to rub on the outside of a rotating drum, such as a band brake; a

rotating drum with shoes that expand to rub the inside of a drum, commonly called a "drum brake", although

other drum configurations are possible; and pads that pinch a rotating disc, commonly called a "disc brake".

Other brake configurations are used, but less often. For example, PCC trolley brakes include a flat shoe which is

clamped to the rail with an

electromagnet; the Murphy

brake pinches a rotating drum, and

the Ausco Lambert disc brake uses a

hollow disc (two parallel discs with a

structural bridge) with shoes that sit

between the disc surfaces and expand

laterally.

Pumping brakes are often used where a

pump is already part of the machinery.

For example, an internal-combustion

piston motor can have the fuel supply

stopped, and then internal pumping losses of the engine create some braking. Some engines use a valve override

called a Jake brake to greatly increase pumping losses. Pumping brakes can dump energy as heat, or can be

regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure reservoir called an hydraulic accumulator.

Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is

already part of the machinery. For example, many hybrid

gasoline/electric vehicles use the electric motor as a generator to charge

electric batteries and also as a regenerative brake. Some diesel/electric

railroad locomotives use the electric motors to generate electricity which

is then sent to a resistor bank and dumped as heat. Some vehicles, such

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 14 | P a g e

as some transit buses, do not already have an electric motor but use a secondary "retarder" brake that is

effectively a generator with an internal short-circuit. Related types of such a brake are eddy current brakes,

and electro-mechanical brakes (which actually are magnetically driven friction brakes, but nowadays are often

just called “electromagnetic brakes” as well).

Characteristics: Brakes are often described according to several characteristics including:

Peak force – The peak force is the maximum decelerating effect that can be obtained. The peak force is often

greater than the traction limit of the tires, in which case the brake can cause a wheel skid.

Continuous power dissipation – Brakes typically get hot in use, and fail when the temperature gets too high. The

greatest amount of power (energy per unit time) that can be dissipated through the brake without failure is the

continuous power dissipation. Continuous power dissipation often depends on e.g., the temperature and speed of

ambient cooling air.

Fade – As a brake heats, it may become less effective, called brake fade. Some designs are inherently prone to

fade, while other designs are relatively immune. Further, use considerations, such as cooling, often have a big

effect on fade.

Smoothness – A brake that is grabby, pulses, has chatter, or otherwise exerts varying brake force may lead to

skids. For example, railroad wheels have little traction, and friction brakes without an anti-skid mechanism often

lead to skids, which increases maintenance costs and leads to a "thump- thump" feeling for riders inside.

Power – Brakes are often described as "powerful" when a small human application force leads to a braking force

that is higher than typical for other brakes in the same class. This notion of "powerful" does not relate to

continuous power dissipation, and may be confusing in that a brake may be "powerful" and brake strongly with a

gentle brake application, yet have lower (worse) peak force than a less "powerful" brake.

Pedal feel – Brake pedal feel encompasses subjective perception of brake power output as a function of pedal

travel. Pedal travel is influenced by the fluid displacement of the brake and other factors.

Drag – Brakes have varied amount of drag in the off-brake condition depending on design of the system to

accommodate total system compliance and deformation that exists under braking with ability to retract friction

material from the rubbing surface in the off-brake condition.

Durability – Friction brakes have wear surfaces that must be renewed periodically. Wear surfaces include the

brake shoes or pads, and also the brake disc or drum. There may be tradeoffs, for example a wear surface that

generates high peak force may also wear quickly.

Weight – Brakes are often "added weight" in that they serve no other function. Further, brakes are often mounted

on wheels, and unsprung weight can significantly hurt traction in some circumstances. "Weight" may mean the

brake itself, or may include additional support structure.

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 15 | P a g e

Noise – Brakes usually create some minor noise when applied, but often create squeal or grinding noises that are

quite loud.

Components: Tandem Master Cylinder -- The tandem master cylinder transforms applied brake force into hydraulic pressure

which is transferred to the wheel units through two separate circuits. This provides residual braking in the event

of fluid loss.

The Master Cylinder in Action

When you press the brake pedal, it

pushes on the primary

piston through a

linkage. Pressure builds in the

cylinder and lines as the brake pedal

is depressed further. The pressure

between the primary and secondary

piston forces the secondary piston to

compress the fluid in its circuit. If

the brakes are operating properly,

the pressure will be the same in both

circuits.

