Manual of aerodrome design and safeguarding (MADS)

Military Aviation Authority

Manual of Aerodrome Design & Safeguarding (MADS)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents ................................................................................................................. 2 List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... 12

FOREWORD .................................................................................................................... 15 Chapter 1: Policy, Organisation and Responsibilities .............................................. 18

Regulatory Cross Reference .............................................................................................. 18 Authority ............................................................................................................................. 18 Responsibility ..................................................................................................................... 18

Chapter 2: Aerodrome Design Procedures ................................................................ 20 General .............................................................................................................................. 20 Implementation Policy ........................................................................................................ 20 Airfield Infrastructure Services ............................................................................................. 20 Aerodrome Maintenance ................................................................................................... 20 Inspections and Surveys .................................................................................................... 21 Reference to Other Documents ......................................................................................... 21

Chapter 3: Aerodrome Design Specification for Fixed Wing Permanent Bases ..... 26 Aerodrome Data ................................................................................................................. 26 General .............................................................................................................................. 26 Fixed Wing Aircraft Requirements ..................................................................................... 26

Chapter 4: Specifications for the Aerodrome Physical Design ................................ 29 Runways ............................................................................................................................ 29 Runway End Safety Areas ................................................................................................. 33 Clearways .......................................................................................................................... 34 Stopways ........................................................................................................................... 34 Arrester Net Barrier Overrun .............................................................................................. 34 Taxiways ........................................................................................................................... 35 Holding Points ................................................................................................................... 38 Aprons ............................................................................................................................... 40 Compass Calibration Bases ............................................................................................... 40

Chapter 5: The Management of Obstacles on and Around the Aerodrome ............. 41 Obstacle Free Zones ......................................................................................................... 41 Obstacle Limitation Surfaces ............................................................................................. 41 Obstacle Limitation Requirements ..................................................................................... 49 Objects Outside the Obstacle Limitation Surfaces ............................................................. 50 Other Objects .................................................................................................................... 50

Annex 5A: Compass Calibration Bases ..................................................................... 51 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 51 Classes of Compass Base ................................................................................................. 51

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Periodic Surveys and Annual Checks................................................................................ 51 Sterile Area ....................................................................................................................... 51 Compass Calibration Base Specifications ......................................................................... 52

Chapter 6: Visual Aids for Navigation ........................................................................ 53 Indicators and Signalling Devices ...................................................................................... 53 Markings ............................................................................................................................ 53 Signs ................................................................................................................................. 87 Markers ............................................................................................................................. 95

Annex 6A: Aeronautical Ground Light and Surface Marking Colours ................... 100 General ........................................................................................................................... 100 Discrimination ................................................................................................................. 100 Colours for Markings, Signs and Panels .......................................................................... 101

Annex 6B: Aeronautical Ground Light Characteristics .......................................... 102 General ........................................................................................................................... 102 Isocandela Characteristics of Lights for Instrument Runways and Associated Taxiways . 103 Collective Notes for Figures 6-27 to 6-39 ........................................................................ 103

Annex 6C: PAPI Siting and Setting Angles ............................................................. 124 Annex 6D: Control of Lighting at Aerodromes During Night Vision Device (NVD) Operations 132 Chapter 7: Visual Aids for Denoting Obstacles ...................................................... 135

General ........................................................................................................................... 135 Marking of Objects ........................................................................................................... 136 Use of Markers ................................................................................................................ 137 Marking of Unserviceable Surface Areas ........................................................................ 137 Lighting of Obstacles ....................................................................................................... 138 Location of Obstacle Lights ............................................................................................. 138 Aircraft Arresting Barrier Warning Lights ......................................................................... 140

Chapter 8: Aerodrome Equipment, Installations, Maintenance and Systems ....... 141 Aircraft Arresting Systems ............................................................................................... 141 Secondary Power ............................................................................................................ 141 Interleaving of AGL Electrical Circuits ............................................................................. 142 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) .............................................................................. 143 AGL Operational Luminous Intensity ............................................................................... 143 Runway End Services ..................................................................................................... 143 Maintenance .................................................................................................................... 145 General ........................................................................................................................... 145 Series Circuit Insulation Resistance ................................................................................ 146 Runway Visual Range Systems ....................................................................................... 146



Measurement of Runway Visual Range (RVR) ................................................................ 146 Chapter 9: Aircraft Picketing/Tie Down and Earthing Requirements ..................... 149

Aircraft Picketing/tie down requirements .......................................................................... 149 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 149 Earthing Requirements for Aircraft on Military Establishments ......................................... 149 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 149

Chapter 10: Aerodrome Design Specification for Rotary Wing Permanent Bases . 150 Rotary wing permanent base data & physical characteristics ........................................... 150 General ............................................................................................................................ 150 Categorisation of Rotary Wing Permanent Bases ............................................................ 150 Rotary Wing Permanent Base Physical Characteristics ................................................... 151 Obstacle Restriction and Removal ................................................................................... 153 Aircraft Picketing/Tie Down Requirements ....................................................................... 159

Annex 10A: Domestic Helicopters Landing Sites (HLS) ........................................... 160 Classification ................................................................................................................... 160 Criteria ............................................................................................................................. 160 Markings and Cleared Areas ........................................................................................... 163

Chapter 11: Visual Aids and Marking for Rotary Wing Permanent Bases ............... 165 Visual Aids for Surface Level Rotary Wing Permanent Bases .......................................... 165 Markings and Markers ...................................................................................................... 165 Lights ............................................................................................................................... 173

Chapter 12: Classification and Selection of Temporary/Tactical Airfields .............. 189 Definition ......................................................................................................................... 189 Classification ................................................................................................................... 189 Selection .......................................................................................................................... 191 Site Reconnaissance ....................................................................................................... 192 Future Developments ...................................................................................................... 193 Criteria ............................................................................................................................. 193

Annex 12A: Types of Temporary/Tactical Airfields ................................................... 194 Chapter 13: Criteria for Temporary/Tactical Airfields ............................................... 195

Application of Criteria ....................................................................................................... 195 Dimensional Criteria ......................................................................................................... 195 Obstruction Criteria .......................................................................................................... 199 Gradient Criteria ............................................................................................................... 200 Strength Criteria ............................................................................................................... 201 Surface Roughness Criteria ............................................................................................. 203

Annex 13A: Aircraft Data Sheets ................................................................................ 206 Aircraft Data Sheets ......................................................................................................... 206



Annex 13B: Criteria for Temporary/Tactical Airfields for TAC AT Aircraft .............. 214 Criteria ............................................................................................................................ 214 Tac AT Airfield Gradients ................................................................................................ 216 Example .......................................................................................................................... 217

Annex 13C: Minimum Dimensional Criteria for Temporary/Tactical Airfields for Tactical Air Transport Aircraft ........................................................................................ 218 Annex 13D: Strength Criteria Graphs for Temporary/Tactical Airfields .................. 219 Chapter 14: Instrument Surveys and Marking of Temporary/Tactical Airfields ...... 221

Instrument Survey of Longitudinal and Transverse Profiles and Analysis of Results ........ 221 General ........................................................................................................................... 221 Survey Lines and Intervals of Readings .......................................................................... 221 Analysis of Results .......................................................................................................... 221 Marking of Temporary Airfields ........................................................................................ 221 General ........................................................................................................................... 221 Marking Devices ............................................................................................................. 222 Layout of Airfield Markings .............................................................................................. 229 Emergency Markings ...................................................................................................... 230

Annex 14A: Examples Undulation Analysis on Temporary Airfields ...................... 231 Annex 14B: Bare Minimum Temporary Landing Zone Markings ............................ 234 Annex 14C: Diagram of STANAG Marking of Temporary Airfields .......................... 237 Chapter 15: Aerodrome Pavement Design, Construction and Maintenance ........... 241

Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 241 Functional requirements of Airfield Pavements ............................................................... 241 Foreign Object Damage (FOD) ....................................................................................... 241 Access for Maintenance/Restoration Works .................................................................... 241 Relative Importance of Functional Requirements ............................................................ 241 Pavement Friction Characteristics and Measurements .................................................... 242 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 242 MOD Runway Friction Categories ................................................................................... 243 Friction Criteria for Manoeuvring Areas ........................................................................... 243 Friction Survey Requirements ......................................................................................... 243 Runway Friction Classification/Monitoring Survey Procedure .......................................... 243 Movement Area Friction Measurement of Compacted Snow and Ice .............................. 250 Application to Aircraft Operations .................................................................................... 253 Surface Evenness ........................................................................................................... 253 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 253 Design and Evaluation .................................................................................................... 254 The Bearing Capacity and Load Classification of Airfield Pavements .............................. 254



General ............................................................................................................................ 254 Pavement Design ............................................................................................................ 255 Load Classification of Aircraft and Airfield Pavements ..................................................... 255 Aircraft Classification Number (ACN) ............................................................................... 255 Pavement Classification Number (PCN) .......................................................................... 256 Pavement Classification for Light Aircraft ......................................................................... 256 Overload Operations ........................................................................................................ 256 Stopways, Arrester Net Barrier Overruns and Shoulders ................................................ 257

Annex 15A: Aerodrome Pavement Materials and Construction ............................... 258 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 258 Material Specification ....................................................................................................... 258 Runway Surfacing Materials ............................................................................................ 258 Construction Work/Aircraft Operations Interface .............................................................. 259 Restrictions on Surfacing Materials for Roads in Proximity to Aircraft Movement Areas .. 259

Annex 15B: Maintenance and Restoration of Aerodrome Pavements ..................... 261 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 261 Pavement Distress........................................................................................................... 261 Surface Degradation Effects of Climate and Aircraft Operations ...................................... 261 Reflection Cracking.......................................................................................................... 261 Affects of Moisture in Pavements ..................................................................................... 261 Structural ......................................................................................................................... 262 Functional Requirements ................................................................................................. 262 Pavement Assessment/Evaluation ................................................................................... 262 Design/Maintenance Solutions ........................................................................................ 262

Annex 15C: Surface Friction Measurement ............................................................... 264 Rationale ......................................................................................................................... 264 Technical Background ..................................................................................................... 264 Responsibilities ................................................................................................................ 265 Runway Friction Measurement ........................................................................................ 265 Friction Criteria for Manoeuvring Areas............................................................................ 266 Application to Aircraft Operations ..................................................................................... 266

Annex 15D: Aircraft Classification Numbers (ACN) – Tables for Military Aircraft... 267 Chapter 16: Safeguarding – Aerodromes and the Surrounding Environments ...... 272

SafeGuarding procedures ................................................................................................ 272 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 272 Safeguarding on MOD Property ....................................................................................... 272 Instrument Approach and Departure Criteria.................................................................... 273 Clearance of Obstructions in Aerodrome Approaches ..................................................... 273



Survey Procedure ........................................................................................................... 273 Remedial Action .............................................................................................................. 273 Aerodrome Long Grass Policy - Guidance for Units and Agencies Responsible for Letting Aerodrome Ground Maintenance Contracts ......................................................... 282 Grass Maintenance Scheme ........................................................................................... 283 Grass Management ......................................................................................................... 283 Long Grass Policy (LGP)................................................................................................. 283 Over-seeding .................................................................................................................. 284 Sites of Special Scientific Interest ................................................................................... 285 Pest Control .................................................................................................................... 285 Land Drainage ................................................................................................................ 285

Chapter 17: Safeguarding – Obstructions and Waivers ........................................... 286 Surface Obstructions ....................................................................................................... 286 Sub Surface Obstructions ................................................................................................ 287 Waivers ........................................................................................................................... 287 Aerodrome Obstacle Limitation Zones ............................................................................. 288 Approach Clearance Planes ............................................................................................ 288 Description ...................................................................................................................... 288 Clearance Over Roads and Railways .............................................................................. 289 Radio/radar navigation..................................................................................................... 289 Extraneous Lighting on or in the Vicinity of Aerodromes .................................................. 289 General ........................................................................................................................... 289 Restrictions ..................................................................................................................... 289

Annex 17A: Air Traffic Control Officers’ Certificate-Siting, Handover and Re-Appropriation Boards ...................................................................................................... 293

Certificate by Unit ............................................................................................................ 293 Comments by HQ AIR/NCHQ/HQ Land/MOD DE&S ...................................................... 293

Annex 17B: Birdstrike Hazard – Safeguarding Off Base .......................................... 294 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 294 Consultation .................................................................................................................... 294 Hazard Assessment ........................................................................................................ 295 The Coast ....................................................................................................................... 295 Landfills for Food Wastes ................................................................................................ 296 Sewage Treatment and Disposal .................................................................................... 296 Water .............................................................................................................................. 297 Mineral Extraction ........................................................................................................... 297 Agricultural Attractants .................................................................................................... 298 Landscaping.................................................................................................................... 298 Protected Sites and Nature Reserves ............................................................................. 298



Annex 17C: Standard Long Grass Policy Maintenance Regime ............................... 299 Maintenance Regime ....................................................................................................... 299 Navigational and Visual Aids ........................................................................................... 300

Chapter 18: STANAGS ................................................................................................. 301 Chapter 19: Reference Documents ............................................................................. 302

List of FIgures

Figure 2-1 Typical Core Works Process Map ....................................................................... 22 Figure 3-1 Specimen Aerodrome Layout .............................................................................. 26 Figure 4-1 Runway Gradients Longitudinal ........................................................................... 29 Figure 4-2 Runway Gradients Transverse ............................................................................ 31 Figure 4-3 Lines of Sight and Transverse Slopes ................................................................. 31 Figure 4-4 Delethalisation ..................................................................................................... 33 Figure 4-5 Taxiway Curve Widening ..................................................................................... 35 Figure 5-1 Obstacle Limitation Surfaces ............................................................................... 45 Figure 5-2 Inner Approach, Inner Transitional and Balked Landing Obstacle Limitation Surfaces – (only applicable to Precision Approach Categories I, II & III) ............................... 46 Figure 5-3 Obstacle Limitation Surfaces for an Instrument Runway where the Runway Code is 4-6 ........................................................................................................................... 46 Figure 6-1 Dimensions of a Wind Direction Indicator ............................................................ 53 Figure 6-2 Form and Proportion of Numbers for Runway Designation Markings................... 56 Figure 6-3 Runway Designation, Centre-line and Threshold Markings ................................. 57 Figure 6-4 Displaced Threshold Markings ............................................................................ 58 Figure 6-5 Aiming Point and Touchdown Zone Markings ...................................................... 60 Figure 6-6 Runway Holding Positions ................................................................................... 62 Figure 6-7 Vehicle Roadway Marking ................................................................................... 63 Figure 6-8 Runway Ahead Markings ...................................................................................... 64 Figure 6-9 Runway Ahead Markings for CAT II/III Holding Position ...................................... 65 Figure 6-10 Safe Direction Heading Arrow ........................................................................... 66 Figure 6-11 Aircraft Arrester System Markings ..................................................................... 66 Figure 6-12 Closed Runway and Taxiway Markings ............................................................. 67 Figure 6-13 Runway/Taxiway Shoulder and Pre-Threshold Markings ................................... 69 Figure 6-14 Unserviceability Marker ..................................................................................... 70 Figure 6-15 Mandatory Instruction Marking .......................................................................... 70 Figure 6-16 Approach Lighting System ................................................................................. 74 Figure 6-17 Approach Lighting Plan ..................................................................................... 75 Figure 6-18 Approach Centre-line Lights Profile .................................................................... 76 Figure 6-19 Undercarriage Check Lighting System – Layout and Optical Requirements ...... 83



Figure 6-20 Undercarriage Check Flarepath – Layout and Optical Requirements ................ 84 Figure 6-21 Aerodrome Portable Lighting Standard Layout.................................................. 85 Figure 6-22 Examples of Airfield Signs ................................................................................ 89 Figure 6-23 Runway Holding Position Signs ........................................................................ 90 Figure 6-24 Examples of Airfield Signs ................................................................................ 90 Figure 6-25 Road Traffic Signs ............................................................................................ 95 Figure 6-26 Runway Marker ................................................................................................. 98 Figure 6-27 Taxiway Marker ................................................................................................ 99 Figure 6-28 Light Intensity Distribution of PAPI .................................................................. 105 Figure 6-29 Isocandela Diagram for Approach Centre Line Light and Crossbars (White Light) ................................................................................................................................. 106 Figure 6-30 Isocandela Diagram for Approach Side Row Light and Crossbars (Red Light) 107 Figure 6-31 Isocandela Diagram for Threshold Light (Green Light) .................................... 108 Figure 6-32 Isocandela Diagram for Threshold Wing Bar Light (Green Light) .................... 109 Figure 6-33 Isocandela Diagram for Touchdown Zone Light (White Light) ......................... 110 Figure 6-34 Isocandela Diagram for Runway Centre-Line Light with 30m Longitudinal Spacing (White Light) ......................................................................................................... 111 Figure 6-35 Isocandela Diagram for Runway Centre-Line with 15m Longitudinal Spacing (White Light) ...................................................................................................................... 112 Figure 6-36 Isocandela Diagram for Runway End Light (Red Light) ................................... 113 Figure 6-37 Isocandela Diagram for Each Light in High Intensity Runway Guard Lights Configuration ..................................................................................................................... 114 Figure 6-38 Isocandela Diagram for Runway Edge Light where Width of Runway is 45m (White Light) ...................................................................................................................... 115 Figure 6-39 Isocandela Diagram for Runway Edge Light where Width of Runway is 60m (White Light) ...................................................................................................................... 116 Figure 6-40 Grid Points to be used for the Calculation of Average Intensity of Approach and Runway Lights ............................................................................................................ 117 Figure 6-41 Isocandela Diagram for Taxiway Centre-Line (15m Spacing) and Stop Bar Lights in Straight Sections (Intended for use in Runway Visual Range Conditions of less than a value of the order of 350m where large offsets can occur) ...................................... 118 Figure 6-42 Isocandela Diagram for Taxiway Centre-Line (15m Spacing) and Stop Bar Lights in Straight Sections (Intended for use in Runway Visual Range Conditions of less than a value of the order of 350m) ..................................................................................... 119 Figure 6-43 socandela Diagram for Taxiway Centre-Line (7.5m Spacing) and Stop Bar Lights in Curved Sections (Intended for use in Runway Visual Range Conditions of less than a value of the order of 350m) ..................................................................................... 120 Figure 6-44 Isocandela Diagram for Taxiway Centre-Line (30m, 60m Spacing) and Stop Bar Lights in Straight Sections (Intended for use in Runway Visual Range Conditions of the order of 350m or greater) ............................................................................................. 121 Figure 6-45 Isocandela Diagram for Taxiway Centre-Line (7.5m, 10m, 30m Spacing) and Stop Bar Lights in Curved Sections (Intended for use in Runway Visual Range Conditions of the order of 350m or greater) ......................................................................................... 122



Figure 6-46 Grid Points to be used for the Calculation of Average Intensity of Taxiway Centre-Line and Stop Bar Lights ........................................................................................ 123 Figure 6-47 Arrangement and Setting of PAPIs The distance of the PAPI from the runway threshold will depend upon the following: ........................................................................... 124 Figure 6-48 PAPI Siting - Principle of Compensation for Different Ground Heights ............. 128 Figure 6-49 PAPI Flight Check Form .................................................................................. 130 Figure 7-1 Examples of Conspicuous Markings .................................................................. 137 Figure 7-2 Location of Obstacle Lights ............................................................................... 140 Figure 8-1 RVR Siting Plan ................................................................................................ 148 Figure 10-1 Rotary Wing Permanent Base Characteristics ................................................. 153 Figure 10-2 Rotary Wing Permanent Base Obstacle Limitation Surfaces ........................... 154 Figure 10-3 Maximum and Minimum Sizes for Domestic Helicopter Landing Site ............... 163 Figure 10-4 NATO Helipad Marking .................................................................................... 164 Figure 11-1 Standard Helipad Marking ............................................................................... 166 Figure 11-2 Hospital Identification Marking ......................................................................... 167 Figure 11-3 FATO Designation Marking ............................................................................. 167 Figure 11-4 Typical Marking and Lighting of Surface Level Rotary Wing Permanent Bases with FATO Designation Marking ......................................................................................... 168 Figure 11-5 Typical Marking and Lighting of Surface Level Rotary Wing Permanent Bases with FATO Designation Marking ......................................................................................... 169 Figure 11-6 Aiming Point Marking ...................................................................................... 170 Figure 11-7 Rotary Wing Permanent Base Identification Marking ....................................... 170 Figure 11-8 Air Taxiway Marker .......................................................................................... 172 Figure 11-9 Air Transit Route Markers ................................................................................ 172 Figure 11-10 Typical Marking and Lighting of Surface Level Rotary Wing Permanent Bases without FATO and FATO Designation Markings ...................................................... 175 Figure 11-11 Landing Direction Lights ................................................................................ 177 Figure 11-12 Approach Direction Lights ............................................................................. 179 Figure 11-13 Heliport Hoverlane Lighting ........................................................................... 181 Figure 11-14 TLOF Floodlighting ........................................................................................ 182 Figure 11-15 Characteristics of Obstacle Protection Surface .............................................. 183 Figure 11-16 Divergence of the "On Track" Sector ............................................................. 185 Figure 11-17 Signal Format of HAPI System ...................................................................... 186 Figure 11-18 Light Intensity of HAPI System ...................................................................... 187 Figure 12-1 Illustration of Criteria Terms............................................................................. 193 Figure 12-2 Typical Battle Temporary Airfield ..................................................................... 194 Figure 12-3 Typical Forward Temporary Airfield ................................................................. 194 Figure 12-4 Typical Support Temporary Airfield .................................................................. 194 Figure 13-1 Maximum Longitudinal Gradients .................................................................... 216 Figure 13-2 Gradient Angles ............................................................................................... 216



Figure 13-3 Maximum Transverse Gradients ..................................................................... 217 Figure 13-4 Dimension Criteria .......................................................................................... 218 Figure 13-5 Strength Requirement For Unsurfaced Airfields .............................................. 219 Figure 13-6 Hercules C Mk 1 - Reduction Of CBR for Limited Movements on Unsurfaced Airfields .............................................................................................................................. 220 Figure 14-1 Photometric Characteristics: Omnidirectional Runway Edge (Type a and B) and Approach Lights (Type C) ........................................................................................... 225 Figure 14-2 Photometric Characteristics: (A: Unidirectional Runway Edge and B: Unidirectional Approach Lights (Type D)) ........................................................................... 225 Figure 14-3 Abbreviated PAPI System (APAPI) ................................................................. 227 Figure 14-4 Abbreviated PAPI System (APAPI) (Photometric Characteristics: Isocandela diagram for white light. Transmission Factor for Red Sector not less than 20%) ................ 228 Figure 14-5 Example of Undulation Analysis for Hercules C130 Mk 1 and 3 ...................... 231 Figure 14-6 Hercules C130 Mk 1 and Mk 3 - Allowable Undulation Amplitudes for Different Aircraft Configurations ....................................................................................................... 232 Figure 14-7 Minimum TLZ Marking for Landing and Take-Off from Landing Threshold or Opposite Direction Take-Off ............................................................................................... 234 Figure 14-8 Minimum TLZ Marking for Landing and Stop/Go Take-Off .............................. 235 Figure 14-9 Minimum TLZ Marking-Night (White Light) for Landing and Take-Off from Landing Threshold or Opposite Direction Take-Off ............................................................ 236 Figure 14-10 Minimum Temporary Airfield Markings for Day Operations on a Uni-directional Runway (visual glideslope not available) .......................................................... 237 Figure 14-11 Minimum Temporary Airfield Markings for Day Operations on a Uni-directional Runway (visual glideslope available) ................................................................ 238 Figure 14-12 Minimum Temporary Airfield Markings for Night Operations on a Uni-directional Runway (visual glideslope not available) .......................................................... 239 Figure 14-13 Minimum Temporary Airfield Markings for Night Operations on a Uni-directional Runway (visual glideslope available) ................................................................ 240 Figure 15-1 Friction Classification Survey Frequency from Before Handover of New or Resurfaced Runways ......................................................................................................... 246 Figure 15-2 Runs Start With Stationary Friction Machine Measuring Wheel/s 10m from Pavement End ................................................................................................................... 246 Figure 15-3 Runway Friction Classification Survey Run Sequence .................................... 247 Figure 15-4 Typical Friction Values for PFC using 65 km/h Test ........................................ 259 Figure 15-5 Typical Friction Values for Grooved Marshall Asphalt using 65 km/h Test ...... 260 Figure 15-6 Typical Friction Values for Coarse Slurry Seal using 65 km/h Test ................. 260 Figure 17-1 Extraneous Lighting Controlled Area for Instrument Runways Longer Than 2150m ............................................................................................................................... 290 Figure 17-2 Extraneous Lighting Controlled Area for Instrument Runways of Length Equal to or Less than 2150m and not Less than 1200m .............................................................. 291 Figure 17-3 Extraneous Lighting Controlled Area for Instrument Runways of Length Less than 1200m ........................................................................................................................ 291 Figure 17-4 Extraneous Lighting Controlled Area for Non-Instrument Runway................... 292



Figure 17-5 Landfill Site Flightline Hazards ........................................................................ 296 Figure 17-6 Water Flightline Hazards ................................................................................. 297 Figure 17-7 Optimising a Standard Long Grass Policy Maintenance Regime ..................... 300

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1-1 Current MOD Specialists ...................................................................................... 18 Table 1-2 Military Authority and Appropriate Service Specialists .......................................... 19 Table 2-1 Responsibilities for Military Aerodromes Design, Standards, Inspections and Surveys ................................................................................................................................ 23 Table 2-2 Verification Assurance Certification that should be Presented at Handover of Major and Minor Works ........................................................................................................ 25 Table 3-1 Aerodrome Reference Codes ............................................................................... 27 Table 3-2 Runway Separation Distances for Simultaneous Runway Operations .................. 27 Table 4-1 Runway Longitudinal Slopes ................................................................................ 29 Table 4-2 Construction at Runway Ends............................................................................... 31 Table 4-3 Runway Shoulders ............................................................................................... 32 Table 4-4 Runway Strips ...................................................................................................... 32 Table 4-5 Runway End Safety Areas .................................................................................... 33 Table 4-6 Clearways ............................................................................................................. 34 Table 4-7 Stopways .............................................................................................................. 34 Table 4-8 Taxiway Width and Wheel Clearance ................................................................... 36 Table 4-9 Parallel Taxiways .................................................................................................. 36 Table 4-10 Taxiway Minimum Separation Distances ............................................................ 37 Table 4-11 Taxiway Slopes .................................................................................................. 37 Table 4-12 Taxiway Shoulders ............................................................................................. 38 Table 4-13 Taxiway Strips .................................................................................................... 38 Table 4-14 Minimum Distance from Runway Centre Line to a Holding Bay/Position ............. 39 Table 4-15 Aprons ................................................................................................................ 40 Table 5-1 Dimensions and Slopes of Approach Obstacle Limitation Surfaces – (slopes are measured in the vertical plane containing the centre-line of the surface) .............................. 47 Table 5-2 Dimensions and Slopes of Take-Off Obstacle Limitation Surfaces –(slopes are measured in the vertical plane containing the centre-line of the surface) .............................. 49 Table 5-3 Obstacle Limitation Requirements ........................................................................ 49 Table 6-1 Dimensions of Strips for Threshold Markings ........................................................ 55 Table 6-2 Locations and Dimensions of Aiming Point Marking ............................................. 59 Table 6-3 Locations and Dimensions of Touch Down Zone Marking .................................... 59 Table 6-4 Minimum Prescribed Scales of AGL ..................................................................... 72 Table 6-5 Spacing of Centre-Line Lights .............................................................................. 80 Table 6-6 Spacing for Taxiway Edge Lighting ....................................................................... 80



Table 6-7 Character Sizes to be used on Airfield Signs ....................................................... 88 Table 6-8 Sign Luminance ................................................................................................... 88 Table 6-9 Details of Information Signs and Location of both Mandatory and Information Signs ................................................................................................................................... 92 Table 6-10 IRDM Brilliancy Levels ....................................................................................... 95 Table 6-11 Colours for Markings, Signs and Panels .......................................................... 101 Table 6-12 Average Intensity Ratio .................................................................................... 105 Table 6-13 Wheel Clearances ............................................................................................ 125 Table 6-14 Differential Settings .......................................................................................... 128 Table 6-15 PAPI Flight Check Procedure ........................................................................... 129 Table 6-16 Control Plan Checklist ...................................................................................... 132 Table 7-1 Dimensions of Obstacles Marking Bands ........................................................... 137 Table 7-2 Characteristics of Obstacle Lights ...................................................................... 139 Table 8-1 Maximum Switchover Times .............................................................................. 141 Table 8-2 Recommended AGL Luminous Intensity Control Stages .................................... 144 Table 8-3 AGL Serviceability Levels .................................................................................. 146 Table 10-1 Performance Classes of Helicopters ................................................................ 150 Table 10-2 Rotary Wing Permanent Base Physical Characteristic ..................................... 151 Table 10-3 Separation Distances (expressed in multiples of maximum design helicopter overall dimension with rotors turning) ................................................................................. 153 Table 10-4 Obstacle Limitation Surfaces Dimensions & Slopes - Non-instrument & Non-precision FATO (slopes measured in the vertical plane containing the surface centre-line) 155 Table 10-5 Obstacle Limitation Surfaces Dimensions & Slopes - Instrument (Precision Approach) FATO (slopes measured in the vertical plane containing the surface centre-line) .................................................................................................................................... 156 Table 10-6 Obstacle Limitation Surfaces Dimensions & Slopes - Straight Take-off (slopes are measured in the vertical plane containing the surface centre-line) ............................... 157 Table 10-7 Criteria for Curved Take-off Climb/Approach Area - Non-instrument Final Approach and Take-offa ..................................................................................................... 158 Table 10-8 Obstacle Limitation Requirements - Surface Level Rotary Wing Permanent Bases ................................................................................................................................ 159 Table 10-9 Daylight Operations ......................................................................................... 161 Table 10-10 Additional Requirements for Night Operations................................................ 162 Table 11-1 Light Distribution of FATO Lights ..................................................................... 174 Table 11-2 Light Distribution of Landing Direction Lights ................................................... 176 Table 11-3 Light Distribution of Approach Direction Lights ................................................. 178 Table 11-4 Dimensions and Slopes of Obstacle Protection Surface ................................... 183 Table 13-1 CBR ................................................................................................................. 203 Table 14-1 Operating Criteria for Minimum Strips .............................................................. 223 Table 14-2 Light Unit Characteristic ................................................................................... 224 Table 14-3 Light System Specifications ............................................................................. 228



Table 14-4 Heaviest Configurations for Hercules C130 Mk1 and Mk3 Applicable to Permissible Roughness Zones ........................................................................................... 232 Table 14-5 Parameters Applicable to Configurations A,B,C,D and E For Hercules C 130 Mk 1 And Mk3 .................................................................................................................... 233 Table 15-1 Pavementa Classification Friction Table for the 65 km/h Self Wetting Test ....... 243 Table 15-2 Friction Survey Requirements ........................................................................... 244 Table 15-3 Runway Friction Classification/Monitoring Survey Procedures .......................... 245 Table 15-4 Runway Friction Classification Survey Run Sequence and Results .................. 247 Table 15-5 Runway Friction Monitoring Survey Run Sequence and Results ...................... 248 Table 15-6 Runway Friction Survey Report ........................................................................ 249 Table 15-7 Classification of Rubber Deposits ..................................................................... 250 Table 15-8 Classification of Surface Conditions.................................................................. 250 Table 15-9 Friction Monitoring Procedures in Compacted Snow and Ice Conditions .......... 251 Table 15-10 Friction values for compacted snow and/or ice-covered runways ................... 251 Table 15-11 Condition Descriptions for Compacted Snow and/or Ice/Slush-Covered Runways ............................................................................................................................ 252 Table 15-12 PCN Reporting ............................................................................................... 256 Table 15-13 ........................................................................................................................ 267 Table 17-1 Floodlighting Intensities .................................................................................... 290 Table 17-2 Street Lighting Intensities ................................................................................. 290



FOREWORD 1. Military Aviation Authority. The Military Aviation Authority (MAA) is the single independent regulatory body for all Defence aviation activity. As the ‘Regulator’, Director MAA (D MAA) is accountable to SofS, through the Defence Safety Authority (DSA) for providing a regulatory framework, given effect by a certification, approvals and inspection process for the acquisition, operation and airworthiness of ►Air Systems◄ w ithin the Defence aviation environment. Through Director General (DG) DSA, D MAA is responsible for providing assurance to SofS that the appropriate standards of military Air Safety are maintained. DG DSA is the Convening Authority for Service Inquiries into aircraft occurrences.

2. Regulatory Structure. D MAA is the owner of the MAA Regulatory Publications (MRP) and has the authority to issue them on behalf of the SofS. There are 3 levels of documentation within the MRP, as outlined below:

a. Overarching documents:

(1) MAA01: MAA Regulatory Policy.

(2) MAA02: MAA Master Glossary.

(3) MAA03: MAA Regulatory Processes.

b. Regulatory Articles (RA):

(1) 1000 Series: General Regulations (GEN).

(2) 2000 Series: Flying Regulations (FLY).

(3) 3000 Series: Air Traffic Management Regulations (ATM).

(4) 4000 Series: Continuing Airworthiness Engineering Regulations (CAE).

(5) 5000 Series: ►Type Airworthiness Engineering Regulations (TAE)◄ .

c. MAA Manuals:

(1) Manual of Air Safety.

(2) Manual of Post-Crash Management.

(3) ►◄

(4) Manual of Military Air Traffic Management.

(5) Manual of Aerodrome Design and Safeguarding.

(6) Display Flying Handbook.

(7) Defence Aerodrome Manual.

(8) Manual of Maintenance and Airworthiness Processes (MAP-01).

(9) Manual of Maintenance and Airworthiness Processes Supplement - MOD Form 700 Series of Forms (MAP-02).



The contents of each series are published on the MAA website, www.gov.uk/maa.

3. Applicability. Unless specifically excluded, the MRP documents, RAs and Manuals apply to any personnel be they civilian or military involved in the ►certification◄, design, production, maintenance, handling, control or operation of ►Air Systems◄ on the UK Military Aircraft Register (MAR) and associated equipment1, under MAA regulations, in accordance with Chapter 4 of MAA01.

4. Scope of Activity. The MAA has full oversight of all Defence aviation activity and undertakes the role of the single regulatory authority responsible for regulating all aspects of Air Safety across Defence.

5. Military Applicability. The RAs within the MRP (also referred to as “the Regulations”) are Orders within the meaning of the Armed Forces Act. The MRP has primacy over all other Defence aviation orders or instructions, except insofar as any regulation therein has been superseded by a Regulatory Notification.

6. Equal Opportunities Statement. All reference to the masculine gender (he, him and his) is to be taken to include the feminine gender (she, her and hers).

7. Responsibilities. The Regulations contained within the MRP do not absolve any person from using their best judgement to ensure the safety of ►Air Systems◄ and personnel. Where safety or operational imperatives demand, the Regulations may be deviated from provided that a convincing case can be offered in retrospect. Where authorized individuals issue their own amplifying orders or instructions, they must be based on the Regulations and they must not be more permissive.

8. Regulatory Notifications. Where the routine amendment process for the MRP is not sufficiently agile, to effect timely communication of regulatory changes, the MAA will employ one of 2 types of notification, dependent upon the nature of the information conveyed:

a. Regulatory Notice. A Regulatory Notice (RN) will notify changes in structures, procedures, regulations, or provide operational or engineering guidance.

b. Regulatory Instruction. A Regulatory Instruction (RI) will provide mandatory operational or engineering direction.

9. Notifications will be approved at the appropriate level within the MAA depending on type, complexity and whether the Notification is contentious. They will be promulgated to those with delegated/contracted responsibility for Air Safety such as Aviation Duty Holders (ADH) within the Services and Accountable Managers within Industry. Recipients will be required to acknowledge receipt and copies of the notifications will also be published on the MAA website. Receiving organizations are responsible for cascading notifications internally in an effective way.

10. Regulatory Waiver/Exemption. Temporary waivers (for a specified period) or permanent exemptions from extant regulations may be employed2 at the request of a Regulated Entity. For regulatory waivers or exemptions, the process outlined in MAA03 is to be used.

1 Including Air Traffic Management (ATM) and Aerospace Battle Management (ABM). 2 When approved by the Regulator.

http://www.gov.uk/maa

https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/maa01-military-aviation-authority-maa-regulatory-policy

https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/military-aviation-authority

https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/maa03-military-aviation-authority-maa-regulatory-processes



11. Alternative Acceptable Means of Compliance (AAMC). Where the Regulated Entity believes there is an alternative way of satisfying the intent of a Regulation, it may utilise the AAMC process outlined in MAA03 to apply to the MAA for approval.

12. Commercial Implications. The MRP will be applied through contract to those commercial organizations designing, producing, maintaining, handling, controlling or operating ►Air Systems◄ on the UK MAR and associated equipment1. Compliance with these Regulations will not in itself relieve any person from any legal obligations imposed upon them. These Regulations have been devised solely for the use of the UK Ministry of Defence (MOD), its contractors in the execution of contracts for the MOD and those organizations that have requested to operate their ►Air Systems◄ on the UK MAR. To the extent permitted by law, the MOD hereby excludes all liability whatsoever and howsoever arising (including, but without limitation, liability resulting from negligence) for any loss or damage however caused when these Regulations are used for any other purpose. Contractors should be aware of the risks associated with following legacy Regulation and policy which is obsolescent and therefore no longer supported. All future contracts and contractual amendments should ensure that the requirement to comply with the extant MRP is captured at date of contract let or amendment. The MAA will continue to monitor this situation through audit and inspection.

13. Amendment. Sponsorship of the MRP and the authorization of amendments are the responsibility of D MAA. Proposals for amendments to the MRP can be made in accordance with Chapter 4 of MAA01 - MAA Regulatory Policy and MAA03 - MAA Regulatory Processes.

< Original signed >

J C DICKSON

Group Captain

Deputy Head (Regulation)

Military Aviation Authority

►22 Aug 16◄


https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/maa01-military-aviation-authority-maa-regulatory-policy




Chapter 1: Policy, Organisation and Responsibilities

REGULATORY CROSS REFERENCE

This document supports and must be read in conjunction with RA 3016 - Military Aerodrome Design and Safeguarding Criteria.

