Proceedings of the 2"d General AssemЫy of 1АМИ 2-5 October 2001, КоЬе, JAPAN

Marine Environmental Issues in Maritime Education and Training

ABSTRACT

Sue LEWEY, Malek POURZANJANI Southampton lnstitute

East Park Terrace, Southampton, S014 OYN sue. lewey@solent.ac .uk malek.pourzanj an i@solent.ac. uk

and

Peter WYBROW PL W Associates

Currie House, Herbert Walker Avenue, Southampton, S015 IНJ plw.associates@btinteгnet . com

In recent times there has been an increasing interest the impact of shipping апd ports on the marine environment. Paradoxically, while shipping and Ports are seen as contributing to pollution, the industry is also seen as an environmentally ассерtаЫе form oftransport, particularly when compared to road and air. Environmental legislation, for ships and ports, at the local , regional , national and intemational level is set to increase in the next ten years . An awareness of this legis\ation and the environmental issues should have а higher profile in maritime education and training.

This paper will outline:

• current environmental issues associated with shipping e.g. aпtifouling

• environmental and socio-economic impacts ofthe issues, and

• important environmental legislation as it affects shipping

Shipping апd Port operations exert pressures on the marine environment.

1. Introduction

Shipping and Port operations exert pressures on the marine environment. Shipping is seen Ьу some as а

contributor to marine pollution. In 1990, while being non-specific, marine transport is estimated to contribute some 12% of marine pollutants. Laпd based inputs were estimated as making the largest contribution. Others see marine transport as being the most environmentally ассерtаЫе mode of transport, particularly when compared to road апd air (GESAMP, 1990).

Shipping safety and marine pollution are inextricaЫy linked and in addition to \egislation regarding ship safety, environmental legislation, for ships and ports, at the local, regional, national and intemational level is set to increase in the next ten years. An awareness of this legislation and the environmental issues should have а higher profile in maritime education and training.

Shipping and port activities can impact on the marine environment in two main ways:

• Accidental impacts: - e.g. oil spill resulting from collision or grounding/straпding, loss of deck cargo. The incidents tend to Ье unique апd сап Ье only aпticipated Ьу scenario setting. Legislation can help to minimise risk апd mitigation ofthe effects ofthe accident сап only Ье approached from а "toolbox" perspective

• Operational impacts e.g. toxic effect of antifouling paints, discharge of Sox and Nox emissions. The impacts, from ship and port operations, generally tend to Ье chronic and are often controlled Ьу legislation . Mitigation of effects of operational impacts can Ье planned and controlled.

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2・EnvironmentalisstleSaSSOCiatedwithshipping

2．1AcddentalRisb

Marineaccidents，grOundingsorstrandingsmayresultinlocaliseddamageanddistu血anCetOtheseabed，but

mayalsoleadtolossoft

2・1・10il，eitherascargOOrbunkeringfuel，OrHazardouscargo，includingnoxiousliquidsubstanCeSand

harmfu1substanCeSCarriedbyseainpackagedforme・g・peSticides，lique頁edgas・Theefrtctswillbeun1quetO

thesituationbutthefuelorcargowillhaveawiderangeOftoxicorphysicale飴ctsonmarinehabitats．Themainimpactsofbothoilandchemicalspi］lsareeitherphysical，e・g・SmOtheringbycrudeoil，Or，tOXic，e・g・lethal

e飴ctsofspiltoilorchemicalS・ItisthoughtthatBirds，mOlluscsand丘sheggsandlarvaeareparticularlyatrisk

舟omaccidentalspills．

GESAMPdata，COllectedbetween1973and1981，SuggeStSthat400－300thousandtonnesofoilenteredthe

WOrld’soceansbytankeraccidentsduringthatperiod（GESAMP，1993）．

2・1・2CoIlisionwithmarinemammals－Whilenotcorrmon，COllisionsdooccurandareparticularlyassociatedwithhigh－SpeedcraR．AIsopropellerirtjurieshavebeenreportedonmarinemammals．

2．20perationalRisks

2・2・10perationaloilspiIIscargoandbunkeringfue1－0perationalspillsareusual1ysmallbutrepetitive・The

e飽ctsofthesespillsarcchronicandlocalised・Impactsonmarinehabitats，include，physicaldisturbanCe，tOXic

tosensitivespeciesandorganicenrichmentofthesediments．Annualoperationalspillsofoil（intonnes）havebeenestimatedas：－