Brake master cylinder - brakes off

Brake master cylinder - brakes on

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 16 | P a g e

Proportionating Valve -- A proportioning valve is a valve that relies on the laws of fluid pressure to distribute

input forces to one or more output lines. A proportioning valve can increase or decrease forces for each output,

depending on the cross-sectional surface areas of those output lines.

A simple example is an input tube with cross-sectional area A entering a chamber.

Leading out of the chamber are two more tubes, one with cross-sectional area

3A and the other with area A/2. If a force F is applied to the fluid in the input tube,

the pressure in that tube will be F/A. Utilizing pressure laws, we find that each

output tube will see the same pressure. This means the output tube with area

3A will yield a force of 3F, and the output tube with area A/2 will yield a force

of F/2. Thus, if you apply a 10-force to the input, you will get forces of 30 lbf and

5 lbf, respectively, from the outputs. If you apply a 10-newton force to the input,

you will get forces of 30 N and 5 N, respectively, from the outputs

Proportioning valves are frequently used in cars to reduce the brake fluid pressure

to the rear brakes.

ABS -- An anti-lock braking system (ABS) is an automobile safety system that allows the wheels on a motor

vehicle to continue interacting tractively with the road surface as directed by driver steering inputs while braking,

preventing the wheels from locking up (that is, ceasing rotation) and therefore avoiding skidding. It is an

automated system that uses the principles of threshold braking and cadence braking, that was practised by

skilful drivers with previous generation non-ABS braking systems. It does this at a much faster rate and with

better control than a driver could manage.

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 17 | P a g e

An ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping distances on dry and slippery surfaces

for many drivers; however, on loose surfaces like gravel or snow-covered pavement, an ABS can significantly

increase braking distance, although still improving vehicle control.

The theory behind anti-lock brakes is simple.

A skidding wheel (where the tire contact patch

is sliding relative to the road) has

less traction than a non-skidding wheel. If you

have been stuck on ice, you know that if your

wheels are spinning you have no traction. This

is because the contact patch is sliding relative

to the ice (see Brakes for more). By keeping the wheels from skidding while you slow down, anti-lock brakes

benefit you in two ways: You'll stop faster, and you'll be able to steer while you stop.

There are four main components to an ABS system:

Speed Sensors

The anti-lock braking system needs some way of knowing when a wheel is about to lock up. The speed sensors,

which are located at each wheel, or in some cases in the differential, provide this information.

Valves

There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the ABS. On some systems, the valve has three

positions:

In position one, the valve is open; pressure from the master cylinder is passed right through to the brake.

In position two, the valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from the master cylinder. This prevents the

pressure from rising further should the driver push the brake pedal harder.

In position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from the brake.

Pump

Since the valve is able to release pressure from the brakes, there has to be some way to put that pressure back.

That is what the pump does; when a valve reduces the pressure in a line, the pump is there to get the pressure

back up.

Controller

The controller is a computer in the car. It watches the speed sensors and controls the valves.

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 18 | P a g e

ABS at Work

There are many different variations and control algorithms for ABS systems. We will discuss how one of the

simpler systems works.

The controller monitors the speed sensors at all times. It is looking for decelerations in the wheel that are out of

the ordinary. Right before wheel locks up, it will experience a rapid deceleration. If left unchecked, the wheel

would stop much more quickly than any car could. It might take a car five seconds to stop from 60 mph (96.6

kmph) under ideal conditions, but a wheel that locks up could stop spinning in less than a second.

The ABS controller knows that such a rapid deceleration is impossible, so it reduces the pressure to that brake

until it sees acceleration, then it increases the pressure until it sees the deceleration again. It can do this very

quickly, before the tire can actually significantly change speed. The result is that the tire slows down at the same

rate as the car, with the brakes keeping the tires very near the point at which they will start to lock up. This gives

the system maximum braking power.

When the ABS system is in operation you will feel a pulsing in the brake pedal; this comes from the rapid opening

and closing of the valves. Some ABS systems can cycle up to 15 times per second.

Anti-Lock Brake Types:

Anti-lock braking systems use different schemes depending on the type of brakes in use. We will refer to them by the

number of channels -- that is, how many valves that are individually controlled -- and the number of speed sensors.

Four-channel, four-sensor ABS

This is the best scheme. There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a separate valve for all four wheels. With this setup,

the controller monitors each wheel individually to make sure it is achieving maximum braking force.