AUTHORITY

1. General. The authority to operate and regulate military aircraft is vested in the Secretary of State for Defence, who on 1 Apr 2010 established the Military Aviation Authority (MAA) as the single independent regulatory body for all Defence aviation activity. As the ‘Regulator’, Director MAA (D MAA) is accountable to SofS, through the 2nd Permanent Under Secretary of State (PUS), and the Defence Safety Authority (DSA), for providing a regulatory framework, certification and approvals for the acquisition, operation and airworthiness of air systems within the Defence aviation environment. D MAA is responsible for providing assurance to SofS that the appropriate standards of military Air Safety are maintained.

2. Custodian. The custodian of this Manual is the MAA. The MAA is the defence operating authority and contact details can be found in Table 1-2.

3. Specifications. Where possible specifications accord with NATO standards and the International Standards and Recommended Practices contained within ICAO Annex 14, in particular the AMLIP STANAGS as detailed in Chapter 18.

RESPONSIBILITY

4. MOD Specialists.

Table 1-1 Current MOD Specialists

SUBJECT MOD SPECIALIST ADDRESS Safeguarding DIO, Safety , Environment and

Engineering, Environment and Planning Support, Safeguarding Officer (Statutory & Offshore)

Kingston Road Sutton Coldfield West Midlands B75 7RL Tel: 0121 311 3818

Pavements DIO, Safety, Environment and Engineering, Technical Authority (Pavements) Engineering and Construction, Airfield Pavement


Visual Aids DIO, Safety, Environment and Engineering, Technical Authority (AGL) Engineering and Construction, Electrical Infrastructure


Compass Calibration Bases

QinetiQ, Land Magnetic Facilities MOD Portland Bill Portland Dorset DT5 2JT Tel: 01305 862022 or 01305 862000



5. Appropriate Service Specialists. Table 1-2 lists the military authority contact details and the details for the appropriate service specialists.

Table 1-2 Military Authority and Appropriate Service Specialists

MIL AUTHORITY AND SPECIALISTS

ADDRESS CONTACT DETAILS

Authority for Service Military Airfields

MAA Reg ATM2 ADInfra Juniper 1 Wg 4 MOD Abbey Wood (North) Bristol BS34 8JH

Tel: 0306 7984231 Email: [email protected]

Non-FLC and Contractor Aerodromes

MAA OA Ops Spt Juniper 0 Wg 1 MOD Abbey Wood (North) Bristol BS34 8JH


Royal Air Force Air Cmd BM ATM SO2 Infra HQ AIR RAF High Wycombe Buckinghamshire HP14 4UE


Joint Helicopter Command (JHC)

SO2 JHC SA Safety Policy HQ JHC HQ Land Forces Marlborough Lines, Monxton Road Andover SP11 8HT


Royal Navy NCHQ CSAV SO2 ATC HMS Excellent Whale Island, Portsmouth Hampshire PO2 8ER


12 (Force Sp) Engr Gp SO1 12 (Force Sp) Engr Gp Building 408 RAF Wittering Peterborough PE8 6HB


PJHQ PJHQ CESO PJHQ Northwood HQ Sandy Lane NORTHWOOD Middlesex HA6 3HP


mailto:[email protected]















Chapter 2: Aerodrome Design Procedures

General

1. This Section describes the procedures and responsibilities for the provision of aerodrome pavements, visual aids, their maintenance, inspection and survey. It should be noted that the Manual is only relevant for UK military aerodromes and temporary airfields in the UK and overseas.

2. Procurement of airfield infrastructure services, whether new works or maintenance, is the responsibility of the Defence Infrastructure Organisation (DIO), less on deployed operational bases in Military Works Areas where the military are responsible, usually through the Royal Engineers. All airfield infrastructure services should comply with this manual.

Implementation Policy

3. The specifications and criteria described in this manual apply to the new construction, modification and restoration of facilities. They are mandatory unless specific engineering or operational considerations dictate a variation, in which case sponsors should apply for a Waiver, Exemption or Alternative Acceptable Means of Compliance (AAMC) in accordance with MAA 03 – MAA Regulatory Processes. For the Temporary Airfield see Chapters 12,13 and 14; the appropriate military authority is the Air Commander. The specifications do not, of themselves, establish an entitlement to construct new facilities or to modify or to restore existing facilities and changes to existing facilities should not be supported solely to meet the letter of the criteria.

Airfield Infrastructure Services

4. Core Works. Core Works are typically high value or complex projects, and the typical process is shown in Figure 2-1. 5. Core Services. Core Services are typically lower value or less complex maintenance tasks. 6. Verification of Works. A Verification Plan should be established, concurrently with the project development, for each of the phase of the project and detailed in the appropriate and relevant documentation. The Verification Plan should provide and document or refer to the criteria, techniques and tools to be used in the verification process. 7. Handover Documentation. Handover documentation should include Verification Assurance Certification detailed in Table 2-2. Aerodrome Maintenance

8. General. A maintenance programme, including preventative maintenance where appropriate, should be established at aerodromes to maintain facilities in a condition which does not impair the safety of operations in accordance with these regulations. The maintenance policy should address the following aspects:

a. The organisation, roles and responsibilities.

b. The maintenance philosophy, that includes and takes account of:

(1) The maintenance objectives.



(2) The operational requirements.

(3) The maintenance resources.

c. A maintenance schedule and procedures, which include:

(1) The maintenance objectives.

(2) The operational requirements.

(3) The maintenance resources.

(4) Planned, controlled, conditional and corrective maintenance programmes.

(5) Post-maintenance activities.

(6) The modification or upgrading of equipment.

(7) Specific safety procedures.

(8) The management of records and documentation.

(9) The provision of spares, tools and test equipment.

(10) Inspections.

9. Aerodromes should perform to their design standards yet will deteriorate through usage and in time. Maintenance is an aid to retaining acceptable standards and maximising facility life.

Inspections and Surveys

10. Inspections and surveys are a technical maintenance tool and a staff tool to support requests for the funding of projects and to audit compliance of aerodromes with this Manual. Measured Height Surveys update the position and height of all obstructions to the Approach Clearance Planes and provide data to OCA Flt No 1 AIDU for the provision of airfield approach procedures. Table 2-1 details the responsibilities for Inspections and Surveys of aerodrome operating facilities. Defence Works Functional Standard 06 – ‘Guide to Airfield Pavement Maintenance’ is a reference document for Stations to back up recommendations arising from inspections and surveys.

11. For verification assurance certification to be presented at handover of major and minor work see Table 2-2.

Reference to Other Documents

12. Bibliography. The Bibliography in Chapter 19 gives a comprehensive, but not exhaustive, list of related publications. Of particular note are ICAO, CAA and NATO publications, any of which may contain conflicting standards and criteria. Where uncertainty exists, advice should be sought from the sponsor of the relevant section of this Manual.

13. STANAGS. This Manual implements a number of STANAGS. Information on the edition and implementation status of the STANAGS referenced can be found in the Chapter 18.



Figure 2-1 Typical Core Works Process Map

Raise user need Identify requirement

TLB DIO

Initial procurement strategy Options to meet user needs Prepare Business Case

Obtain Business Case approval

Approved?

No

Prepare Project Brief Yes

Prepare Viability Study Confirm Procurement Strategy Obtain authority to proceed

Proceed?

Yes

No

Whole life based design

Contract preparation

No

Obtain authority to proceed

Proceed?

Yes

Tender process

No

Obtain authority to proceed

Proceed?

Yes Award contract

Do Contract works

Handover contract works Accept completed works

Process review Post Project Review



Table 2-1 Responsibilities for Military Aerodromes Design, Standards, Inspections and Surveys

Responsible Organisation/Responsibility

Staf

f Ins

pect

ion Friction Surveys

Mai

nten

ance

Insp

ectio

ns

Mea

sure

d H

eigh

t Sur

veys

Wor

ks (M

ajor

& M

inor

)

Remarks

Cla

ssifi

catio

n

Mon

itorin

g

Spec

ial

APPROPRIATE MILITARY AUTHORITIES Assist Operations Staffs to set minimum standards • • • • • • •

Confirm requirement for special surveys related to flight safety

• • •

Approval Authority for proposed deviation from Regulations • • • • • • •

Promulgate Staff Inspection Programme •

Approval Authority for friction measurement machines • • •

With MOD Specialists advice

TLB REPRESENTATIVES

Set operational and design requirements • Seek MOD Specialists' advice

Sponsor, fund and programme any major projects • • • • • •

Agree and promulgate the Inspection/Survey programme annually • • • • •

From MOD Specialists input

DLO

Equipment Manager for in-service friction measuring devices. • • •

Including. those held by STRE (Air Sp) when Authorised.

Fund spares and calibration of in-service approved friction classification equipment held • • •

Currently Mu-Meter Mk V

MOD SPECIALISTS

Policy on construction materials and equipment (i.e. performance, characteristics, testing, etc.) • • • • •

For airfield pavement wks see Chapter 15

Maintain Inspection/Survey databases for MOD aerodromes • • • •

Approval Authority for Inspection/Survey procedures and agencies. • • • • •



Responsible Organisation/Responsibility

Staf

f Ins

pect

ion Friction Surveys

Mai

nten

ance

Insp

ectio

ns

Mea

sure

d H

eigh

t Sur

veys

Wor

ks (M

ajor

& M

inor

)

Remarks

Cla

ssifi

catio

n

Mon

itorin

g

Spec

ial

Draft/advise on Inspection/Survey Programmes • • • • Annually Arrange contract support to Inspections/Surveys • • • • STRE (Air Sp) Maintain and operate in-service friction measuring devices • • When issue

authorised Carry out operational Inspections/Surveys at FOB • • • •

STATIONS

Set operational and design requirements • Seek MOD Specialists' advice

Conduct Friction Monitoring Surveys •

Stns without Mu-Meters to request surveys as required

Fund Inspections/Surveys • • • • •

Except at handover of major projects when project pays

Request surveys as required •

Conduct periodic inspections •

In accordance with the Manual of Military ATM

Frequency of Inspections/Surveys (years) 1 4c a a 2 1d

a As required b Statutory c Annually when Friction Level is below MPL d Check Survey Annually, Full Survey every 5 years, or at frequencies as determined in accordance with CAP232



Table 2-2 Verification Assurance Certification that should be Presented at Handover of Major and Minor Works

Verification Assurance

Certificates* Run

way

Ta

xiw

ay

Apr

ons

Manual References Comments

* To be provided at Handover

AGL System Installation Compliance Certificate*

Chapter 6 Para 1 Indicators and Signalling Devices Chapter 6 Para 4 Markings Chapter 6 Para 27 Lights Chapter 6 Para 47 Signs Chapter 6 Para 56 Markers Chapter 7 Obstacles Chapter 9 Para 2 Earthing

Where compliance is not assured a Waiver, Exemption or AAMC should be submitted to the MAA (see MAA 03 – MAA Regulatory Processes.

AGL Photometric Test Certificate of Compliance*

Annex 6B

New, refurbished or modified installations where more than 25% of the system has been changed. All Runway Services and Taxiway Centreline only

Apron Floodlighting Photometric Test Certificate of Compliance*

Chapter 6 Para 44

Certificate of Compliance for provision of Secondary Power Supplies*

Chapter 8 Paras 3-6

Determined by Approach Category (i.e Non-precision, Precision CAT I and Precision Approach CAT II as applicable)

PAPI Flight CheckForm* Annex 6C

Where bases may have been affected or PAPI unit has been damaged or removed and replaced.

MCS Functional Test Certificate*

Chapter 6 Para 46f

Full system check required after any work is undertaken. Compliance with DIO Policy Instruction 19/2006 is mandatory.

Insulation Resistance Test Results*

Chapter 8 Para 19

Results to comply with DIO Policy Instruction 29/2005 Annex B

“As Built” Drawings

Should be provided within the period detailed in the contract (normally within 28 days of handover)

Updated Airfield Lighting Schedule

Should be provided within the period detailed in the contract (normally within 28 days of handover)

O&M Manuals* AGL Equipment Warranty*

Annex 6B Para 3

Friction Test Certificate* Chapter 15 Para 7

Note: DIO Policy Instructions can be downloaded at http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121026065214/www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/MicroSite/DIO/OurPublications/TechnicalDocuments/

http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121026065214/www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/MicroSite/DIO/OurPublications/TechnicalDocuments/

http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121026065214/www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/MicroSite/DIO/OurPublications/TechnicalDocuments/



Chapter 3: Aerodrome Design Specification for Fixed Wing Permanent

Bases

AERODROME DATA

General

1. These specifications and criteria apply to the new construction, modification and restoration of military aerodrome facilities at home and overseas. They are mandatory unless specific engineering or operational considerations dictate a variation, in which case the sponsors should apply for a Waiver, Exemption or AAMC in accordance with MAA 03 – MAA Regulatory Processes.

Fixed Wing Aircraft Requirements

2. The specifications in this part of the document cover the general requirements of all military fixed wing aircraft, including wide bodied transport aircraft. A specimen layout of an aerodrome is shown at Figure 3-1 Specimen Aerodrome Layout. Specifications and criteria for military rotary wing aircraft and heliports are laid down in Chapters 10 and 11.

Figure 3-1 Specimen Aerodrome Layout

3. For the purpose of defining standard dimensions for aerodrome movement areas in this document, permanent aerodromes are divided into categories and assigned an Aerodrome Reference Code comprising a Code Number and Code Letter. The basis for these categories, which include grass runways, shown in Table 3-1 are runway length and aircraft wing span/wheel span. The standard runway widths are shown, but do not affect aerodrome categories. Codes 4-6 equating to the ICAO Code 4, are introduced to allow compatibility with NATO Criteria. The codes should be determined as follows:

a. The Code Number corresponds to the highest value of the aerodrome reference field lengths of the design aircraft.



b. The Code Letter corresponds to the greatest wing span, or the greatest outer main wheel gear span, whichever gives the more demanding code letter of the design aircraft.

Table 3-1 Aerodrome Reference Codes

Aerodrome Code Number Main Runway Length Minimum Runway Widtha

1 < 800m (2600ft) 18m (60ft)b and 23m (75ft) 2 ≥ 800m (2600ft) and < 1200m

30m (100ft) 3 ≥1200m (3900ft) and < 1800m

45m (150ft) 4 ≥ 1800m (6000ft) and < 2300m

45m (150ft)

5 ≥ 2300m (7500ft) and < 2750m

45m (150ft)

6 ≥ 2750m (9000ft) 60m (200 ft)

a The width of precision approach runways ≥ 30m (100ft) b Subject to requirements of aircraft manuals, will normally only be considered for light aircraft operations.

Aerodrome Code Letter Wing Span Outer Main Gear Wheel Span

A < 15m < 4.5m B ≥ 15m and < 24m ≥ 4.5m and < 6m C ≥ 24m and < 36m ≥ 6m and < 9m Dc ≥ 36m and < 52m ≥ 9m and < 14m Ec ≥52m and < 65m ≥ 9m and < 14m Fc ≥65m and < 80m ≥ 14m and < 16m

c The minimum runway width is 45m.

4. Simultaneous (Parallel) Runway Operations. The conditions of Table 3-2 are unlikely to be feasible on existing military aerodromes and so simultaneous runway operations are not normally permitted in peacetime. Stations whom wish to carry out simultaneous runway operations, but do not meet the requirements of Table 3-2, should submit a Waiver/Exemption or AAMC in accordance with MAA 03 – MAA Regulatory Processes.

Table 3-2 Runway Separation Distances for Simultaneous Runway Operations

Centre-line Separation Distance Aerodrome Code Number a 1 2 3-6

Use Non-instrument simultaneous 120m 150m 210m Independent parallel approaches b 1035m Dependent parallel approaches b 915m Independent parallel departures b 760m Segregated parallel operations b 760m cd



a Based on the higher code number for the intended use b See ICAO Manual of Simultaneous Operations on Parallel or Near-Parallel Instrument Runways (Doc 9643) c Decreased by 30m (minimum 300m) for each 150m that arrival runway is staggered toward the arriving aircraft d Increased by 30m for each 150m that arrival runway is staggered away from the arriving aircraft



Chapter 4: Specifications for the Aerodrome Physical Design

Runways

1. The following rules for all runways apply, regardless of the aerodrome category or of the specified or actual dimensions of the paved and prepared runway surfaces:

a. Length. Runway length should be sufficient to meet the operational requirement. 150m at each end of each runway should be of rigid construction to combat the effects of jet engine efflux.

b. Width. Width should be in accordance with Table 3-1 unless a greater width is required for operational reasons.

c. Longitudinal Slopes. Figure 4-1 shows the split of the runways/stopways that should be considered. Runway longitudinal slope limits are given in Table 4-1. Stopway slope limits are given in Table 4-7.

Figure 4-1 Runway Gradients Longitudinal

Paved Runway

End Section Centre Section End Section

Stopway Stopway

Table 4-1 Runway Longitudinal Slopes

Aerodrome Code

Number

Longitudinal Slope

Overall(a) Local Changes Transitional Rate of Change

1 ≤ 2% ≤ 2% ≤ 2% ≤ 0.4% per 30m (radius of curvature > 7500m)

2 ≤ 2% ≤ 2% ≤ 2%

3 ≤ 1% ≤ 1.5% (≤ 0.8%)d ≤ 1.5% ≤ 0.2% per 30m (radius of curvature > 15000m)

4 ≤ 1% ≤ 1.25% (≤ 0.8%)c ≤ 1.5% ≤ 0.1% per 30m (radius of curvature > 30000m)

5 ≤ 1% ≤ 1.25% (≤ 0.5% up or ≤

≤ 1.5% 6 ≤ 1% ≤ 1.25% (≤ 0.5% up or ≤

0.8% down)b ≤ 1.5%



a =Difference in elevation between the runway ends on the centre-line divided by the runway length b For end thirds of runway viewed from the centre section c For end quarters of runway d For end quarters of a precision approach Category II or III runway

d. Distance Between Slope Changes. Undulations or appreciable changes in slopes located close together along a runway should be avoided. The distance between the points of intersection of two successive curves should not be less than:

(1) The sum of the absolute numerical values of the corresponding slope changes multiplied by the appropriate value as follows:

(a) 30000m where the code number is 4 or greater;

(b) 15000m where the code number is 3; and

(c) 5000m where the code number is 1 or 2; or

(2) 45m, whichever is the greater.

e. Lines of Sight. Where slope changes cannot be avoided, unobstructed lines of sight are as given in Table 4-2.

f. Transverse Slopes. Figure 4-2 shows the split of runway/shoulders/ graded portions of strips outside of shoulders, to be considered. Runway transverse slope limits are given in Table 4-3. Shoulder slope limits are given in Table 4-3. Strip slope limits are given in Table 4-4.

g. Strength. The bearing strength of the runway should be capable of accepting the design aircraft operations including the safe movement of rescue and fire fighting vehicles. Further details are given at Chapter 15 Para 27-46.

h. Surface of Runways. Runway surfaces should be constructed and maintained so that they permit safe take-off and landing of aircraft. This includes requirements in respect of surface integrity, friction and surface evenness. Further details are given in Chapter 15.

i. Construction at the End of Runways. In order to minimise the possibility of damage to aircraft landing short of the paved runway surface, the end of the runway pavement should be inclined to the horizontal at a slope of 12.5%. The inclined portion at the end of the runway should be formed by the provision of a concrete ramp, finishing below the ground surface, 2.4m in length and of 0.15m minimum thickness. See Figure 4-3.

j. Blast Pads. Concrete blast pads, when authorised, should be of sufficient size to prevent surface erosion and migration of foreign material onto the runway. The ends should to comply with the provisions of Chapter 4 Para 1a. Blast pads should form part of stopways, in which case they should be designed as paved stopways.

k. Runways for VTOL/STOL Operations. Runway dimensions (length and width) for VTOL/STOL operations are laid down in respective aircraft manuals and will vary from aircraft to aircraft. The requirements will be dependent on payload and crosswind components and the manuals for the aerodrome/runway design aircraft should be consulted before any design or construction work is undertaken.



In all other respects the runway should be treated as a normal runway with the criteria being dictated by the Aerodrome Code Number and Letter.

Figure 4-2 Runway Gradients Transverse

Strip StripShoulder ShoulderPaved Runway

3m 3m

Figure 4-3 Lines of Sight and Transverse Slopes

Table 4-2 Construction at Runway Ends

Aerodrome Code Letter

Line of Sight (any point of the given height to all other points of the same given height within at

least ½ runway length Transverse Slope

A 1.5m 1% ≤ slope ≤ 2% B 2m

C

3m 1% ≤ slope ≤ 1.5% D E F

2. Runway Shoulders. Shoulders should be provided symmetrically either side of the runway centre-line in accordance with Figure 4-2 and Figure 4-3. Paved shoulders should be authorised in special cases (eg for aircraft with outrigger wheels on the wing-tips or where jet blast from large aircraft with wing-mounted engines overhanging the pavement edge causing possible FOD problems or where the topsoil/climate will not support grassed shoulders). See Chapter 17 Para 3.

>



Table 4-3 Runway Shoulders


Overall Widtha

Slopes Strength

(Paved/Unpaved) Longitudinal Transverse A

Shoulders not required B C D ≥ 60m

As for the runway

≤ 2.5%. Edge to be flush with

runway

Refer to Section Chap 15 para 27. E ≥ 60m

F ≥ 75m a Overall width=runway +2 x shoulder width

3. Runway Strips

a. A runway and any associated stopways should be included in a strip with characteristics as shown in Table 4-4. There should be no isolated hard or soft areas of ground in the graded portion so as to minimise hazards to aircraft arising from differences in load bearing capacity. The strip should be of sufficient strength such that it does not hinder the movement of rescue and fire fighting vehicles. See also Chapter 15 Para 28 and Chapter 17 Para 4.

Table 4-4 Runway Strips

Aer

odro

me

Cod

e N

umbe

r

Leng

th (b

efor

e th

resh

old

and

beyo

nd ru

nway

/sto

pway

Widthh

Obj

ects

(not

allo

wed

with

in

give

n di

stan

ce o

f run

way

ce

ntre

-line

)

Graded Portion (distance from runway centre-

line. Flush where abutting

runway/shoulder/ stopway)

Slopes

Prec

isio

n

Non

-Pr

ecis

ion

Non

-In

stru

men

t

Inst

rum

ent

Non

-In

stru

men

t

Long

itudi

nal

Tran

sver

see,

f

1 60/30ma ≥ 75m

≥ 30m 45mb ≥ 40m ≥ 30m ≤ 2% ≤ 3% 2

60m

≥ 40m ≥ 40m 3

≥ 150mg ≥ 75m 60mc,d ≥ 75m

≤ 1.75%

≤ 2.5% 4 ≤ 1.5% 5

6 a 60m instrumented, 30m non-instrumented b Precision approach runway Category I c Precision approach runway Categories I, II, or III d Change to within 77.5m for precision approach runway category I,II or III where the code

number is 4 or more and the code letter is F e Slope of 3m from runway/shoulder/stopway to be downwards and ≤ 5% to aid drainage f Beyond graded portion slope ≤ 5% upwards. Downward slope as given above. g 90m for subsidiary runways h Each side of centre-line



b. Delethalisation. The graded portion of runway strips should be delethalised as indicated in Figure 4-4; the sub-surface ramp should be inclined to the horizontal at a maximum slope of 12.5%.

Figure 4-4 Delethalisation

c. An object situated on a runway strip which may endanger aeroplanes should be regarded as an obstacle and should, as far as practicable, be removed. See Chapter 17 Para 9.

Runway End Safety Areas

4. RESA, providing an undershooting or overrunning aircraft with a cleared and graded area, should be provided in accordance with Table 4-5. No fixed object, other than visual aids required for air navigation purposes, which satisfy the relevant safeguarding criteria, is permitted on a RESA. The RESA should be prepared/constructed to reduce the risk of damage to an aeroplane undershooting or over running the runway and to facilitate the movement of rescue and fire fighting vehicles.

Table 4-5 Runway End Safety Areas

Aerodrome Code

Number Lengthac Width

Slopesb

Longitudinal Transverse

1 Minimum of 90m. Recommended 120m for code number 1 or 2 runways and 240m for code 3 or greater runwaysd

≥ 2 x associated runway width

≤ 5% downwards with gradual changes in slope

≤ ± 5% with gradual changes in slope

2 3 4 5

6

a Aerodrome Code 3, 4, 5, 6 require RESA, also for Code 1 & 2 if the runway is an instrument one b RESA not to penetrate approach or take-off climb surface c Extending from the end of the runway strip d A safety assessment which takes account of a reasonable probable combination of adverse operational factors should be provided where the Recommended distances are not practicable, notwithstanding compliance with the minimum requirement.

Runway Strip Surface Hard object (eg manhole cover, cable duct or edge of intersecting pavements) within runway strip

Unpaved ‘soft’ runway

Slope 12.5%

>300

mm



Clearways

5. The requirement for clearways at each end of the runway is dependent on the declared runway length and the required TODA of the design aircraft. Where the declared runway length is shorter than the TODA required for the design aircraft a clearway should be provided at the end(s) of the runway in accordance with Table 4-6. Objects on a clearway which may endanger aircraft in the air should be regarded as obstacles and removed. Chapter 17 Para 6.

Table 4-6 Clearways

Length Width Slopes Origin at end of TORA Length ≤ ½ TORAa

≥ 75m to each side of extended runway centre-line

a. Ground not to penetrate an upward slope of 1.25% from the TORA endb. b. Abrupt upward slope changes should be avoided. c. Within 22.5m of extended runway centre-line, slope changes and transition from runway to clearway should conform with those of the associated runway.

a Clearway should not extend beyond aerodrome boundary unless obstacle control can be exercised over the additional land/water. b Shoulders and strips need not be graded to conform with the clearway plane. Terrain or objects above the clearway plane but below the level of the runway strip need only be removed if considered dangerous to aircraft.

Stopways

6. The requirement for stopways at each end of the runway is dependent on the TORA and ASDA of the design aircraft. The surface should have a coefficient of friction when wet compatible with that of the associated runway. See Table 4-7 and Chapter 17 Para 5.

Table 4-7 Stopways

Length Width Slopes/Changes in Slope Strength Paved/Unpaved

a. Accelerate-stop distance reqd minus runway length (provided at both ends) b. When an Arrester Net Barrier is provided the length of the overrun beyond the barrier should not normally be included in ASDA because not all aircraft are capable of taking a lowered barrier

= width of runway + shoulders, centred on the runway centre-line

As for associated runway except: a. 0.8% first and last ¼ limitations need not be applied. b. Runway/stopway junction rate of change ≤ 0.3% per 30m (radius of curvature ≥ 10000m for Aerodrome Code No 3, 4, 5, or 6.

a. Refer to Chapter 15 Para 28

Arrester Net Barrier Overrun

7. When an arrester barrier is fitted (ie normally at a specified distance beyond the end(s) of a runway) an Arrester Net Barrier Overrun should be provided; the length of the Overrun should allow for the full extension of the barrier type used. See Table 4-7. The requirements for pavement strength and surface from the runway end up to and 2 metres beyond the barrier should be as that for a paved stopway except as modified at Chapter 15 Para 46; beyond this point the requirements for a stopway are applicable.



Taxiways

8. Taxiways

a. The design of a taxiway should be such that, when the cockpit of the specified design aircraft remains over the taxiway centre-line markings, the width and clearance distance between the outer main wheel of the aeroplane and the edge of the taxiway should not to be less than that given in Table 4-8. An example of widening taxiways to achieve the wheel clearance specified on curves is illustrated in Figure 4-5. However, changes in direction of taxiways should be as few and as small as possible. The radii of the curves should be compatible with the manoeuvring capability and normal taxiing speeds of the design aircraft. Minimum separation distances are detailed in Table 4-10 and slopes as in Table 4-11.

b. The strength of taxiways should be at least equal to that of the runway(s) that they serve, due consideration being given to the fact that a taxiway will be subjected to a greater density of slower moving or stationary traffic leading to higher stresses than the runway(s) they serve. The surface of taxiways should not have irregularities that could cause damage to aeroplane structures and should provide good friction characteristics when wet. Refer to Chapter 15 for further details in respect of pavement surface and strength requirements.

Figure 4-5 Taxiway Curve Widening



Table 4-8 Taxiway Width and Wheel Clearance

Aerodrome Code Letter Width Minimum Wheel

Clearance

Junctions/ Intersections with Runways/Aprons/ Other Taxiways

A 7.5m 1.5m

a. Fillets should be provided b. Radii of curvature on the centre-line ≥ 60m and compatible with the taxiing speed of the design aircraft

B 10.5m 2.25m C a. 15m for design aircraft

wheel base < 18m b. 18m for design aircraft

wheel base ≥ 18m

a. 3m for design aircraft wheel base < 18m

b. 4.5m for design aircraft wheel base ≥ 18m

D a. 18m for design aircraft wheel span < 9m

b. 23m for design aircraft outer main gear wheel

span ≥ 9m

4.5m

E 23m 4.5m F 25m 4.5m

Table 4-9 Parallel Taxiways

Facility Length Width Slopes Longitudinal Transverse

Parallel Taxiway

As for main runway ≥ 23m As for main runway

Shoulders Full length ≥ 30m from taxiway edge

Clearwayab

≤ 150m 52.5m

Not to project above plane through end of taxiway with slope =

2%

≤ 3%

Stopway Not required Strip 60m beyond

parallel taxiway ends

100m to each side of parallel taxiway

centre-line As for main runway

Separation Distances

a. To runway centre-line - 150m b. To dispersed hard standings - 100m c. To nearest building, facility etc - 100m d. To the centre-line of nearest taxiway - 100m

a At both ends of taxiway b Not to extend beyond runway clearway



Table 4-10 Taxiway Minimum Separation Distances

Aer

odro

me

Cod

e le

tter

Distance between taxiway centre-line and runway centre-linea

Taxi

way

C

entr

e-lin

e to

taxi

way

ce

ntre

-line

a

Taxi

way

, oth

er th

an a

ircra

ft st

and

taxi

lane

, cen

tre-

line

to o

bjec

ta

Airc

raft

stan

d ta

xila

ne

cent

re-li

ne to

obj

ecta

Instrument Runways Non-instrument Runways

Aerodrome Code number 1 2 3 4-6 1 2 3 4-6

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) A 82.5 82.5 - - 37.5 47.5 - - 23.75 16.25 12 B 87 87 - - 42 52 - - 33.5 21.5 16.5 C - - 168 - - - 93 - 44 26 24.5 D - - 176 176 - - 101 101 66.5 40.5 36 E - - - 182.

5 - - - 107.5 80 47.5 42.5

F - - - 190 - - - 115 97.5 57.5 50.5 a All distances in metres

Table 4-11 Taxiway Slopes


Longitudinal Transverse Slopeb

Distance Between Gradient Changes

Lines of Sightc

Slope Slope Changea

A ≤ 3%

≤ 1% per 25m (min radius of curvature

2500m) ≤ 2% distance

between tangent points ≥ 150m

1.5m above for 150m

B 2m above for 200m

C

≤ 1.5% ≤ 1% per 30m (min radius of curvature

3000m) ≤ 1.5% 3m above for 300m

D E F a A curved surface with rates of change as shown b Sufficient to prevent surface water accumulation c Possible to see whole taxiway surface from height stated above taxiway for distance stated

9. Taxiway Shoulders. Shoulders should be provided symmetrically, either side of the centre-line in accordance with Table 4-12 Paved shoulders may be authorised in special cases (eg for aircraft with outrigger wheels on the wing-tips or where jet blast from large aircraft with wing-mounted engines overhanging the pavement edge causing possible FOD problems or where the topsoil/climate will not support grassed shoulders).



Table 4-12 Taxiway Shoulders


Taxiway Width

Overall Widtha,c

(including shoulder)

Transverse Slopesb

Strength

A B C 15/18m ≥ 25m -1.5% ≤ new

construction ≤ +3% restoration work ±

3%

Refer to Chapter 14 Para 27 Unpaved to be grassed

To be FOD resistant D 18/23m ≥ 38m E 23m ≥ 44m F 25m ≥ 60m

a Where pavement width increases on curves/junctions/intersections shoulder width should be as for straight taxiway portions b Longitudinal slopes/slope changes should match those of associated taxiway cOverall width=taxiway width + 2 x shoulder width

10. Taxiway Strips. Each taxiway should be protected by a taxiway strip as detailed in Table 4-13. The strip should be clear of objects which may endanger taxiing aircraft. See and Chapter 7 Para 6.

Table 4-13 Taxiway Strips


Taxiway Width

Strip Widtha

Graded Portion Distance from

Taxiway Centre-line Transverse Slopesb

A 7.5m 16.25m 11m a. Flush with associated taxiway/shoulder b. –5% ≤ graded portion ≤ +2.5% c. Non-graded portion ≤ +5%

B 10.5m 21.5m 12.5m C 15/18m 26m 12.5m D 18/23m 40.5m 19m E 23m 47.5m 22m F 25m 57.5m 30m

a Each side of centre-line b Longitudinal slopes/slope changes should match those of associated taxiway

11. Parallel Taxiways. Parallel taxiways are a NATO specific requirement and for this reason the criteria detailed in Table 4-9 may not appear to correlate with other information given in this document. If provided, an aerodrome will only have one parallel taxiway, but it should be noted that a parallel taxiway gives an aerodrome redundancy rather than increased operational capability. The runway/parallel taxiway requirements for VTOL/STOL operations are laid down in respective aircraft manuals which, should be consulted before design/construction work is undertaken. Refer to Chapter 15 in respect of pavement surface and strength requirements; friction requirements should be determined with the Aerodrome Authority.

Holding Points

12. Holding Bays, Runway Holding Positions and Road Holding Positions

a. General

(1) Holding Bay(s) are required when the traffic density is medium or heavy.



(2) Runway holding position signs are detailed at Chapter 6 Para 48 Runway-holding positions should be marked in accordance with Chapter 6 Para 13 and established:

(a) On the taxiway, at the intersection of a taxiway and a runway.

(b) At the intersection of 2 runways when one runway is a part of a standard taxi-route.

(c) On a taxiway if the location or alignment of the taxiway is such that a taxiing aircraft or vehicle can infringe an obstacle limitation surface or interfere with the operation of radio navigation aids. This could result in 2 runway-holding positions, one for VMC and one for IMC operations.

(3) A road-holding position should be established at an intersection of a road with a runway. See Chapter 6 Para 15.

(4) An intermediate holding position should be established on a taxiway at any point other than a runway-holding position where it is desirable to define a specific holding limit.

b. Location. Table 4-14 details the location of holding bays or positions. Holding aircraft/vehicle should not:

(1) Infringe obstacle free zones, approach surfaces, or the take-off climb surface.

(2) Interfere with the operation of radio navigation aids.

Table 4-14 Minimum Distance from Runway Centre Line to a Holding Bay/Position

Type of Runway Aerodrome Code Numberd

1 2 3-6 Non-instrument 30m 40m 75m Non-precision approach 40m 40m 75m Precision approach category I 60ma 60ma 90mabc

Precision approach categories II and III 90mabc

Take-off runway 30m 40m 75m a Can be reduced by 5m for every 1m the bay/position is lower than the threshold, provided it does not infringe the lower transitional surface b May need to be increased to avoid interference with radio navigation aids c 107.5m for Aerodrome Code Letter is ‘F’. d See ICAO Annex 14 Vol 1 for details of design aircraft giving these distances

c. At elevations greater than 700m (2300ft) the distance of 90m specified in Table 4-14 for a precision approach number of 4 or greater will be increased as follows:

(1) Up to an elevation of 2000m (6600ft); 1m for every 100m (330ft) in excess of 700m (2300ft).

(2) Elevation in excess of 2000m (6600ft) and up to 4000m (13,320ft); 13m plus 1.5m for every 100m (330ft) in excess of 2000m (13,320ft); and



(3) Elevation in excess of 4000m (13,320ft) and up to 5000m (16,650ft) ; 43m plus 2m for every 100m (330ft) in excess of 4000m (13,320ft)

d. If a holding bay, runway-holding position or road-holding position for a precision approach runway code number 4 or greater is at a greater elevation compared to the threshold, the distance of 90m or 107.5m, as appropriate specified in Table 4-14 should be further increased 5m for every metre the bay or position is higher than the threshold.

Aprons

13. Aprons should be as detailed in Table 4-15. They should provide good friction characteristics when wet. Refer to Chapter 15 in respect of pavement and surface requirements.

Table 4-15 Aprons

Facility Size Wing Tip Clearances

Shoulder Width Strips Slopes

ASP/ORP/Apron

a a. Wingspan <24m: 3.0m b. Wingspan 24m <36m: 4.5m c. Wingspan ≥ 36m: 7.5m

≥ 3m from edge of paved surface

15m from edge of paved surface

a. Apron: 0.5% ≤ and ≤ 1% Sufficient to prevent water accumulation b. Shoulders: ≤ 2%, longitudinal and transverse

Dispersed Stands Turning

radius of outer aircraft wheels + 3m

Hangar/ HAS Aprons

The greater of 5m or ½ design aircraft wingspan from edge of paved surface

a Design Factors: No/size of design aircraft; wing tip clearances; access for aircraft/vehicles; safe distances/headings for armed aircraft, wheel clearance to edge of apron

Compass Calibration Bases

14. Details of the layout and calibration of Compass Bases (previously published under GAI 1006) are at Annex 5A.



Chapter 5: The Management of Obstacles on and Around the Aerodrome

Obstacle Free Zones

1. Aerodrome obstacle free zones permit the designated aircraft operations to be conducted safely. They are achieved by establishing a series of obstacle limitation surfaces that define the limits to which objects may project into the airspace.

2. Objects which penetrate the obstacle limitation surfaces may in certain circumstances cause an increase in the obstacle clearance altitude/height for an instrument approach procedure or any associated visual circling procedure.

3. Only frangible mounted obstacles, such as AGL fittings, which are operationally essential, constructed and sited to reduce the hazard to a minimum, are permitted. Other operationally essential items include runway caravans, arrester installations and RVR towers Chapter 17 Para 10. Guidance on frangibility is contained in the ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 6.