Non－tankeraccidents－750－200

0perationaldischarge1080－600

Representingthesecondlargestinputofoilintothemarineenvironment（GESAMP，1993）．

2・2・2Emissions－Sox，Nox，CFC’sandVOCsareallregardedascontributingtoatmosphericpollutionleadingto

globaIwarming，pOOrairqualityandacidrain・TheinputofSulphurandNitrogenOxidebyshippingissmalIin

globalterms・HoweverinreglOnSwithalargevolumeofshippingtra餌C；theremaybe signiGcantreglOnalproblems（lmarE，1996）．

2・2・3Antifbulingtoxins－Thebiocidese・g・TBT，Triazines，insomeantifoulingcoatingscanleachintothe

SurrOtmdingwaterandaccumulateinbenthicorganismsandsediments・Thesebiocides，bytheirnature，areharmfultoarangeofmarineorganisms．Thenatureofthetoxicityischronicandcane脆ctsuchfunctionsas

morphology，grOWthandreproductionofarangeOfmarinespecies．

2・2・4Dischargeofballastwaterandassociatednon－nativespecies－Theintroductionofnon－nativespeCiesViathedischargeofballastwateriswelldocumented．ThesespeciescanbedetrimentaltolocalspeCiesthroughCOmpetitionforspaceornutrientsortheycanbetoxicanda飴ctlocal貝sheries．

2・2・5Noise－Someevidencethatvesselnoisecandisturbmarincmammalsand鮎h・ThereisparticularCOnCem

OVerCetaCeanSthatmayexperiencedistutbanCetOfeedingandbreeding．CargOhandlingnoisemayalsodisturb

mammalse．g．sealSandwaterfowl．

2・2．6Shipatld boatwash－Shipwashmayresultincrosionofintertidalandshallowwaterhabitats．The

resuspenSionofsedimentmayalsoleadtoresuspensionoftoxinSinthesediment・CurrentlytherelSgreatCOnCem

regardingtheimpactwashgeneratedby血st－CraR．

2・2・7WastedisposalatSea／inport－MarinemammalsandbirdscanSWalldworbecomeentangledinplastic

litterformships，0Renleadingtofhtalities・Distinguishingbetweenshiporlandgarbageisdifncult．

Beachwatch96（UK）estimatedthatshippinggeneratedsome17．4％ofthetotaldebriscollectedonUKbeaches．

2・2・8DredginganddisposalofspoilJMaintenanCeandcapitaldredgingdisturbstheseabedleadingtodamage

Ofbenthicecosystems（physicalandsmotheringbysediment），inCreasedlevelsofsuspendedsediments and

attendantpOllutants／nutrientsinthewatercolumn．Inaddition，thedisposalofdredgespoilcanalsodamageOther

benthic communities by smotheringand／orincreasingthe uptake ofcontaminants or nutrients by being

resuspendedintothewatercolumnfromthe dredgedsediment（ABP，1999，ANON，1998，DeJong，1997，

GESAMP，1990，ICS，1993）．

3・Environmentalandsoci0－eCOnOmicimpactsoftheissues

3・lSoeio－eumOmicimpaeb

InadditiontothedirectbiologlCal，eCOloglCalandenvironmentalimpactsofshipping，thereareindirectimpacts

Ontheeconomicsandsociologyofmaritimereg10nS・Thesearegenerallylessobvi0usthanthedirectimpacts・

HoweverthereisevidenceemerglngthatthegeneralpublicarebecomlngmOreaWareOftheissues．Astudy

－166－

CarriedoutbytheEuropeanCommissionin1999（ESPO，2001）basedontheviewsofrepresentativesamplesof

thepopulationineachofthe15memberstatesthrewlightontheattitudesofthegeneralpublictowardstheenvironment．Itfoundthat：

・　80utOflOEuropeanSbelievetheyliveon‘aplanetindanger’；

・　50utOflObelievethatitisnecessarytO’fundamentallychangeourwayoflifeanddevelopmentifwe

WanttOhaltthedeteriorationoftheenvirorLment’andthat‘makingregulations stricter’isthebest

meansofdeljvermgthisdlange．

But

・　80utOflObelievethatanenVirorLmentalprotectionpolicymusttakeintoaccoumt‘socialandeconomic

e庁bcts’．

ItalsofoundthatindustryspokespersonsaretheleasttruStedonmattersofthe environment（environmental

protectionorganizationsarethemosttruSted），

3・1．1Sustainability

TheIntemationalYearOftheOceansin1998focussedattentionontheneedforsustainablemanagementofthe

OCeanreSOurCeS．Muchattentionhasbeenplacedonthesustainabilityofmarineecosystems，particularlycoastal

areas．TheinCreaslngeXploitationofthe coast continuesonaglobalscaleandtheneedforthe sustainable

developmentofhumanaCtivitiesbecomesincreaslnglmpOrtantinEurope aswellasthe restoftheworld・