Three-channel, three-sensor ABS

This scheme, commonly found on pickup trucks with four-wheel ABS, has a speed sensor and a valve for each of the front

wheels, with one valve and one sensor for both rear wheels. The speed sensor for the rear wheels is located in the rear axle.

This system provides individual control of the front wheels, so they can both achieve maximum braking force. The rear

wheels, however, are monitored together; they both have to start to lock up before the ABS will activate on the rear. With

this system, it is possible that one of the rear wheels will lock during a stop, reducing brake effectiveness.

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 19 | P a g e

One-channel, one-sensor ABS

This system is commonly found on pickup trucks with rear-wheel ABS. It has one valve, which controls both rear wheels,

and one speed sensor, located in the rear axle.

This system operates the same as the rear end of a three-channel system. The rear wheels are monitored together and they

both have to start to lock up before the ABS kicks in. In this system it is also possible that one of the rear wheels will lock,

reducing brake effectiveness.

Disc Brakes -- The disc brake is a wheel brake which slows rotation of the wheel by the friction caused by

pushing brake pads against a brake disc with a set of callipers. The brake disc (or rotor in American English) is

usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases be made of composites such as reinforced carbon–

carbon or ceramic matrix composites. This is connected to the wheel and/or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction

material in the form of brake pads, mounted on a device called a brake calliper, is forced

mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes

the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop. Brakes convert motion to heat, and if the brakes get too hot, they

become less effective, a phenomenon known as brake fade.

Disc-style brakes development and use began in England in

the 1890s. The first calliper-type automobile disc brake was

patented by Frederick William Lanchester in his Birmingham,

UK factory in 1902 and used successfully on Lanchester cars.

Compared to drum brakes, disc brakes offer better stopping

performance, because the disc is more readily cooled. As a

consequence discs are less prone to the "brake fade"; and disc brakes recover more quickly from immersion (wet

brakes are less effective). Most drum brake designs have at least one leading shoe, which gives a servo-effect. By

contrast, a disc brake has no self-servo effect and its braking force is always proportional to the pressure placed

on the brake pad by the braking system via any brake servo, braking pedal or lever, this tends to give the driver

better "feel" to avoid impending lockup. Drums are also prone to "bell mouthing", and trap worn lining material

within the assembly, both causes of various braking problems.

Drum Brakes -- A drum brake is a brake in which the friction is

caused by a set of shoes or pads that press against a rotating

drum-shaped part called a brake drum.

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 20 | P a g e

The term "drum brake" usually means a brake in which shoes press on the inner surface of the drum. When

shoes press on the outside of the drum, it is usually called a clasp brake. Where the drum is pinched between

two shoes, similar to a conventional disk brake, it is sometimes called a "pinch drum brake", although such

brakes are relatively rare. A related type of brake uses a flexible belt or "band" wrapping around the outside of a

drum, called a band brake.

EM- Brakes -- Electromagnetic brakes (also called electro-mechanical brakes or EM brakes) slow or stop motion

using electromagnetic force to apply mechanical resistance (friction). The original name was "electro-mechanical

brakes" but over the years the name changed to "electromagnetic brakes", referring to their actuation method.

Since becoming popular in the mid-20th century especially in trains and trolleys, the variety of applications

and brake designs has increased dramatically, but the basic operation remains the same.

Both electromagnetic brakes and eddy current brakes use electromagnetic force but electromagnetic brakes

ultimately depend on friction and eddy current brakes use magnetic force directly.

Applications In locomotives, a mechanical linkage transmits torque to an electromagnetic braking component.

Trams and trains use electromagnetic track brakes where the braking element is pressed by magnetic force to

the rail. They are distinguished from mechanical track brakes, where the braking element is mechanically pressed

on the rail.

Electric motors in industrial and robotic applications also employ electromagnetic brakes.

Recent design innovations have led to the application of electromagnetic brakes to aircraft applications. In this

application, a combination motor/generator is used first as a motor to spin the tires up to speed prior to

touchdown, thus reducing wear on the tires, and then as a generator to provide regenerative braking.

Types of EM-Brakes:

Single face brake

A friction-plate brake uses a single plate friction surface to engage the input and output members of the clutch.

Single face electromagnetic brakes make up approximately 80% of all of the power applied brake applications.

Power off brake

Power off brakes stop or hold a load when electrical power is either accidentally lost or intentionally disconnected.