Obstacle Limitation Surfaces

4. Dimensions. Dimensions and slopes of Approach and Take-off obstacle limitation surfaces are given in Table 5-1 and Table 5-2. The obstacle limitation surfaces are illustrated in Figure 5-1 and Figure 5-2 and further detailed in Chap 5 para 2-13. General guidance on the requirements and characteristics of all the obstacle limitation surfaces is given in ICAO Airport Services Manual, (Doc 9137) Part 6. See Chapter 16 and Chapter 17 Para 16-17.

Note: For statutory safeguarding map production purposes, aerodrome codes are determined from the length of the runway only. Width and runway letters will not be used. Where more than one runway exisits the most stringent code is used for all runways.'

Note: For statutory safeguarding map production purposes, threshold, runway end and clearway locations and heights will be taken from the latest Measured Heights Survey available.

5. Inner Horizontal Surface. Comprises a surface located in a horizontal plane above an aerodrome and its environs as follows:

a. The radius or outer limits of the inner horizontal surface should be measured from the runway ends excluding clearways and stopways. For aerodromes codes 1 & 2 the reference point should be the midpoint of the runway ends, excluding clearways and stopways. For aerodrome codes 3-6, the reference point should be the runway ends, excluding clearways and stopways. See Chapter 4 Para 1 and Figure 4-3.

b. The height of the inner horizontal surface should be measured above the lowest aerodrome threshold. See Figure 5-1 and Figure 5-2.

c. Inner horizontal surfaces should be created for all runways within each aerodrome.

Note: For statutory safeguarding map production purposes for runway codes 1 and 2, if the runways do not cross at the exact mid points, the midpoint of a line joining the runway midpoints will be used



6. Conical Surface. Comprises a surface sloping upwards and outwards from the periphery of the inner horizontal surface as follows:

a. A lower edge coincident with the periphery of the inner horizontal surface; and

b. An upper edge located at a specified height above the inner horizontal surface; and

c. The slope of the conical surface will be measured in a vertical plane perpendicular to the periphery of the inner horizontal surface. See Figure 5-1 and Figure 5-2.

d. The reference point used should be the same as for the inner horizontal surface.

7. Outer Horizontal Surface. Comprises a surface located in a horizontal plane extending from the periphery of the conical surface as follows:

a. The radius or outer limits of the outer horizontal surface should be measured from the midpoint of the runway ends excluding clearways and stopways in accordance with Table 5-1.

b. The height of the outer horizontal surface should be measured in accordance with Table 5-1.

c. There is no outer horizontal surface for aerodrome codes 1 and 2.

8. Approach Surface. Comprises an inclined plane or combination of planes preceding the threshold as follows:

a. An inner edge of specified length, horizontal and perpendicular to the extended centre-line of the runway and located at a specified distance before the threshold;

b. Two sides originating at the ends of the inner edge and diverging uniformly at a specified rate from the extended centre-line of the runway; and

c. An outer edge parallel to the inner edge.

d. The elevation of the inner edge should be equal to the elevation of the mid-point of the threshold.

e. The slope(s) of the approach surface should be measured in the vertical plane containing the centre-line of the runway and should continue containing the centre line of any lateral offset or curved ground track.

f. The above surface should be varied when lateral offset, offset or curved approaches are utilized, specifically, two sides originated at the ends of the inner edge and diverging uniformly at a specified rate from the extended centre-line of the lateral offset, or curved ground track. See Figure 5-1 and Figure 5-2.

Note: For statutory safeguarding map production purposes the approach surface will not be varied where lateral offset or curved approaches are utilized.

9. Inner Approach Surface. Comprises a rectangular portion of the approach surface immediately preceding the threshold as follows:



a. An inner edge coincident with the location of the inner edge of the approach surface but of its own specified length;

b. Two sides originating at the ends of the inner edge and extending parallel to the vertical plane containing the centre-line of the runway; and

c. An outer edge parallel to the inner edge. See Figure 5-1 and Figure 5-2.

10. Transitional Surface. Comprises a complex surface along the side of the strip and part of the side of the approach surface, that slopes upwards and outwards to the inner horizontal surface as follows:

a. A lower edge beginning at the intersection of the side of the approach surface with the inner horizontal surface and extending down the side of the approach surface and from there along the length of the strip parallel to the runway centre-line; and

b. An upper edge located in the plane of the inner horizontal surface.

c. The elevation of a point on the lower edge should be along the side of the approach surface (equal to the elevation of the approach surface at that point) and along the strip (equal to the elevation of the nearest point on the centre-line of the runway or its extension).

d. The slope of the transitional surface should be measured in a vertical plane at right angles to the centre-line of the runway. See Figure 5-1 and Figure 5- 2.

Note: For statutory safeguarding map production purposes the Transitional Surface also incorporates the Runway Strip'.

11. Inner Transitional Surface. Comprises a surface similar to the transitional surface but closer to the runway as follows: See Figure 5-1 and Figure 5-2. A lower edge beginning at the end of the inner approach surface and extending down the side of the inner approach surface to the inner edge of that surface, from there along the strip parallel to the runway centre-line to the inner edge of the balked landing surface and from there up the side of the balked landing surface to the point where the side intersects the inner horizontal surface; and

a. An upper edge located in the plane of the inner horizontal surface.

b. The elevation of a point on the lower edge should be – along the side of the inner approach surface and balked landing surface (equal to the elevation of the particular surface at that point) and along the strip (equal to the elevation of the nearest point on the centre-line of the runway or its extension).

c. The slope of the inner transitional surface should be measured in a vertical plane at right angles to the centre-line of the runway. See Figure 5-1 and Figure 5-2.

12. Balked Landing Surface. Comprises an inclined plane located at a specified distance after the threshold, extending between the inner transitional surface as follows:

a. An inner edge horizontal and perpendicular to the centre-line of the runway and located at a specified distance after the threshold;

b. Two sides originating at the ends of the inner edge and diverging uniformly at a specified rate from the vertical plane containing the centre-line of the runway; and



c. An outer edge parallel to the inner edge and located in the plane of the inner horizontal surface.

d. The elevation of the inner edge should be equal to the elevation of the runway centre-line at the location of the inner edge.

e. The slope of the balked landing surface should be measured in the vertical plane containing the centre-line of the runway. See Figure 5-1 and Figure 5-2.

Note: For statutory safeguarding map production purposes the Inner Approach, Inner Transitional and Balked Landing Surfaces are not required to be calculated or shown on the map.

13. Take-Off Climb Surface. Comprises an inclined plane or other specified surface beyond the end of a runway or clearway as follows:

a. An inner edge horizontal and perpendicular to the centre-line of the runway and located either at a specified distance beyond the end of the runway or at the end of the clearway when such is provided and its length exceeds the specified distance;

b. Two sides originating at the ends of the inner edge, diverging uniformly at a specified rate from the take-off track to a specified final width for the remainder of the length of the take-off climb surface; and

c. An outer edge horizontal and perpendicular to the specified take-off track.

d. The elevation of the inner edge should be equal to the highest point on the extended runway centre-line between the end of the runway and the inner edge, except that when a clearway is provided the elevation should be equal to the highest point on the ground on the centre-line of the clearway.

e. In the case of a straight take-off flight path, the slope of the take-off climb surface should be measured in the vertical plane containing the centre-line of the runway.

f. In the case of a take-off flight path involving a turn, the take-off climb surface should be a complex surface containing the horizontal normal to its centre-line, and the slope of the centre-line should be the same as that for a straight take-off flight path. See Figure 5-1 and Figure 5-2.

Note: For statutory safeguarding map production purposes the take off surface will not be varied where the take off flight path involves a turn.

Note: For statutory safeguarding map production purposes the elevation on the inner edge will be the highest point on the extended runway centreline or clearway supplied on the Measured Heights Survey



Figure 5-1 Obstacle Limitation Surfaces

Runway

strip transitionalclearway

conical

inner horizontal

take-off climb approach

inner horizontal

conical

A A

B

B

inner approach

Outerhorizontal



Figure 5-2 Inner Approach, Inner Transitional and Balked Landing Obstacle Limitation Surfaces – (only applicable to Precision Approach Categories I, II & III)

Runway

inner transitional

inner approach balked landing

inner transitionalbalked landing

A A

B

B

Section A-A

Section B-B

inner transitional

balkedlanding

inner horizontal

Runway

Runway

Figure 5-3 Obstacle Limitation Surfaces for an Instrument Runway where the Runway Code is 4-6

145 m

The take-off / approach funnels are shown in chain-dot line.

To assist clarification the vertical scale on this chart is 20 times that of the horizontal scale.

145 m145 m

The take-off / approach funnels are shown in chain-dot line.

To assist clarification the vertical scale on this chart is 20 times that of the horizontal scale.



Table 5-1 Dimensions and Slopes of Approach Obstacle Limitation Surfaces – (slopes are measured in the vertical plane containing the centre-line of the surface)

Surface & Dimensionsa

Runway Classification Non-Instrument Non-Precision

Approach Precision Approach

Category Aerodrome Code Number Aerodrome Code

No I II or III 1 2 3 4-6 1, 2 3 4-6 1,2 3-6 3-6

INNER HORIZONTAL

A horizontal surface located above the aerodrome & its environs, its outer limits and height (not necessarily circular) defined in Chapter 5 Para 10.

Height above lowest aerodrome threshold

45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45

Radius 2000 2500 4000 4000 3500 4000 4000 3500 4000 4000

CONICAL A surface sloping upwards and outwards from the inner horizontal surface periphery to the outer horizontal surface.

Slope 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% Height above inner horizontal surface

35 55 75 100 60 75 100 60 100 100

OUTER HORIZONTAL A horizontal surface extending from the conical surface periphery.

Total height of inner horizontal and conical

- - 120 145 - 120 145 - 145 145

Minimum Radius - - 10000 15000 - 10000 15000 - 15000 15000 APPROACH An inclined plane(s) preceding the threshold Inner/outer edge orientation Horizontal and ⊥ to extended runway centre-line

Inner edge length 60 80 150 150 150 300 300 150 300 300 Inner edge threshold distance

30 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60

Side divergence (each side) 10% 10% 10% 10% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15%

First Section Length 1600 2500 3000 3000 2500 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 Slope 5% 4% 3.33

2.5% 3.33

2% 2% 2.5% 2% 2%

Second Section Length - - - - - 3600 3600 12000 3600 3600 Slope - - - - - 2.5% 2.5% 3% 2.5% 2.5%

Horizontal Section Length - - - - - 8400 8400 - 8400 8400 Total Length - - - - - 15000 15000 15000 15000 15000

INNER APPROACH

A rectangular specified length portion of the approach surface immediately preceding the threshold, the inner edge coincident with the approach

surface inner edge. Width - - - - - - - 90 120d 120d

Threshold

- - - - - - - 60 60 60 Length - - - - - - - 900 900 900



Surface & Dimensionsa

Runway Classification

Non-Instrument Non-Precision Approach

Precision Approach Category

Aerodrome Code Number Aerodrome Code No I II or III

1 2 3 4-6 1, 2 3 4-6 1,2 3-6 3-6 Slope - - - - - - - 2.5% 2% 2%

TRANSITIONALe

A complex surface along the side of the strip and part of the side of the approach surface, that slopes upwards and outwards to the inner

horizontal surface. It is the controlling obstacle limitation surface for buildings (see Inner Transitional Surface).

Lower edge

See Figure 5-1 Lower edge elevation

The elevation of a point is the elevation of the approach surface/strip at that point.

Upper edge

In the plane of the inner horizontal surface. Slope 20% 20% 14.3% 14.3% 20% 14.3% 14.3% 14.3% 14.3% 14.3%

INNER TRANSITIONALe

A surface similar to the transitional surface but closer to the runway. It is the controlling obstacle limitation surface for nav-aids, aircraft and vehicles

and not to be penetrated except by frangible objects (see Transitional Surface).

Lower edge location See Figure 5-2

Lower edge elevation

The elevation of a point is the elevation of the approach/balked landing surfaces at that point or the elevation of the runway centre-line or

extended centre-line at a point on the strip. Upper edge location In the plane of the inner horizontal surface

Slope - - - - - - - 40% 33.3% 33.3% BALKED LANDING

An inclined plane at a specified distance after the threshold extending between the inner transitional surface.

Inner edge length - - - - - - - 90 120 120 Threshold distance - - - - - - - b 1800c 1800c

Side divergence (each side) - - - - - - - 10% 10% 10%

Slope - - - - - - - 4% 3.33% 3.33% a All dimensions measured horizontally and in metres unless otherwise stated b Distance to the end of the strip c Or end of runway whichever is less d Where the Aerodrome Code Letter is ‘F’ the width is increased to 155m e Curved if the runway profile is curved



Table 5-2 Dimensions and Slopes of Take-Off Obstacle Limitation Surfaces –(slopes are

measured in the vertical plane containing the centre-line of the surface)

Surface and Dimensionsa

Aerodrome Code Number 1 2 3-6

TAKE-OFF CLIMB An inclined plane or other specified surface beyond the end of a runway or clearway

Inner edge orientation ⊥ to extended runway centre-line. Outer edge orientation Horizontal and ⊥ to the specified take-off track. Inner edge elevation The elevation of the highest point on the extended runway centre-line

between the end of the runway and the inner edge, except when a clearway is provided the elevation is that of the highest point on the

ground on the centre-line of the clearway. Inner edge length 60 80 180 Runway end distanceb 30 60 60 Side divergence (each side)

10% 10% 12.5%

Final width 380 580 1200c

Length 1600 2500 15000 Slopee 5% 4% 2%d

a All dimensions measured horizontally and in metres unless otherwise stated b The take-off climb surface starts at the end of the clearway if the clearway length exceeds the specified distance c 1800m when the intended track includes heading changes > 15 degrees for operations in IMC or VMC by night Note: For statutory safeguarding map production purposes note (c) will not to be taken into account and the final width to be used will be that stated in the table above. d If no existing object reaches the 2% surface, new objects should be limited to 1.6% Note For statutory safeguarding map production purposes a slope of 1:6 % will always be used. e For a take-off flight path involving a turn, the take-off climb surface is a complex surface containing the horizontal normals to its centre-line, and the slope of the centre-line is the same as that for a straight take-off flight path Note For statutory safeguarding map production purposes the take off surface will not be varied where the take off flight path involves a turn.

Obstacle Limitation Requirements 14. Obstacle limitation surface requirements are detailed in Table 5-3.

Table 5-3 Obstacle Limitation Requirements

Take

-Off

Clim

b Su

rfac

e

App

roac

h Su

rfac

e

Inne

r App

roac

h Su

rfac

e

Tran

sitio

nal S

urfa

ce

Inne

r Tra

nsiti

onal

Sur

face

Bal

ked

Land

ing

Surf

ace

Con

ical

Sur

face

Inne

r Hor

izon

tal S

urfa

ce

Out

er H

oriz

onta

l Sur

face

Precision Approach CAT I, II or III • • • • • • • • •

Non-Precision Approach • • • • • •

Non-Instrument Runways • • • • • •



Objects Outside the Obstacle Limitation Surfaces

15. The MAA should be consulted concerning proposed construction beyond the limits of the obstacle limitation surfaces. In areas beyond the limits of the obstacle limitation surfaces, at least those objects which extend to a height of 150m or more above ground elevation should be regarded as obstacles, unless a special aeronautical study indicates that they do not constitute a hazard to aeroplanes.

Other Objects

16. Objects which do not project through the approach surface but which would nevertheless adversely affect the optimum siting or performance of visual or non-visual aids should, as far as practicable, be removed.

17. In certain circumstances, objects that do not project above any of the obstacle limitation surfaces may constitute a hazard to aircraft as, for example, where there are one or more isolated objects in the vicinity of an aerodrome.



Annex 5A: Compass Calibration Bases

Introduction

1. This annex describes the types of compass bases and the requirements for their periodic checking, magnetic environment, dimensions and construction. See Chapter 4 Para 14. Command and Formation headquarters should submit their compass base requirements or modifications to QinetiQ, Land Magnetic Facilities; for contact details see Table 1-1.

Classes of Compass Base

2. There are two classes of compass calibration base. Class 1 bases are required for aircraft which need a refined swing, as stipulated by commands. Class 2 bases have less stringent maximum permitted magnetic deviation requirements and are adequate for aircraft requiring standard swings.

Periodic Surveys and Annual Checks

3. The officer responsible for aircraft compass swinging, normally the Station Navigation Officer, is also responsible for the periodic, resurvey and annual check of the compass calibration base. In addition, he should ensure that the station services are aware that paving repairs should be carried out using materials approved by QinetiQ, MOD Portland Bill. He should also notify QinetiQ, Land Magnetic Facilities at the earliest opportunity of any planned work within 200m of the centre of the compass base. Periodic surveys of all compass bases will be undertaken by staff from QinetiQ, Land Magnetic Facilities. Class 1 bases will be re-surveyed every 5 years. However, Class 2 bases are normally subject to magnetic anomalies, the effects of which are liable to change with time; these bases should therefore be re-surveyed every 2 years.

4. At least once a year, the officer responsible for the compass calibration base should visit the base to check:

a. That the datum compass circle is clearly and adequately marked.

b. That no work has been carried out on or around the compass base which might alter its magnetic properties. Any suspect areas should be subjected to a detailed magnetic survey.

c. That no magnetic objects such as metal chocks, fire extinguishers, reinforced concrete or cables have been placed within the site.

5. Should any doubts about the magnetic integrity of the compass base arise during the annual check or at any time, the officer responsible for the base should contact QinetiQ, Land Magnetic Facilities for advice.

Sterile Area

6. There should be a sterile area around the compass calibration base as defined within the specifications given below.



Compass Calibration Base Specifications

7. Dimensions

a. The compass calibration base should be an area of appropriate size to cater for the turning circle of all aircraft likely to be swung on that base.

b. The radius of the datum compass circle will depend upon the size and the turning circle of the aircraft using the base, together with the associated datum compass safe distance. Typical datum compass circle radii are as follows:

(1) Large aircraft (e.g. Nimrod) - 60m.

(2) Medium aircraft (e.g. Chinook) - 45m.

(3) Small aircraft (e.g. Tutor) - 25 to 30m.

c. The radius of the sterile area should be the radius of the datum compass circle plus 15m.

d. The centre of the compass base should be at least 200m from large buildings or continuous wire fences. It may be possible to reduce this distance under some circumstances, but only in consultation with QinetiQ, Land Magnetic Facilities.

8. Type and Strength of Surface

a. The compass base and access tracks should be constructed of non-ferrous concrete or bituminous material, and should be protected against fuel spillage. They should not contain any magnetic material and should be capable of withstanding the all-up weight of the heaviest aircraft to be swung. All materials which are planned to be used in the construction or repair of a compass base should be approved by QinetiQ, Land Magnetic Facilities. Contractors should be warned to liaise with QinetiQ, Land Magnetic Facilities over their choice of materials prior to any bulk ordering.

b. The datum compass circle is a narrow pathway used to position the datum compass. It should be clearly marked (creosote markings are not recommended). The datum compass circle should comprise a continuous painted line on non reinforced concrete or asphalt.

c. The maximum acceptable gradient within the area bounded by the datum circle is 1 in 80.

10. Magnetic Deviation Limits. The maximum magnetic deviation permissible over the area of a Class 1 compass calibration base is 0.1˚ at 1.5m above ground level. The maximum deviation permissible over a Class 2 compass calibration base is 0.25˚ at 1.5m above ground level. If a base will be used for aircraft which have magnetic sensors below 1.5m, a special survey will be required.

11. Anomalies. Anomalies which create deviations in excess of +/- 0.25˚ are acceptable within a Class 2 CCB, providing the anomaly is clearly marked on the surface by a suitable painted ‘exclusion zone’. The size and radius of this exclusion zone will be determined during routine magnetic surveys, and the results recorded in subsequent survey reports.



Chapter 6: Visual Aids for Navigation

INDICATORS AND SIGNALLING DEVICES

1. General

a. The various indicators and signals described and illustrated in the following regulations should be displayed and should be repainted, cleaned or replaced as soon as their conspicuity is degraded.

b. Colour specifications for paints can be found in BS 381C and colour specifications for signs and surface markings are given at Annex 6B those for reflective materials are prescribed in BS EN12899-1:2007.

2. Wind Direction Indicators

a. The direction of the wind should be indicated by one or more wind sleeves. They should be so positioned as to be visible from the air and be free from the effects of any disturbances caused by nearby objects. They should be sited so that at least one sleeve is visible from each take off position and comply with the requirements at Chapter 17 Para 1.

b. The wind direction indicator should be in accordance with Figure 6-1. It should be coloured a distinctive Day-Glo colour, so as to give maximum contrast with its background and be clearly visible and understandable from a height of at least 300m. One wind sleeve should be illuminated for night use.

c. For rotary wing permanent bases see Chap 11 para 1.

Figure 6-1 Dimensions of a Wind Direction Indicator

3. Aerodrome Identification from the Air. Identification characteristics of MOD aerodromes should be a bi-gram in letters 6m by 3.6m painted white on a black background, set on the aerodrome side of the ATC building visible from the air and in a position clear of buildings but not on the runway.

MARKINGS

4. General

a. The various markings described and illustrated in the following regulations should be displayed. The initial marking of aerodrome surfaces should be carried

≥ 0.3m

≥ 3.6m

≥ 0.9m



out when required to conform to these regulations. For marking temporary aerodromes see Para 59 and Chapters13 and 14. All markings should be repainted, cleaned or replaced as soon as their conspicuity is degraded. For marking objects see Chapter 7 Para 8. For verification assurance certification to be presented at handover of major and minor works see Table 2-2.

b. At the intersection of two (or more) runways the markings of the more important runway should be displayed and the markings of the other runway (s) interrupted. At the intersection of a runway and a taxiway the markings of the runway should be displayed and the markings of the taxiway interrupted.

c. Markings should be white for runways and yellow for taxiways and aircraft stand markings unless stated otherwise. Black outlining (at least 0.15m in width) should be provided where there is insufficient background contrast. Colour specifications for paved surface markings are detailed at Annex 6A.

d. Apron safety lines should be of a conspicuous colour, which will contrast with that used for aircraft stand markings.

e. Requirements for the friction characteristics of markings on a runway are detailed in Table 15-1.

f. Where operationally justified, Airfield Tone-Down Marking should be in compliance with STANAG 3534 AS Edition 2.

g. For rotary wing permanent bases see Chap 11 para 3.

5. Runway Designation Marking. A runway designation marking should be provided on all paved runways. Runways should be numbered with a two digit number associated with each threshold as follows:

a. The runway designator should be that whole number nearest to one-tenth of the magnetic azimuth (QDM) of the centre-line of the runway, measured clockwise from magnetic north when viewed from the direction of approach. Where this rule would give a single digit it will be preceded by a zero. Should the assigned magnetic heading end in a '5', the designator becomes the nearest one above.

b. The dimensions and patterns are shown in Figure 6-2 and Figure 6-3. Standard spacing between runway (QDM) numbers should be a minimum of 3m except for the numbers 10 and 11.

c. The base of the numbers should be 12m inward from the threshold marking.

d. For rotary wing permanent bases see Chap 11 para 6.

6. Runway Centre-Line Marking. A runway centre-line marking should be provided on all paved runways as follows:

a. The centre-line marking should be located along the centre-line of the runway between the runway designation markings as shown in Figure 6-3 except at an intersection of two (or more) runways. In this instance, the markings of the main runway should be displayed and the markings of the subsidiary runway (s) should be interrupted.

b. The centre-line marking should consist of a broken line of longitudinal stripes of uniform length and separation. The length of the stripes and the separation distance should be 30m.



c. The width of the stripes should not to be less than:

(1) 0.90m on precision approach category II and III runways.

(2) 0.45m on non-precision approach runways where the code number is 3 or 4, and precision approach category I runways.

(3) 0.30m on non-precision approach runways where the code number is 1 or 2, and on non-instrument runways.

7. Threshold Marking. A threshold marking should be provided on all paved runways as follows:

a. The stripes of the threshold marking should commence 6m from the threshold and should consist of a pattern of longitudinal stripes of uniform dimensions disposed symmetrically about the centre-line of the runway as shown in Figure 6-3 for a runway of width 45m. The stripes should extend laterally to within 3m of the edge of the runway.

b. The number and dimensions of the stripes should be in accordance with Table 6-1.

c. Where a runway threshold is permanently displaced, arrows and a transverse bar as shown in Figure 6-4 should be provided on the portion of the runway before the displaced threshold. A transverse bar should also be provided where the extremity of the runway is not square with the runway centre-line.

d. Where a runway is temporarily displaced from the normal position, it should be marked as shown in Figure 6-4 and all markings prior to the displaced threshold should be obscured except the runway centre-line marking, which should be converted to arrows. When the surface before a runway is paved, and is not suitable for normal use by aircraft, it should be marked in accordance with Para 21c.

Table 6-1 Dimensions of Strips for Threshold Markings

Runway Width

(m)

No. of Stripes

Length of Stripes (m)

Width of and distance between stripes (m)

Width of Centre Gap

(m) 18 4 30 1.8 3.6 23 6 30 1.8 3.6 30 8 30 1.8 3.6 45 12 30 1.8 3.6 60 16 30 1.8 3.6 90 24 30 1.8 3.6



Figure 6-2 Form and Proportion of Numbers for Runway Designation Markings



Figure 6-3 Runway Designation, Centre-line and Threshold Markings

30

30

6.0

All Dimensions in Metres

Precision Approach II and III – 0.9m

Precision Approach I and Non-Precision Approach Runways – 0.45m

Non-Instrument Runways – 0.3m

From end of line to Threshold Bar – 1.5m

0.15 0.15

30

30

30

12

12

9

1.8 1.8 3.6



Figure 6-4 Displaced Threshold Markings

30

12

9

1.8

30

30

0.45

0.15

All Dimensions in Metres

1.8 3.6 1.8

h=10m min h

12

h 3

1.8

30

6



8. Aiming Point Marking (AP) 3. An AP marking should be provided on all paved runways. AP Markings should be symmetrically disposed about the runway centre-line the stripes of the aiming point marking should commence at the distance from the threshold specified in Table 6-2, except that on a runway equipped with a visual approach slope indicator system the beginning of the markings should be coincident with the visual approach slope origin. The provision of these may affect the surface water drainage characteristics depending on the type of pavement material used.

Table 6-2 Locations and Dimensions of Aiming Point Marking

Distance between thresholds/Landing distance available (metres)

Location and dimensions < 900 900-1199 1200-1499 1500-2399 ≥ 2400 Distance from threshold to beginning of marking, metres

150 250 300 300 400

Length of stripe See Figure 6-5 Width of stripe See dimension “A” Figure 6-5 2.5 5 5.5 5.5 5.5

Lateral spacing between inner sides of stripes, metres

10 10 18 18 18

9. Touchdown Zone Marking (TDZ) 4. TDZ marking should be provided on all paved runways. TDZ Markings should be symmetrically disposed about the runway centre-line and, where the marking should be displayed at both approach directions of the runway, the distance between the thresholds. They should consist of paired rectangular markings with the number of pairs related to the landing distance available as detailed in Table 6-3 and with the lateral spacing between the inner sides of stripes as for the AP marking, see Figure 6-5. The provision of these may affect the surface water drainage characteristics depending on the type of pavement material used.

Table 6-3 Locations and Dimensions of Touch Down Zone Marking

Landing distance available or the

distance between thresholds

Pair(s) of

markings

Length of marking metres

Width of marking metres

Position of marking(s) from the threshold

metresa

< 900m 1 22.5 1.5 300 900-1199 2 22.5 3 150b and 450 1200-1499 3 22.5 3 150b, 450 and 600 1500-2399 4 22.5 3 150b, 450, 600 and 750 ≥ 2400 5 22.5 3 150b, 300, 600, 750 and 900

a Where the AP marking has been relocated to the origin of a visual approach slope indicator system the position of the TDZ markings should be moved such that the relative positions of the AP and TDZ markings remain substantially the same. b Minimum distance of first TDZ marking from threshold.

3 AP Markings should be included as part of any future runway refurbishment or aerodrome repainting project; however, a waiver is not required in the interim. 4 TDZ Markings should be included as part of any future runway refurbishment or aerodrome repainting project; however, a waiver is not required in the interim.



Figure 6-5 Aiming Point and Touchdown Zone Markings

10. Runway Side Stripe Marking. A runway side stripe marking should be provided between the thresholds of a paved runway where the width of the runway is greater than 45m wide or where there is a lack of contrast between the runway edges and the shoulders or surrounding terrain. Runway side stripes should consist of two parallel lines, one placed along each edge of the runway with the outer edge of each line marking the declared edge of the runway. The lines should be 0.9m wide where the runway is 30m or more in width and 0.45m wide on narrower runways. Runway side stripe markings should be interrupted at runway intersections. Where edge light units are located along the extremity of the declared runway width, the edge marking should be located inboard of the edge light units in order to avoid painting the light units.

11. Taxiway Centre-Line Marking. Taxiway centre-line marking should be provided on a paved taxiway and apron to provide continuous guidance between the runway centre-line and aircraft stands.

a. The centre-line of paved taxiways should be at least 0.15m in width and continuous in length except where it intersects with a runway-holding position marking as shown in Figure 6-6. Taxiway centre-line marking should also be provided on a paved runway when the runway is part of a standard taxi-route and there is no runway centre-line marking; or where the taxiway centre-line is not coincident with the runway centre-line. See sub-para c.

b. On a straight section of a taxiway the taxiway centre-line marking should be located along the taxiway centre-line. On a taxiway curve the marking should continue from the straight portion of the taxiway at a constant distance from the outside edge of the curve.

c. Where a taxiway centre-line marking is provided on a runway in accordance with sub-para a, the marking should be located on the centre-line of the designated taxiway.

d. Where the taxiway leads onto or off the runway, the centre-line should be curved into the nearside of and 0.75m ± 0.15m from the runway centre-line, except at the runway threshold where the centre-line should be discontinued at the edge of the runway. When the taxiway centre-line marking crosses the threshold or runway

Touchdown zone marking

15 15 15 Aiming point markings

A A



designation markings, it shall be broken at a distance of 1.5m from the threshold or runway designation markings. The taxiway centre-line marking should be extended parallel to the runway centre-line marking for a distance of at least 60m beyond the point of tangency where the code number is 3 or above and for a distance of least 30m where the code number is 1 or 2.

e. For rotary wing permanent bases see Chapter 11 Para 11.

12. Taxiway Edge Marking. Where it is necessary to define the outer edges of a taxiway or where a paved taxiway shoulder has insufficient bearing strength, or where there is little contrast between the taxiway and the surrounding area, the outer edges of the taxiway should be marked. The marking should consist of a pair of solid lines, each 0.15m wide and spaced 0.15m apart and should be the same colour as the taxiway centre-line marking. The marking should be so positioned that the inner edge of the marking represents the outer edge of the taxiway. See also Para 21. For rotary wing permanent wing bases see Chap 11 Para 11.

13. Runway-Holding Position Marking.

a. Runway-holding positions should be established in accordance with the requirements of Chapter 4 on each taxiway serving a runway. On each taxiway the runway-holding position closest to the runway should be marked as shown in Figure 6-6 Pattern A. Other runway-holding positions, where provided on the same taxiway but farther from the runway, should be marked as shown in Figure 6-6 Pattern B. The runway-holding position marking should be positioned at right angles to the taxiway centre-line marking.

b. The runway-holding position marking displayed at a runway/runway intersection should be perpendicular to the centre-line of the runway forming part of the standard taxi-route. The pattern of the marking should be as shown in Figure 6-6.

c. Runway holding position signs are detailed at Para 48a.

d. For rotary wing permanent bases see Chapter 11 Para 11.



Figure 6-6 Runway Holding Positions

14. Vehicle Roadway Marking. Vehicle roadway markings should be used to delineate roadways located on areas that are also intended for use by aircraft. Markings for roadways not located on aircraft manoeuvring areas should conform, whenever possible, to local road traffic regulations.

a. Vehicle roadways are delineated on aircraft manoeuvring areas where there is a need to define a pathway for vehicle operations. A minimum spacing of 0.75m should be maintained between the roadway edge marking and the non-movement area boundary/boundary marking, vehicle roadway markings are interrupted by taxiway markings.

b. Vehicle roadway markings are white. They should consist of a solid line 0.15m wide to delineate the edges of the roadway and a broken line 0.15m wide and 4.5m long at 7.5m intervals to separate lanes within the edges of the roadway as shown in Figure 6-7.

Pattern A

1.2m 1.05m

RUNWAY DIRECTION

0.15m

0.9m 3m

0.6m 0.3m 0.3m

0.3m

0.9m

0.9m

0.9m

0.9m

4 lines and 3 spaces 0.15m each

Pattern B

0.9m

3m



Figure 6-7 Vehicle Roadway Marking

A minimum spacing of 0.75m should be maintained between the roadway edge marking and the non-movement area boundary.

Solid line 0.15m wide to delineate the edges of the roadway.

Broken line 0.15m wide and 4.5m long at 7.5m intervals lane separator.

Solid white stripe 0.75m wide at stop position



c. Double solid white lines and black outlining may be used to delineate the edges of the vehicle roadway where additional conspicuity is required.

d. Where a roadway crosses a taxiway, a solid white stripe 0.75m wide is provided across the driving lane at the distance specified in Table 4-14 to assure adequate clearance from taxiing aircraft. When the roadway is not located on an aircraft manoeuvring area, a frangible mounted retro-reflective stop sign should be installed on the left hand side of the roadway in conjunction with the solid white stripe.

e. Where a vehicle roadway crosses a runway, Paras 15 and 41 apply.

15. Road-Holding Position Marking. A road-holding position marking should be provided at all road entrances to a runway and should be located across the road at the holding position. The marking should be in accordance with the local road traffic regulations.

16. Runway Ahead Marking. Runway incursions are a significant safety issue. In order to mitigate the risk of runway incursions, depending on specific circumstances, units should consider the use of runway ahead markings, as shown in Figures 6.8 and 6.9. Where possible, the runway ahead marking should be located before the mandatory marking (paragraph 24) and collocated with the CAT II/III holding position marking where applicable. Runway ahead markings size and proportions should detemined by local conditions; however, any markings should be legible to both aircraft and vehicles.

Figure 6-8 Runway Ahead Markings



Figure 6-9 Runway Ahead Markings for CAT II/III Holding Position

17. Aircraft Stand Marking. Aircraft stand markings should be provided for designated parking positions on a paved apron and located so as to provide the clearances specified in Table 4-15 when the nose wheel follows the stand marking. The curved portions of lead-in, turning and lead-out lines should have radii appropriate to the most demanding aircraft type for which the markings are intended. Guidance on the layout of aircraft stand markings is available in ICAO Annex 14, Volume 1 and Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 4 Visual Aids.

18. Apron Safety Lines. Apron safety lines should be provided on a paved apron as required by the parking configurations and ground facilities and located so as to define the areas intended for use by ground vehicles and other aircraft servicing equipment to provide safe separation from aircraft. An apron safety line should be continuous in length and at least 0.1m in width and should include such elements as wing tip clearance lines and service road boundary lines as required by the parking configurations and ground facilities. Airfield markings should be of a colour(s) that do not conflict with aircraft markings.

19. Safe Heading Ground Marking. When required to identify a safe directional heading for armed aircraft, an arrow conforming to Figure 6-10 should be provided. The heading, in degrees true, should be shown adjacent to the arrow head and followed by the letter 'T'. The colour of the arrowhead and the heading should be aviation yellow.



Figure 6-10 Safe Direction Heading Arrow

20. Aircraft Arresting System Marking. When an aircraft arresting system cable (or tape) is installed on an operational runway surface, its location should be marked by a series of discs along the line of the pendant cable across the width of full the runway conforming to Figure 6-11. The discs should to be 3m in diameter and spaced at 7.5m between centres. They should be arranged in two groups symmetrically disposed about the runway centre-line with the innermost disc in each group located 3.75m from the runway centre. The number of discs required will be dependent on the width of the runway or by the distance between the side stripes, if present. The colour of the discs should be aviation yellow.

Figure 6-11 Aircraft Arrester System Markings

0.2m

3.0m

175 T 0.3m 0.6m

0.6m

3.0m

C/L of net pendant cable or RHAG

7.5m

3.75m



21. Closed Runways and Taxiways (or Portion Thereof).

a. A closed marking should be displayed on a runway or taxiway, or portion thereof, which is permanently closed to the use of all aircraft.

b. On a runway a closed marking should placed at each end of the runway, or portion thereof, declared closed, and additional markings should be so placed that the maximum interval between markings does not exceed 300m. On a taxiway a closed marking should be placed at least at each end of the taxiway or portion thereof closed.

c. The closed marking for runways and taxiways should be of the form and proportions detailed in Fig 6-12. The marking should be white when displayed on a runway and yellow when displayed on a taxiway.

Figure 6-12 Closed Runway and Taxiway Markings

1.5m

9.0m

Closed Taxiway Marking

Runway C/L

36m

14.5m

Runway C/L

3.75m

36m

14.5m

Closed Runway Marking

Closed Runway available for Emergency use Marking

1.8m

1.8m

Runway C/L



d. Where a closed runway is available for emergency use and providing it has been inspected in the previous six months and declared serviceable for an emergency landing at any time; an underscored closed marking should be placed at each end of the runway, or portion thereof, declared closed, and additional underscored markings should be so placed that the maximum interval between markings does not exceed 300m.

e. When a runway or taxiway or portion thereof is permanently closed, all normal runway and taxiway markings should be obliterated.

f. Lighting on a closed runway or taxiway or portion thereof, should not be operated except as required for maintenance purposes.

g. In addition to closed markings, when the runway or taxiway or portion thereof closed is intercepted by a usable runway or taxiway which is used at night, unserviceability lights should be placed across the entrance to the closed area at intervals not exceeding 3m.