Shipping represents one ofthe humanaCtivitiesthat exert apressure onthe coastalmarine environment・

Paradoxically，WhileshippinglSSeenbysomeasacontributortomarinepollution，inotherareasitisseenasbeingthemostenvironmentallyacceptablemodeoftransport．ThemanyglobalShortSeaShippinginitiatives

recognisethisfact・

3．1．2Soci0－ccOnOmicimpactaSSeSStnent

Theassessmentofsocio－eCOnOmicimpactofshippinglSmultifhcetedandnoteasytoassess．Theinterestsof

maritimereglOnSthatcouldbea飴ctedbyshippingare：Ports，harboursandmarinas

Healthofresidentsandvisitorstomaritimecitiesandenvirons

Fisheries

Shelはshbeds

Tourism

Namrereserves，

Alloftheabovehaveahighsoci0－ccOnOmicvaluetomaritimeregions・Ironically，tOurismミpOrtS，harboursand

marinasarenOtOnlyimpactedbyshippingoperations，butmaythemselvescontributetosoclO－eCOnOmicimpacts

（Tait＆Dipper，1998，Viles＆Spencer，1995）・

3．2Themainactivitiesassociatedwithshippingthatareknowntohveasocio－eCOtIOmicimpct．

3．2．10ilSpills－Operationaloraccidentalspills ofoilorotherhaZardous cargo cana飴ctallthe named

SenSitiveareas，thepreviouslydiscussedphysicalandtoxica飴ctscana飴ctthereglOnS鮎heries，bysmothering

She11航shbedsanditstoxicnaturetofisheggsand丘y．Inaddition，thetaintingof且shandshell丘shfkshbyoilis

knowntOimpacton鮎hsales，fbllowlnganOilspill．Fishinggroundsandshell鮎hbedsmaybecomesu叫ecttoClosureorders．Thiswillhaveadirecta飴ctonthe丘sherieseconomicsofthearea．

Thephysicala飴ctsofanoilslickwi11impactdirectlyonthenaturereservesandindirectlyontourism，reSulting

inalossoftourismincometothereglOn．Exampleswouldbethelossofamenitiesductooilcover，withthese

areas becomlngunattraCtivetovisitors．Thelossofbirdormarinemammals，duetooiling，1eadingtothenature

reserveSbeinglessattractivetovisit．

Harboursandmarinasthatareoiledmaybethemselvesclosedorseenasalessattractivetovisitleadingtolossof

incomeinhabourandmarinaduesandtheindirectlossofincomegeneratedinassociatedareaS．

3．2．2Emissions－ThereissomeevidencethattheinputofSulphurandNitrogenOxidecanleadtolocalised

poorairquality，Whichcouldhavehealthimplicationsforlocalresidents・

VOC，S魚・OmCargO，mayCauSeenVironmentalandhealthdamageatalocallevel・

3．2．3．JlaJJastWater－DischargeofbaHastwatermqyleadtotheintroductionofnon－nativespeCiestHistoricallymanyoftheestablishedintroducedspecieshaveanimpactonshellnshbeds．Thesetakethefbrmofcompetitive

Or pathogenic species，either ofwhich canhave a detrimental affbct on the commercial shellfish beds・

－167－

AdditionaHy，SometoxicorharmfulspeciesareknowrtObetransportedinballastwater．Toxinsaccumulatedby

Shellfishcanbeharmfultothehealthofhumanandmarinemammalse．g．PSP．

ThevibriobacteriumcausingCholera，Salmonellasp．andfaecalcoliformsarealsoknowntobetranSpOrtedin

ballasttanksandrepresenthumanhealthhazards（Rawlingsetal．，1999，Knightetal．，1999）3・2．4Garbage－Marinedebrisisgenerallyunsightlyandnotattractivetovisitors，thusimpactingontourism・Medicalproductsassociatedwithdebrismayposeahealthrisk，Asstatedbefore，itisdifnculttodistinguishbetweenlandandmarinedebris．

3．2．5Gencralcontamination－Asoutlinedpreviously，therearemany50urCeSOfcontaminantsassociatedwith