In the past, some companies have referred to these as "fail safe" brakes. These brakes are typically used on or near

an electric motor. Typical applications include robotics, holding brakes for Z axis ball screws and servo motor

brakes. Brakes are available in multiple voltages and can have either standard backlash or zero backlash hubs.

Multiple disks can also be used to increase brake torque, without increasing brake diameter. There are 2 main

types of holding brakes. The first is spring applied brakes. The second is permanent magnet brakes.

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 21 | P a g e

Spring type - When no electricity is applied to the brake, a spring pushes against a

pressure plate, squeezing the friction disk between the inner pressure plate and

the outer cover plate. This frictional clamping force is transferred to the hub,

which is mounted to a shaft.

Permanent magnet type – A permanent magnet holding brake looks very similar to a

standard power applied electromagnetic brake. Instead of squeezing a friction disk, via

springs, it uses permanent magnets to attract a single face armature. When the brake is

engaged, the permanent magnets create magnetic lines of flux, which can turn attract

the armature to the brake housing. To disengage the brake, power is applied to the coil

which sets up an alternate magnetic field that cancels out the magnetic flux of the

permanent magnets.

Both power off brakes are considered to be engaged when no power is applied to them. They are typically required

to hold or to stop alone in the event of a loss of power or when power is not available in a machine circuit.

Permanent magnet brakes have a very high torque for their size, but also require a constant current control to

offset the permanent magnetic field. Spring applied brakes do not require a constant current control; they can

use a simple rectifier, but are larger in diameter or would need stacked friction disks to increase the torque.

Particle brake

Magnetic particle brakes are unique in their design from other electro-mechanical

brakes because of the wide operating torque range available. Like an electro-

mechanical brake, torque to voltage is almost linear; however, in a magnetic

particle brake, torque can be controlled very accurately (within the operating RPM

range of the unit). This makes these units ideally suited for tension control

applications, such as wire winding, foil, film, and tape tension control. Because of

their fast response, they can also be used in high cycle applications, such as magnetic

card readers, sorting machines and labelling equipment.

Magnetic particles (very similar to iron filings) are located in the powder cavity. When

electricity is applied to the coil, the resulting magnetic flux tries to bind the particles together, almost like a

magnetic particle slush. As the electric current is increased, the binding of the particles becomes stronger. The

brake rotor passes through these bound particles. The output of the housing is rigidly attached to some portion of

the machine. As the particles start to bind together, a resistant force is created on the rotor, slowing, and

eventually stopping the output shaft.

When electricity is removed from the brake, the input is free to turn with the shaft. Since magnetic particle

powder is in the cavity, all magnetic particle units have some type of minimum drag associated with them.

Hysteresis power brake

Electrical hysteresis units have an extremely wide torque range. Since these units can

be controlled remotely, they are ideal for test stand applications where varying torque

is required. Since drag torque is minimal, these units offer the widest available torque

range of any of the hysteresis products. Most applications involving powered hysteresis

units are in test stand requirements.

When electricity is applied to the field, it creates an internal magnetic flux. That flux is

then transferred into a hysteresis disk passing through the field. The hysteresis disk is

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 22 | P a g e

attached to the brake shaft. A magnetic drag on the hysteresis disk allows for a constant drag, or eventual

stoppage of the output shaft.

When electricity is removed from the brake, the hysteresis disk is free to turn, and no relative force is transmitted

between either member. Therefore, the only torque seen between the input and the output is bearing drag.

Pedal – It is the part of braking device actuated directly by the driver to supply to the transmission the

energy required for braking for controlling the vehicle.

If F is the force applied by the driver , then because of lever

action the force that will act at push rod of master cylinder

will be F*(A/B). The brake pedal multiplies the effort of the

driver.

Parking Brake – It is a latching brake usually used to keep the vehicle stationary. It is sometimes also used to

prevent a vehicle from rolling when the operator needs both feet to operate the clutch and throttle pedals.

Automobile hand brakes usually consist of a cable directly connected to the brake mechanism on one end and to

a lever or foot pedal at the driver's position. The mechanism is often a hand-

operated lever (hence the hand brake name), on the floor on either side of

the driver, or a pull handle located below and near the steering wheel column,

or a (foot-operated) pedal located far apart from the other pedals.