22. Restricted Use and Hazardous Area Markings (Deceptive Surface Markings). Restricted use and hazardous areas on or adjacent to the runway and taxiway surfaces should be marked for better recognition. If the provision of runway side stripes and taxiway edge markings do not provide adequate definition of the operational surface, restricted use area markings should be applied to the non-operational area. These markings should be non-retroflective aviation surface yellow and should have the following characteristics:

a. Runway Shoulder Markings. These markings should consist of yellow stripes which are 0.9m wide extending outboard at an angle of 45 degrees from the edge of the operational surface for not less than 1.5m measured perpendicular to the runway edge to within 1.5m of the outer edge of the shoulder, or for a distance of 7.5m whichever is less. The stripes should be not more than 30m apart. The stripes on each side of the runway, should lie on a line forming a chevron with the apex on the runway centre-line and pointing toward the midpoint of the runway. See Figure 6-13.

b. Taxiway Shoulder Markings. These markings should consist of a series of aviation surface yellow stripes that are perpendicular to and extend outward from the taxiway edge for not less than 1.5m. The stripes should not be less than 0.9m wide and spaced not more than 30m apart, and on curved edges not more than 15m apart. Blast pavement striping should be at least 15m long or the width of the blast pavement if less than 15m. See Figure 6-13.

c. Pre-Threshold Area.

(1) When the surface before a threshold is paved and exceeds 60m in length and is not suitable for normal use by aircraft, the entire length before the threshold should be marked with a chevron marking.

(2) A chevron marking should point in the direction of the runway and be placed as shown in Figure 6-13 and Para 7d.

(3) A chevron marking should be aviation yellow and should have an overall width of 0.9m.



Figure 6-13 Runway/Taxiway Shoulder and Pre-Threshold Markings

23. Unserviceable Areas

a. Unserviceability markers should be displayed wherever any portion of a taxiway, apron or holding bay is unfit for the movement of aircraft but it is still possible for an aircraft to bypass the area safely. On a movement area used at night, unserviceability lights should be used. See Chapter 7 Para 18.

b. Unserviceability markers and lights should be placed at intervals sufficiently close so as to delineate the unserviceable area.

c. An unserviceability marker should consist of a marker board at least 0.5m in height and 1m in length with alternate red and white or orange and white vertical stripes as shown in Figure 6-14.

d. An unserviceability light should consist of a red fixed light. The light should have an intensity sufficient to ensure conspicuity considering the intensity of the

45o

45o

A B

C

C

D

Dimension Metres

A Minimum 0.9

B Minimum 1.5

C Maximum 30

D Maximum 15

E Minimum 1.5

F Maximum 7.5 G 30

Change directions of shoulder markings at midpoint of runway

G

F

E

G G

A

45M

G/2

Last Chevron may be half



adjacent lights and the general level of illumination against which it would normally be viewed. In no case is the intensity to be less than 10cds of red light.

Figure 6-14 Unserviceability Marker

24. Mandatory Instruction Marking.

a. Where it is impractical to install a mandatory instruction sign in accordance with Para 48 or where the taxiway width exceeds 60m, a mandatory instruction marking should be provided.

b. Where provided, the mandatory instruction marking on taxiways with codes letters A to D should be located across the taxiway equally placed about the taxiway centre-line and on the holding side of the runway-holding position marking as shown in Figure 6-15(a). For taxiways where the code letter is E or F, the marking should be located on both sides of taxiway centre-line marking and on the holding side of the runway-holding position marking as shown in Figure 6-15 (b), see Para 49.

c. A mandatory instruction marking should consist of an inscription in white on a red background and should follow the arrangements shown in Para 49 with characters 4 metres high with the form and proportions detailed in ICAO Annex 14, Volume 1, Appendix 3; except that a No Entry marking should consist of an inscription in white reading “No Entry” on a red background.

d. Except where operationally necessary mandatory instructions should not be used on runways.

Figure 6-15 Mandatory Instruction Marking

1m

0.2m

0.5m



25. Information Marking. Where an information sign is required but it is impracticable to install, an information marking should be displayed on the surface of the pavement. See Para 48. The information marking should be displayed across the surface of the taxiway or apron and positioned so as to be legible from the cockpit of an approaching aircraft.

a. An information sign should consist of:

(1) An inscription in yellow upon a black background, when it replaces a location sign; and

(2) An inscription in black upon a yellow background, when it replaces a direction or destination sign.

b. Where there is insufficient contract between the marking background and the pavement surface, the marking should include:

(1) A black border where the inscriptions are in black and

(2) A yellow border where the inscriptions are in yellow.

26. The character height should be 4m high and in the form and proportions shown in ICAO Annex 14, Volume 1 Appendix 3.



LIGHTS

27. General.

a. AGL provides aircrew with location, orientation and alignment information in adverse visibility conditions and at night. Table 6-4 outlines the minimum prescribed scales of AGL requirements in respect of low visibility and night operations. It also highlights those elements of AGL equipment considered to be operationally desirable for a particular operation. The type of lighting is specified according to the runway approach category. Where the prescribed AGL requirements cannot be provided there may be a consequential penalty on operational minima. The characteristics of the lights are detailed in Annex 6B and Table 6-4.

Table 6-4 Minimum Prescribed Scales of AGL

Operating Category a Text Ref. CAT II

Precision App

CAT I Precision App/ PARb

Non- Precision

App

Non-Instrument

App

Illuminated Wind Sleeve O O O O Para 2

Aerodrome Beacon O R R R Para 28 Simple Approach - - R O Para 29 HI C/L 5 Bar Approach R R - - Para 29 Supplementary Approach R - - - Para 29

PAPI R R R R Para 30 Runway Edge R R R O Para 31 Threshold R R R R Para 32 Threshold Wing Bar R R R O Para 32 Runway End R R R O Para 33 Runway Centre-Line R OC - - Para 34 Touchdown Zone R - - - Para 35 Stopway R R R R Para 36 Taxiway Centre-Line R Od Re - - Para 37 Taxiway Edge - Rd R R Para 38 Stop Bars R - - - Para 39 Runway Guard Lights R - - - Para 40 Illuminated Runway Signs R R R O Para 47

Obstacles R R R R Chapter 6 Para 18-

28

Alternate Power Supply R R R O Chapter 8 Para 3

KEY R=Required, O = Operationally Desirable, C/L = Centre-Line, HI=High Intensity, LI-Low Intensity, App=Approach, PAR=Precision Approach Radar



a. For CAT III requirements see ICAO Annex 14. b. If a Runway is declared as a Precision Approach Runway, through having a PAR, then it should have corresponding levels of lighting relative to the Declared Operating Minima at the aerodrome. c. Centre-line lighting is recommended where the width between the runway edge lights is greater than 50m. d. Taxiway edge lighting may be replaced by taxiway centre-line lighting. e. Centre-line lighting will be provided on taxiways with a width greater than 18m.

b. A non-aeronautical ground light which, by reason of its intensity, configuration or colour, might prevent, or cause confusion in, the clear interpretation of aeronautical ground lights should be extinguished, screened or otherwise modified so as to eliminate such a possibility. In particular, attention should be directed to a non-aeronautical ground light visible from the air within the area described hereunder:

(1) Instrument runway - code number 4-6: within the areas before the threshold and beyond the end of the runway extending at least 4500m in length from the threshold and runway end and 750m either side of the extended runway centre-line in width.

(2) Instrument runway - code number 3 -6: as in (i), except that the length should be at least 3000m.

(3) Instrument runway - code number 1 and non-instrument runway: within the approach area.

28. Aerodrome Identification Beacon. An identification beacon should be provided at an aerodrome that is intended for use at night. The Beacon should be situated on a part of the aerodrome where the level of local background lighting is low and so that it is visible from all directions of approach. The beacon will flash a 2 letter morse code symbol in red identifying the aerodrome. The coded signal, promulgated in the military AIP, should show in all angles of azimuth and the vertical light distribution will extend upwards from an elevation of not more than 1° and effective intensity of the flash will be not less than 2000 cds in white. The speed of transmission should be between 6 and 8 words per minute. This applies to rotary wing permanent bases where an aerodrome identification beacon is used.

29. Approach Lighting Systems (Runway Dependent).

a. A simple approach consists of a row of high intensity lights on the extended centre-line of the runway extending, whenever possible, over a distance of not less than 420m from the threshold with a row of lights forming a crossbar 30m in length at a distance of 300m from the threshold. The pattern is illustrated in Figure 6-16.

b. Where operationally justified, a barrette simple approach may be installed, as defined in ICAO Annex 14, Volume 1, 5.3.4.7b (reference pattern B).

c. A high intensity approach lighting system consists of a 900m coded line of white lights, on the extended centre-line of the runway, and five crossbars at 150m intervals. The width of the crossbars decreases towards the runway threshold, lines through the outer lights of the bars converging to meet the runway centre-line 300m upwind from the threshold. The pattern is depicted in Figure 6-17. Terrain or other constraints may limit the length of approach lighting that can be installed to less than that specified. In such circumstances a lesser length may be acceptable, subject to dispensation from the appropriate military authority, but will normally incur a penalty on aerodrome operating minima. Approach lighting should have the characteristics contained in Annex 6B.



Figure 6-16 Approach Lighting System

d. Supplementary approach lighting required for Category II and III operations should consist of:

(1) Two additional white lights on each side of the centre-line light forming barrettes along the inner 300m of the approach centre-line, the lights in each barrette being spaced 1.2m apart; and

(2) Red side row barrettes of four lights spaced 1.5m apart on each side of each centre-line barrette, at a longitudinal spacing equal to that of the centre-line barrettes, over the inner 270m of the approach lighting system. The lateral spacing (or gauge) of the barrettes should be equal to that of the Touchdown Zone lighting. The crossbar provided at 150m from the threshold should fill in the gaps between the centre-line and the side rows lights. The light characteristics are specified in Annex 6B.

420m ± 21m

Threshold

300m ± 15m

60m ± 3m

30m

Spacing 2.7m

Uni-directional White Lights



Figure 6-17 Approach Lighting Plan



e. All approach lights should lie, as nearly as practical, in the horizontal plane passing through the threshold provided that:

(1) No object other than an ILS azimuth antenna protrudes through the plane of the approach lights within a distance of 60m from the centre-line of the system; and

(2) No light other than a light located within the central part of a crossbar or a centre-line barrette is screened from an approaching aircraft.

Any ILS azimuth antenna protruding through the plane of the lights should be treated as an obstacle and marked and lighted accordingly. See Para 28g.

f. The approach lights forming the crossbar should be placed as nearly as practicable in a horizontal straight line at right angles to, and bisected by, the line of the centre-line lights.

g. Notwithstanding the requirements at Para 28c and 28e the profile of the centre-line lights should not exceed the limits shown in Figure 6-16. The crossbar lights should lie in the same horizontal plane as the centre-line lights. However, the lateral gradient of the lights in each crossbar should not be greater than 1:80 with the mid-point in the plane of the centre-line lights, if this enables crossbar lights within a stopway or clearway to be mounted nearer to the ground. Excessive gradients may cause misleading perspective and height cues, and changes of gradient within the length of the system may result in an uneven sequence of lights when seen from the approach. To keep these effects to a minimum successive changes in profile gradients should be as small as practicable and not exceed 1:60.

Figure 6-18 Approach Centre-line Lights Profile

30. Precision Approach Path Indicators (Runway Dependent).

a. The PAPI system consists of 4 sharp transition multi-lamp units located as a wing bar equally spaced, on each side of the runway. Siting and commissioning data are contained in Annex 6C, together with information on elevation settings. For rotary wing permanent bases see Chapter 11 Para 28.

b. The wing bar of a PAPI should be constructed and arranged in such a manner that a pilot making an approach will:

(1) When on or close to the approach slope, see two units nearest the runway as red and the two units farthest from the runway as white;

Ideally flat 1:66 rise

1:66 fall

1:40 fall 300 m Threshold



(2) When above the approach slope, see the one unit nearest the runway as red and the three units farthest from the runway as white; and when further above the approach slope, see all the units as white; and

(3) When below the approach slope, see the three units nearest the runway as red and the unit farthest from the runway as white; and when further below the approach slope, see all units as red.

c. The light units forming a wing bar should be mounted so as to appear to the pilot of an approaching aircraft to be substantially in a horizontal line. The light units should be mounted as low as possible and should be frangible. The wing bars, installed on each side of the runway, should have corresponding light units set at the same angle so that the signals of each wing bar change symmetrically at the same time.

d. When the runway is equipped with an ILS and/or PAR, the siting and the angle of elevation of the light units should be such that the visual approach slope conforms as closely as possible with the glide path of the ILS and/or PAR.

e. A PAPI wing bar installation should be withdrawn from service if one unit within the wing bar is found to be unserviceable.

f. The light intensity distribution of PAPIs is detailed in Annex 6B and Figure 6-27.

31. Runway Edge Lights (Runway Dependent with HI Lights).

a. Runway edge lighting should be placed along the full length of the runway and should lie in two parallel rows equidistant from the centre-line. Runway edge lights should be placed along the edges of the area declared for use as the runway, or outside the edges of the area at a distance of not more than 3m where the lights will be located on a pavement surface.

b. The lights should be uniformly spaced in rows at intervals of 30m ± 3m for an instrument runway and at intervals not greater than 100m for a non-instrument runway. The lights on opposite sides of the runway axis should be on lines at right angles to that axis. At intersections of runways, lights may be spaced irregularly or omitted, provided that adequate guidance remains available to the pilot. Low intensity omni-directional runway edge lights should be provided at intervals of 90m+ 9m to provide circling guidance. Where both high and low intensity edge lights are provided, the position of the low intensity edge lights should be collocated with high intensity edge lights.

c. Runway edge lights should be white except where the threshold is displaced; the lights between the beginning of the runway and the displaced threshold should show red in the approach direction.

d. To prevent damage occurring to the light units, inset edge lights should be used within the swept area of an aircraft arresting system.

e. Runway edge lighting should have the characteristics contained in Annex 6B.

f. The characteristics of low intensity omni-directional runway edge lights where the width of the runway is 45m or 60m (white light) are given below:

(1) Elevation (above horizontal):

(a) Up to 8º = 1000 cds



(b) Between 8º and 15º = 50 cds

(2) For red light multiply values by 0.15.

(3) See collective notes in Annex 6B Para 14.

32. Runway Threshold and Wing Bar Lights (Runway Dependent).

a. Runway threshold lights are green and indicate the start of the available landing distance. When the threshold is at the extremity of a runway, the threshold lights should be placed in a row at right angles to the runway axis as near to the extremity of the runway as possible. Where a threshold is displaced from the extremity of a runway, threshold lights should be placed in a row at right angles to the runway axis at the displaced threshold.

b. Threshold lights should be symmetrically disposed about the runway centre-line in two groups, with the lights uniformly spaced in each group and are to consist of:

(1) On a non-instrument or non-precision approach runway at least six lights uniformly spaced between the rows of runway edge lights.

(2) On a precision approach runway, lights uniformly spaced between the rows of runway edge lights at intervals of not more than 3m.

c. Threshold wing bar lights are green and should be provided on, non-precision and precision approach runways. They should be symmetrically disposed about the runway centre-line at the threshold in two groups and where practicable should have the same spacing as their associated threshold lights. Each wing bar should be formed by at least five lights extending at least 10m outward from, and at right angles to, the line of the runway edge lights, with the innermost light of each wing bar in the line of the runway edge lights.

d. Threshold lights should have luminous intensity compatible with that of the runway edge lights and should be runway dependent. The characteristics of these lights are detailed at Annex 6B.

33. Runway End Lights (Non-Runway Dependent).

a. Runway end lights should be placed on a line at right angles to the runway axis at the extremity of the runway to delineate the extremity of the runway available for manoeuvring. Where practicable the outer lights should be coincident with the rows of the runway edge lights. They should show red in the direction of the runway and are connected so as not to be runway dependent.

b. Runway end lights should be symmetrically disposed about the runway centre-line in two groups, with the lights uniformly spaced in each group and will consist of:

(1) On a non-instrument or non-precision approach runway there should be at least six lights symmetrically disposed about the runway centre-line in two groups with the lights uniformly spaced in each group spaced between the rows of runway edge lights.

(2) On a precision approach runway at least eight lights should be symmetrically disposed about the runway centre-line in two groups with the lights uniformly spaced in each group spaced between the rows of runway edge lights.



c. Where an arrester barrier is installed, a green light should be installed on the runway centre-line, in the centre of the runway end lighting, and should have similar characteristics to that of the runway end lights.

d. The characteristics of runway end lights are detailed at Annex 6B.

34. Runway Centre-Line Lights (Directional with Runway Edge).

a. Runway centre-line lights should be located along the centre-line of the runway, except that the lights may be uniformly offset to the same side of the runway centre-line by not more than 0.6m where it is not practicable to locate them along the centre-line. The lights should be located from the threshold to the runway end at longitudinal spacing of approximately 30m.

b. Runway centre-line lights should to show white light from the threshold to the point 900m from the upwind runway end, then the following 600m should be alternate white and red lights, and the final 300m all red lights. The interleaving of the circuits for the white and red lights should be arranged so as to preserve the colour coding in the event of a circuit failure.

c. Where aircraft arresting systems are installed light units should be selected so as to prevent hook engagement problems.

d. The characteristics of runway centre-line light units are detailed at Annex 6B.

35. Runway Touchdown Zone Lights (Runway Dependent).

a. Touchdown zone barrettes symmetrically disposed either side of the runway centre-line should extend from the threshold for a distance of 900m or to the midpoint of the runway, whichever is less. Each barrette has four white lights spaced not more than 1.5m apart, the inner most lights being not less than 9m, nor more than 11.5m either side of the centre-line. The longitudinal spacing between barrettes should be 60m ± 6m. The lateral spacing (gauge) of the barrettes should be equal to that of the Supplementary Approach lighting red side row barrettes.

b. The characteristics of runway touchdown zone light units are detailed at Annex 6B.

36. Stopway Lights. The end of any stopway associated with a runway used at night should be marked with four unidirectional red lights, in the direction of the runway, equally spaced across the width of the stopway with the outermost light in line with the runway edge lights. The edges of the stopway should be marked by pairs of similar red lights at a uniform spacing not exceeding the spacing of runway edge light and that are equidistant from the centre-line and coincident with the rows of the runway edge lights.

37. Taxiway Centre-Line Lights.

a. Green taxiway centre-line lights should provide continuous guidance on taxiways and aprons commencing from the runway edge.

b. Taxiway centre-line lights should not be extended to the runway unless they are interlocked with the stop bar lights. Where stop bars are installed in accordance with para 38 the taxiway centre-line lights should extend to the runway centre-line. Taxiway centre-line lights should be located on the taxiway centre-line marking, except that they may be offset by not more than 0.3m where it is not practicable to locate them on the marking.



c. The spacing of the taxiway centre-line lights should be in accordance with Table 6-5 which incorporates CAT II Operations and LVPs. A longitudinal tolerance on the taxiway centre-line of minus 1.5m may be applied to light spacing where it might be necessary to avoid pavement expansion joints and their specified tolerances. The taxiway centre-line lights on a curve should continue from the straight portion of the taxiway at a constant distance from the outside edge of the taxiway curve. The lights should be spaced at intervals such that a clear indication of the curve is provided.

d. Taxiway centre-line lights on a taxiway other than an exit taxiway and on a runway forming part of a standard taxi-route should be fixed lights showing green with beam dimensions such that light is visible only from aircraft on or in the vicinity of the taxiway.

Table 6-5 Spacing of Centre-Line Lights

Taxiway Maximum Spacing RVR <350m ≥350m

Straight 15m 30m Curved 7.5m 15m

e. On runways equipped with ILS, taxiway centre-line lights located within the ILS critical/sensitive area or the lower edge of the obstacle free zone should be colour coded to show alternate green/yellow in both directions. The colour coding should commence with a green light close to the runway centre-line and end with a yellow light at the perimeter of the ILS critical/sensitive area or the lower edge of the obstacle free zone, whichever is the furthest from the runway; thereafter the lights are to show green.

f. The characteristics of taxiway centre-line lights are detailed at Annex 6B.

38. Taxiway Edge Lights.

a. Taxiway edge lighting is used to indicate the edge of a taxiway and should be installed on paved taxiways where centre-line lighting is not provided. The lights should be placed in pairs one on each side of the taxiway on lines at right angles to the centre-line except at junctions and located as near as practicable to the edges of the taxiway.

b. Taxiway edge lights should be fixed lights showing blue. The light unit should have a minimum intensity of 2 candelas from 0° to 6° vertical, and not less than 0.2 candelas at any vertical angle.

c. The spacing for taxiway edge lighting should be in accordance with Table 6-6.

Table 6-6 Spacing for Taxiway Edge Lighting

Taxiway Spacing Straights and curves down to 350m radius

60m (max), preferably 50m

Curves with radius between 350m and 100m

R/7a

Curves with radius between 100m and 28m

Close to but not greater than 14.5m

Curves with radius below 28m R/2 a, minimum of 4 lights incl. Tangent positions for 90 degree curves

a ‘R’ is the radius of the inner curved line joining the inside light positions



d. Elevated taxiway edge lighting should not be used where they will be subjected to damage from jet blast, the operation of arresting systems or where they would interfere with aircraft operations. (Elevated light units may be replaced by inset lights to maintain luminous guidance).

e. Taxiway edge lighting may be used to augment centre-line lighting where aircraft are required to negotiate difficult curves.

f. The edges of turning and holding bays should be marked with blue edge lights, in accordance with Para 38a-c.

g. Where operationally justified, adequate guidance may be achieved by surface illumination or other means.

h. See Para 58 for Taxiway Markers.

39. Stop Bars

a. Stop bars are intended to help protect the runway against inadvertent incursions. A stop bar consists of a single row of flush or semi flush inset lights installed laterally across a taxiway showing red towards the intended direction of approach.

b. Stop bars should be provided at all Runway-Holding Positions and Intermediate-Holding Positions intended for use in RVR conditions less than 550m unless procedures have been agreed with the appropriate military authority to limit the number of aircraft either on the manoeuvring area or on final approach within 5 nm to one at any given time.

c. Stop bars installed at taxiway/runway intersection should be unidirectional and show red towards the direction of approach to the runway. Stop bars installed at Intermediate-Holding Positions may be bi-directional where the holding position is intended for use in each direction. Stop bars installed at Runway-Holding Positions and Intermediate-Holding Positions should be independently switchable; all other stop bars protecting runway access points should be permanently illuminated during Low Visibility Operations.

d. An independently switchable stop bar should consist of a stop bar interlocked with a section of taxiway centre-line lead-on lighting beyond the stop bar. The section of interlocked taxiway centre-line lead-on lighting should, wherever practicable, be at least 90m in length. See Para 38.

e. The light fittings making up a stop bar should be spaced equally across the taxiway in a line at right angles to the taxiway centre-line at intervals of no greater than 3m. They should be positioned co-incident with any associated taxiway-holding position marking so as not to obscure or interfere with the integrity of the marking. The outer lights of the stop bar should be located on the edges of the taxiway. However, at holding positions where a flight crew’s view of the stop bar might be obscured, the stop bar should be extended beyond the edge of the taxiway by the addition of 4 elevated lights, 2 placed on each side of the taxiway along the stop bar axis at intervals equal to the spacing of other lights making up the stop bar and visible to approaching aircraft up to the stop bar position. Stop bars installed at taxiway/runway intersections not used in Low Visibility Operations in order to protect the runway against inadvertent incursions should be located no closer to the runway than the distances laid down in Table 4-14.



f. The characteristics of lights, including elevated side lights used in stop bars are given in Figures 6-40 to 6-45.

40. Runway Guard Lights.

a. Runway Guard Lights should be provided on all taxiways/runway intersections associated with a runway intended for use in RVR less than 550 metres. The system consists of two units, one located on each side of the taxiway at the distance given in para b. Each unit comprises a pair of alternately illuminating yellow lamps which operate at between 30 and 60 cycles per minute, with periods of light illumination and suppression equal and opposite in each case. The lights should be in operation whenever the RVR is less than 550m and be switched independently of any stop bar lights.

b. Runway Guard Lights should not to exceed 0.36m in height. They should be located on each side of the taxiway as close as possible to the pavement edge and adjacent to the visual runway-holding point, normally the Runway-holding Position closest to the runway.

c. Where runway guard lights are operated in good visibility conditions at night, the luminous intensity may be reduced to 30% of the standard but the signal characteristics specified in para a. should be retained.

d. On wide throat taxiways used in low visibility conditions when enhanced conspicuity of the taxiway/runway intersection is required, an alternative form of runway guard light may be used. This consists of a row of inset lights spaced at 3m intervals across the taxiway at the distance from the runway centre-line specified in Para b. above. The lights should have the characteristics described at Para a. above but adjacent lights should be alternately illuminated and alternate lights should be illuminated in unison. This alternative form of Runway Guard Light should not be co-located with a stop bar.

e. The characteristic of Runway Guard Lights is given in Figure 6-36

41. Road-Holding Position Lights.

a. Road-holding position lights should be provided at the intersection of all vehicular roads with runways in accordance with Table 4-14 (including taxiways use for vehicular traffic) except apron taxiways where the road is provided with the appropriate road markings and signs. Road-holding position lights should be located on both sides of the road, at a height not greater than 450mm, and at a distance not greater than 1.5m from the edge of the road and adjacent to the road-holding position marking and sign described at Para 50.

b. The road-holding position lights should consist of either a steady red/green traffic light or where greater conspicuity is required a wig wag traffic light (pair of synchronous flashing red signals and a steady green). The traffic light signals should be controlled by the ATC Controller and are to raise an alarm at the controller's position on the failure of a single red signal.

c. Road-holding position lights should be accompanied by a road holding position sign.

42. Undercarriage Check Lighting System

a. The undercarriage check light system should be provided where there may be an operational requirement to view the undercarriage of an aircraft. The system is



designed to allow clear night viewing of the undercarriage of an aircraft flying at 200 knots and 215 metres above ground level. The system should be installed in accordance with the following:

(1) The layout of the system is depicted in Figure 6-18. Exceptionally, where aircraft speeds through the system will not exceed 120 knots, an abbreviated system may be installed by omitting 3 light units from each end.

(2) The light units are set horizontal longitudinally and aimed vertically upwards with the outer rows toed in by 2°. The light units should be Urbis Type RT3/W/1000/71 or similar.

b. The undercarriage check flarepath should be installed on Royal Navy aerodromes as depicted in Figure 6-18. This consists of 14 flarepath sodiums, eight forming the cluster, with a lead-in and lead-out of three sodiums for accurate line-up. The installation should be sited on the airfield in a convenient position to enable the aircraft’s undercarriage to be checked from the visual control positions without disrupting or hazarding aircraft in the circuit area.

Figure 6-19 Undercarriage Check Lighting System – Layout and Optical Requirements

Note: ATC Tower and Centre of System to Coincide.

15m

Toe-in 2º

215m



Figure 6-20 Undercarriage Check Flarepath – Layout and Optical Requirements

43. Emergency Portable Lighting. Where appropriate, emergency portable aerodrome lighting equipment may be used as a standby to cover temporary failures in permanent installations or alternatively used to maintain visual cues during construction works. There is no requirement to lay emergency portable lighting at military airfields on a routine basis.

a. Equipment

(1) Minimum Operating Strip Lighting Kit MOSKIT. MOSKIT comprising omni-directional runway edge lights (ORELs); uni-directional approach lights (UAL); tactical PAPIs (TAC PAPI) and night vision device (NVD) compatible PAPIs.

(2) Portable Obstacle Lights – Marker Lamps and GLIMs. Portable obstacle lights fitted with blue filters should be used to augment or provide taxiway lighting on parts of the movement area not equipped with permanent lighting. Portable obstacle lights fitted with red filters should be used to mark obstacles.

(3) Chance Lights. If available, a chance light or mobile floodlight should be held ready to assist in illuminating the runway in an emergency (RN only).

(4) Solar lights. These light units may be used to provide taxiway edge lighting and should comply with the characteristics in Para 38. They should be provided adjacent to existing taxiway edge light units.

b. Operating Criteria

(1) When MOSKIT is laid out in accordance with Figure 6-20 it will provide adequate guidance to aircraft on instrument approaches in visibility down to 800m. However, the Type 2 lighting pattern was designed for tactical use.

(2) Portable obstacle lights should provide adequate visual guidance to aircraft taxiing in normal operating conditions. When aircraft taxi-lights are being used, the taxiway may be delineated with airfield retro-reflective markers or centre-line studs.



Figure 6-21 Aerodrome Portable Lighting Standard Layout

44. Apron Lighting

a. The edges of aprons including aircraft-servicing platforms and operational-readiness platforms should be marked with blue edge lights in accordance with the specifications given in Para 38a-c. For rotary wing permanent bases see Chapter 11 Para 30.

b. Only the entrances to hard standings are to be indicated by blue taxiway edge lights.

c. Floodlighting should be provided for aprons intended for use at night to:

(1) Enable the safe manoeuvring of aircraft and vehicles.

(2) Enhance security.

(3) Permit minor maintenance, when necessary.

(4) Assist in the loading and unloading of personnel and /or cargo.

(5) Assist in the servicing of aircraft.

d. The apron floodlights should be located so as to provide adequate illumination on all apron service areas, with minimum glare to pilots of aircraft in flight and on the



ground, aerodrome and apron controllers, and persons on the apron. The arrangement and aiming of the floodlights should be such that an aircraft stand receives light from two or more directions to minimise shadows.

e. The spectral distribution of apron floodlights should be such that the colours used for aircraft marking connected with routine servicing, and for surface and obstacle marking, can be correctly identified. The average luminance should be at least the following:

(1) Aircraft Stands. An average of 20 lux in the horizontal plane at a height of 2m above the apron with a uniformity ratio, average to minimum, of not more than 4 to 1.

(2) Other apron areas. 50% of the average luminance on the aircraft stands in the horizontal plane at a height of 2m above the apron with a uniformity ratio, average to minimum, of not more than 4 to 1.

Note: These levels cannot be achieved by lighting from only one direction or by one light. Lights should be positioned to avoid creating shadow areas.

45. LED Light Fittings

a. LED light fittings may be used on taxiways, signage, road-holding position lights, Runway Guard lights and stop bars subject to compliance with the relevant parts of this Chapter.

46. Control and Monitoring of Aeronautical Ground Lighting

a. At the majority of aerodromes the AGL is controlled remotely from an ATC VCR. In such case, a remote monitoring facility is provided in the VCR where an adequate assessment of the serviceability of the AGL cannot be made by other means.

b. In the absence of a VCR and/or remote control facilities, the AGL should be switched directly from its power source (in most cases the constant current regulator (CCR)). The AGL should be verified as operationally serviceable by means of a visual inspection and/or indications from the AGL equipment. Where operationally significant, this information should be notified immediately to the AGL operator and, where necessary, aircrew.

c. When in use, the operational status of the AGL system should be continuously monitored. An appropriate means of detecting an AGL system failure or fault and other serviceability information should be provided. The AGL system serviceability information should be provided to the AGL operator in a simple but accurate and concise way, so that if necessary the user can pass a report to aircrew. The report will enable aircrew to determine whether the AGL meets their current operational flight requirements or not.

d. In order to align with the requirements of JAR–OPS the reporting to aircrew of the serviceability of the AGL, the AGL operator needs to be able to state whether the AGL is in one of the following states: serviceable, downgraded, or failed. Therefore, where a new system is installed or significant modification is carried out on an existing system, the AGL control and monitoring system should be capable of determining and indicating which of the aforementioned states applies. For existing AGL control and monitoring systems, a method of reporting such states should be implemented. Using existing indications and a look-up table is one method that could be suitable. The status of the AGL will probably differ according to visibility conditions and other factors; therefore the status report (or look-up table) should reflect these factors. Further



guidance on the assessment of AGL serviceability and the presentation of this information is provided in the Manual of Military ATM.

e. The MOD has, under Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, a general duty of care to the public and its employees. It is required to ensure that all hazards are suitably and sufficiently controlled and reduced to a level that is ‘as low as is reasonably practicable’ (ALARP). The means of formally documenting and recording this process is by means of a Safety Case5. The custodian of the Modular Control System (MCS) Safety Case is the Technical Authority (AGL). See Table 1-1.

f. The MCS Safety Case details the functional and operational requirements for the system and puts in place the specific process for the continued operation of the MCS including system support and change control procedures. The Safety Case supports the need for ‘standardisation’ of MCS equipment across the defence estate. Any ‘non-standard’ changes may invalidate the Safety Case and would necessitate the production of a bespoke ‘Aerodrome’ specific Safety Case. Any change requirement to the MCS should be generated via the SATCO and should be correctly staffed by the Unit through HQ AIR C41 where it will be fully considered by Safeguarding, ATC and Engineering desks.

g. Details of the Change Control Process and available system support is detailed in DE Policy Instruction titled 19/2006.

SIGNS

47. General. Signs on the manoeuvring area provide various types of information to aircraft and vehicular traffic and are divided into two categories, namely Mandatory Signs or Information Signs. Those located near a runway or taxiway should be sufficiently low to preserve clearance for propellers and the engine pods of jet aircraft. The installed height of the sign should not to exceed the dimension shown in Table 6-9. The only signs on the movement area utilising red should be mandatory signs. Signs should be frangible. Where it is impractical to install a mandatory instruction sign or where the taxiway width exceeds 60m, a mandatory instruction marking should be provided in accordance with Para 24.

48. Mandatory Instruction Signs. A mandatory sign should be provided to identify a location beyond which an aircraft taxiing or vehicle should not proceed unless authorised by the ATC. Mandatory signs should include Runway-Holding Position signs and No Entry signs. Mandatory signs display white characters on a red background. Internally lit mandatory signs should be provided with an alternative power source in accordance with the requirements of Chapter 8 Para 3.

a. Runway-Holding Position Signs

(1) Runway-holding position signs identify the designated runway-holding position as determined in accordance with Chapter 4 Para 12 associated with a particular runway and consist of the runway designation in white on a red background as illustrated in Figure 6-21 and Figure 6-22.

(2) Where the runway is equipped with ILS, the runway-holding position should be established at the edge of the critical/sensitive area in order to protect the ILS when in use. Where the ILS runway-holding position is at such a distance from the runway that it would hinder the expeditious flow of traffic in

5 Details on ATM Equipment Safety Cases are contained in RA 3132, ATM Equipment Safety Cases



VMC, a visual runway-holding position should be established closer to the runway and the ILS runway-holding position should be annotated CAT I.

(3) A ‘Pattern A’ runway-holding position marking see Para 13 should be supplemented with a visual runway-holding position sign. A ‘Pattern B’ runway-holding position marking should be supplemented with a CAT I or II runway-holding position sign.

(4) A runway-holding position sign should be located on each side of the runway-holding position established with section Chapter 4 Para 12 facing the approach to the obstacle limitation surface or ILS/MLS critical/sensitive area, as appropriate. See Para 24.

b. A “NO ENTRY” sign should be provided when entry to an area is prohibited. The sign should be located at the beginning of the area to which entrance is prohibited on each side of the taxiway as viewed by the pilot.

c. The requirements concerning the design of mandatory signs (eg inscriptions, character size, illumination, etc) are given at Appendix 4, ICAO Annex 14, Volume 1.

d. The character size to be used for letters and numbers is determined by the type of operation that the sign is intended to support and is prescribed in Table 6-7.

e. Where diagonal lines are used on Taxiway Ending Signs, as illustrated at Figure 6-20, the stroke width of the diagonal will be equal ¾ of the stroke of the character. The size of the break between the diagonal and the character should be approximately ½ the character stroke width.

f. The sign luminance should be in accordance with Table 6-8 and Appendix 4, ICAO Annex 14, Volume 1.

Table 6-7 Character Sizes to be used on Airfield Signs

Runway Code

Number

Minimum Character Size (mm) Mandatory Signs Information Signs

Runway Exit & Runway Vacated Signs

Other Signs

Height Stroke Width

Legend Height

Stroke Width

Legend Height

Stroke Width

1 and 2 300 48 300 48 200 32 3 – 6 400 64 400 64 300 48

Table 6-8 Sign Luminance

Colour Average Sign Luminance cd/m2 (min)

Precision Approach Runway

At Night – Instrument or Non-Instrument Runway

Red 30 10 Yellow 150 50 White 300 100 a. Signs intended for use at night in association with non-instrument runways, code 1 or 2, may be illuminated and/or retroreflective in accordance with ICAO Annex 14, Vol 1.



Figure 6-22 Examples of Airfield Signs

27 Visual Runway-Holding Position Sign - denotes the visual runway-holding position and also the ILS CAT I holding position where the visual and CAT I holding positions are co-located.

(1) used to indicate a runway-holding position at a runway extremity.

(2) used to indicate a runway-holding position located at other taxiway/runway intersections or runway/runway intersection.

09-27

CAT I Runway-Holding Position Sign - denotes the ILS CAT I runway-holding position only where the visual runway-holding position is established closer to the runway in order to expedite traffic flow (1) and (2) as above.

27 CAT I

09-27 CAT I

(1)

(2)

(2)

(1)

NO ENTRY Sign

CAT II Runway Taxi-Holding Position Sign - marks the ILS CAT II Taxi-Holding Position – a visual Taxi-Holding Position may be established closer to the runway where it is necessary to expedite traffic flow.

27 CAT II

09-27 CAT II

(1)

(2)



Figure 6-23 Runway Holding Position Signs

49. Information Signs. The following Information Signs should be provided where there is an operational need to identify by a sign, a specific location, or routing (direction or destination) information to pilots manoeuvring on the ground. Where an information sign is required but it is impracticable to install, an information marking should be displayed on the surface of the pavement (see para 25). Information signs include: direction signs, location signs, destination signs, runway exit signs and runway vacated signs. An information sign other than a location sign should consist of an inscription in black on a yellow background. A location sign should consist of an inscription in yellow on a black background and where it is a stand-alone sign it should have a yellow border. The character size to be used for letters and numbers is determined by the type of operation that the sign is intended to support and is prescribed in Table 6-7. Examples of Information Signs are given in Figure 6-22.