Shipping，e．g．antifouling，dredgingactivities．Anycontaminantthatisbio－aCCumulatedinmarine organisms，

particularlyshe11鮎h．mayposeeconomiCandhealthrisks（BarrOW，1997，DeJong，1997）．

4．EnvironJnentalLegislationasitAffbctsShippingandPorts．

Asstatedear1ier，Shippingsafbtyandmarinepollutionareinextricablylinked．Someenvironmentallegislation

dealsdirectlywithenvironmentalprotectionegMARPOL，WhileotherinstrumentSareprlmarilyaimedatatship

andhumanSafety，egSOLAS，butindirectlyhaveaninnuenceonenvironmentalsafbty．

4．1IJ）ternatiomalLegislation

TheMarineEnvironmentalProtectionCommittee（MEPC）oftheIntemationalmaritimeOrganisation（IMO）are

COmmitted toimplement regulationinorder to mltlgatethe efftcts ofshipping on the environment・The

MARPOLConventionwas adoptedin1973andcoverstheregulation ofpoIJution ofthe seas byshipping．

Originallyintendedtocoveroilpo11utionasOILPOLandsubsequentlyMARPOL，itnowcoversmanyotherCOntaminantS：

AnmeXトOil

AmexII－NoxiousLiquidChemicalsAmexlII－HarmfuIGoods（PaCkaged）AnnexV－Garbage

AnmexIV－Sewage

AmexVI－AirPollution（Nox，Sox，＆omshipexhaustsandemissionofozonedepletingsubstances

InadditionIMOarecommitted，bymeansofnew AnnexestoMARPOLorbynewconventions，

－　to：GlobalprohibitionofTBTinAntifbulingcoatlngS，applicationbanby2003，withtotalbanby

2008，amd

－　ControlandmanagementofShips’Ballastwaterto minimisethetranSfbrofHamfulAquatic

Organisms（IMO，2000）

Also ofInterest toIMOare，dumping at sea，double hulls，PreVention ofaccidentalpollution（SOLAS），

COmpenSationforpollutionandthedesignationof”specialareas”（IMO，1998，a，IMO，1998，b）

4．2NationaIlegislatiom

ManyCOuntriesandreglOnSarenOWadoptingtheirown1egislationwithregardtotheprotectionofthemarine

environment．Examplesinclude：

FromlJuly2001，AustraliahasnewmandatoryballastwaterrequlrementS．Anyship arrlVlnginAustralianWaterSWillberequiredtoLmdergoaballastwaterriskassessmentandthenundertakeanaPPrOVedmanagement

OPtion．hterestinglythelegislativeframework fbrthe newrequirementsisunderthe Quarantine Act，1908

（AFFA，2001）

TheEurOpeanUnionhasrecentlylegislatedonairemissionsandportwastereception・IncreaslnglytheEUis

lookingatshippinglnSuStainabletermswithintheframeWOfkofintegratedcoastalzonemanagement・

Increaslngly，reglOnalgovernments andindividualPortsimplementlegislation or guidelineswithrespeCt tO

marineenvironmentalprotection．

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5．EducationandTraining

WithinSTCW，theprotectionofthemarineenvironmentandthepreventionofpollutionarereCOgnisedasbeing

lmpOrtantwithintrainingfornavlgationalwatchkeeping．hladdition，thespeCialrequrrementsfortankersare

alsom相即ised．

TheISMCodeprovidesaninternationalstandardforthe safemanagementandoperation ofshipsandfbr

pollutionprevention．

EducationandtrainingtoSTCWandtheISMcodewi11glVeabasisofknowledgeandunderstandingofthe

maritimeenvironmentalissueヲ・ManyIAMUinstitutionseducatetheirstudentstoahigherlevel，SOmeO飴ring

POStgraduatecotms．inenvLrOTnentalissues・However，mOreCOuldbedonetoeducateseafarerstotheenvironmentaland oclO－eCOnOmlCimpactsofshippingandportoperations．

6．Conclusions

TherearemanyenvironmentalissuesasociatedwithShippingandPortoperations．Someoftheseissueshave

SOCi0－eCOnOmiCimpactsonthecommunitiesinmaritimeareaS．However，ShipplnglSSeenaSanenVironmentally

acceptal）1emethodoftranSpOrt．

hternational，nationalandlocallegislationandguidelineshelpcontrolandregulatetheimpactofshippingand

portoperationsonthemarineenvirorLment．

lncreasedtrainingisneededintheenvironmentalandlegalissuesandisrecognisedwithinSTCWandtheISM

COde・Educationandtraininginenvironmentalissueswi111eadtoabettereducatedworkfbrcewithadeeper

umderstandhgoftheenvironmentalandsocio－e∽nOmicimpactsofshipping・ThisbetterawareneSSShouldhelp

inthefurtherdevelopmentoflegallycompliantandultimatelyasustainableindustry．

ThechallengeremainstoreduceenvironmentaldamagebymaritimeoperationstoaleveJthatisacceptableandSuStahable．

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