Although sometimes known as an emergency brake, using it in any emergency

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where the footbrake is still operational is likely to badly upset the brake balance of the car and vastly increase the

likelihood of loss of control of the vehicle, for example by initiating a rear-wheel skid. Additionally, the stopping

force provided by using the handbrake is small and would not significantly aid in stopping the vehicle. The

parking brake operates only on the rear wheels, which have reduced traction while braking. The emergency brake

is instead intended for use in case of mechanical failure where the regular footbrake is inoperable or

compromised. Modern brake systems are typically very reliable and equipped with dual-circuit hydraulics and

low brake fluid sensor systems, meaning the handbrake is rarely used to stop a moving vehicle.

The most common use for a parking brake is to keep the vehicle motionless when it is parked. Parkin brakes have

a ratchet locking mechanism that will keep them engaged until a release button is pressed. On vehicles

with automatic transmissions, this is usually used in concert with a parking pawl in the transmission. Automotive

safety experts recommend the use of both systems to immobilize a parked car, and the use of both systems is

required by law in some places[citation needed], yet many individuals use only the "Park" position on the

automatic transmission and not the parking brake. It's similar with manual transmission cars: They are

recommended always to be left with the handbrake engaged, in concert with their lowest gear (usually either first

or reverse). The use of both systems is also required by law in some jurisdictions. However, when parking on level

ground, many people either only engage the handbrake (gear lever in neutral), or only select a gear (handbrake

released). If parking on a hill with only one system results in the car rolling and damaging the car or other

property, insurance companies in some countries, for example in Germany, aren’t required to pay for the

damages.

Brake fluid – Brake fluid is a type of hydraulic fluid used in brake applications in automobiles. It is used to

transfer force under pressure from where it is created through hydraulic lines to the braking mechanism near the

wheels. It works because liquids are not appreciably compressible.

The dry boiling point is the temperature a brake fluid will boil at its non-contaminated state.

The wet boiling point is the temperature a brake fluid will boil at after it has been fully saturated with moisture.

Important Features:

It should have low tendency to absorb water, as it cause corrosion and decrease the boiling temperature, which

may lead to a partial or complete brake system failure.

It should have high boiling temperature.

It should cause no corrosion of system components.

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Types of Brake Fluid

• DOT 3:

It requires minimum wet and dry boiling point. It is glycol-based and absorbs moisture, which lowers its boiling point

over time and promotes internal corrosion in the brake system.

• DOT 4:

It is also a glycol-based brake fluid that has a higher wet boiling point. It is used mainly for performance vehicle

which produce high temperature during braking.

• DOT 5:

It is a silicone-based fluid that does not absorb moisture and has minimum boiling point.

>> Boiling Point Ranges

Dry Boiling Wet Boiling

Point Point

• DOT 3 205°C (401°F) 140°C (284°F)

• DOT 4 230°C (446°F) 155°C (311°F)

• DOT 5 260°C (500°F) 180°C (356°F)

• DOT 5.1 270°C (518°F) 191°C (375°F)

* DOT 3 brake fluid was used which is readily available at any automobile shop.

Noise: Although ideally a brake would convert all the kinetic energy into heat, in practice a significant amount may be converted

into acoustic energy instead, contributing to noise pollution.

For road vehicles, the noise produced varies significantly with tire construction, road surface, and the magnitude of the

deceleration. Noise can be caused by different things. These are signs that there may be issues with brakes wearing out over

time.

Inefficiency: A significant amount of energy is always lost while braking, even with regenerative braking which is not perfectly efficient.

Therefore a good metric of efficient energy use while driving is to note how much one is braking. If the majority of

deceleration is from unavoidable friction instead of braking, one is squeezing out most of the service from the vehicle.

Minimizing brake use is one of the fuel economy-maximizing behaviors.

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 25 | P a g e

While energy is always lost during a brake event, a secondary factor that influences efficiency is "off-brake drag", or drag

that occurs when the brake is not intentionally actuated. After a braking event, hydraulic pressure drops in the system,

allowing the brake caliper pistons to retract. However, this retraction must accommodate all compliance in the system

(under pressure) as well as thermal distortion of components like the brake disc or the brake system will drag until the

contact with the disc, for example, knocks the pads and pistons back from the rubbing surface. During this time, there can

be significant brake drag. This brake drag can lead to significant parasitic power loss, thus impact fuel economy and

vehicle performance.

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 26 | P a g e

Contents

Objective–

Introduction to the project (bolt, function of the particular bolt, expectations

of expt., etc.)