Figure 6-24 Examples of Airfield Signs

A 15

Taxiway Location Sign

Runway Destination Sign

A Taxiway Ending Sign

27

27 CAT I

X Y

27

27 CAT I

Y X

Note: Distance X is established in accordance with Table 4-3. Distance Y is established at the edge of the ILS critical/sensitive area.



a. Taxiway Location Signs. Taxiway location signs should be used to identify individual taxiways. All in-use taxiways should be designated by a letter of the alphabet – Alpha, Bravo, etc. As far as possible the allocation of designation letters should follow a logical pattern eliminating the possibility of confusion. Taxiway location signs bear the taxiway designation letter in yellow on a black background surrounded by a yellow border. Taxiway location signs will be positioned at the approach to a taxiway intersection. A taxiway location sign installed in conjunction with a runway designation sign will be position outboard of the runway-holding position sign.

b. Taxiway Ending Sign. Where a taxiway ends at an intersection other than an intersection with a runway, a yellow diagonal marker is overlaid on the appropriate Taxiway Location Sign.

c. Runway Vacated Sign. A Runway vacated sign should be provided where the exit taxiway is not provided with taxiway centre-line lights and there is a need to indicate to a pilot leaving a runway the perimeter of the ILS critical/sensitive area or the lower edge of the obstacle free zone whichever is farther from the runway centre-line. The runway vacated sign will be located on one side of the taxiway. The inscription on a runway vacated sign should depict the pattern A runway-holding position marking. The distance between the sign and the centre-line of a runway should not be less than the following:

(1) The distance between the centre-line of the runway and the perimeter of the ILS critical/sensitive area; or

(2) The distance between the centre-line of the runway and the lower edge of the inner transitional surface.

d. Direction Signs. Direction signs located at the approach to a taxiway intersection indicate the directions of taxiways leading out of that intersection. These signs bear the letter designating each taxiway leading out of the intersection along with an arrow orientated to illustrate the direction and degree of the turn. The designation letter and the arrow are black on a yellow background. Direction signs should be accompanied by a taxiway location sign. Where a location sign and direction signs are used in combination:

(1). All direction signs related to left turns should be placed on the left side of the location sign and all direction signs related to right turns should be placed on the right side of the location sign, except that where the junction consists of one intersecting taxiway, the location sign may alternatively be placed on the left hand side;

Inbound Destination Sign CIVIL

G Runway Exit Sign



(2). The direction signs should be placed such that the direction of the arrows departs increasingly from the vertical with increasing deviation of the corresponding taxiway.

(3). An appropriate direction sign should be placed next to the location sign where the direction of the location taxiway changes significantly beyond the intersection; and

(4). Adjacent direction signs should be delineated by a vertical black line.

e. Runway Exit Sign. A Runway Exit sign is provided to identify a runway exit. When provided the Runway Exit Sign should be located on the same side of the runway as the exit is located in accordance with Table 6-9 and should be located prior to the runway exit point in line with a position at least 60m prior to the point on tangency where the code number is 3 to 6, and at least 30m where the code number is 1 or 2.

f. Destination Signs. Destination signs should be used where it is determined that the combination of location and direction signs would not provide adequate guidance to a destination. Destination signs should not be accompanied by location or direction signs. Common abbreviations used for inbound destinations are:

APRON General parking, servicing and loading areas STANDS Aircraft stands CIVIL Areas set aside for civil aircraft TERM Gate positions at which aircraft are loaded or unloaded

g. Location. Information signs are to be, wherever practicable, located on the left-hand side of the taxiway in accordance with Table 6-9 Characteristics.

h. Characteristics. The requirements concerning the design of Information Signs is

given at ICAO Annex 14, Volume 1, Appendix 4.

Table 6-9 Details of Information Signs and Location of both Mandatory and Information Signs

Sign Height (mm) Perpendicular Distance from

defined taxiway

pavement edge to near side of sign.

Perpendicular Distance from

defined runway

pavement edge to near side of sign.

Code number Legenda Face

(min.) Installed (max.)

1 or 2 200 400 700 5-11m 3-10m 1 or 2 300 600 900 5-11m 3-10m 3 – 6 300 600 900 11-21m 8-15m 3 – 6 400 800 1100 11-21m 8-15m

a. See Table 6-7 for Legend size

50. Road-Holding Position Sign.

a. Whenever a route for vehicular traffic use intersects a taxiway or a runway, a road-holding position sign should be located not closer to the appropriate taxiway or runway than the distances notified in Table 4-14 and 1.5m from the defined edge of the vehicular traffic route. Road-holding position lights are detailed at Para 41.

b. The road-holding sign should consist of an inscription in white on a red background. The inscription should combine a standard road traffic ‘STOP’ sign with, where appropriate, an instruction on how the driver of a vehicle should proceed.



Road-holding Position signs need not be provided where a runway-holding position sign is installed.

51. Aerodrome Access Boards. Responsibility for the positioning, wording and condition of signs relating for the apron area rests with the Aerodrome Operator (AO). Personnel should be warned by standard notice boards erected in prominent positions at all points where roads join the Movement Area. These notices should read:

STOP

MOVEMENT AREA.

VEHICLES ARE NOT TO BE DRIVEN PAST THIS POINT WITHOUT THE PERMISSION OF AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

a. In addition to the Movement Area boards, personnel should be given a general warning by other notice boards prominently displayed at all entrances to the Unit. These notices should read:

VEHICLES MUST GIVE WAY TO AIRCRAFT.

ALL VISITING DRIVERS ARE TO REPORT TO AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL BEFORE PROCEEDING ON TO THE MOVEMENT AREA

b. At Units where it is not possible to proceed to ATC without entering the Movement Area, this notice should be suitably amended to show how permission can be obtained. Examples of alternative wordings are.

DRIVERS ARE TO REPORT TO THE GUARDROOM AND OBTAIN PERMISSION FROM AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL BEFORE PROCEEDING.

or

DRIVERS ARE TO REPORT TO AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL BY TELEPHONE (EXT ……) BEFORE PROCEEDING.

52. Where, from outside the Movement Area, the authorized access to the Movement Area is through an Apron, AO should ensure that the notice board at the entry point to the apron area gives due warning of the conditions for entry to the Movement Area.

53. Examples of Road-Holding Position Signs are illustrated in Figure 6-24. The style of these signs may be adopted for Aerodrome Access Boards.

54. Illuminated Arrester Cable Markers. The position of all runway arrester gear cables should be indicated by vertical illuminated arrester gear markers as follows:

a. The markers should be placed on both sides of the runway in line with the cable and normally equidistant from the runway centre-line. The distance from the edge of the usable runway to the markers should not be less than 15m nor greater than 23m.

b. The markers should show an aviation yellow disc of 1.0m diameter on a black background. The markers should be frangible.

c. The characteristics of the markers should be as depicted at Para 56.

d. For temporary airfields see Chapters 13 and 14.

55. Illuminated Runway Distance to Go Markers. Illuminated runway distance markers should be installed on all runways in accordance with the following:



a. The markers should be placed on both sides of the runway on lines parallel with and normally equidistant from the centre-line of the runway. The markers should indicate the distance for both directions of operation.

b. The markers should indicate the runway distance remaining in thousands of feet (the last three digits being omitted). Where the length of the runway is not an exact multiple of 300m the amount remaining after subtraction of the maximum number of such multiples should be shared equally between and added to the runway start to the first IRDM and the last IRDM to the runway end distance to give ideal positions. (eg a 2600m runway will give 8 multiples of 300m plus 200m remaining; this shared equally gives distances of 400m at each end of the runway).

c. The distance from the edge of the usable runway should not be less than 15m nor greater than 23m. Markers that would normally be at a runway or taxiway intersection may be omitted. However, they may be sited up to 30m from the calculated position and along the line if this makes it possible to avoid omitting them altogether. The corresponding markers should remain opposite to each other.

d. The colour of the number on each marker should be white on a black background. The height of the figures should be 1.0m and the stroke of each figure should be 0.13m wide. The breadth of the figure should be approximately 0.6m. The markers should be frangible.

e. The luminance of the RHAG Marker and IRDM on Precision runways should be at least 150cd/m2 for yellow and 300 cd/m2 for white at maximum brilliancy. See Chapter 6 Para 50. For non-instrument runways, luminance should be at least 50cd/m2 for yellow and 100 cd/m2 for white respectively. The ratio between the maximum and the minimum luminance value over the whole sign face should not exceed 5:1. The average luminance should be obtained in a similar manner to that detailed in ICAO Annex 14, Volume 1, Appendix 4.

f. The current control for an IRDM should be in accordance with Table 6-10. Where LED technology is used these values may need to be adjusted.



Table 6-10 IRDM Brilliancy Levels

Brilliancy Levels and Current Values Primary Secondary

Brilliancy % Current(A) Current(A) Brilliancy % 100 12.0 = 6.60 100 30 9.72 = 6.60 100 10 8.28 = 6.34 80 3 7.08 = 5.90 50 1 6.12 = 5.02 20

0.3 5.28 = 4.55 10

Figure 6-25 Road Traffic Signs

Note: For dimensions see ‘The Traffic Signs Regulations and General Directions 1994’

MARKERS

56. General. Markers should be frangible and retro-reflective. Those located near a runway or taxiway should be a maximum height of 0.45m. Markers should be securely fixed to prevent their removal by jet efflux and/or rotor down wash. See Table 1-2. For rotary wing permanent base markers see Chap 11 Para 11.

57. Edge Markers for Snow Covered Runways. Edge markers should be used to indicate the usable limits of a snow-covered runway when the limits are not otherwise indicated. The edge markers should be placed along the sides of the runway at intervals not exceeding 90m, and should be located symmetrically about the runway centre-line. Sufficient markers should be placed across the threshold and end of the runway.

58. Taxiway Markers. Retro-reflective edge markers or centre-line markers (studs) either together or separately may be used instead of taxiway edge lights for non-instrument runways. See Chapter 6 Para 38. Taxiway edge and centre-line markers should be installed in the same location as would taxiway edge lights or taxiway centre-line lights, had they been used. A taxiway edge marker should have a minimum viewing area of 15 000mm2 and be blue in colour; centre-line markers should be green. Edge markers should not exceed 0.45m in height, centre-line studs should not exceed 0.025m in height. Markers may also be used on other, infrequently used taxiways, when dispensation is obtained from the appropriate military authority. For temporary airfields see Chapters 12, 13 and14.

Standard Stop Sign

Stop Sign with supplementary instructions



59. Aerodrome Portable Marking. When it is considered that the expected tenure of temporary aerodromes including strips, does not justify the marking of airfield services in accordance with Para 1, portable marking with defined minimum specifications to meet operations under tactical conditions is permissible. The decision to use portable markings is the prerogative of the operating authority when operational considerations for either concealment or tactical requirements are paramount. The minimum standard, where a requirement for portable marking exists, will be to define the longitudinal and lateral limits of runways, landings strips, taxiing areas and aircraft dispersal areas. Such definitions may be achieved in some circumstances solely by the contrast between the manoeuvring area surface and surrounding terrain whilst in other cases supplementary lighting or marking will be required. The markings specified in this section are suitable for daytime operations down to a meteorological visibility of the order of 3.7km. These markings may be supplemented under any weather conditions by the addition of portable lighting as defined in Chapters 12, 13 and 14.

60. Minimum Markings. Any markings defined in Para 4 may be used when practicable but certain minimum markings consistent with flight safety should be used where possible. They are:

a. Runway Markings. The minimum runway markings are: Runway Designation marking, centre-line marking, threshold marking and displaced threshold marking.

b. Taxiway Markings. The minimum taxiway markings are: centre-line markings and runway hold position marking.

61. Obstacle Clearances. When an aerodrome or landing strip is marked by portable or paint markings to delineate the manoeuvring surfaces, the areas immediately adjacent to the edges of the runway and taxiways should be clear of all obstacles other than approved markers.

62. Delineation. Where it is decided that a requirement for aerodrome portable marking exists, the longitudinal and lateral limits of runways/strips, taxiing areas and aircraft dispersal areas should be delineated. In some circumstances delineation will be achieved solely by the contrast between the manoeuvring area surfaces and surrounding terrain. In other cases a line of lights or other basic markers may be adequate.

63. Composition. Where aerodrome markers are necessary, the following general principles are to apply:

a. Materials. Any material suitable for aerodrome marking may be used provided that it is:

(1) Easily transportable by air, or locally available.

(2) Frangible, if it projects above ground level.

(3) Conspicuous to aircraft in the circuit and on the manoeuvring area.

(4) Capable of being secured to withstand jet efflux and/or rotor downwash.

Note: Retro-reflective markers are particularly suitable when their use does not conflict with tone-down requirements.

b. Dimensions. Markers should to project more than 0.45m above ground level.

c. Colour. The colour of markers should contrast with the surrounding terrain.



d. Size

(1) Runway markers should present to the pilot with a minimum rectangular viewing area of 0.35m².

(2) Taxiway markers should present to the pilot with a minimum rectangular viewing area of 0.30m².

64. Layout. When markers are used, the following layout should be adopted:

a. Runway Marker. (See Figure 6-25)

(1) Markers should be placed opposite each other on both sides of the runway at intervals not exceeding 90m.

(2) The separation distance of the markers from the edge of the runway should not exceed 3.0m.

(3) The runway threshold should be marked by two pairs of markers, 30m between pairs, on both sides of and at right angles to the runway. The outer markers should be located no more than 4.5m laterally from the inner markers.

(4) The end of the runway should be indicated by a pair of markers on each side of the runway.

b. Taxiway Marker. (Figure 6-26)

(1) Except on curves, markers should be placed opposite each other on both sides of the taxiway.

(2) The maximum longitudinal spacing should not exceed 50m on straight sections. The spacing should be reduced on curved sections and should not exceed 30m.

(3) The runway-holding position should be indicated by double markers located on both sides of the taxiway and at least 30m from the near edge of the runway.

c. Aircraft Dispersal Areas. Markers should define the edges of dispersal areas where necessary. The distance between markers should not exceed 50m. See Figure 6-26.

d. Light Landing Areas. The limits of natural surfaces set aside as light landing areas should be marked. The distance between markers should not exceed 90m.

e. Helicopter Landing Areas. Any area set aside exclusively for use by helicopters should be marked by a single letter ‘H’ in accordance with Chapters 10 and 11.



Figure 6-26 Runway Marker

Dimensions Not Exceeding Metres Feet

A 30 100 B 4.5 15 C 90 300 D 4.5 15 E 90 300 F 9 30

Note: When necessary, dimension A can be increased but should not to exceed 45m (150ft).



Figure 6-27 Taxiway Marker

Dimensions Metres Feet A: Not Less Than

A 30 100 B,C,D: Not Exceeding B 50 200 C 30 100 D 4.5 15

Markers should be positioned as close to the taxiway edge as operational considerations permit

Taxiway

Dispers

Holding Position



Annex 6A: Aeronautical Ground Light and Surface Marking Colours

General

1. The colour of light signals is an important characteristic of the guidance provided by the AGL. It is essential to ensure that wherever a light signal depends on colour to provide essential information, the lighting equipment employed displays no misleading signals within the equipment beamspread or at angle within the intended viewing segment.

2. The colour of AGL should be verified by the manufacturer as being within the boundaries within ICAO Annex 14, Volume 1 Appendix 1 A, Figure A1.1, by measurement at five points within the area bounded by the innermost isocandela curve See Annex 6B Table 6-12, with operation at rated current or voltage as follows:

a. Elliptical or circular isocandela curves: the colour measurements should be taken at the centre and at the horizontal and vertical limits.

b. Rectangular isocandela curves: the colour measurements should be taken at the centre and at the limits of the diagonals (corners).

c. The colour of the light should be checked at the outermost isocandela curve to ensure that there is no colour shift that might cause signal confusion.

d. Where lights may be viewed and used by flight crew from directions beyond that of the indicated isocandela curve, the aerodrome operating authority should make a visual assessment of the actual application and, if necessary, require a check of colour shift at angular ranges beyond the outermost isocandela diagram curve; and

e. The signal colours for PAPI and AGL having a colour transition sector should be measured at points, as indicated above, except that the colour areas should be treated separately and no point will be within 0.5 degrees of the transition sector.

3. The chromaticy of AGL should be within the boundaries defined in ICAO Annex 14, Volume 1, Appendix 1, Figure A1-1.

Discrimination

4. If there is a requirement to discriminate yellow from green and/or white, as for example on exit taxiway centre-line lights, the y coordinates of the yellow light should not exceed a value of 0.4.

5. The colour variable white is intended to be used only for lights that should be varied in intensity eg to avoid dazzling. If this colour should be discriminated from yellow, the lights should be so designed and operated that:

a. The x coordinate of the yellow is at least 0.050 greater that the x coordinate of the white; and

b. The disposition of the lights will be such that the yellow lights are displayed simultaneously and in close proximity to the white lights.



Colours for Markings, Signs and Panels

6. The chromaticity and luminance factors of ordinary colours, colours of retro-reflective materials and colours of transilluminated (internally illuminated) signs and panels should be determined under the following conditions:

a. Angle of illumination: 45°.

b. Direction of view: perpendicular to surface; and

c. Illuminant: CIE standard illuminant D65.

7. The chromaticity and luminance factors should be in accordance with Table 6-11 also see Chapter 6 Para 1 and 4.

Table 6-11 Colours for Markings, Signs and Panels

Equipment ICAO Annex 14, Volume 1, Appendix 1 Section Figure

Markings and externally illuminated signs and panels

3.2 A1-2

Retro-reflective materials 3.3 A1-3 Transilluminated (internally illuminated) signs and panels

3.4 A1-4



Annex 6B: Aeronautical Ground Light Characteristics

General

1. A light should be deemed to be unserviceable when the main beam average intensity is less than half of the value specified in the relevant isocandela diagram detailed in Annex 6B Table 6-12. Where more than one light is used in a unit, the unit is considered to be unserviceable if its light output is similarly reduced. For light units where the designed main beam average intensity is above the value shown in the relevant isocandela diagram, the 50% value should be related to that design value. Only AGL conforming to the specified colours should be displayed to flight crew and vehicle drivers. See Table 2-2.

2. The importance of adequate maintenance cannot be over-emphasised. The average intensity should not fall below 50% of the value shown in the relevant isocandela diagrams and it should be the aim of the Maintenance Management Organization (MMO) to maintain a level of light exceeding the specified minimum intensities.

3. Construction and Height of Lighting Fittings

a. All AGL fittings should be of such construction and height that their presence does not endanger aircraft.

b. Elevated approach lights and their supporting structures should be frangible except that, in that portion of the approach lighting system, beyond 300m from the threshold:

(1) Where the height of a supporting structure exceeds 12m, the frangibility requirement applies to the top 12m only; and

(2) Where a supporting structure is surrounded by non-frangible objects, only that part of the structure that extends above the surrounding objects should be frangible.

c. When an approach light fixture or supporting structure is not in itself sufficiently conspicuous, it should be suitably marked.

d. Elevated runway, stopway and taxiway lights should be frangible. Their height should be sufficiently low to preserve clearance for propellers and for the engine pods of aircraft. Light fixtures inset in the surface of runways, stopways, taxiways and aprons should be so designed and installed as to withstand being run over by the wheels of an aircraft without damage either to the aircraft or to the lights themselves. See Chapter 17.

e. Within the manoeuvring area, elevated fittings should be conspicuous.

f. Elevated light fittings should not exceed 36cm in height above the adjacent pavement level. In stopways and clearways used for routine manoeuvring (e.g. as entry or exit taxiways) the lights should be flush with the pavement. Otherwise, the fittings in these areas should not exceed the following dimensions:

(1) 0.46m above ground level in stopways.

(2) 1.2m above local ground level in clearways.



g. Inset fittings should be capable of bearing the loads imposed by any aircraft normally using the aerodrome when landing, taking-off or taxiing. The contours and temperature of the top surface of the light fitting should not cause damage to aircraft undercarriage components especially tyres.

h. The projection of an inset fitting above the surrounding surface should not exceed:

(1) 1.6cm within 7.5m either side of the runway centre-line except that inset approach lights in this area and taxiway lights crossing a runway or leading to a runway centre-line may project 2.5cm.

(2) 1.9cm between 7.5m from the runway centre-line to 3m from the runway edge except that inset approach lights in these areas may project 3.2cm and taxiway lights crossing or leading to a runway centre-line may project 2.5cm.

(3) 3.8cm within 6m of the runway end or within 3m of the runway edge.

(4) 3.2cm for displaced threshold lights.

(5) 2.5cm in taxiway surfaces.

i. Inset fittings should be secured in the surface so as to prevent accidental extraction. It is particularly important that stable mountings are provided so that the beam spread angles are maintained within the tolerances detailed in the appropriate table.

j. Except for the projection heights in Para h, fittings should conform to the mechanical and electrical specifications of appropriate National and International Standards as recommended by Technical Authority (AGL).

k. Only AGL equipment should be used that is in compliance with this Manual, ICAO Annex 14 and National and International Standards where the bespoke system integration or homogeneous assembly design, including the use of installation materials, is underwritten by system designer, or if no system designer, the installer.

4. Colour requirements for all aeronautical ground lights should be as detailed in ICAO Annex 14, Volume I, Appendix 1.

Isocandela Characteristics of Lights for Instrument Runways and Associated Taxiways

5. Figures 6-27 to 6-45 of this annex give the characteristics of lighting to be used for new installations.

6. Figure 6-40 to 6-45 give details of characteristics for taxiway centre-line and stop bar lights.

Collective Notes for Figures 6-27 to 6-39

7. The ellipses in each figure are symmetrical about the common vertical and horizontal axis.

8. On the perimeter of and within the ellipse defining the main beam in Figures 6-28 to 6-38 the maximum light intensity value should not be greater than three times the minimum light intensity value measured in accordance with Annex 6B Para 16.



9. Figures 6-27 to 6-38 show the minimum allowable light intensities. The average intensity of the main beam is calculated by establishing grid points as shown in Figure 6-39 and using the intensity values measured at all grid points located within and on the perimeter of the ellipse representing the main beam. The average value is the arithmetic average of light intensities measured at all considered grid points.

10. No deviations are acceptable in the main beam pattern when the lighting fixture is properly aimed. The light unit should be installed so that the main beam is aligned within ± ½ degree of the specified requirement.

11. The ratio between the average intensity within the ellipse defining the main beam of a typical new light and the average light intensity of the main beam of a new runway edge light should be as detailed in Table 6-12.

12. The beam coverages in the figures provide the necessary guidance for approach down to an RVR of 150m and take-off down to an RVR of 100m.

13. Horizontal angles are measured with respect to the vertical plane through the runway centre-line. For lights other than centre-line lights, the direction towards the runway centre-line is considered positive. Vertical angles are measured with respect to the horizontal plane.

Collective Notes for Figures 6-40 to 6-45

14. Figures 6-40 to 6-45 show candela values in green and yellow for taxiway centre-line lights and red for stop bar lights.

15. On the perimeter of and within the rectangle defining the main beam in Figures 6-40 to 6-44 the maximum light intensity value should not be greater than three times the minimum light intensity value measured in accordance with Para 16.

16. Figures 6-40 to 6-45 show the minimum allowable light intensities. The average intensity of the main beam is calculated by establishing grid points as shown in Figure 6-44 and using the intensity values measured at all grid points located within and on the perimeter of the rectangle representing the main beam. The average value is the arithmetic average of the light intensities measured at all considered grid points.

17. No deviations are acceptable in the main beam when the lighting fixture is properly aimed.

18. Horizontal angles are measured with respect to the vertical plane through the taxiway centre-line except on curves where they are measured with respect to the tangent to the curve.

19. Vertical angles are measured from the longitudinal slope of the taxiway surface.

20. The light unit should be installed so that the main beam is aligned within ± 1/2 degree of the specified requirement.



Table 6-12 Average Intensity Ratio

Figure Reference AGL System Ratio Figure 6-27 Approach Centre-Line and Crossbars 1.5 to 2.0 (white light) Figure 6-28 Approach Side Row 0.5 to 1.0 (red light) Figure 6-29 Threshold 1.0 to 1.5 (green light) Figure 6-30 Threshold Wing Bar 1.0 to 1.5 (green light) Figure 6-31 Touchdown Zone 0.5 to 1.0 (white light) Figure 6-32 Runway Centre-Line (30m spacing) 0.5 to 1.0 (white light) Figure 6-33 Runway Centre-Line (15m spacing) CAT I/II 0.25 to 0.5 (white light) Figure 6-34 Runway End 0.25 to 0.5 (red light) Figure 6-35 Runway Guard Lights - Figure 6-36 Runway Edge (45m width) 1.0 (white light) Figure 6-37 Runway Edge (60m width) 1.0 (white light)

Figure 6-28 Light Intensity Distribution of PAPI

Notes: 1. These curves are minimum intensities.

2. Luminous intensities are in candelas as measured by a detector subtending an

angle not greater than 5’ of arc.

3. The unit should appear at a distance of 2 km to exhibit the two signal colours

separated by an angular difference of not more than 3’ of arc.



Figure 6-29 Isocandela Diagram for Approach Centre Line Light and Crossbars (White Light)

Notes: 1. Curves calculated on formula.

x² + y² = 1 a² b²

a 10 14 15 b 5.5 6.5 8.5

2. Vertical setting angles of the lights should be such that the following vertical

coverage of the main beam will be met.

Distance from Threshold. Vertical Main Beam Coverage

Set Angle > 0°

threshold to 315m 316m to 475m 476m to 640m 641m and beyond

0° - 11° 0.5° - 11.5° 1.5° - 12.5° 2.5° - 13.5° (as illustrated above)

5.5° 6° 7° 8°

3. Lights in crossbars beyond 22.5m from the centre-line will be toed-in 2-degrees. All other lights should be aligned parallel to the centre-line of the runway.

4. See collective notes in Annex 6B for Figures 6-26 to 6-38.



Figure 6-30 Isocandela Diagram for Approach Side Row Light and Crossbars (Red Light)


x² + y² = 1 a² b²

a 7.0 11.5 16.5 b 5 6.0 8.0

2. Toe-in 2°.

3. Vertical setting angles of the lights should be such that the following vertical

coverage of the main beam will be met.

Distance from Threshold. Vertical Main Beam Coverage.

Set Angle > 0°

threshold to 115m 116m to 215m 216m and beyond

0.5° - 10.5° 1° - 11° 1.5° - 11.5°° (as illustrated above)

5.5° 6° 6.5°




Figure 6-31 Isocandela Diagram for Threshold Light (Green Light)


x² + y² = 1 a² b²

a 5.5 7.5 9 b 4.5 6.0 8.5

2. Toe-in 3.5°.




Figure 6-32 Isocandela Diagram for Threshold Wing Bar Light (Green Light)


x² + y² = 1 a² b²

a 7.0 11.5 16.5 b 5.0 6.0 8.0

2. Toe-in 2°.




Figure 6-33 Isocandela Diagram for Touchdown Zone Light (White Light)


x² + y² = 1 a² b²

a 5.0 7.0 8.5 b 3.5 6.0 8.5

2. Toe-in 4°.




Figure 6-34 Isocandela Diagram for Runway Centre-Line Light with 30m Longitudinal Spacing

(White Light)


x² + y² = 1 a² b²

a 5.0 7.0 8.5 b 3.5 6.0 8.5

2. For red light multiply values by 0.15.




Figure 6-35 Isocandela Diagram for Runway Centre-Line with 15m Longitudinal Spacing (White

Light)


x² + y² = 1 a² b²

a 5.0 7.0 8.5 b 4.5 8.5 10.0





Figure 6-36 Isocandela Diagram for Runway End Light (Red Light)


x² + y² = 1 a² b²

a 6.0 7.5 9.0 b 2.25 5.0 6.5




Figure 6-37 Isocandela Diagram for Each Light in High Intensity Runway Guard Lights Configuration

Notes: 1. Although the lights flash in normal operation, the light intensity is specified as if the lights were fixed for incandescent lamps.

2. The intensities specified are in yellow light.




Figure 6-38 Isocandela Diagram for Runway Edge Light where Width of Runway is 45m (White

Light)


x² + y² = 1 a² b²

a 5.5 7.5 9.0 b 3.5 6.0 8.5

2. Toe-in 3.5°.





Figure 6-39 Isocandela Diagram for Runway Edge Light where Width of Runway is 60m (White

Light)


x² + y² = 1 a² b²

a 6.5 8.5 10.0 b 3.5 6.0 8.5

2. Toe-in 4.5°.





Figure 6-40 Grid Points to be used for the Calculation of Average Intensity of Approach and

Runway Lights



Figure 6-41 Isocandela Diagram for Taxiway Centre-Line (15m Spacing) and Stop Bar Lights in Straight Sections (Intended for use in Runway Visual Range Conditions of less than a value of

the order of 350m where large offsets can occur)

Notes: 1. These beam coverages allow for displacement of the cockpit from the centre-line up to distances of the order of 12m and are intended for use below and after curves.




Figure 6-42 Isocandela Diagram for Taxiway Centre-Line (15m Spacing) and Stop Bar Lights in Straight Sections (Intended for use in Runway Visual Range Conditions of less than a value of

the order of 350m)

Notes: 1. These beam coverages are generally satisfactory and cater for a normal displacement of the cockpit from the centre-line of approximately 3m.




Figure 6-43 socandela Diagram for Taxiway Centre-Line (7.5m Spacing) and Stop Bar Lights in Curved Sections (Intended for use in Runway Visual Range Conditions of less than a value of

the order of 350m)

Notes: 1. Lights on curves to be toed-in 15.75 degrees with respect to the tangent of the curve.




Figure 6-44 Isocandela Diagram for Taxiway Centre-Line (30m, 60m Spacing) and Stop Bar

Lights in Straight Sections (Intended for use in Runway Visual Range Conditions of the order of 350m or greater)

Notes: 1. At locations where high background luminance is usual and where deterioration of light output resulting from dust, snow and local contamination is a significant factor, the cd-values should be multiplied by 2.5.

2. Where omni-directional lights are used they will comply with the vertical beam requirements in this Figure.




Figure 6-45 Isocandela Diagram for Taxiway Centre-Line (7.5m, 10m, 30m Spacing) and Stop Bar Lights in Curved Sections (Intended for use in Runway Visual Range Conditions of the

order of 350m or greater)

Notes: 1. Lights on curves to be toed-in 15.75 degrees with respect to the tangent of the curve.

2. At locations where high background luminance is usual and where deterioration of light output resulting from dust, snow and local contamination is a significant factor, the cd-values should be multiplied by 2.5.

3. These beam coverages allow for displacement of the cockpit from the centre-line up to distances of the order of 12m as could occur at the end of curves.




Figure 6-46 Grid Points to be used for the Calculation of Average Intensity of Taxiway Centre-

Line and Stop Bar Lights

Note: See collective notes in Annex 6B for Figures 6-39 to 6-44



Annex 6C: PAPI Siting and Setting Angles

1. The PAPI system comprises two four-unit wing bars normally located either side of, in a line at right angles to, the runway. The unit nearest the runway is set higher than the required approach angle, with progressive reductions in the settings of the units further outboard.

2. The arrangement of the units is shown is Figure 6-46, together with the standard and differential setting angles. Each unit should contain 3 light projectors. The difference between the setting angles is normally 20 minutes of arc. This value may be varied where the PAPI is used in conjunction with ILS.

Figure 6-47 Arrangement and Setting of PAPIs The distance of the PAPI from the runway threshold will depend upon the following:

a. The need to provide adequate wheel clearances over the threshold of a visual or non-precision approach runway for all types of aircraft for which the runway is intended, having due regard to the length of runway available for stopping the aircraft;

b. Obstacle clearance considerations;

15

15

1 2 3 4

15m ± 1m

9m ± 1m

1 2 3 4

28 km (15 nm) radius

4, θ + 00o30'

3, θ + 00o10'

2, θ - 00o10'

1, θ - 00o30'

M, 00o02'

θ

OCS, M - 1o00'

o

MEHT

See Note,

D

Key θ Approach slope angle D Distance of PAPI from Threshold MEHT Minimum eye height over Threshold M Angle determining MEHT OCS Obstacle Clearance Surface

Threshold

Note: The OCS originates at the same level as the units but at the following distances downwind of them:

a) 90m where the LDA is 1200m or greater;

b) 60m where the LDA is 800-1199m; C) 30m where the LDA is less than 800m



c. The operational requirement that PAPI be compatible with the instrument glidepath down to a minimum possible range and height for all types of aircraft for which the runway is intended; and

d. Any difference in the elevation between the PAPI units and the runway threshold.

3. Wheel clearance over threshold should take account of the eye-to-wheel height of the most demanding aircraft when it is at the lowest possible on-slope signal from the PAPI.

4. The angle which establishes the MEHT is two minutes of arc less than the setting angle of the unit defining the lower on-slope boundary see Figure 6-46. Where a runway is not equipped with ILS, MEHT should provide the wheel clearances specified in Table 6-13. The MEHT is the combination of eye-to-wheel height and the wheel clearance.

Table 6-13 Wheel Clearances

Eye-to-wheel height of aeroplane in the approach

configurationa

Desired wheel clearancebc(metres)

Minimum wheel clearanced (metres)

(1) (2) (3) Up to but not including 3m 6 3e

3m up to but not including 5m 9 4 5m up to but not including 8m 9 5

8m up to but not including 14m

9 6

a. In selecting the eye-to-wheel height group, only aircraft meant to use the system on a regular basis should be considered. The most demanding amongst such aeroplanes will determine the eye-to-wheel height group. b. Where practicable the desired wheel clearances shown in column (2) should be provided. c. The wheel clearances in column (2) may be reduced to no less than those in column (3) where a study indicates such wheel clearances are acceptable. d. When reduced wheel clearance is provided at a displaced threshold it will be ensured that the corresponding desired wheel clearance specified in column (2) will be available when an aircraft at the top end of the eye-to-wheel group chosen overflies the extremity of the runway. e. This wheel clearance may be reduced to 1.5m on runways used mainly by lightweight non turbo-jet aeroplanes.

5. The nominal approach angle should be such that the pilot of an aeroplane receiving the lowest on-slope signal will clear all the obstacles in the approach area by a safe margin. To achieve this, an obstacle clearance surface is established which should not be penetrated by any object.

6. The OCS for PAPI is a plane 1o below the angle of the lower boundary of the on-slope signal. Figure 6-45 shows that for a normal approach angle of 3o the OCS will be 2o 48' - 1o = 1o 48'. The surface extends 15o either side of the runway edge out to a distance of 28 km (15nm).

7. PAPI should be sited so that its on-slope signal conforms as closely as possible to that of the PAR, or if installed, the ILS glidepath. The variables that need to be considered are fluctuations of the ILS glidepath and the different eye-to-aerial height of various types of aeroplane.

8. An ILS glidepath has a tolerance of ±0.075 of the nominal glidepath angle for a category I or II system and ±0.04 for a category III. For a nominal 3o glideslope the



tolerances are ±13.5 and ±7.2 minutes of arc respectively. The standard PAPI settings define a glideslope with 10 minutes of arc and can therefore show a variation from the nominal ILS glideslope that is operating within its tolerances.

9. Pilot eye-to-aerial height varies considerably with aircraft type and will affect the minimum range at which PAPI and PAR or ILS harmonisation is achieved. In order to allow for the maximum number of aircraft types, harmonisation is enhanced by widening the on-slope sector from 20 minutes to 30 minutes of arc. As mentioned above, the ILS glidepath angle may vary, so it is desirable to check the calibrated ILS GP angle against the PAPI settings and to change the latter if necessary. Such changes should be referred to the military authority before they are implemented.

10. When the required approach angle and associated unit setting angles have been determined, in order to provide the appropriate wheel clearance over the threshold of a visual or non-precision approach runway; the distance of the PAPI from the threshold is established by adding the approach configuration eye-to-wheel height of the most demanding aeroplane using the runway to the required threshold wheel clearance and dividing the result by the tangent of the angle M in Figure 6-46.

11. Where PAR or ILS is installed the PAPI should be sited upwind of the effective ILS glidepath origin by a distance that is dependent upon the range of eye-to-aerial heights of the aircraft using the runway.

12. When the OCS origin has been determined the surface should be examined in order to confirm the absence of any infringements. If the surface is penetrated but the offending object cannot be removed, the vertical extent of the infringement is divided by the tangent of the OCS angle, and the PAPI relocated that much further from the threshold. Alternatively, where the prescribed approach angle is not critical, it may be increased by the angular extent of the infringement. In some circumstances a combined displacement and angular increase may be the best solution.

13. A height difference between the threshold and the unit lens centres exceeding 0.3m will require siting adjustments as follows:

a. In Figure 6-46 the uncorrected visual aiming point is shown as the distance D1 from the threshold. The nominal siting of the PAPI would be on a line at right angles to the runway centre-line at this distance, the units being P1, P2, P3 and P4.

b. The height difference between the threshold Th, and the lens centre of the highest of the units (Pn) at the nominal sites P1 to P4 is determined. The following formula will determine the revised distance from the threshold D2:

D1 + (Th- Pn) cot φ = D2

c. Where φ is the setting angle of the unit at site P2, less 2 minutes of arc (cot φ can be taken as 20 for a 3o approach).

d. The highest unit level at distance D2, (Pc) is compared with Pn. If the difference is 0.3m or more, the final siting, D3, is determined as follows:

D2 + (Pn- Pc) cot φ = D3

e. The MEHT resulting from the level of the unit P2 at D3 is checked to ensure that it achieves the original target.



14. PAPI units should be mounted as close to ground level as practicable but overall height should not exceed 0.9m. The units of a wing bar should all lie in the same horizontal plane, but where crossfalls make this impracticable within the 0.9m constraint, the height difference between adjacent units should preferably not exceed 5 cm. Where even this tolerance cannot be achieved, a maximum gradient of 1.25% across the bar may be accepted provided that it is uniform.

15. The inner edge of the unit nearest the runway should be 15m ± 1m from the runway edge. Units should not be closer than 14m to any taxiway, apron, or another runway.

16. Firm stable bases are essential for PAPI units, and concrete should be used. Bases should be either depressed below ground level and covered with suitable infill or flush fitted. Where necessary, bases should be delethalised See Chapter 17 Para 9.

17. Setting angles should be checked with a manufacturer’s clinometer or platforms. A theodolite or equivalent device may be used for increased accuracy. Errors in excess of 1 minute of arc should be corrected.

18. After installation, angular errors caused by the settling of the bases may occur. Therefore, the angles should initially be checked on a daily basis using a clinometer or equivalent device and, if necessary, adjusted using a theodolite or equivalent device. The interval between checks may be extended progressively to once a week, as greater stability becomes evident. However, special checks should be made in the event of heavy frost or rain or a significant change of weather such as the end of a drought, since angular variations are possible at such times. For elevation angle checks after installation see Chapter 8 Para 14.



Figure 6-48 PAPI Siting - Principle of Compensation for Different Ground Heights

19. As the approach angles get steeper, wider differential settings are needed between units in order to facilitate approach slope capture and flyability.

20. Indicative differential settings are detailed in Table 6-14.

Table 6-14 Differential Settings

Approach angle Differential setting angle 2o-4o 00o20' (except for ILS) 4o-7o 00o30'

over 7o 01o00'

21. PAPI Checks. Aerodrome Operators should ensure that PAPI checks are completed (See Table 2-2):

a. On commissioning.

b. Following temporary removal of a system.

c. Following the completion of a runway refurbishment where flying has ceased and construction traffic may have caused the misalignment of the PAPI units.

P4

P3 P2 P1

9m ± 1m

15m minimum

D1

D2

D3

Pc Pn Final

site

θ

θ

θ

Setting angle at site P2, less 00o02'

Highest ground profile

along lines P1-P4

MEHT

Threshold



22. The checks at Table 6-15 should be completed by an accredited flight checking unit:

Table 6-15 PAPI Flight Check Procedure

PAPI Flight Check Procedure

Effective Range Check 1 At a range of approximately 7.5–9 km and height about 1500 ft QFE check the effective range. In daylight the difference between the red and white lights should be clearly discernible at a minimum of 7.5 km in good visibility.

Colour Change Check 2 Commence an approach from 7.5 km flying level at 1000 ft QFE and check that the units are evenly illuminated and that signal changes from red to white are sharp. Check also that the colour change sequence is even. Where PAPI is on both sides of the runway check that the colour change of corresponding opposite units is coincident.

Note: In reduced visibility it may be necessary to carry out this check at closer range in which case the height will have to be reduced. The minimum practicable height is 500 ft.

Check 3 Commence an approach from about 5 km and acquire an on-slope signal. Continue the approach, descend until 4 reds (or 2 reds in the case of (A)PAPI) are just visible. Then climb until 4 whites (or 2 whites) are visible. Return to on-slope and continue to a point close to the threshold. The colour changes should be consistent with change in height and permit easy correction of approach height and angle.

Luminous Intensity Settings Check 4 Make a normal approach from approximately 7.5 km starting at about 1000 ft QFE. Maintain an ‘on-slope’ indication and during the approach call for progressive reductions in intensity of the units.

Compatibility with non-visual aids

Check 5 Where an instrument glidepath is available carry out an instrument approach maintaining the glidepath, or in the case of a radar approach, following ATC instructions. Check that the PAPI indicates ‘on-slope’ from a range of 7.5 km to close in to the threshold. The ILS glidepath should be near the lower limit of the PAPI ‘on-slope’ signal if an aeroplane with a small eye-to-aerial height is used. The person inspecting the system should carry a diagram of the installation to facilitate recording any observed deficiencies.

Obstacle check Check 6 Fly sufficiently low from 7.5 km so as to be just within the all-red indication and check that there is clearance from obstacles throughout



the horizontal coverage of the beam.

23. The results of the PAPI Check should be recorded on the form at Figure 6-48. The form should be retained by the Unit as part of its Defence Aerodrome Assurance Framework in accordance with RA 1026, Aerodrome Operator.

Figure 6-49 PAPI Flight Check Form

PAPI Flight Check Aerodrome:

Runway Designation

Effective Range (KM)

Colour Change : Red-to-White

(Level run 1000 ft QFE from 7.5km)

Intensity Balance of individual Units (and of Left and Right sides if applicable)

Intensity Check

100%

80%

30%

10%

3%

1%

<1%

Integration with non-visual aids

Synchronisation Left – Right (If applicable)

Obstacle Clerance

Fitting Type

Date:

Time:

Day/Dusk/Night:

Weather:



Aircraft Registration:

Captain:

Visibility:

Cloud:

Turbulence:

Notes:

L R

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

Additional Notes:

Inspected by:



Annex 6D: Control of Lighting at Aerodromes During Night Vision Device

(NVD) Operations

1. The lighting that can adversely affect the use of NVD includes the airfield lighting that is controlled by ATC, however, other lighting on and adjacent to the airfield including lighting not provided for aviation purposes should be considered. It will not necessarily be under the control of military authorities and may be legally required to fulfil general safety requirements. Units should design and publish an Aerodrome NVD Operations Lighting Plan in accordance with RA 3265(2), NVD Operating Requirments.

2. NVDThe Control Plan Checklist at Table 6-16 describes how each type of light source can be controlled. The choice of lighting to be controlled is the responsibility of the operational command.

Table 6-16 Control Plan Checklist

FACILITY RECOMMENDED NVD

LIGHTING STATE

COMMENTS

Approach lighting VLP/Off For simultaneous operation with and without NVD (Sim NVD) BF/NT, for helicopter operations with NVD (Helo NVD) off.

High Intensity Runway Edge Lighting

VLP For simultaneous operation with and without NVD (Sim NVD) BF/NT, for helicopter operations with NVD (Helo NVD) off.

Threshold Lighting VLP For simultaneous operation with and without NVD (Sim NVD) BF/NT, for helicopter operations with NVD (Helo NVD) off.

Runway End Lighting VLP For simultaneous operation with and without NVD (Sim NVD) BF/NT, for helicopter operations with NVD (Helo NVD) off.

Low Intensity Runway Edge Lighting

VLP For simultaneous operation with and without NVD (Sim NVD) BF/NT, for helicopter operations with NVD (Helo NVD) off.

Sequence Flashing Lights Off Runway Identification Lights

Off

Visual Glideslope Indicator System

Off

Military Cat II Lighting Off If used for MOS training use VLP. Runway Centre-line Lighting Off For simultaneous operation with and

without NVD (Sim NVD) BF/NT. Taxiway Lighting VLP For simultaneous operation with and

without NVD (Sim NVD) BF/NT, for helicopter operations with NVD (Helo NVD) off.

Illuminated Runway Off BF may be operational option.



Distance Markers Arrestor Cable Markers Off For simultaneous operation with and

without NVD (Sim NVD) NT. Illuminated Taxiway Guidance Signs

Off Pilot may be able to read text with NVG.

Obstacle Lighting On Leave on if essential/NT. Runway taxiway traffic lights Off NT or use modified procedures to

control vehicles. Add hold signs at all runway/taxiway intersections. Consider use of selectable barriers at runway/roadway intersections.

Floodlighting Off Floodlighting of apron areas may be essential operationally BF/Control beamspread.

Building windows and doors Shutters/curtains. Lock doors facing operational areas

For large buildings (hangars) NVG compatible lighting is an option.

ATC visual control room Not normally a problem. ATC caravan Use techniques similar to those used

in cockpit to make NVG compatible when required.

Off-airfield lighting (under approach and take-off climb surface out to 4km

Assess effects. Where practicable make arrangements for control.

IR NATO T On On for helicopter operations with NVD (Helo NVD) only.

IR identification beacon On On helicopter operations with NVD (Helo NVD) only.

Notes to Table 6-16

The following abbreviations are used:-

OFF - Lighting selected off.

VLP - Very Low Power setting, typically 5-10% rated power.

BF - Blue Filter added to fitting.

NT - Light unit not emitting infra-red, (non tungsten) e.g. electro-luminescent or LED.

This Annex presents information on each type of light system that may exist at an airfield. The selection of lights to be controlled during NVG operations is an operational decision. For fixed wing operations the most basic Plan may only retain obstacle lighting. For helicopter operations the Plan may include the NATO T and an identification beacon.

3. The output from lights can be made compatible with NVG in a number of ways; by the reduction of the amount of infra-red radiation emitted, by selective filtering of the light, by careful control of the light beam coverage and in the extreme case by the extinguishing of the light.

4. Most airfield lighting uses tungsten filament lamps. In all cases a large percentage of the energy is emitted in the red and infra-red parts of the spectrum where NVG are most sensitive.



5. As the voltage on the filament is reduced the total energy emitted is reduced, but the proportion of the energy in the infra-red is increased. When the voltage is reduced below approximately 20% of the rated voltage (10% power) very little visible energy is emitted. However, sufficient infra-red energy is present to produce an image in the NVG that can have ranges in excess of 5km without adversely affecting NVG performance. Thus an NVG setting on the light control system where no visible light is seen can provide an adequate lighting pattern for NVG operations.

6. One alternative method, that enables levels of white lighting to be emitted that are sufficient for simultaneous operations using normal eye sight or NVG involves the use of blue filters attached to the light source. These carefully selected filters, by removing the red and near infra-red transmission still produce a light that subjectively is seen as white light. However, because the wavelengths that affect the NVG are heavily suppressed the problems of goggle overload can be adequately dealt with. This approach is particularly useful for apron floodlighting and other maintenance areas such as HAS and hangers, where lighting needs to be available whenever operations are taking place. A practical problem that can exist with this technique is caused by the high levels of heat retention in the light fitting due to the filter.

7. Devices that produce light by the excitation of phosphors, such as electro-luminescent systems and light emitting diodes can in some cases be used to provide equipment that can be used simultaneously by pilots with or without NVG.

8. In some circumstances, NVG compatibility can be achieved by careful design of the light fitting. For example, floodlighting and street lighting can be designed so that no significant light is projected above the horizontal. This type of light is available because of general concern about environmental light pollution caused by light spillage into unnecessary areas.

9. The use of NVG generally reduces the amount of visual aids that are necessary to support night operations.

10. For fixed wing operations runway edge lighting is recommended, together with taxiway lighting.

11. Helicopter operations should be supported by a NATO ‘T’ pattern defined by infra-red marker lights. An infra-red airfield identification beacon is also recommended.



Chapter 7: Visual Aids for Denoting Obstacles

GENERAL

1. The marking and/or lighting of obstacles is intended to reduce hazards to aircraft operating at low level under visual flight conditions or moving on the surface by indicating the presence of the obstacles. The requirement to light air navigation obstacles is determined by a process of consultation between local planning authorities, MOD and the Civil Aviation Authority. See Table 1-1.

2. In areas beyond the obstacle limitation surfaces of an aerodrome, objects that extend to a height of 150m or more above ground elevation are regarded as obstacles. Other objects of a lesser height that are assessed as hazards to aviation are also to be treated as obstacles. They should be marked and/or lighted as detailed in the following sections.

3. A fixed obstacle that extends above a take-off climb surface within 3000m of the inner edge of the take-off climb surface should be marked and, if the runway is used at night, lighted, except that:

a. Such marking and lighting may be omitted when the obstacle is shielded by another fixed obstacle.

b. The marking may be omitted when the obstacle is lighted by medium intensity flashing white obstacle light, by day and its height above the level of the surrounding ground does not exceed 150m; and

c. The marking may be omitted when the obstacle is lighted by high intensity obstacle lights by day.

4. A fixed obstacle that extends above an approach or transitional surface within 3000m of the inner edge of the approach surface will be marked and, if the runway is used at night, lighted, except that:

a. Such marking and lighting may be omitted when the obstacle is shielded by another fixed obstacle;

b. The marking may be omitted when the obstacle is lighted by medium intensity flashing white obstacle lights by day and its height above the level of the surrounding ground does not exceed 150m.

c. The marking may be omitted when the obstacle is lighted by high intensity obstacle lights by day.

5. A fixed object that extends above an obstacle protection surface should be marked and, if the runway is used at night, lighted.

6. All obstacles within the distance specified in Table 4-13, from the centre-line of a taxiway or apron should be marked, and if the surface is used at night, lighted.

7. Elevated AGL on aerodromes should be made conspicuous by day by a suitable form of marking. This can be achieved by marking their position with Airfield Retro-reflective Markers (ARMs) and/or utilising AGL painted aviation yellow.



MARKING OF OBJECTS

8. New buildings are required to meet with this section for markings, but old structures are to remain as presently marked until normal maintenance repainting is necessary. See Chapter 6 Para 4 for Aerodrome Markings. Where painting certain precision or critical surfaces would have an adverse effect on the desired transmission or radiation characteristics of a radio frequency signal, such painting may be omitted.

9. All fixed objects that are sufficiently conspicuous by their shape, size or colour need not otherwise be marked. All fixed obstacles that require marking should be conspicuously coloured. If this is not practicable, markers should be displayed on them.

10. No fixed obstacle need be marked if it is lit by high intensity flashing white obstacle lights.

11. A fixed obstacle should be coloured to show a chequered pattern if it has essentially unbroken surfaces and its projection on any vertical plane equals or exceeds 4.5m in both directions. The pattern should consist of rectangles with sides of not less than 1.5m and not greater than 3m.

12. A fixed obstacle should be coloured to show contrasting bands if:

a. It has essentially unbroken surfaces and has one dimension, horizontal or vertical, greater than 1.5m, and the other dimension, horizontal or vertical , less than 4.5m; or

b. It is of skeletal type with either a vertical or horizontal dimension greater than 1.5m.

13. The bands should be perpendicular to the longest dimension and have width the dimensions of which are in accordance with Table 7-1. Also see Figure 7-1.

14. A fixed obstacle whose height and width are less than 1.5m will be painted a conspicuous colour.

15. The colours used for marking fixed obstacles are to contrast with the background against which they will be seen. Where practicable red and white or alternatively orange and white will be used. The chequers/bands on the extremities of the obstacle should be of the darker colour. See Figure 7-1.



Table 7-1 Dimensions of Obstacles Marking Bands

Longest Dimension Greater than Not

exceeding Band Width

1.5m 210m 1/7 of longest dimension 210m 270m 1/9 of longest dimension 270m 330m 1/11 of longest dimension 330m 390m 1/13 of longest dimension 390m 450 1/15 of longest dimension 450m 510m 1/17 of longest dimension 510m 570m 1/19 of longest dimension 570m 630m 1/21 of longest dimension

Figure 7-1 Examples of Conspicuous Markings

Use of Markers

16. Markers displayed on or adjacent to objects should be located in conspicuous positions so as to retain the general definition of the object without increasing the hazard it presents. The markers should be coloured either red and white or alternatively orange and white to contrast with the background. For Aerodrome Markers see Chapter 6 Para 56.

Marking of Unserviceable Surface Areas

17. Markers as described Chapter 6 Para 24 should be used to delineate an unserviceable portion of the manoeuvring area.

<4.5m

<4.5m >1.5m

≥4.5m

≥4.5m

>1.5m



LIGHTING OF OBSTACLES

18. Low intensity obstacle lights should be used on obstacles less than 45m high. Where this is deemed to be inadequate medium or high intensity lights should be used to light obstructions. Eg an obstacle in the outer area of the approach or high ground adjacent to the aerodrome circuit. For rotary wing permanent bases see Chapters 10 and 11.

a. Low intensity 10 cds minimum see Table 7-2 lights should be used for obstacles on the movement area where 200 candela lights may cause dazzle.

b. Low intensity 200 cds see Table 7-2 lights should be used away from the movement area or in areas on the movement area with high levels of background luminance.

19. Medium intensity steady red obstacle lights should be used, either alone or in combination with other medium or low intensity obstacle lights from 45m up to, but not including 150m in height.

20. Where physically practicable high intensity flashing white obstacle lights should be used to indicate the presence of an obstacle if its height is 150m or more. Where the use of high intensity obstacle lights may dazzle pilots in the vicinity of an aerodrome or cause significant environmental concerns, the appropriate military authority should be contacted for advice.

Note: High intensity obstacle lights are intended for day as well as night use. Care is needed to ensure that these lights do not create dazzle. Guidance on the design, location and operation of high intensity obstacle lights is given in ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual Part 4.

Location of Obstacle Lights

21. Except in the case of a chimney or other substance emitting structure one or more obstacle lights should be located as close as practicable to the top of the object. The top lights should be so arranged as to at least indicate the points or edges of the object highest in relation to the obstacle limitation surface. See Location of Obstacle Lights in Figure 7-2.

22. In the case of a chimney or other substance emitting structure, the top lights should be placed sufficiently below the top so as to minimise contamination by smoke.

23. In the case of a tower or antenna structure indicated by high intensity obstacle lights by day with an appurtenance, such as a rod or an antenna, greater than 12m where it is not practicable to locate a high intensity obstacle light on the top of the appurtenance, such a light should be located at the highest practicable point and a medium intensity flashing white light unit should also be mounted on the top.

24. In the case of an extensive object or a group of closely spaced objects, top lights should be displayed at least on the points or edges of the objects highest point in relation to the obstacle limitation surface, so as to indicate the general definition and the extent of the objects. If two or more edges are of the same height, the nearest the landing area should be marked. Where low intensity lights are used, they should be spaced at longitudinal intervals not exceeding 45m. Where medium intensity lights are used, they should be spaced at longitudinal intervals not exceeding 90m.

25. Where the top of an obstacle is more than 45m above the level of the surrounding ground, additional lights should be provided at intermediate levels. These additional lights should be spaced as equally as practicable between the top light and ground level as follows:



a. When low or medium intensity obstacle lights are used the spacing should not exceed 45m.

b. Where high intensity lights are used on an obstacle other than on a tower supporting overhead wire or cables, the spacing between the lights should not exceed 105m.

26. The number and arrangement of the obstacle lights at each level to be marked should be such that the object is indicated from every angle in azimuth. Where a light is shielded in any direction by another part of the object, or by an adjacent object, additional lights should be provided on that object in such a way as to retain the general definition of the object to be lighted. If the shielded light does not contribute to the definition of the object to be lighted, it may be omitted.

27. All fixed obstacle lighting located on the aerodrome should be under the control of ATC.

28. The physical characteristics of the obstacle lights should be in accordance with Table 7-2.

Table 7-2 Characteristics of Obstacle Lights

Light Type Colour Beam Coverage

(Degrees) Average Minimum Setting

Intensity (cds)

Remarks Horizontal Vertical

Low Intensity, (Fixed Obstacle)

Red Omni- directional

+0° to 30° 10 Steady

Low Intensity, (Fixed Obstacle)

Red Omni- directional

+5°to +8° +0° to 15°

200 50

Steady

Medium Intensity Red Omni- directional

±4° 2000±20% Steady

Medium Intensity (Fixed Obstacle)

White Omni- directional

±4° 20 000±20% Flashing rate 20–60 per minute

High Intensity White 120° 3° 200 000 day 20 000 dusk 2 000 night

Flash rate 40fpm



Figure 7-2 Location of Obstacle Lights

Aircraft Arresting Barrier Warning Lights

29. Arrester barriers of the elevated type should be considered as obstacles. In addition to obstacle lights, warning lights should project into the approach sector and possess the following characteristics:

a. A flashing red uni-directional light located adjacent to each barrier mechanism and directed into the overshoot area should be provided. The flashing lights should warn approaching flight crew that the downwind barrier is erected. These lights should operate automatically when the barrier is raised and flash continuously at a flash rate of 60 flashes per minute until the barrier is lowered. Both lights should flash simultaneously.

b. The flashing lights should be mounted on a frangible structure at a height of 0.9m above ground level and located just outside the brake mechanism assembly. They should be actuated by the raising mechanism. The physical characteristics of the lights should be similar to those of stopway lights.

c. It is recommended that physical checks of the barrier and warning light system be made twice daily and after each change in direction of traffic.



Chapter 8: Aerodrome Equipment, Installations, Maintenance and Systems

AIRCRAFT ARRESTING SYSTEMS

1. Aircraft arresting systems are of 2 main types – barriers with nets and arresting gears fitted with hook cables. Operational characteristics are contained in AP 119J-1400-1. Clearance for aircraft to engage arrester systems or trample cables is published in ‘Release to Service’ documents and Aircrew Manuals.

2. Stations should promulgate arrester system details in the relevant aeronautical information publications.

SECONDARY POWER

3. At least one alternative electrical input supply should be provided for precision and non–precision approach runways, including internally lit mandatory signs where appropriate. Chapter 6 Para 48. It is also recommended for non-instrument runways. Table 8-1 details the maximum time interval to be achieved between failure of the normal source of supply and the restoration of the individual services (Maximum Switchover Time) when in the associated visibility conditions. The Maximum Switchover Time is the time required for the actual intensity of a light measured in a given direction to fall from 50% and recover to 50% during a power supply changeover, when the light is being operated at intensities of 25% or above.

Table 8-1 Maximum Switchover Times

Runway Lighting Aids Requiring Power Maximum

Switchover Time (secs)

Cat II Precision App Approach Lighting (Inner 300m) 1 Approach Lighting (other parts) 15 Runway Edge 15 Supplementary Approach 1 Runway Threshold and End 1 Runway Centre-Line 1 Runway Touchdown Zone 1 All Stop Bars 1 Essential Taxiway and Mandatory Signs 15 Obstacle Lighting 15 PAPI 15 Cat I Precision App / PAR Approach Lighting 15 Runway Edge 15 Runway Threshold and End 15 Essential Taxiway and Mandatory Signs 15 Obstacle Lights 15 PAPI 15 Non-Precision App Approach Lighting 15 Runway Edge 15 Runway Threshold and End 15 Obstacle Lighting

PAPI 15 15

Take –off runway intended for use in RVR condition less than 800m

Runway Edge Runway End Runway Centre-Line (where fitted)

15 a 1 1

Essential Taxiway All Stop Bars (where fitted) Obstacle Lights

15 1 15

a. One second if runway centre-line lights are not provided.



4. Requirements for an alternative electrical supply may be met by either of the following:

a. A separate grid source supplying the aerodrome from a sub-station other than the normal sub-station through a transmission line following a route different from the normal power supply route such that the possibility of a simultaneous failure of the normal and separate grid source is extremely remote; or

b. Standby power unit(s) from which electrical power can be obtained.

5. Where there is no alternate power supply to support lighting of non-precision and non-instrument runways, portable lighting may be used.

6. A check of an alternative input supply to the AGL system (where provided) operating under full load should be made at least once a month. Where the alternative input power supply is provided by independent generators, they should be run for at least 15 minutes under full load when carrying out this check. When automatic switchover is provided a check of the switching system should also be made. A log should be maintained detailing each check undertaken with the maximum switchover times and generator running times recorded along with any action taken. See Table 2-2.

Interleaving of AGL Electrical Circuits

7. The configuration of the electrical circuits that make up the AGL system should be designed so that a failure of a single circuit will not cause a total lack of guidance. One means of providing a continuity of service will incorporate interleaving techniques where alternate light units and/or lamps are controlled separately. The minimum requirement is as follows:

a. Two separate interleaved circuits for each of the following systems:

(1) Approach lighting (including Wing Threshold Bars) on precision approach runways.

(2) Supplementary approach lighting.

(3) HI runway edge (including IRDMs).

(4) HI runway centre-line lighting.

(5) Touch down zone lighting.

(6) Runway end lighting (may be connected to LI runway edge circuits).

(7) LI runway edge lighting.

(8) Stop bar.

b. One separate circuit for each of the following systems:

(1) HI simple approach lighting.

(2) Approach lighting on non-precision approach runways.

(3) Threshold.



(4) PAPI (Per Wing Bar).

(5) Taxiway and apron edge lighting.

8. Where interleaved circuits are provided, alternate lights are normally connected to the same circuit. However, care must be taken in the design of interleaved circuits to ensure that in the event of the failure of one or more circuits, a recognisable pattern and any colour coding is retained.

9. Interleaved circuits may be provided for the services listed in Para 7.b in order to increase integrity or to overcome a technical difficulty. However, PAPI installations should be limited to two circuits per runway end.

10. Where a runway is used also as a taxiway and both taxiway and runway lighting are provided, the lighting circuits should be interlocked in order to prevent the selection of both systems simultaneously.

Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)

11. The AGL system and its components should conform to the EMC Directive 89/336EEC.

AGL Operational Luminous Intensity

12. In order to provide the AGL operational luminous intensity the AGL services should be provided with a range of recommended output current steps in accordance with Table 8-2.

Runway End Services

13. Where a runway control position is established; a minimum 16 Ampere, RCD and PEM's protected, IP67, IEC 60309, switched socket outlet should be provided to enable an electrical supply suitable for the truck runway control, positioned as follows;

a. On runway aerodromes. To the left or right of the runway a minimum of 45m from the runway edge and 70m from the threshold.

b. On non-runway aerodromes. At the down-wind side of the airfield, and so positioned that two or more aircraft may land simultaneously to the right of the truck with sufficient space available to the left of the truck to enable aircraft to take off (left/right as seen by a pilot in the approach).



Table 8-2 Recommended AGL Luminous Intensity Control Stages

Lighting Service Information 6 Stage Brilliancy (+NVG) 2 Stage Brilliancy

(+NVG) Max 2 3 4b 5 Min NVG

HI Approach

Luminous Intensity (%) 100 30 10 3 1 0.3a -

Primary Current (A) 12.0 9.72 8.28 7.08 6.12 5.28 2.8

Supplementary Approach

Luminous Intensity (%) 100 30 10 3 1 0.3 -

Primary Current (A) 12.0 9.72 8.28 7.08 6.12 5.28 N/A

Wing Threshold



PAPI

Luminous Intensity (%) 100 80 30 10 3 1 -


Touchdown Zone



Rwy Centre-Line



Threshold Bar



HI Rwy Edge



Rwy End Bar



LI Rwy Edge



Max Min NVG

Twy Edge Luminous Intensity (%)

100 10 -

Primary Current (A)

6.0d 4.4 d -

Twy Centre-Line Luminous Intensity (%)

100 10 -

Primary Current (A)

6.0 d 4.4 d 2.5 a If required, this brilliancy stage may be replaced with a 0.05 stage (Primary Current = 4.4A).

b Where NVG compatible lighting is operationally justified then the Stage 4 brilliancy stage may be omitted and Stages 4 and Min. moved up one stage with the new NVG setting being inserted at the Min. setting. The given primary currents may require adjusting to suit local environmental conditions. c Where NVG compatible taxiway lighting is required an additional brilliancy stage is required. This will require the Modular Control System (MCS) to be modified. d These current values may need to adjusted where LED technology is used.



MAINTENANCE

General

14. The maintenance of AGL equipment should consider the objectives of aerodrome operations and address the impact on such operations whilst maintenance activities are being performed. In addition, during periods of maintenance, or equipment failure, it may be necessary to operate AGL circuits on local control at the 'A' and/or 'B' Centres, thus removing control from ATC whilst the work is being performed. A procedure for local operation should be agreed with ATC before local switching of AGL circuits commences. A record of all maintenance operations should be kept including periods when local operation of a circuit or 'A' and 'B' Centre is under the control of maintenance staff. A log book should be provided at each 'A' and 'B' Centre for this purpose. As an aid to maintenance each AGL location should be marked with an identification number legible, where practicable, from a passing vehicle (eg 27/A/14 refers to light position No 14 of circuit A on runway 27) as follows:

a. Short term measures for no more than 12 months may utilise:

(1) Lights in paved areas – Numbers painted with white road paint adjacent to the light fitting.

(2) Lights in grassed areas – Numbers painted on a suitable tag, plate or plinth.

(3) Pole or mast mounted lights – Numbers painted on plates attached to the poles or masts.

b. The number of each position should be permanent, reusable and may be repositioned when required without the necessity for refurbishment. Identification of fittings, particularly inset type, should be considered as part of an overall maintenance strategy and potential asset audit system. The use of electronic tagging should be viewed as an innovative solution.

15. Maintenance Objectives. The objectives contained in Table 8-3 specifically target precision approach runways and operations in low visibility. For precision approach runways the MMO is expected to provide evidence that the performance of the associated AGL meets the requirements for all weather operations, which include Table 8-3. One method of providing such evidence will carry out regular measurements of the photometric performance (ie the luminous intensity, beam coverage and alignment) of the AGL when in service. The MMO, as part of its planned maintenance strategy (See BS EN 61821), will carry out sufficient ‘in situ’ photometric measurements for instrument runways to ensure the runway AGL services remain serviceable as defined in Para 16 and Table 8-3.

16. Serviceability. A light should be deemed to be unserviceable when the main beam average intensity is less than 50% of the value specified in the appropriate figure detailed in Annex 6B. For light units where the designed main beam average intensity is above the value shown in the relative figure, the 50% value should be related to the design value. In order to verify serviceability levels are being maintained a formal procedure for the photometric measurement and recording of serviceability will be implemented. See para 15.

17. Continuity of Guidance. In order to provide continuity of guidance an unserviceable light should not be permitted adjacent to another unserviceable light unless the light spacing is significantly less than that specified.

18. PAPI Systems. PAPI serviceability gives rise to additional considerations as moisture and/or dirt on the lenses will diffuse the beam and can result in a white signal being emitted



at all angles of elevation. See Annex 6C Para 9. To prevent this potentially hazardous situation from occurring additional measures should be adopted as follows:

a. Daily inspection to ensure:

(1) All lamps are operational and evenly illuminated.

(2) There is no damage to units.

(3) All lenses are clean.

(4) The change from red to white is coincident for all elements of a unit.

(5) The heating facilities are functioning correctly.

b. Bi-monthly inspection to ensure:

(1) Vertical alignment of each PAPI unit to a tolerance of ± 1 minute of arc.

(2) Azimuth alignment of each PAPI to a tolerance of ± 1 minute of arc.

c. Yearly inspection.

(1) Internally inspection of unit.

(2) Correct setting of black heat current. (Approx. 1.5A RMS)

Table 8-3 AGL Serviceability Levels

AGL Service LANDING CAT I CAT II/III

Approach beyond 450m 85% 85% Approach inner 450m 85% 95% Runway threshold 85% 95% Runway end 85% 75% Runway edge 85% 95% Runway centre-line (where fitted) 85% 95% TDZ (where fitted) 85% 90%

Series Circuit Insulation Resistance

19. The insulation resistance value of a primary series circuit may decrease by a significant amount before any operational effect on the AGL is noticed; however in this case there would be a much greater risk of harm to maintenance or installation persons and risk of loss to operational capability. MMO’s should comply with the procedures and recommendations dealing with AGL circuit installation, commissioning, maintenance and fault finding detailed in Policy Instruction 29/2005, titled “Installation, Commissioning and Maintenance of Aeronautical Ground Lighting Cable Circuits”. See Table 2-2. RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE SYSTEMS

Measurement of Runway Visual Range (RVR)

20. General. The measurement of RVR may be undertaken by the Human Observer method utilising a switched RVR lighting system. Where operationally justified an



instrumental RVR system may be provided utilising transmissometers appropriately located along the length of the runway and providing RVR information to ATC.

21. The standard RVR measurement system utilising the human observer technique comprises:

a. A number of reference lights of the same type and intensity as the runway lights and connected to the same electrical circuits as the HI runway edge lights, are located at regular intervals alongside the runway in accordance with Figure 8-1. The lights should be:

(1) Sited at approximately 60m intervals from the observer to a distance of 800m and at 100m intervals between 800 and 1400m unless otherwise restricted by airfield topography or layout. Separation between the runway edge lights and RVR lights should be a maximum of 3m.

(2) Pointed towards the observation point. Each reference light should have the ability to be individually controlled from the observation point. In the event of a control failure each reference light should remain on.

b. The observation point should comprise of a cabin, or similar facility mounted on a frangible tower, the height of which ensures that an observer's eye-level is 15ft above the ground. This tower should be sited in accordance with Figure 8-1. The cabin should be fitted with an observation panel subtending an angle of at least 30° horizontally and 30° vertically about the observer's line of sight when viewing the landing direction. The observer should have a means of communicating directly with ATC.



Figure 8-1 RVR Siting Plan



Chapter 9: Aircraft Picketing/Tie Down and Earthing Requirements

AIRCRAFT PICKETING/TIE DOWN REQUIREMENTS

Introduction

1. It is common for aircraft (including rotary wing aircraft) not in use to be left out in the open and parked on hard-standings. In these circumstances there is a need for certain aircraft types to be tethered down in order to ensure stability in high wind conditions. This is normally accomplished by mooring cables fastening the aircraft to specially constructed anchor points built into the pavement. These anchor points are generally referred to as picketing points. The requirements are laid down in aircraft manuals. Further information can be obtained from MOD Specialists including the relevant aircraft support authority at DE&S.

EARTHING REQUIREMENTS FOR AIRCRAFT ON MILITARY ESTABLISHMENTS

Introduction

2. Earthing requirements for aircraft on military establishments are detailed in the following documents:

a. Maintenance & Airworthiness Processes (MAP) – 01 Chapter 6.4 – Electrical Bonding and Earthing of Aircraft and Associated Ground Support Equipment. RA 4255.

b. AP113A-0201-1 Earthing of Aircraft and Ground Power Equipment.

c. Further guidance is provided in DIO Practitioner Guide PG 01-2008 Management of Visual Aids at Military Aerodromes, Annex D.



Chapter 10: Aerodrome Design Specification for Rotary Wing Permanent

Bases

ROTARY WING PERMANENT BASE DATA & PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

General

1. These specifications and criteria apply to the new construction, modification and restoration of military rotary wing permanent base facilities at home and overseas. They are mandatory unless specific engineering or operational considerations dictate a variation, in which case the sponsors should seek formal approval from the MAA. The classification and criteria for Domestic Helicopter Landing Sites are set out in Annex 10A. Domestic Helicopter Landing Site for these purposes is defined as one available for the regular movement of passengers and stores in peacetime.

2. These criteria and standards do not apply to rotary wing non-permanent bases, field locations and Helicopter Landing Sites listed in the Helicopter Landing Sites Directories. Advice on these sites should be obtained from the Appropriate Military Authority.

3. These criteria and standards do not apply to elevated heliports, helidecks or shipboard helidecks. Advice on these sites should be obtained from the Appropriate Military Authority.

4. Where this Chapter does not contain information on a topic, then reference should be made to the relevant Chapters. For visual aids for surface level rotary wing permanent bases see Chapter 11.

Categorisation of Rotary Wing Permanent Bases

5. The categorisation of rotary wing permanent base movement areas is by ‘Performance Class’ of the design helicopter. Performance Classes of helicopters are given in Table 10-1.

Table 10-1 Performance Classes of Helicopters

Performance Class Characteristic Remarks

1

Multi-engine helicopter capable of maintaining flight with One Engine Inoperative after reaching Critical Decision Point (CDP).

Prior to CDP loss of engine forces helicopter to make a controlled landing. A suitable clearway of either land or water is required.

2

Helicopter capable of maintaining a safe height after an engine failure during most phases of flight (eg cruise) but are forced to land if an engine fails during the initial phase of take-off or during the final stages of landing.

a. Dependant on payload and temperature. b. Some multi-engine helicopters can, even if capable of operating at Performance Class 1, should be operated at a higher payload at this class.

3

Single engine helicopter, or multi-engined helicopter operating beyond Class 1 & 2 payload limits, where a forced landing would, in all cases, have to be made in the event of engine failure.



Rotary Wing Permanent Base Physical Characteristics

6. Rotary wing permanent base physical characteristics are as given in Table 10-2 and illustrated in Figure 10-1. Taxiway separation distances are given in Table 10-3.

Table 10-2 Rotary Wing Permanent Base Physical Characteristic

Facility Dimensions Slope Additional Information FATO

Performance Class 1

helicopter

a. Rectangular. b. Width 1.5 x maximum design helicopter overall dimension. c. Length dependent on design helicopter characteristics

Overall ≤ 3% Locally ≤ 5%

Surface that should: a. be rotor downwash resistant. b. be free of irregularities. c. be strong enough for rejected take-off by Performance Class 1 helicopters. d. provide ground effect.

Performance Class 2/3

helicopters

a. Circular. b. Diameter 1.5 x maximum design helicopter overall dimension. c. RTODAH not normally defined.

Overall ≤ 3% Locally ≤ 5%

Location in relation to a runway or taxiway

Aeroplane/ FATO edge helicopter to runway/ mass (kg) taxiway edge

FATO that should not be located near: a. taxiway intersections or holding points where jet efflux is likely to cause high turbulence. b. areas where aeroplane vortex wake generation is likely to exist.

< 2720 60m ≥2720 & <5760 120m ≥5760 & <100000 180m ≥ 100000 250m

CLEARWAY Performance

Class 1 helicopter

a. Width ≥ width of associated safety area. b. Length as required.

Ground not to penetrate an upward slope

from the FATO periphery of

3%

a. located beyond upwind end of RTODAH. b. air movement obstacles to be removed.

Performance Class 2/3

helicopters

Clearway not required.

TLOF Performance Class 1/2/3 helicopters

Any shape able to accommodate a circle of diameter 1.5 x maximum design helicopter undercarriage dimension + 10m. ≤ 2%

a. slope sufficient to prevent water accumulation. b. not necessarily located within the FATO c. be capable of withstanding the traffic of helicopters that the area is intended to serve.

SAFETY AREAS FATO - VMC

Width: the larger of 3m or 0.25 x maximum design helicopter overall dimension.

Upwards @ 4% from FATO

edge.

a. safety areas surround FATO on all sides. b. surface abutting FATO should be continuous and



Facility Dimensions Slope Additional Information FATO - IMC

a. Width ≥ 45m each side of FATO centre-line. b. Length ≥ 60m beyond FATO ends.


edge

capable of supporting design helicopter without structural damage. c. surface should be rotor downwash resistant.

Functional objects in

safety areas

Height ≤ 25cm at FATO edge increasing from FATO edge at specified slope.


edge

Only functional frangible fixed objects and no mobile objects permitted inside safety area outer boundary.

GROUND TAXIWAY. For powered helicopter surface movement the requirements of Chapters 3 to 10 are applicable as modified below.

Surface Main gear span Width Longitudinal

≤ 3% Transverse

≤ 2%

a. slope sufficient should provide rapid drainage. b. be capable of withstanding the traffic of helicopters that the area is intended to serve.

< 4.5m ≥ 7.5m ≥ 4.5m & < 6.0m ≥ 10.5m ≥ 6.0m & < 10.0m ≥ 15.0m ≥ 10m ≥ 20.0m

Shoulders To extend symmetrically on each side of the taxiway and a width ≥ 0.5 x maximum design helicopter overall dimension

Longitudinal ≤ 3%

Transverse ≤ 2%

a. surface should be rotor downwash resistant.

Horizontal centre-line curvature

radius

≥ 20m

Horizontal curves should be compatible with design helicopter.

Intersection edge fillet

radius 10m

Separation See Table 10-3 AIR TAXIWAY. For helicopter air movement within ground effect height and ground speed ≤ 37km/hour (20kt)

Surface Width ≥ 2 x maximum design helicopter overall dimension.