Theory –

1. Hexagonal head bolts intro

2. Hexagonal head bolts classifications

a. threading

b. strength

c. material

d. part grades

3. Hexagonal head bolts mechanical Properties

4. Hexagonal head bolts Geometric tolerances

5. Hexagonal head bolts Appearances (fine, coarse)

6. Hexagonal head bolts mechanical prop. Inspection (procedure and values)

7. Hexagonal head bolts designation

Experiment / Project –

1. Aim

2. Tools and material required

3. Experiment procedure

4. Observations

5. Results

Conclusion –

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Objective

The main goal of conducting this project/Experiment is to determine the breaking Torque of the

Calliper Bolt under Wet conditions. During the project two Bolts with strengths 7T & 8.8 shall

be tested after soaking them in different kinds of Automobile fluids.

The basic differences between these bolts shall be highlighted in the THEORY part, while the

actual practical results shall be analysed in the next experimental part. The expectation from

this experiment is to precisely determine which strength class of bolt shall be used, considering

Wet conditions.

THEORY

1. Intro –

Hexagonal Head Bolts as name suggests are bolts who’s Heads are hexagonally shaped.

They are used for general purposes. The general materials used are Steel, Stainless

Steel and Non-Ferrous Metals.

2. Classification –

Type of Bolt * Division by material

grade

part division strength division or

property division

Hexagonal Head Bolt with nominal diameter of body

Steel

A 8.8

B

C 4.6, 4.8

Stainless Steel A

A 2-70 B

Non-Ferrous Metal A

N/A B

Hexagonal Head Bolt with Pitch

diameter of body

Steel

B

5.8, 8.8

Stainless Steel A 2-70

Non-Ferrous Metal N/A

Hexagonal Head Bolt with totally threaded shank

Steel

A 8.8

B

C 4.6, 4.8

Stainless Steel A

A 2-70 B

Non-Ferrous Metal A

N/A B

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* (a) Hexagonal Head Bolt with nominal diameter of body – The shank of bolt consists of threaded

portion & body and the diameter of body equals nearly to the nominal diameter.

(b) Hexagonal Head Bolt with Pitch diameter of body – The shank of the bolt consists of the threaded

portion and body, the diameter of body equals nearly to the pitch diameter.

(c) Hexagonal Head Bolt with totally threaded shank – The shank is threaded in total without body.

Types of Classifications:

a. Threading

The Hexagonal Head Bolts can be classified by the type of Threading they follow.

They are broadly of three types, namely; Parallel pipe, Taper pipe & others. They are

also classified on the basis of Fine and Coarse threads which also follow classes and

grades:

4h, 6g, 8g, etc.

b. Strength

They can be classified on the basis of strength into the following groups or classes:

A 2-70, 4.6, 4.8, 5.6, 5.8, 6.8, 8.8, 10.9, 12.9, 4T, 5T, 6T, 7T, etc.

These groups and classes shall be discussed in detail in further text.

c. Material

Mostly three types of material groups are utilized for this purpose:

Steel, Stainless Steel and Non-Ferrous Metals.

d. Part Grades

The part grades A, B & C of bolts shall conform to the part grades of threaded

fasteners for general use, which is specified by the tolerance system for threaded

fasteners.

3. Geometric Tolerances –

The types of Geometric Tolerances are:

a. Coaxiality of Head with Shank –

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 29 | P a g e

b. Perpendicularity of Head bearing surface of Shank –

c. Flatness of head –

d. Straightness of Shank –

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 30 | P a g e

4. Appearances –

Appearance generally defines the tolerance of surface roughness that has been defined

for the bolt.

Portion of Application Part Grades

A B C

Surface Roughness Shank & Bearing surface 6.3a 6.3a 12.5a

Other parts 6.3a 12.5a 12.5a

5. Degree of Finish –

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6. Screw Threads –

The screw threads shall comply with the following table and the pitch thereof with the

table next to it.

Kind of bolt Screw thread

kind grade

Hexagonal Head Bolt Metric Coarse Screw Threads

Column I 4h, 6g,8g

Column II Grade 1, Grade 2, Grade 3

Small Hexagonal Head Bolt Metric Fine

Screw Threads

Column I 4h, 6g,8g

Column II Grade 1, Grade 2, Grade 3

7. Mechanical Properties –

a. Intro-

All Testing, Inspecting & Marking of bolts is done at ambient temperature (5°-35°C).

Item Applicable external thread fasteners

Types of external fastener

External threaded fasteners such as bolts, stud bolts, machine screws, etc., for which min. mechanical properties are required, whether or not there is a head and regardless of the shape. Set screws excluded.

Screw thread shape Screw thread with standard shape, nominal diameter and pitch of fine & coarse screw threads

Range of the nominal diameter of screw threads

1.6 to 39 mm

Materials carbon steel & alloy steel

Nominal Diameter of

screw thread 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 6 7 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Pitch (P)

coarse 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.75 0.8 1 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2 2.5 2.5 2.5 3

fine N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 1 1.25 1.25 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 2

27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80

coarse 3 3.5 3.5 4 4 4.5 4.5 5 5 5.5 5.5 6 6 N/A N/A N/A

fine 2 2 2 3 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 6 6 6

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b. Strength Class –

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c. Materials –

The materials of the bolts shall be in accordance with the following:

o The material for the steel bolts of 39mm or under in nominal diameter of screw

thread shall be that of which products are conforming to the strength division of

mechanical properties of the above given table.

o The materials for the stainless steel bolts, Non-Ferrous metal bolts and the steel

bolts of 42mm or over in nominal diameter of screw thread shall be as agreed

between the parties concerned.

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d. Testing –

TEST Mechanical Properties

Tensile Test of a test piece Tensile Strength, Yield Point or Proof Stress,

Rupture Elongation

Tensile Test of a product Maximum Tensile Load, Rupture Location

Wedge Tensile Test Maximum Tensile Load, Rupture Location

Proof Load Test Permanent Elongation due to Proof Load Stress

Hardness Test Hardness, difference between the surface

hardness and the core hardness

Head Percussion Test Whether cracks appear at the joint of the head

and body or not

Impact Test Impact Energy

Decarburized Layer Test Height of the Non-Decarburized part at the

threaded portion, depth of the ferrite decarburized layer at the threaded portion

Retempering Test Hardness before and after Retempering

8. Designation –

The bolts shall be designated by the number of Standard, Type, Degree of Finish,

Designation of Screw Thread X Nominal Length, Grade of Screw Thread, and Strength

Division of mechanical properties, Material and Designated items.

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Experiment/Project

1. Aim –

Comparison of breaking torque of 8.8 and 7T hexagonal head bolts, under wet conditions.

2. Experiment requirements –

a. Setup –

Bench vice, Bench

b. Tools Required –

Torque Wrench, Wrench, Socket, Gloves, etc.

c. Material Required –

Engine oil, Transmission oil, Grease, 7T Bolts, 8.8 Bolts, Knuckles, Brake Calliper Assembly.

3. Experiment Procedure –

a. Hold the Knuckle in the Bench Vice tightly.

b. Remove the Brake Shoes from the Calliper Assembly.

c. Remove the Calliper clips from the Calliper Assembly.

d. Separate the body of the Calliper.

e. Drench two bolts of 7T class in Transmission oil and use them to screw the knuckle and the

Calliper body together.

f. Use the Torque Wrench to apply torque on the Bolt after tightening it to a certain level.

g. Note down the value of Max. Torque applied on the Bolt, which shall occur right before the

Bolt fails.

h. Repeat the previous 2 steps for the other bolt also.

i. Now, repeat the above 4 steps with Engine oil and Grease.

j. Now, repeat the above 5 steps for 8.8 bolts as well.

k. Now repeat the above 6 steps as they are, again, to get 4 values of each bolt in different fluids.

4. Observations –

Wet Condition S.No. Bolt (7T) Average Bolt (8.8) Average

Transmission Oil

1 148

141.00

142.7

142.23 2 136.3 149.4

3 138.7 134.6

Engine Oil

1 113.3

109.53

142.3

140.37 2 105.8 142.5

3 109.5 136.3

Grease

1 189.3

167.57

127.3

135.10 2 160.1 126.9

3 153.3 151.1

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Conclusion

The results and observations hence got show that 7T can be a Viable replacement of 8.8 bolt as they

have similar Breaking Torque values, except for Grease where the 7T bolt is obviously having a much

Superior value of Breaking Torque than 8.8 bolt.