Longitudinal ≤ 7%

Transverse ≤10%

Surface should: a. be rotor down-wash

resistant. b. suitable for emergency

landing. c. slopes should be within

design helicopter parameters.

d. provide ground effect. Separation See Table 10-3

AIR TRANSIT ROUTE. For helicopter movement at height ≤ 30m and groundspeed > 37km/hour (20kt)

Day Width ≥ 7 x design helicopter RD.

Routes to be selected should allow autorotative/OEI landings to minimise injury or damage to property.

Night Width ≥ 10 x design helicopter RD.



Facility Dimensions Slope Additional Information Centre-line direction change

≤ 120o

Centre-line turn radius ≥ 270m

APRONS. The requirements, see Chapter 6 are applicable as modified below and in Table 10-3

Stand Square of side ≥ maximum design helicopter overall dimension + 2m

≤ 2%

Separation See Table 10-3

Figure 10-1 Rotary Wing Permanent Base Characteristics

Table 10-3 Separation Distances (expressed in multiples of maximum design helicopter overall dimension with rotors turning)

Facility Helicopter

Ground Taxiwaya

Air Taxiwaya Objectb Helicopter

Standcdefg

Helicopter ground taxiway 2 3 1.25 1.75 Air taxiway 3 3 1.5 2.5 Object 1.25 1.5 1.25(1.5) Helicopter Standcd 1.75 2.5 1.25 (1.5) 1.5 (1.75) a Centre-line to centre-line b Centre-line to edge of object c Centre-line to centre d Stands with through ground taxi access. Figures in ( ) for through hover taxi access e Simultaneous hover operations in/out of stands are equivalent to 2 x Air Taxiway operations f Stands may require increased spacing to that shown to allow for manoeuvring of helicopters on the stands, either because there isn’t through access or because there is a need to manoeuvre helicopters to park them headed into wind. g Stands without through access, no part of the turning helicopter to overlap the adjacent stand clearance and helicopter to come to rest parked centrally pointing perpendicular to the line of stands.

Obstacle Restriction and Removal

7. Figure 10-2 illustrates the airspace around rotary wing permanent bases that should be maintained free from obstacles thus permitting safe helicopter operations. The obstacle limitation surfaces are defined in Tables 10-4 Table 10-5, Table 10-6, Table 10-7 and the limitation requirements are shown in Table 10-8.



Figure 10-2 Rotary Wing Permanent Base Obstacle Limitation Surfaces

FATO

safety area transitionalclearway

conical

inner horizontal

take-off climb approach

inner horizontal

conical

A A

B

B



Table 10-4 Obstacle Limitation Surfaces Dimensions & Slopes - Non-instrument & Non-precision FATO (slopes measured in the vertical plane containing the surface centre-line)

Surface and Dimension

Non-Instrument (visual) FATO

Non-Precision (instrument approach) FATO Helicopter Performance

Class 1 2 3

APPROACH An inclined plane or combination of planes sloping upwards from the end of the safety area and centred on a line through the FATO centre – see Figure 10-2.

Inner/outer edge orientation

Horizontal and ⊥ approach surface


Inner edge width Safety area width Safety area width Inner edge location Safety area boundary Safety area boundary Inner edge elevation Safety area boundary centre-

line elevation Safety area boundary centre-line elevation

Sides (2) origin Ends of inner edge Ends of inner edge First Section Divergence day 10% 10% 10% 16% night 15% 15% 15% Length day 245ma 245ma 245ma 2500m night 245ma 245ma 245ma Outer width day 49mb 49mb 49mb 890m night 73.5mb 73.5mb 73.5mb Slope ≤ 8%a ≤ 8%a ≤ 8%a ≤ 3.33% Second Section Divergence day 10% 10% 10% - night 15% 15% 15% Length day c c c - night c c c Outer width day d d d - night d d d Slope ≤ 12.5% ≤ 12.5% ≤ 12.5% - Third Section Divergence parallel parallel parallel - Length day e e e - night e e e Outer width day d d d - night d d d Slope ≤ 15% ≤ 15% ≤ 15% - INNER HORIZONTAL Circular horizontal surface centred above a FATO to allow safe

visual manoeuvring. Height - - - 45m Radius - - - 2000m CONICAL A surface sloping upwards and outwards from the inner horizontal

surface. Slope - - - 5% Height - - - 55m TRANSITIONAL A complex surface along the side of the safety area and part of the

side of the approach surface, sloping upwards and outwards to the inner horizontal surface or a pre-determined height–see Figure 10-2. The surface will be plane or curved depending on the FATO profile.

Lower edge location See Figure 10-2



Lower edge elevation a. Approach surface: equal to the elevation of the approach surface at that point. b. Safety area: equal to the elevation of the FATO centre-line opposite that point.

Upper edge location - - - In the plane of the inner horizontal surface.

Slope 50% 50% 50% 20% Height 45m 45m 45m 45m a Slope and length enables helicopters to decelerate for landing while observing ‘avoid’ areas. b The width of the inner edge should be added to this dimension. c Determined by the distance from the inner edge to the point where the divergence produces a width of 7 x RD for day operations or 10 x RD for night operations. d 7 x RD overall width for day operations or 10 x RD for night operations. e Determined by the distance from the inner edge to where the approach surface reaches a height of 150m above the elevation of the inner edge.

Table 10-5 Obstacle Limitation Surfaces Dimensions & Slopes - Instrument (Precision

Approach) FATO (slopes measured in the vertical plane containing the surface centre-line)

Surface and Dimension 3o Approach 6o Approach

Height above FATO Height above FATO 90m 60m 45m 30m 90m 60m 45m 30m

APPROACH SURFACE An inclined plane or combination of planes sloping upwards from the end of the safety area and centred on a line through the FATO centre – see Figure 10-2.

Orientation of inner/outer edges Horizontal and ⊥ approach surface Horizontal and ⊥ approach

surface

Elevation inner edge Safety area boundary centre-line elevation

Safety area boundary centre-line elevation

Sides (2) origin Ends of inner edge Ends of inner edge Length of inner edge 90m 90m 90m 90m 90m 90m 90m 90m Distance from FATO end 60m 60m 60m 60m 60m 60m 60m 60m Divergence each side to height above FATO 25% 25% 25% 25% 25% 25% 25% 25%

Distance to height above FATO 1745m 1163m 872m 581m 870m 580m 435m 290m

Width at height above FATO 962m 671m 526m 380m 521m 380m 307.5m 235m

Divergence to parallel sect 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15%

Distance to parallel section 2793m 3763m 4246m 4733m 4250m 4733m 4975m 5217m

Width of parallel section 1800m 1800m 1800m 1800m 1800m 1800m 1800m 1800m Distance to outer edge 5462m 5074m 4882m 4686m 3380m 3187m 3090m 2993m Width at outer edge 1800m 1800m 1800m 1800m 1800m 1800m 1800m 1800m Slope of 1st section 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 5% 5% 5% 5% Length of 1st section 3000m 3000m 3000m 3000m 1500m 1500m 1500m 1500m Slope of 2nd section 3% 3% 3% 3% 6% 6% 6% 6% Length of 2nd section 2500m 2500m 2500m 2500m 1250m 1250m 1250m 1250m Total length of surface 10000m 10000m 10000m 10000m 8500m 8500m 8500m 8500m

CONICAL SURFACE A surface sloping upwards/outwards from the outer limit of the transitional surface.

Slope 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5%



Surface and Dimension 3o Approach 6o Approach

Height above FATO Height above FATO 90m 60m 45m 30m 90m 60m 45m 30m

Height 55m 55m 55m 55m 55m 55m 55m 55m

TRANSITIONAL SURFACE

A complex surface along the side of the safety area and part of the side of the approach surface, sloping upwards and outwards to a pre-determined height – see Figure 10-2. The surface will be plane or curved depending on the FATO profile.

Lower edge location See Figure 10-2 See Figure 10-2

Lower edge elevation

a. Approach surface: equal to the elevation of the approach surface at that point. b. Safety area, equal to the elevation of the FATO centre-line opposite that point.

a. Approach surface: equal to the elevation of the approach surface at that point. b. Safety area: equal to the elevation of the FATO centre-line opposite that point.

Slope 14.3% 14.3% 14.3% 14.3% 14.3% 14.3% 14.3% 14.3% Height 45m 45m 45m 45m 45m 45m 45m 45m

Table 10-6 Obstacle Limitation Surfaces Dimensions & Slopes - Straight Take-off (slopes are

measured in the vertical plane containing the surface centre-line)


Non-Instrument (visual) Instrument Helicopter Performance Class

1 2 3 TAKE-OFF CLIMB SURFACE

An inclined plane or combination of planes sloping upwards from the end of the safety area and centred on a line through the FATO centre – see Figure 10-2.

Inner/outer edge orientation



Inner edge width Safety area width Safety area width Inner edge location Safety area boundary or edge of

clearway Safety area boundary or edge of clearway

Inner edge elevation (no clearway)

Safety area elevation at intersection of take-off climb surface centre-line and inner edge

Safety area elevation at intersection of take-off climb surface centre-line and inner edge

Inner edge elevation (clearway)

Elevation of highest ground on the clearway centre-line

Elevation of highest ground on the clearway centre-line

Sides (2) origin Ends of inner edge Ends of inner edge First Section Divergence day 10% 10% 10% 30% night 15% 15% 15% Length day a 245mb 245mb 2850m night a 245mb 245mb Outer width day c 49md 49md 1800m night c 73.5md 73.5md Slope ≤ 4.5%* ≤ 8%b ≤ 8%b ≤3.5% Second Section Divergence day parallel 10% 10% parallel night parallel 15% 15% Length day e a a 1510m night e a a




Non-Instrument (visual) Instrument Helicopter Performance Class

1 2 3 Outer width day c c c 1800m night c c c Slope ≤ 4.5%* ≤ 15% ≤ 15% ≤ 3.5%* Third Section Divergence - parallel parallel parallel Length day - e e 7640m night - e e Outer width day - c c 1800m night - c c Slope - ≤ 15% ≤ 15% ≤ 2% a Distance from inner edge to point where divergence produces a width of 7 x RD for day operations or 10 x RD for night operations. b Slope and length provides helicopters with an area to accelerate and climb while observing ‘avoid’ areas. c 7 x RD overall width for day operations or 10 x RD overall width for night operations. d The width of the inner edge should be added to this dimension. e Determined by distance from the inner edge to where the surface reaches a height of 150m above the elevation of the inner edge. * This slope exceeds the maximum mass OEI climb gradient of many currently operating helicopters

Table 10-7 Criteria for Curved Take-off Climb/Approach Area - Non-instrument Final Approach

and Take-offa

Facility Requirement

Take-Off Climb/Approach Surface

A complex surface, containing the horizontal normals to its centre-line, sloping upwards from the end of the safety area centred on a line passing through the centre of the FATO.

Inner/outer edge orientation Horizontal and ⊥ approach surface. Inner edge width Safety area width. Inner edge location Safety area boundary or edge of clearway. Inner edge elevation (no clearway)

Safety area elevation at intersection of take-off climb surface centre-line and inner edge.

Inner edge elevation (clearway) Elevation of highest ground on the clearway centre-line.

Directional change As required (120o maximum). Radius of turn on centre ≥ 270m. Distance to inner gate b

a. Performance Cl 1 helicopters ≥ 305m from end of safety area/clearway. b. Performance Cl 2/3 helicopters ≥ 370m from end of FATO.

Width of inner gate - day Width of inner edge + 20% of distance to inner gate.

night Width of inner edge + 30% of distance to inner gate.

Width of outer gate day Width of inner edge + 20% of distance to inner gate out to minimum width of 7 x RD.

night Width of inner edge + 30% of distance to inner gate out to minimum width of 10 x RD.

Elevation of inner and outer gates

Determined by the distance from the inner edge and the designated gradient(s).



Slopes As given inTable 10-5 and Table 10-6. Divergence As given inTable 10-5 and Table 10-6. Total length of area As given inTable 10-5 and Table 10-6. a Where more than one turn is necessary in the total length of the take-off climb/ approach area, the same criteria will apply for each subsequent turn except that the widths of the inner and outer gates will normally be the maximum width of the area. b This is the minimum distance required prior to initiating a turn after take-off or completing a turn in the final phase (it ensures that the portion of the surface between the inner edge and 30m above the inner edge is straight).

Table 10-8 Obstacle Limitation Requirements - Surface Level Rotary Wing Permanent Bases Su

rfac

e

Take

-Off

Clim

b

App

roac

h

Tran

sitio

nal

Con

ical

Inne

r H

oriz

onta

l

Precision Approach • • • • • Non-Precision Approach • • • • • Non-Instrument Approach • • •

Aircraft Picketing/Tie Down Requirements

8. Information regarding aircraft picketing and tie down requirements are contained in Chapter 9.



Annex 10A: Domestic Helicopters Landing Sites (HLS)

Classification

1. These regulations are designed to enable establishments to determine the criteria for safety cover necessary for the operation of helicopters from domestic landing sites. A Domestic Helicopter Landing Site (Domestic HLS) is defined as one available for the regular movement of passengers and stores in peacetime. Fire cover for heliports operating indigenous helicopters is defined in STANAG 3861. HLS used only in times of tension and war may be considered as tactical sites and operated in accordance with ATP49f UK Supp.

2. All Domestic HLS establishments should be classified, and safety cover and lighting provided, iaw Table 10-9 and Table 10-10. Classification should be based, in the first instance, on frequency of use but other factors such as the type of helicopter commonly using the site, the volume of passengers handled or the nature of stores moved, the location of the site and its proximity to obstructions, or stores of flammable materials should be taken into account. Units experiencing difficulty in classifying sites or requiring dispensation in the safety cover required are to refer the matter to appropriate Aviation Duty Holder (DH).

3. Domestic HLS should be constructed iaw this Annex, and marked iaw Figure 10-4. Temporary Domestic HLS need not be marked for single helicopter operations if approved by the officer authorising the flight and following a ground or air survey. The establishment of temporary sites for multiple helicopter operations requires the prior approval of the appropriate DH. Regardless of the status of a site, its use remains at the discretion of the aircraft captain.

4. All permanent Domestic HLS should be listed in the Royal Air Force Flight Information Publication, Helicopter Landing Sites - United Kingdom (available from No 1 AIDU RAF Northolt).

5. The criteria for fire and rescue cover for Royal Helicopter Flights are not covered by this instruction but are as directed by The Queen’s Helicopter Flight. Establishments should refer the requirement for safety cover for Royal Helicopter Flights through the appropriate DH.

Criteria

6. Dimensions. The size of a domestic helicopter landing site will depend on many factors. The type of helicopter to be operated, the size of any load to be lifted, etc; Figure 10-3 gives the maximum and minimum dimensions of a HLS. In the absence of definite information on the type of helicopter to be operated, units should choose the large site. Units wishing to construct sites smaller than the minimum should obtain approval from the appropriate DH.

7. Approaches. Ideally there should be obstruction-free approach and exit paths into wind. The criteria below represent the minimum required to permit full flexibility in helicopter operations. Approaches that do not meet these criteria may be acceptable depending upon the nature of the operation undertaken; i.e. reciprocal exit may be acceptable in light wind conditions.

a. By Day. Within the selected approach and exit paths the normal maximum obstruction angle to obstacles should not exceed 6° as measured from the landing site to a distance of 500m (maximum obstacle height 52m (170ft) at 500m), iaw ATP 49f UK Supp.



b. By Night. The selected approach and exit paths should contain a sector of not less than 16° in azimuth measured from the landing point. The width of the approach and exit paths should not be at least 50m, but should conform to the width of the cleared to 0.6m area if this is greater than 50m. Within the selected approach/exit paths, the maximum obstruction angle should not exceed 4° iaw ATP 49c, Vol 2, UK Supp, and a glidepath indicator should be used. There are no restrictions on obstruction angles outside the approach/exit paths but prominent obstructions should be noted in the HLS Directory and lit where possible.

c. It may be impossible to meet the approach criteria because of buildings, etc. If this is the case, the appropriate DH should be consulted on the marking of obstructions by day and night.

8. Surfaces. The surface of the centre of the site should be even and sufficiently firm to allow a fully loaded ground vehicle (0.25 ton for light helicopters, 3 tons for heavy helicopters) to stop and start without sinking. The whole landing site should be cleared of loose materials or piles of dust/sand, which could be blown up by the rotor blades. Landing sites with sandy or dusty surfaces should be stabilised or covered by an agreed material (metal matting, plastic membranes, log platforms, sealing with oil or water). Any snow on the landing site should be removed and the site cleared of ice. Advice on the use of de-icers suitable for aircraft operations may be obtained from Front Line Cmd (FLC).

9. Slope of Ground. Ideally, the ground on the landing site should be level. Where a slope is present it should be uniform.

a. By Day. Slope should not exceed 7° (or 1 in 8) in any direction.

b. By Night. A reverse slope (nose down) is not permitted. Forward and/or lateral slopes should not exceed 3°.

10. RADHAZ. The operation of helicopters in the vicinity of radiating aerials may present a RADHAZ. Site operators should determine what (if any) precautions are necessary before authorising flights.

11. Noise. Helicopters are frequently noisy and may cause distress to local inhabitants. Noise abatement procedures should be designated if considered appropriate and details entered in the Flight Information Publication.

Table 10-9 Daylight Operations

GROUP 1 GROUP 2 GROUP3

FREQUENCY OF FLIGHTS

Up to 20 flights per month. Maximum of one flight per 15 minutes.

21 to 100 flights per month. Maximum of one flight per 5 minutes.

101+ flights per month or multiple landings if less than 101 flights per month.

LANDING POINT Surface may be grass.

Surface may be grass. Surface should be concrete or tarmac.

WINDSOCK Located adjacent to site, clear of buildings.

As Group 1 As Group 1



FIRE COVER Refer to JSP 426 (Leaflet 14:5:2)


MEDICAL COVER Nil. Doctor and ambulance at 5 minutes notice

As Group 2.

RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

Nil but pilots will comply with R/T procedure in 'Helicopter Landing Site Directory'.

As Group 1 Nil for single aircraft operations but a nominated UHF or VHF frequency should be manned for multiple aircraft operations (frequency allocation advice may be sought from FLC)

LIGHTING Nil. Nil. Nil.

PYROTECHNICS Nil. Nil. Red/green flares

available for use by Site Co-ordinator but only if site suitable.

SITE MOVEMENT CO-ORDINATION

Site booking required through a published telephone number.


Table 10-10 Additional Requirements for Night Operations

GROUP 1 GROUP 2 GROUP 3

MARSHALLER

Nil but site availability may be indicated by use of flags (day) or illuminated wands (night) as follows: a. Stand not less than 100ft upwind of site facing landing area. b. Red or green flag (wand) held above head: (1) Green flag (wand) - clear to land. (2) Red flag (wand) - Delay landing.

As Group 1. Marshaller should have completed a formal course of training.



LIGHTING

NATO 'T' or floodlighting. Obstructions over 2 metres that lie within preferred approach and climb-out lanes should be marked with red obstruction lights.


Markings and Cleared Areas

Figure 10-3 Maximum and Minimum Sizes for Domestic Helicopter Landing Site

Circle 1 = Hard surface Circle 2 = Cleared to ground level. Circle 3 = Free of obstructions over 2 ft (0.6m) high.

Note: The circles are not to be marked; only the 'H' and its surrounding box are to be marked in white paint.



Figure 10-4 NATO Helipad Marking

Helipad markings should normally be provided on concrete or tarmac landing sites.

Dimensions in metres

A = 0.6 x F (maximum of 20 metres). B = 0.5 x A

Helipad size (F)

Pattern line

width (C)

Border edge

width (D)

Corner edge

length (E)

13.0 - 18.0 1.0 0.40 1.5 18-0 - 24.0 1.3 0.60 2.2 24.0 - 30.0 1.5 0.60 3.0 30.0 - 45.0 2.0 0.75 3.5



Chapter 11: Visual Aids and Marking for Rotary Wing Permanent Bases

VISUAL AIDS FOR SURFACE LEVEL ROTARY WING PERMANENT BASES

1. General. See Chapter 10 Para 1 for the applicability of these criteria and standards.

2. Wind Direction Indicators. Rotary wing permanent bases should be equipped with at least one wind direction indicator as detailed in Chapter 6 Para 2.

MARKINGS AND MARKERS

3. General. Regulations governing the marking of fixed objects are contained in Chapter 6 Para 4.

4. Rotary Wing Permanent Base Identification Marking. Rotary wing permanent base identification marking should be provided as follows:

a. Standard Helipad Identification. The identification marking should consist of a letter “H”, white in colour, dimensioned as shown at Figure 11-1. The marker should be located in the geometric centre of the helipad with the vertical bars of the letter “H” parallel to the two opposite sides of the helipad and parallel to the approach direction.

b. Hospital Identification Marking. The identification marking at hospitals should consist of the letter “H”, red in colour, 3m high, located in the geometric centre of a marking, made of a series of five, 3m squares, white in colour. The marking should be located in the geometric centre of the defined helipad with the vertical bars of the “H” parallel to the intended approach path; details are shown in Figure 11-2.

c. Border Edge Marking. The border edge markings, at the corners and along the edges, should define the periphery of the safe physical limits of the touchdown area, and should be white in colour. Locations and dimensions of the edge markings are detailed in Figure 11-1.

d. Located within the FATO, at the geometric centre of the TLOF or when used in conjunction with runway designation markings at each end of the area as shown on Figure 11-3.

e. The marking should consist of a letter H, white in colour. The dimensions should be no less than those shown in Fig 11-1. Where the marking is used in conjunction with the FATO designation markings, specified in para 6 its dimensions should be in accordance with Figure 11-1 increased by a factor of 3.

f. Markings should be orientated with the cross arm of the H at right angles to the preferred final approach direction.

g. In order to improve conspicuity on helipad surfaces that are light in colour, the markings can be improved by outlining them with a black border of approximately 15cm (6 ins). Additionally the hospital helipad border edge markings and the other markings may be outlined with a red border of approximately 15cm (6 ins).



Figure 11-1 Standard Helipad Marking

Note: A solid border edge marking may be used in lieu of the segmented marking.

DIMENSIONS: A = 0.6 F (maximum of 20m)

B = 0.5 A

Helipad Size (F)

M - (FT)

Pattern Line (C)

M - (FT)

Border Edge Width (D) M - (FT)

Corner Edge Length (E)

M - (FT) 13.0 - 18.0(40 - 60)

1.0 - (3) 0.4 - (1.25) 1.5 - (4.5)

18.0 - 24.0(60 - 80) 1.3 - (4) 0.6 - (2) 2.2 - (7)

24.0 - 30.0(80 - 100) 1.5 - (4.5) 0.6 - (2) 3.0 - (10)

30.0 - 45.0(100 - 150) 2.0 - (6) 0.75 - (2.5) 3.5 - (12)

E

D

A

C

E

B

F



Figure 11-2 Hospital Identification Marking

Figure 11-3 FATO Designation Marking

5. FATO Marking. Where the extent of the FATO is not self-evident, FATO marking should be provided as follows:

a. Located on the boundary of the FATO.

b. Spacing:

(1) For a square or rectangle, at equal intervals of not more than 50m with at least three markings on each side including markings at each corner; and

(2) For any other shaped area, including a circular area, at equal intervals of not more than 10m with a minimum number of five markings or markers.

c. A rectangular stripe with a length of 9m or one-fifth of the side of the FATO which it defines and a width of 1m.

d. White in colour.

e. Typical layouts are contained in Figure 11-4 and Figure 11-5.

9m 9m 6m 6m

2.3m

x

x

Typically 2100

1.8m 3m

3m

3m

0.4m

Obstacle

sector

9m 9m 6m 6m

2.3m



Figure 11-4 Typical Marking and Lighting of Surface Level Rotary Wing Permanent Bases with FATO Designation Marking

Touchdown and lift-off area.

Perimeter marking: white line, 30cm wide.

Perimeter lights: green, spaced equally apart

Final approach and take-off area.Perimeter marking: white, 9 x 1m stripes, spaced 50m apart.

Perimeter lights: white, spaced 50m apart



Figure 11-5 Typical Marking and Lighting of Surface Level Rotary Wing Permanent Bases with FATO Designation Marking

6. FATO Designation Marking. Where it is necessary to designate the FATO to the pilot, a FATO designation marking should be provided as follows:

a. Located at the beginning of the FATO as shown in Figure 11-3.

b. It should consist of a runway designation marking as described in Chapter 6 Para 5, and as shown in Figure 11-3.



7. Aiming Point Marking. At a rotary wing permanent base where it is necessary for a pilot to make an approach to a particular point before proceeding to the TLOF, an aiming point mark should be provided as follows:

a. Located within the FATO.

b. An equilateral triangle with the bisector of one of the angles aligned with the preferred approach direction. The marking should consist of continuous white lines with the dimensions conforming to those shown in Figure 11-6.

Figure 11-6 Aiming Point Marking

8. TLOF Marking. TLOF marking should be provided as follows:

a. Located along the perimeter of the TLOF.

b. Consist of a continuous white line with a width of at least that shown in Figures 11-1 and 11-7 (See Annex 10A for typical example).

Figure 11-7 Rotary Wing Permanent Base Identification Marking

TLOF size in metres

Line thickness in metres

E C D 13-18 1.0 0.4 18-24 1.3 0.6 24-30 1.5 0.6 30-45 2.0 0.75

A = 0.6 E (maximum 20m) B = 0.5 A

c. TLOF marking is mandatory except where a helicopter approaches to a specific point, within the FATO, identified by an aiming point marker and then air taxis to an

1m

9m

Light

C

A

B

E

D



apron marked with multiple touchdown markings, as described in Para 9 each of which is uniquely identified by a number conforming to the form and proportions of Figure 6-2 and a marker as described in Paras 44.e and 44.f. Where such a system is intended to be used at night the touchdown marking should be lit as described in Para 18.

9. Touchdown Marking. Where it is necessary for a helicopter to touch down in a specific position, a touchdown marking should be provided as follows:

a. Located, within a TLOF or on an apron, such that when a helicopter for which the marking is intended is positioned, with the main undercarriage inside the marking and the pilot situated over the marking, all parts of the helicopter will be clear of any obstacle by a safe margin.

b. Consist of a yellow circle and have a line a width of at least 0.5m.

10. Rotary Wing Permanent Base Name Marking. Where there is insufficient alternative means of visual identification, a rotary wing permanent base name marking should be provided as follows:

a. Visible, as far as practicable, at all angles above the horizontal. Where an obstacle sector exists the marking should be located on the obstacle side of the H identification marking.

b. Consist of the name or alphanumeric designator of the base as used in the R/T communications.

c. The characters of the markings should not be less than 3m in height and the colour of the markings should contrast with the background.

d. When intended for use at night or in poor visibility, the marking should be illuminated, either internally or externally.

11. Marking for Taxiways. The specification for taxiway edge, taxiway centre-line and runway-holding position markings, detailed in Chapter 6 Paras 11, 12 and 13, and on taxiway markers contained in Chapter 6 Para 56 - 64, should be referred to for taxiways intended for ground taxiing helicopters.

12. Air Taxiway Markers. An air taxiway should be marked with air taxiway markers as follows:

a. Located along the centre-line of the air taxiway and placed at intervals of not more than 30m on straight sections and 15m on curved sections.

b. The marker should be frangible and when installed should not exceed 35cm above ground or snow level. The surface of the marker as viewed by the pilot should be a rectangle with a height to width ration of approximately 3 to 1 and should have a minimum area of 150cm2 as shown in Figure 11-7.

c. The marker should be divided into three equal, horizontal bands coloured yellow, green and yellow, respectively. If the air taxiway will be used at night, the markers should be internally illuminated or retro-reflective. These markers should not be used on helicopter ground taxiways.



Figure 11-8 Air Taxiway Marker

13. Air Transit Route Markers. When established, an air transit route should be marked with air transit route markers as follows:

a. Located along the centre-line of the air transit route and spaced at intervals of not more than 60m on straight sections and 15m on curves.

b. The marker should be frangible and when installed should not exceed 1m above ground or snow level. The surface of the marker as viewed by the pilot should be a rectangle with a height to width ration of approximately 1 to 3 and should have a minimum area of 1500cm2 as shown in the examples of Figure 11-8

c. The marker should be divided into three equal, vertical bands coloured yellow, green and yellow, respectively. If the air taxiway should be used at night, the markers should be internally illuminated or retro-reflective.

Figure 11-9 Air Transit Route Markers

35cm

h

Approx.h/3

1m 1m

Approx.

l/3

Approx.

l/3

Example B Example A



LIGHTS

14. General. Guidance on the screening of non-aeronautical ground lights and the design of elevated and inset lights is detailed in Annex 6B. In the case of rotary wing permanent bases located near navigable waters, consideration should be given to ensuring that aeronautical ground lights do not cause confusion to mariners. As helicopters may come very close to extraneous light sources, it is particularly important to ensure that, unless such lights are navigation lights exhibited in accordance with international regulations, they are screened or located so as to avoid direct or reflected glare. All elevated light fittings should have frangible spigots or masts.

15. Rotary Wing Permanent Base Acquisition Beacon. A beacon should be provided as follows:

a. Where long range visual guidance is considered necessary and is not provided by other means; or identification of the base is difficult due to surrounding lights.

b. The beacon should be located on or adjacent to the rotary wing permanent base preferably at an elevated position and so that it does not dazzle pilots at short range.

c. The beacon should flash a coloured sequence of lights as follows: double peak white flash and a single peak green and yellow.

d. The flash rate will be 10-15 sequences of flashes per minute and the time between each colour should be one third of the total sequence time.

e. No beacon should be installed within 1.6km of any existing airport heliport beacon.

f. The beacon should be visible for a distance of 1.6km, in 1.6km, VMC daylight, and 4.8km, VMC at night, both from an altitude of 915m above ground level.

g. The beacon should be mounted a minimum of 15m above the rotary wing permanent base surface and should be no closer than 122m and no further than 1067m from the rotary wing permanent base and should not be located between any control tower and the rotary wing permanent base.

h. The main beam of the light should be aimed a minimum of 5° above the horizontal and should not produce light below the horizontal in excess of 1000 candelas. Light shields may be used to reduce the intensity below the horizontal in order to prevent dazzle to pilots.

16. Rotary Wing Permanent Base Identification Beacon. Where a Rotary Wing Permanent Base Identification Beacon is used the specification detailed in Chapter 6 Para 28 should be referred to.

17. FATO Lights. Where a FATO is established for night use, lights should be provided as follows:

a. Placed along the edges of the FATO.

b. Uniformly spaced as follows:

(1) For an area in the form of a square or rectangle, at intervals of not more than 50m with a minimum of 4 lights on each side including a light at each corner; and



(2) For any other shaped area, including a circular area, at intervals of not more than 5m with a minimum of 10 lights.

c. The lights should be fixed omni-directional lights showing white. Where the intensity of the lights will be varied the lights should show variable white with a minimum three stages of brilliancy.

d. FATO lights on opposite sides of the FATO should be opposite each other.

e. The light distribution of FATO lights should be as shown in Table 11-1. The FATO lights should not exceed a height of 250mm above ground or snow level except where the FATO is intended for lift-off and touchdown. Where elevated light fittings would endanger helicopters operations the FATO lights should be inset.

f. Typical layouts of FATO lights are detailed at Figure 11-4 and Figure 11-5.

Table 11-1 Light Distribution of FATO Lights

Elevation 30° 10 cd 25° 50 cd 20° 100 cd 10° 100 cd 5° 100 cd 0° 10 cd

- 180° Azimuth +180° (White light)

18. Aiming Point Lights. Aiming point marking for night use should be provided as follows:

a. Aiming point lights should be inset and should be collocated with the aiming point marking.

b. They should form a pattern of at least 6 omni-directional white lights as shown in Figure 11-6.

c. The light distribution of aiming point lights should be as shown in Table 11-1.

19. TLOF Lights. TLOF lighting should be provided as follows:

a. TLOF perimeter lights should be placed along the edge of the area designated for use as the TLOF or within a distance of 1.5m from the edge. Where the TLOF is a circle the lights should be:

(1) Located on straight lines in a pattern which will provide information to pilots on drift displacement; and

(2) Where (1) is not practicable, evenly spaced around the perimeter of the TLOF at the appropriate interval except that over a sector of 45° the lights should be spaced at half spacing.

b. TLOF perimeter lights should be uniformly spaced at intervals of not more than 5m. A minimum of 5 lights per side of a square or rectangular TLOF including a light at each corner is required. For a circular TLOF, where the lights are installed in



accordance with Sub Paras (1) and (2) in Para a above there should be a minimum of 14 lights.

c. TLOF perimeter lights should be fixed omni-directional lights showing green. Where the intensity of the lights should be varied the lights should show variable green with a minimum of 3 stages of brilliancy.

d. TLOF perimeter lights on opposite sides of the TLOF perimeter should be opposite each other.

e. The light distribution of TLOF perimeter lights should be as shown in Table 11-2.

f. The TLOF perimeter lights should not exceed a height of 250mm above ground level. If snow accumulations of 30cm or more are frequent, the mounting height may be increased to 60cm maximum above the ground.

g. Where elevated light fittings would endanger helicopter operations the TLOF area perimeter lights should be inset

h. A typical layout of TLOF lights is detailed at Figure 11-4, Figure 11-5 and Figure 11-9.

Figure 11-10 Typical Marking and Lighting of Surface Level Rotary Wing Permanent Bases without FATO and FATO Designation Markings

20. Landing Direction Lights. Where it is desirable and practicable to indicate a preferred approach direction, a landing direction lighting system should be as follows:

1.5m max

Min 5 lights – 4 equal spaces (max )



a. The lighting system should be located in a straight line along the preferred direction of approach, on one or more of the centre-lines, perpendicular to the FATO lights or TLOF lights as appropriate.

b. The lighting system should consist of a row of 6 lights spaced 4.5m intervals with the first light located 7.5m from the centre-line of the appropriate perimeter lights. See Figure 11-10 for layout.

c. The lights should be fixed omni-directional lights showing yellow. Where the intensity of the lights should be varied the lights should show variable yellow with a minimum of three stages of brilliancy.

d. The lights should not exceed a height of 250mm above ground level. If snow accumulations of 30cm or more are frequent, the mounting height may be increased to 60cm maximum above the ground.

e. Where elevated light fittings would endanger helicopter operations the landing direction lights should be inset.

f. The light distribution of the lights should be as shown in Table 11-2.

Table 11-2 Light Distribution of Landing Direction Lights

Elevation (E) Elevation

30o 3 cd

20o ≤ E ≤ 90o 3 cd 25o 15 cd

13o ≤ E ≤ 20o 8 cd 20o 25 cd

10o ≤ E ≤ 13o 15 cd 10o 25 cd

5o ≤ E ≤ 10o 30cd 5o 15 cd

2o ≤ E ≤ 5o 15 cd 0o 3 cd

- 180o Azimuth +180o - 180o Azimuth +180o

TLOF Lights (Green) Landing Direction Lights (Yellow)



Figure 11-11 Landing Direction Lights

21. Approach Direction Lights. Approach direction lights should only be used in conjunction with landing direction lights as follows.

a. The system should be located in a straight line along the preferred direction of approach, on one or more of the centre-lines, perpendicular to the FATO lights or TLOF lights as appropriate.

6 lights spaced equally 4.5m apart

Start of landing direction lights 7.5m from perimeter lights

Landing direction light

Perimeter lights, TLOF or FATO

Edge of heliport Centre-line of heliport



b. The system should consist of 2 rows of elevated light fittings, one row 1.3m either side of the centre-line extended in the direction of approach. Each row should be spaced 15m apart over a length of 60m, with the first row located 37.5m from the centre-line of the row of perimeter fittings. See Figure 11-11) for layout.

c. The lights should be mounted on frangible structures.

d. The light fittings should be mounted in a horizontal plane or follow the slope of the finished grade. Where a deviation in the axis of the light beam is necessary a tolerance of plus 2% or minus 1% in the longitudinal slope is permitted.

e. Where a slope is established for the landing direction lights in line with the approach direction lights, the same slope should be continued for the approach direction lights.

f. The lights should be fixed omni-directional lights showing white. Where the intensity of the lights should be varied the lights should show variable white with a minimum of three stages of brilliancy.

g. The light distribution of approach direction lights should be as shown in Table 11-3.

Table 11-3 Light Distribution of Approach Direction Lights

Elevation

15o 25 cd

90 250 cd

6o 350 cd

5o 350 cd

2o 250 cd

0o 25 cd

- 180o Azimuth +180o

(White light)



Figure 11-12 Approach Direction Lights

1.3m

2.6m

15m

7.5m

37.5m

Approach lights five pairs equally spaced at 15m intervals

Landing direction lights



22. Taxiway Lights. Taxiway lights are covered in Chapter 6 Para 37 – 38.

23. Air Transit Route Lights (Hoverlane). Where a requirement exists for the movement of helicopters between points which are inadequately served by suitable routes for surface movement, hoverlanes, as shown in Figure 11-12, may be established for safe operation at night and during periods of low visibility. Where such hoverlanes are established they should be lighted as follows:

a. Hoverlane lighting should be installed between the first and last points of surface movement. It should consist of a line of alternate green and yellow lights installed along the centre-line of the hoverlane, commencing with green and terminating with yellow. The spacing of the lights should be 15m on curves and 30m on straight routes. Consideration should be given to selecting filter types or lamp sizes, which will provide the most consistent level of light output by the different coloured lights. The use of hoods that control the direction of light should be considered to avoid confusion with other heliport lights.

b. Where a hoverlane terminates at an apron or other area not intended for own power operation, the hoverlane should be terminated with a terminating bar consisting of three unidirectional red lights spaced at 4.5m centred on and perpendicular to the hoverlane centre-line. The terminating bar should be placed at the beginning of the apron area.

c. The lights should be fixed omni-directional lights showing green, yellow or red as applicable. Where the intensity of the lights should be varied the lights should show variable light with a minimum of three stages of brilliancy.

d. Hoverlane lights should be mounted on frangible fittings and should be located as near to the ground as possible.

e. The lights should not exceed a height of 250mm above ground level. Where elevated light fittings would endanger helicopter operations the hoverlane lights are to be inset.

f. The light distribution of the lights should be as shown in Table 11-2.

g. In operational areas the mounting height above ground should not exceed 1.2m.

h. Outside of operational areas and where the 1.2m height limit is not practicable the mounting of the floodlight should be kept to a minimum height.