The bolt in the above discussion can be seen in the figures below:

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 37 | P a g e

Objective The main goal of this project is to Eliminate 1 out of the 4 clamps which hold the Brake pipes in the

underbody of the new model. The main purpose of these Brake pipes is to transport fluid pressure

from the Front to the Rear of the vehicle. There is no Benchmark available by default which dictates

the maximum length of Brake Fluid Pipes between two Clamps; hence, a Benchmark should also be

specified for the Successful completion of the project. The Project shall be navigated by the help of

CAD software, namely, NX-Unigraphics.

Introduction to NX – Unigraphics

INTRODUCTION

NX, also known as NX Unigraphics or usually just U-G, is an advanced CAD/CAM/CAE software

package developed by Siemens PLM Software.

It is used, among other tasks, for:

Design (parametric and direct solid/surface modelling)

Engineering analysis (static, dynamic, electro-magnetic,

thermal, using the Finite Element Method, and fluid using

the finite volume method).

Manufacturing finished design by using included

machining modules.

NX is a direct competitor to Creo Elements/Pro, CATIA, SolidWorks and Autodesk Inventor.

HISTORY

1969: UNIAPT was released by a software company then called United Computing; UNIAPT was one

of the world's first end-user CAM products.

1973: The company purchased the Automated Drafting and Machining (ADAM) software code from

MGS in 1973. The code became a foundation for a product called UNI-GRAPHICS, later sold

commercially as Unigraphics in 1975.

1976 McDonnell Douglas Aircraft buys Unigraphics.

1981: Unigraphics was released, marking the group's first true 3D modeling hardware and software

offering.

1991: During a period of financial difficulties McDonnell Douglas sells Unigraphics to EDS which at

that time is owned by General Motors. Unigraphics becomes GM's corporate CAD system.

1992: Over 21,000 seats of Unigraphics are being used worldwide.

1996: Unigraphics V11.0 is released. Added Industrial Design and Modeling enhancements including

Bridge Surface, Curvature Analysis for Curve and Surfaces, Face Blends, Variable Offset Surface,

etc. In the area of Assembly Modeling the new capabilities included Component Filters, Faceted

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Representations, Clearance Analysis between multiple Components, etc. Also this release included a

fully integrated Spreadsheet linked to Feature-Based Modeling.

2002 First release of the new "Next Generation" version of Unigraphics and I-deas, called NX. This

will eventually bring the functionality and capabilities of both Unigraphics and I-DEAS together into a

single consolidated product.

2007 Introduction of Synchronous Technology in NX 5.

KEY FUNCTIONS

Design (Computer aided design)

Parametric Solid modeling (feature based and direct

modeling)

Freeform surface modelling, Class A surfaces).

Reverse engineering

Styling and Computer-aided industrial design

Engineering drawing (Drafting)

Product and manufacturing information (PMI)

Reporting and Analytics, Verification and validation

Knowledge Reuse including Knowledge-based engineering

Sheet metal design

Assembly modelling and Digital mock-up

Routing for Electrical wiring and Mechanical Piping

Simulation (Computer-aided engineering)

Stress analysis / Finite element method (FEA)

Kinematics

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and Thermal analysis

Manufacturing (Computer-aided manufacturing)

Numerical control (NC) programming

SUPPORTED OPERATING SYSTEMS AND PLATFORMS

NX runs on Microsoft Windows, Mac OS, and Linux.

ARCHITECTURE

NX uses Parasolid for its Geometric modeling kernel and D-Cubed as Associative engine for sketcher

and assembly constraints as well as using JT (visualization format) for lightweight data and Multi-CAD.

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 39 | P a g e

Current Situation

The current situation of the underbody clamps can be seen in the figure provided below:

Benchmark

A benchmark shall be assumed for the purpose of easing the project’s complication by using the

values of lengths from a vehicle already in production, with the longest lengths of pipes between two

clamps and no complaints ever recorded about them. The vehicle underbody which shall be used as

a benchmark is of current model. The underbody of the said vehicle can be seen below:

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Proposals & Remarks

There are major three proposals which are shown

below:

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 41 | P a g e

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 42 | P a g e

-By Kalyan Potukuchi 43 | P a g e

Conclusion

The Conclusion was drawn on the basis of the proposals, that Proposal B is the most suitable

proposal due its ability to retain the pipes at the edges as they were. The proposal really proved

good when DATA received from the body department cleared our doubt that a stud can be welded

at an angle of 15.09°. This stud has to be further tested in the aspects of assembly position and ease

of insertion which would require an actual prototype to be built and tested.