Figure 11-13 Heliport Hoverlane Lighting

HELICOPTER PARKING

HELICOPTER PARKING

MAINTENANCE AND PARKING APRON

LEGEND

RED LIGHT IN TERMINATING BAR

YELLOW HOVERLANE LIGHT

GREEN HOVERLANE LIGHT

R

Y

G

G

G

G

Y

Y

Y

RRR

15m (50 ft) min.

24. TLOF Floodlighting. Where floodlighting is installed the following restrictions apply:

a. Floodlights should be located no closer than 15m from the edges of the base, in pairs on opposite sides of the base and in a position parallel to the normal direction of approach. See Figure 11-13 for layout.

b. Where floodlights are installed for the purpose of illuminating a base, they should be aligned to uniform illumination.

c. Where floodlights are installed for illuminating areas other than the base, the configuration may be as required for the purpose.

d. Floodlights should be mounted on frangible fittings and should be located as near to the ground as possible.

e. In operational areas the mounting height above ground should not exceed 1.2m.

f. Outside of operational areas and where the 1.2m height limit is not practicable the mounting of the floodlight should be kept to a minimum height.



g. A small obstruction light should be mounted on the top of each floodlight visible from above and at ground level from any direction around the floodlight. The obstruction light should produce a red non-glare light having an intensity between 0.5 and 7.5 candelas.

h. Floodlights, except for the light emitted by the obstruction light, should have no upward component of light output, the entire light output being directed below the horizontal.

i. Provision should be made for the adjustment of the elevation of the floodlight beam after installation. The adjustment should provide movement of the axis of the projected beam from 1° above the plane to 5° below the horizontal reference plane.

Figure 11-14 TLOF Floodlighting

25. Visual Glide Slope Indicators. A visual glide slope indicator system should be provided to serve the approach to a base where one or more of the following conditions exist, especially at night:

a. Obstacle clearance, noise abatement or traffic control procedures require a particular approach slope angle to be flown.

b. The environment of the rotary wing permanent base provides few visual clues.

c. The characteristics of a particular helicopter require a stabilised approach.

d. The preferred systems are APAPI or HAPI.

26. Obstacle Protection Surface. An obstacle protection surface should be established when it is intended to provide a visual approach slope indicator system. The characteristics of the obstacle protection surface, i.e. origin, divergence, length and slope should correspond to those shown in Table 11-4 and Figure 11-14. New objects or extensions of

15m (50ft)

7.5m (25ft)

3.75m (12.5ft)

3.75m

7.5m (25ft)



existing objects should not be permitted above an obstacle protection surface except when, in the opinion of the appropriate authority, the new object or extension would be shielded by an existing immovable object. Existing objects above an obstacle protection surface should be removed except when, in the opinion of the appropriate authority, the object is shielded by an existing immovable object, or after an aeronautical study it is determined that the object would not adversely affect the operations of helicopters. Where an aeronautical study indicates that an existing object extending above an obstacle protection surface could adversely affect the safety of operations of helicopters one or more of the measures detailed in Para 27 should be taken.

Table 11-4 Dimensions and Slopes of Obstacle Protection Surface

Surface and dimensions Non-instrument FATO Non-precision FATO Length of inner edge Width of safety area Width of safety area Distance from edge of FATO 3m minimum 60m Divergence 10% 15% Total length 2,500m 2,500m Slope PAPI Aa - 0.57o Aa - 0.57o HAPI Ab - 0.65o Ab - 0.65o a as indicated in ICAO Annex 14, Vol 1, Figure 5-20 b The angle of the upper boundary of the "below slope" signal

Figure 11-15 Characteristics of Obstacle Protection Surface

A A Divergence

FATO Obstacle protection surface, dimensions in Table 11-4

Approach surface inner edge

Origin

Downwind edge Approach surface inner edge

Obstacle protection surface, dimensions in Table 11-4

Section A-A



27. Visual Alignment Guidance System

a. A visual alignment guidance system should be provided to serve the approach to a rotary wing permanent base where one or more of the following conditions exist especially at night:

(1) Obstacle clearance, noise abatement or traffic control procedures require a particular approach slope angle to be flown.

(2) The environment of the rotary wing permanent base provides few visual clues.

(3) It is physically impractical to install an approach lighting system.

b. Where an aeronautical study indicates that an existing object extending above an obstacle protection surface could adversely affect the safety of operations of helicopters and one of the following options is not practicable:

(1) Raising the approach slope of the system.

(2) Reducing the azimuth spread of the system so that the object is outside the confines of the beam.

(3) Displacing the axis of the system and its associated obstacle protection surface by no more than 5°.

(4) Displacing the FATO.

c. The visual alignment guidance system should be located such that a helicopter is guided along the prescribed track towards the FATO. It should be located on the downwind edge of the FATO and aligned along the preferred approach direction. The light units should be frangible and mounted as low as possible. Where the lights of the system need to be seen as discreet sources, light units should be located such that at the extremes of the system coverage the angle subtended between the units as seen by the pilot should not be less than 3 minutes of arc. The angles subtended between light units of the system and other units of comparable or greater intensities should also not be less than 3 minutes of arc. These requirements can be met for lights on a line normal to the line of sight, if the light units are separated by 1m for every kilometre of viewing range.

d. The signal format of the alignment guidance system will include a minimum of 3 discrete signal sectors providing "offset to the right", "on track" and "offset to the left" signals. The divergence of the "on track" sector of the system should be as shown in Figure 11-16. The signal format should be such that there is no possibility of confusion between the system and any associated visual approach slope indicator or other visual aids; it should be unique and conspicuous in all operational environments. The system should avoid the use of the same coding as any associated visual approach slope indicator. It should not significantly increase the pilot workload. In the event of the failure of any component affecting the signal format, the system should be automatically switched off.

e. The useable coverage of the visual alignment guidance system should be equal to, or better than, that of the visual approach slope indicator system, with which it is associated. The characteristics of the obstacle protection surface specified in Table 11-4 and Figure 11-15 should apply equally to the system.



Figure 11-16 Divergence of the "On Track" Sector

f. A suitable intensity control should be provided, with a minimum of 3 stages of brilliancy, so as to allow adjustment to meet the prevailing conditions and to avoid dazzling the pilot during approach and landing. It should be capable of adjustment in azimuth to within ± 5 minutes of arc of the desired approach path. The angle of azimuth guidance system should be such that during an approach the pilot of a helicopter at the boundary of the "on track" signal will clear all objects in the area by a safe margin. The light units should be so designed that deposits of condensation, ice, dirt, etc, on the optically transmitting or reflecting surfaces will interfere to the least possible extent with the light signal and will not cause spurious or false signals to be generated.

28. Abbreviated PAPI Systems (APAPI)

a. The APAPI system consists of 2 PAPI light units positioned on the left side of the helipad, on the lateral centre-line of the helipad at 90 degrees to the approach direction. The inner unit should be positioned at l0m from the helipad left edge, and the outer unit at a distance of 6m from the inner unit.

b. The APAPI system should be constructed and mounted as low as possible, with a tolerance of plus or minus 30cm, within the centre of the helipad elevation. The units should be light in weight and on frangible mounts. Each PAPI unit Systems should conform to the specification contained in Chapter 6 Para 30 and Annex 6C except that the on slope sector of the system should be increased to 45 minutes.

c. The vertical colour sectors for a 6 degree approach slope with an APAPI system are:

(1) Above course 6.5° or more W W

(2) On course 6.0° R W

(3) Below course 5.5° or less R R

29. HAPI Systems. The HAPI system consists of one light unit which is located forward of the base on the extended centre-line. The system should conform to the following:

a. It should be constructed and mounted as low as possible, and be sufficiently light in weight and frangible so as not to constitute a hazard to helicopter operations.

b. The signal format is shown in Figure 11-17.

FATO FATO 1o 1o

Example B

1o

1o

Example A



Figure 11-17 Signal Format of HAPI System

c. The unit should be so designed to minimise spurious signals between signal sectors and at the azimuth coverage limits.

d. The signal repetition rate of the flashing sector should be at least 2Hz, with an on-to-off ratio of the pulsing signals set at 1:1 and a modulation depth of at least 80%.

e. The angular size of the "on-slope" sector should be 45 minutes.

f. The light intensity of the red and green sectors should be as shown in Figure 11-18.

g. Colour transition in the vertical plane should be such as to appear to an observer at a distance not less than 300m to occur within a vertical angle of no more than three minutes.

h. The transmission factor of the red or green filter should not be less than 15% at maximum intensity setting.

i. At full intensity the red light should have a Y-co-ordinate not exceeding 0.320 and the green light should be within the boundaries specified in ICAO Annex 14, Vol 1, Appendix 1, 2.1.3.

j. A minimum of 3 levels of intensity control should be provided.

Sector Format Above Flashing green

On slope Green Slightly below Red

Below Flashing red

Flashing green-above

Green-on slope

Approach slope

Red-slightly below

Flashing red-below



Figure 11-18 Light Intensity of HAPI System

k. The system should be capable of adjustment in elevation at any desired angle between 10 and 120 above the horizontal with an accuracy of ± 5 minutes of arc.

l. The angle of elevation setting should be such that during an approach, the pilot of a helicopter observing the upper boundary of the "below slope" signal will clear all objects in the approach by a safe margin.

m. The system should be so designed that:

(1) In the event that the vertical misalignment of the unit exceeds ± 0.5o (± 30 minutes), the system will switch off automatically; and

(2) If the flashing mechanism fails, no light will be emitted in the failed flashing sector(s).

n. The light unit of the HAPI should be so designed that deposits of condensation, ice, dirt, etc, on the optically transmitting or reflecting surfaces will interfere to the least possible extent with the light signal and will not cause spurious or false signals to be generated.

o. A suitable intensity control should be provided, with a minimum of 3 stages of brilliancy, so as to allow adjustment to meet the prevailing conditions and to avoid dazzling the pilot during approach and landing.

p. The vertical colour sectors for HAPI are:

(1) Above course > 6.75° G (Flashing)

(2) On course 6.0° to 6.75° G

(3) Slightly low 4.50° to 5.50° R

(4) Below course <4.50° R (Flashing)

9000 cd 6375 cd 3750 cd 1875 cd 375 cd

Green

Red

375 cd 1875 cd 3750 cd 6375 cd 9000 cd

3o 6o 9o 12o 15o Azimuth

Elevation

2o

4o

6o

80

10o



30. Apron Floodlighting. Where Apron Floodlighting is used on a heliport the specification detailed in Chapter 6 Para 44 should be referred to.

31. Obstacle Lights. Obstacle lights are covered in Chapter 7.



Chapter 12: Classification and Selection of Temporary/Tactical Airfields

Definition

1. A Temporary Airfield or Temporary Landing Zone (TLZ) is defined as a natural, semi-prepared or prefabricated strip with surface, slope, dimensions, load bearing capacity and clearance from obstruction sufficient to allow suitably trained crews to land and take-off aircraft safely in specified weather conditions. A particular temporary airfield may be limited to day use only, to specified maximum landing and take-off weights and/or to a maximum number of aircraft movements. A paved surfaced (disused) runway may also be used as a Temporary Airfield. All staff that deal with TLZs on a daily basis are based in the Hercules Force HQ at RAF Brize Norton with overall control retained at HQ 2 Gp. All other current temporary landing zone information is contained in the Section 3 of the Tactical Air Transport Operations Manual (TATOM) , which uses FLY 2000 as the reference document.

Classification

2. A Temporary Airfield may be established for purposes ranging from a single aircraft infiltration/exfiltration sortie to large logistical operations involving many aircraft movements. There are 4 types of Temporary Airfields or TLZs:

a. Battle

(1) Location. Situated in an operational area close to the battle area utilising natural terrain or existing facilities.

(2) Criteria. To meet the minimum military operating standards required by the user aircraft operating at their maximum performance.

(3) Engineer Effort. Little or no engineering work will be done. Reconnaissance may well be limited, but where possible it will be done by a joint RE/RAF team.

(4) Facilities. Normally none.

(5) Usage. Short term. It will usually be suitable for only one aircraft at a time and for only a few movements.

(6) Acceptance. Decided by the appropriate air commander. The decision is based on the acceptable operational risk level, the need for the accomplishment of the mission and any airfield engineer advice available.

b. Forward

(1) Location. Usually to the rear of the operational area utilising natural terrain or existing facilities.

(2) Criteria. To meet the minimum military operating standards required by the user aircraft operating at their maximum performance.

(3) Engineer Effort. The full survey by a joint RE/RAF reconnaissance team will aim to minimise the engineer effort required.

(4) Facilities. Minimal, but an apron will be provided to allow turn-round for Tactical Air Transport (Tac AT) aircraft and to enable several aircraft to be on the



ground at the same time. Also provides dispersal and refuelling facilities for close support aircraft.

(5) Usage. For the delivery of substantial payloads over a period of up to one month and/or 6000 aircraft movements.

(6) Acceptance. Provided criteria for aircraft performance and usage requirements are met.

c. Support

(1) Location. Normally in the theatre but outside the operational area probably based on an existing civil or military airfield.

(2) Criteria. To meet defined criteria required by the user aircraft. Operations to military operating standards will not be required.

(3) Engineer Effort. Construction and/or extension or repair of existing facilities may be required to provide for sustained all weather usage. An initial reconnaissance will be made by a joint RE/RAF team. A further detailed engineer reconnaissance may be necessary.

(4) Facilities. All weather operations and all normal airfield services will be provided for the turnround, dispersal and refuelling for all the user aircraft.

(5) Usage. Sustained all weather operations enabling the continuous delivery of substantial payloads for a period of up to 6 months and for 10,000 aircraft movements, of which one third are of the critical aircraft type.

(6) Acceptance. Provided criteria for aircraft performance and usage requirements are met.

d. Special Forces

(1) Location. In enemy occupied, denied or unsecured territory.

(2) Criteria. To meet military operating standards required by user aircraft. Precise criteria cannot be defined for air strips in this category. However, they will be based upon the aircraft's short take off and landing (STOL) or military operating standards performance.

(3) Engineer Effort. Unlikely to require any engineering work.

(4) Facilities. None.

(5) Usage. Normally for only one aircraft at a time and for a very few movements.

(6) Acceptance. Decided by the appropriate air commander. The decision is based upon the acceptable operational risk level and the need for the accomplishment of the mission.

3. Typical examples of the different types of temporary airfield are illustrated at Annex 12A.

4. It is not anticipated that many tactical airfields will be developed through the categories of Battle to Forward to Support. The Battle air strip will be the exception rather than the rule



and only a small minority of Forward airfields will be developed to become Support airfields. Some air strips will be used exclusively by aircraft involved in Special Forces operations.

5. Helicopter Landing Sites. Helicopter landing sites may be required at all Tactical Transport airfields and at other locations.

6. Harrier Sites. Sites for the Harrier force will be required in the forward area. During exercises and war some or all of the following facilities will be needed at all sites. Details on the construction of these facilities can be found in Military Engineering Volume XIX (ME Vol XIX):

a. Aircraft hides.

b. Taxi tracks and hide floors.

c. Forward operating pads (FOPs).

d. Short take-off strips.

e. Fuel tank sites with access tracks.

f. Engine test pads (ETPs).

g. Jack support pads.

SELECTION

7. The selection of a suitable site for a tactical airfield should be based on the following factors:

a. Tactical Requirement. The site should be as close as possible to the area where the troops and/or supplies are required, with due consideration being given to the operational situation and the urgency of the mission set against the likelihood of hostile action rendering the site unusable.

b. Flying Safety Considerations. In order to ensure a reasonable safety margin to allow for piloting inaccuracies and mechanical failure, the area surrounding the proposed site should be free from:

(1) The likelihood of enemy ground fire in the circuit and in the approach and departure lanes.

(2) High ground, tall trees, radio masts, buildings, pylons or power cables in the approach and departure lanes.

(3) Uncontrolled roads or railways close to the end of the strip.

(4) The strip should be as level as possible, both laterally and longitudinally, the surface free from ditches, obstacles and water. For flying safety considerations it should be easily identified from the air, but this should be balanced against the tactical situation which may dictate that the site should be concealed from aerial surveillance.

c. Aircraft Performance Considerations. Each individual sortie will require the aircraft performance capabilities to be determined from the appropriate Operating Data Manual (ODM). This will dictate whether the strip is operable and the maximum aircraft weight permissible.



d. Engineering Considerations. Where possible, the site should be selected to minimise the engineering effort required. There should be good natural drainage of the site and easy access for vehicles.

SITE RECONNAISSANCE

General

8. Acceptance of a particular site as a temporary airfield is the responsibility of the RAF and will normally be based on the recommendations of a reconnaissance report submitted by a joint RE/RAF reconnaissance team. On the reconnaissance, the site should be considered in 3 separate areas:

a. Manoeuvring Area. This comprises those areas which may be traversed by the aircraft wheels which are:

(1) Runway

(2) Turning-circles

(3) Overruns

(4) Taxiway(s)/Taxitracks

(5) Apron(s)/Dispersals

(6) The hard shoulder on both sides of the runway and taxiway and surrounding the apron.

b. Clear Areas. These comprise those areas over which parts of the aircraft may pass when the aircraft wheels are traversing the manoeuvring area and extend a specified distance beyond the hard shoulder for the entire length of the runway, overruns and taxiway on both sides and beyond the hard shoulder around the apron.

c. Lateral Safety Zone and Clear Zones. These are areas which may be overflown by aircraft landing, taking off or over shooting. The lateral safety zone extends for a specified distance beyond the edge of the clear area for the whole length of the runway and should be free of all obstacles above a certain height for the total length of the runway and overruns. The clear zones extend into the approach zone and should be clear of obstacles over a specified height above the take-off surface level.

9. Other Aspects. The reconnaissance team should also consider:

a. An area for air portable fuel containers on Forward and Support temporary airfields.

b. Weapon storage area.

c. Vehicular access to the airfield, particularly the apron, dispersals and the fuel and weapon storage areas.

d. Physical security.

e. Water Supply.

f. Support facilities for ground personnel.



Future Developments

10. When conducting the reconnaissance and before applying the criteria for any particular type of temporary airfield, due consideration should be given to the possibility of it being improved into another type of temporary airfield. This applies in particular to the selection of gradients.

Criteria

11. An illustration of the criteria terms is at Figure 12-1. The criteria for all aspects of temporary airfields are detailed in Chapter 14 of this publication.

Figure 12-1 Illustration of Criteria Terms

Lateral Safety Zone

Lateral Safety Zone

Clear Area

Clear Area

Shoulder

Shoulder

Runway Clear Zone Approach ZoneOverRun



Annex 12A: Types of Temporary/Tactical Airfields

Figure 12-2 Typical Battle Temporary Airfield

Figure 12-3 Typical Forward Temporary Airfield

Figure 12-4 Typical Support Temporary Airfield

Runway

Apron

Taxiway

Overrun

Fuel ContainerArea



Chapter 13: Criteria for Temporary/Tactical Airfields

APPLICATION OF CRITERIA

1. It should be noted that the criteria quoted in this publication are minima (except for gradients which are maxima) and are not necessarily the actual requirement for the conditions prevailing. Any local relaxation of criteria to meet especially difficult conditions should be agreed by the appropriate air commander.

2. The aircraft data that should be used when determining the manoeuvring area criteria are:

a. Wing span

b. Length

c. Wheel track

d. Minimum ground turning circle

e. Aircraft Classification Number (ACN), where there is a rigid or flexible pavement. Single Wheel Load (SWL), or Aircraft AUW where there is no paved surface.

f. Data sheets for selected aircraft are at Annex 13A.

DIMENSIONAL CRITERIA

3. General. Dimensional criteria, gradients and the required ground strength for a Tac AT airfield are tabulated at Annex 13B. The maximum longitudinal and transverse gradients are shown diagrammatically at Annex 13B.

4. Specimen Dimensioned Airfield Layout. Figure 13-4 shows a specimen dimensional layout for a Tac AT airfield. The position of the apron may be moved to suit local topographical conditions. Taxiways need not necessarily enter the apron as shown provided that clear zone criteria are not infringed. Drainage ditches, if required should be sited along the outer edges of runway shoulders and not less than 20 ft (6.1m) from the outer edges of aprons or taxiways. Where an apron and taxiways are not provided a turning circle should be provided at the ends of the runway.

5. Determination of Runway Lengths.

a. Take-off or landing runs required should normally be determined from the Operating Data Manual (ODM) of the aircraft concerned for zero wind conditions using the ambient pressure and temperature appropriate to the site.

b. The length of the runway determined from the aircraft ODM in accordance with Chapter 14 Para 5 above using the prevailing conditions, should be based on the distance required for the aircraft to land from a height of 50 ft (15.2m) over the runway end, or to gain a height of 50 ft (15.2m) at the end of the TODA on take-off, whichever is the greater.

c. Additional field length factors should be applied where the runway surface is contaminated by either, water, snow or ice. Where these factors are not given in the ODM they should be advised by the RAF.



6. Soft Surfaces. The extra drag imposed by operating on soft surfaces increases the take-off length required. Where available, separate lengths are given in the ODM for operations from natural surfaces. The factors for contamination given in the ODM can only be applied to paved surfaces. Providing a natural surface is strong enough to support the aircraft (ie has sufficient CBR for the weight) the question of ruts is not a considered factor. As a further guide, when the observed take-off distance of aircraft using a soft surface has increased to 50% over the ODM figure for hard surfaces, the runway should be closed for further evaluation and possible improvement.

7. Runway Width. Runway width is based on the safety requirement for flying in reduced visibility and the lateral stability of the particular aircraft. For day operations from a tactical airfield the minimum width is 60 ft (18.29m) although 120 ft (36.58m) is desirable if circumstances permit. The minimum runway width is also dependent upon cross-wind and wheel track. A good "rule of thumb" for the minimum runway widths of dry runways is:

Cross-Wind Component Minimum Runway Width

Up to 10 kts Aircraft wheel track plus 20 ft (6.1m)



8. Based on this criteria, a 60 ft (18.3m) runway should be satisfactory for the aircraft listed at Annex 13A provided the runway surface is dry and the cross-wind component does not exceed 15 kts. Operations in cross-winds greater than 15 kts should be approached with caution. When the runway is ‘man’ marked the minimum width for C130 operations is 90 ft (27.4m).

9. Runway Shoulders

a. Width 10 ft (3.05m).

b. Length: To extend for the full length of the runway and overruns.

10. Runway Clear Area

a. Width: 35 ft (10.67m).

b. Length: To extend for the full length of the runway and overruns.

11. Runway Lateral Safety Zone

a. Width: 75 ft (22.86m).

b. Length: To extend for the full length of the runway and connect with the extremities of the outer width of the clear zone.

12. Runway Clear Zone

a. Inner Width: 150 ft (45.72m).

b. Outer Width:

(1) Battle and Special Forces: 300 ft (91.44m).

(2) Forward and Support: 500 ft (152.4m).



c. Length: 500 ft (152.4m).

13. Runway Approach Zone

a. Inner Width at Limit of Clear Zone:



b. Outer width: 2 nm (3.7km).

c. Length: 3.73 nm (6.91km) from end of runway.

14. Overruns

a. Width: 60 ft(18.29m) or the same width as the runway if that is greater than 60 ft.

b. Length:



15. Turning Circles. The size of a turning circle is based on the turning capability of the aircraft using the runway. Minimum possible aircraft turning circles should not be used because of the risk of damage to undercarriage or tyres or to the runway surface. The Air Staff should advise on the diameter required. For Tac AT aircraft it will be in the order of 140 ft (42.67m) diameter. When a loop taxiway is provided to the apron at both ends of a runway a turning circle is not normally needed. Where a single taxiway is provided to an apron at one end of the runway this also negates the need for a turning circle at that end. Where provided, turning circles can be considered as part of the overrun.

16. Taxiways. The provision of a taxiway allows rapid clearance of the runway and aircraft circulation between the runway and aprons. Their dimensional criteria are:

a. Width of straight section.

(1) Battle and Forward: 30 ft (9.14m).

(2) Support: 36 ft (10.97m).

b. Turning Radii. 70 ft (21.34m). The size of fillets required where the taxiway joins the runway and aprons should be related to the turning circle of the aircraft. The exception to this is when AM-2 airfield matting is used as the surface and no fillets are provided see Chapter 15.

c. Distance from Runway Centre Line to Edge of Taxiway Shoulder: 246ft (74.98m).

17. Taxiway Shoulders

a. Width: 10 ft (3.05m).

b. Length: To extend for the entire length of the taxiway.

18. Taxiway Clear Area



a. Width: 65 ft (19.81m).

b. Length: To extend for the entire length of the taxiway and connect to the clear area of the runway and aprons.

19. Apron

a. An apron is a prepared area or marked area for parking aircraft when they are being loaded, unloaded, refuelled or serviced. It may be possible to use a single apron for all these functions or it may be necessary to separate the aircraft servicing from the air movements function.

b. The dimensions of an apron should be calculated as follows:

(1) Width: Aircraft wing span plus 20 ft (6.1m) times the number of aircraft planned to be on the apron at any one time. It should be noted that the minimum normal spacing between parked aircraft (wing tip to wing tip) from a fire hazard point of view is 30 ft (9.14m). Available space and operational considerations may dictate a reduction from this figure. In this event the distance between aircraft wing tips should never be less than 10 ft (3.05m).

(2) Depth: Aircraft length times a factor of 1.5.

(3) Distance from runway centre-line to edge of apron shoulder: 246 ft (74.98m).

c. When more than one type of aircraft is involved, the formulae at Para 19b and 19b(1) above should be applied for each type separately and the totals added to give a theoretical requirement. When selecting or designing the shape of apron actually required, the use of scaled diagrams and cut outs is advisable to ensure full ground manoeuvrability.

20. Apron Shoulders

a. Width: 10 ft (3.05m).

b. Length: To completely surround the apron.

21. Apron Clear Area

a. Width: 65 ft (19.81m).

b. Length: To completely surround the apron.

22. Air Portable Fuel Container Area. A prepared area adjacent to the apron or to a specially selected site will be required if air portable fuel containers have to be unloaded. The size of the area should be at least 300 ft (91.44m) in length and 60 ft (18.29m) in depth.

23. Area for Emergency Fuel Handling Systems

a. For a support airfield it may be necessary to provide an emergency bulk fuel installation (EBFI). The site selected should be reasonably level, and free from rocks and sharp stones. Spoil for the construction of the bunds for the pillow tanks should be available in close proximity. Access for bowsers should also be taken into account.

b. The size of the area required will depend on the number of pillow tanks to be provided (which is normally 2 or 4) and their capacity. Each tank will be either 10,000



gallons (45.46m2) or 30,000 gallons (136.38m2). Each tank may have a separate lined bund, or a maximum of 2 tanks can be contained by a bund. The pertinent dimensions from which the total area can be calculated are:

(1) Minimum inside bund dimensions for each 10,000 gallon tank: 14 ft 9 ins (4.5m) wide and 42 ft 6 ins (12.95m) long.

(2) Minimum inside bund dimensions for each 30,000 gallon tank: 29 ft 6 ins (9m) wide and 50 ft 6 ins (15.5m) long.

(3) Minimum height of bund:

(a) 10,000 gallon tank - 3 ft 3 ins (1m).

(b) 30,000 gallon tank - 4 ft 6 ins (1.4m).

(4) Minimum thickness of top of bund: 1 ft 6 ins (0.46m) for all tanks.

(5) Minimum thickness at base of bund:

(a) 10,000 gallon tank - 7 ft 6 ins (2.3m).

(b) 30,000 gallon tank - 10 ft 6 ins (3.2m).

(6) Approximate area required for manifold, pipework and dispense point:

(a) For 2 tanks (any size): Length: total width of tank farm. Depth: 12 ft (3.66m).

(b) For 4 tanks (any size): Length: Total width of tank farm. Depth: 16 ft (4.88m).

c. When siting a bund, care should be taken not to site it within the lateral safety zone, clear area or clear zone. The nearest point of the bund should be a minimum of 1000 ft (300m) from the edge of the active runway(s), so that for instance an engine running Chinook could be refuelling in the bund area at the same time as a Hercules is landing on the main runway.

OBSTRUCTION CRITERIA

24. Manoeuvring Area. The manoeuvring area should be completely free from all obstructions.

25. Clear Areas. Obstructions exceeding 6 ins (152mm) in height in the clear areas should be removed. Approved marking panels are the exception.

26. Lateral Safety Zones. The lateral safety zones should be clear of all obstructions over 3 ft (0.91m) in height for the total length of the runway plus the length of the overruns.

27. Clear Zones. The clear zones on the runway approaches should be clear of all trees and other obstacles exceeding 40 ft (12.19m) above the level of the take-off surface.



GRADIENT CRITERIA

28. Runway Longitudinal Gradient

a. The end thirds of the runway should have a maximum gradient of 1.33% (1 in 75) up or 2% (1 in 50) down. For Hercules C Mk 3 aircraft the maximum down gradient is 1% (1 in 100). Gradient changes in the first 500 ft (152.4m) from either end of the runway should be avoided.

b. The centre third of the runway should have a maximum gradient of 2% (1 in 50) up or down. Changes in gradient after the first 500 ft (152.4m) from either end should not occur more than twice in any 400 ft (121.92m). The maximum rate of change should not exceed 0.25% (1 in 400) per 100 ft (30.48m).

29. Runway Transverse Gradient. A camber or crossfall of up to 2% (1 in 50) can be used. Changes in transverse gradient should be consistent with the drainage requirement.

30. Runway Shoulders

a. Longitudinal Gradient to conform to that of the runway.

b. Maximum Transverse Gradient: 4% (1 in 25) up or down.

31. Overruns

a. Maximum Longitudinal Gradient: 1.5% (1 in 66) up to 2% (1 in 50) down.

b. Maximum Transverse Gradient: A camber or crossfall of up to 2% (1 in 50) may be used.

c. Turning Circles. Gradients should conform to those of the runway unless the turning circle is included in the overrun. In that case gradients for the overrun apply.

32. Clear Areas and Lateral Safety Zones

a. Maximum Transverse Gradient 10% (1 in 10).

33. Taxiways

a. Maximum Longitudinal Gradient: 3% (1 in 33) up or down.

b. Maximum Transverse Gradient: 2% (1 in 50) crossfall or camber.

34. Taxiway Shoulders

a. Maximum Transverse Gradient: 4% (1 in 25) up or down.

35. Aprons

a. Maximum Longitudinal Gradient: 3% (1 in 33) up or down.

b. Maximum Transverse Gradient: 2% (1 in 50) crossfall or camber.

36. Apron Shoulders

a. Maximum Transverse Gradient: 4% (1 in 25) up or down.



37. Bases for EBFI Fuel Tanks

a. Maximum Longitudinal Gradient: 1.66% (1 in 60). This should slope down towards the tank outlet.

b. Maximum Transverse Gradient: 1.66% (1 in 60). Crossfall only.

STRENGTH CRITERIA

38. General. The strength criteria given below for paved surfaces apply to the runway, turning circles, taxiways and aprons. For natural surfaces it also applies to the overruns and shoulders. The system used to grade the strength requirement for paved airfields is the Aircraft Classification Number and Pavement Classification Number (ACN/PCN) system. For unpaved surfaces the AUW of the aircraft or the Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL) of the aircraft is used. An unpaved surface cannot be allocated a PCN.

39. Paved Surfaces

a. The ACN / PCN System. The ACN/PCN system provides a method of classifying pavement bearing strength and should be used for aircraft above 12,500 lbs (5700kg) Maximum Total Weight Authorised (MTWA). The ACN is a number expressing the relative effect of an aircraft load on a pavement for a specified standard sub-grade strength. The PCN is a number equal to the ACN of the aircraft which imposes a severity of loading equal to the maximum permitted on the pavement of unrestricted use.

b. ACN. The ACN is calculated taking into account the weight of the aircraft, the pavement type (rigid or flexible), and the sub-grade category. ACN values for certain aircraft are included in the data sheets at Annex 13A. Those for other military aircraft are given in the Flight Information Handbook. The tables in the FIH have ACN values for 2 weights, one at MTWA and the lower for Operating Weight Empty (OWE). If the aircraft is operating at an intermediate weight, the ACN value can be calculated by a linear interpolation between the limits. Extrapolation is not permissible.

c. PCN. PCNs are reported as a five part code. Apart from the numerical value of the PCN, the report includes the pavement type (rigid or flexible) and the sub-grade support strength category. Provision is made in the report for the aerodrome authority to place a limit on maximum allowable tyre pressure, if this is a constraint, and an indication is required of whether the pavement has been evaluated by technical means or by past experience of aircraft use of the pavement. Details of the coded format and an example are:

(1) The PCN number

(2) The type of pavement:

(a) R = Rigid

(b) F = Flexible

(3) The pavement subgrade category:

(a) A = High (k = 150 MN/m²/m for rigid pavements or CBR of 15 % for flexible).

(b) B = Medium (k = 80 MN/m²/m for rigid pavements or CBR of 10 % for flexible).



(c) C = Low (k = 40 MN/m²/m for rigid pavements or CBR of 6 % for flexible).

(d) D = Ultra Low (k = 20 MN/m²/m for rigid pavements or CBR of 3 % for flexible).

(4) The maximum tyre pressure authorised for pavement:

(a) W = High, no limit.

(b) X = Medium, limited to 217 psi (1.50 MN/m²).

(c) Y = Low, limited to 145 psi (1.0 MN/m²).

(d) Z = Very Low, limited to 73 psi (0.5 MN/m²).

(5) Pavement Evaluation Method:

(a) T = Technical evaluation.

(b) U = By experience of aircraft using the pavement.

(6) Example: If the bearing strength of a rigid pavement resting on a medium strength sub-grade has been assessed by a technical evaluation to be a PCN of 80 and there is no tyre pressure limit, then the reported information would be: PCN - 80/R/B/W/T.

d. Normal Operations. Provided a pavement PCN is equal to or greater than the ACN of the aircraft, unlimited use of the pavement is permitted.

e. Overload Operations. Individual aerodrome authorities are free to decide on their own criteria for permitting overload operations as long as pavements remain safe for use by aircraft. Overload operations in excess of the ACN over PCN of 50% should only be undertaken in an emergency. Overload operations for a limited number of movements is allowed and can be carried out, after consultation with a professionally qualified engineer from the Royal Engineers with experience in the Air Support Role.

40. Natural Surfaces

a. For natural/unpaved surfaces the ACN/PCN method should not be used. Reference should be made instead to the old LCN methodology for which proven empirical data exists. LCN values for military aircraft types most likely to use unpaved surfaces are included on the aircraft data sheets at Annex 13A There is no correlation between runway PCN and LCN nor should one be attempted.

b. The strength of a natural surface in terms of load bearing capacity cannot be predicted with any accuracy. It can be determined at any instant of time by measurement of its California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and this ratio related to a permissible aircraft AUW or equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL).

c. The method of determining CBR is dependent on the subgrade material.

d. It is stressed that the strength of a natural surface can vary considerably over a period of time and the CBR can expect to be reduced following periods of rain, particularly if this is associated with inadequate drainage or the surface has poor drainage characteristics. It is therefore essential that the CBR of a natural strip should



be checked immediately prior to usage and regularly monitored in changing weather conditions.

e. The CBR requirements in relation to the LCN of the aircraft and the number of movements planned is shown on the graph at Annex 13D.

f. Where a requirement exists for only a very few aircraft movements, it can be assumed in normal conditions that a reduction in the CBR values required for a given aircraft AUW is permissible. In these circumstances the graph at Annex 13D can be used to determine the CBR required for a Hercules C Mk 1 aircraft. The AUW limits, shown below for a Hercules C Mk 1 (and in brackets for C Mk 3) aircraft are, however, overriding and should not be exceeded:

Table 13-1 CBR

CBR Max Take-off wt (Normal)

Max Take-off wt (Overload)

Max Landing wt (Normal)

Max Landing wt (Overload)

Lb kg lb kg lb kg lb kg 3-5a 111,000 50,350 N/A 111,000 50,350 N/A

>5-<10 120,000 54,432 135,000 61,236 120,000 54,432 N/A >10 155,000 70,308 155,000 70,308 135,000 61,236 155,000 70,308 >10 (160,000) (72,576) (175,000) (79,380) (135,000) (61,236) (175,000) (79,380)

a. Operations from an airstrip with a CBR of 5 or less cannot be considered normal and will always require special attention of the Air Staff.

SURFACE ROUGHNESS CRITERIA

41. Surface Roughness - Short Wavelength. On the initial reconnaissance and at subsequent inspection of the strip, short wavelength surface roughness should be assessed on the following criteria:

a. Bumps. Wedge shaped bumps not more than 4 ins (102mm) high, with a leading slope not exceeding 2% (1 in 50), spaced more than 150 ft (45.72m) apart are acceptable on the manoeuvring area. For aircraft over 147,000 lbs (55.679 kg) AUW the height of bumps should not exceed 2 ins (51mm).

b. Rocks

(1) Manoeuvring Area. Rocks should be removed unless they are either interlocked with each other or embedded in such a manner that traversing by aircraft tyres will not displace them. Sharp flints that may cut aircraft tyres must be removed.

(2) Clear Areas. Loose rocks and stones need not normally be removed unless they exceed 4 ins (102mm) in diameter.

c. Soil Balls

(1) Manoeuvring Area. Soil ball or dried earth clods (excluding clay) up to 10 ins (254mm) diameter that will burst upon tyre impact can be accepted. Hardened clay clods exceeding 4 ins (102mm) in diameter should be removed, or 2 ins in diameter (51mm) if the aircraft AUW exceeds 147,000 lbs (66.679 kg).

(2) Clear Areas. Soil balls need not be removed.



d. Tree Stumps

(1) Manoeuvring Area. All should be removed.

(2) Clear Areas. To be cut to within 2 ins (51mm) of the ground.

e. Ditches

(1) Manoeuvring Area. All ditches should be filled and the bearing strength of the fill material should not be less than that of the surrounding soil.

(2) Clear Areas. The edge slope of essential drainage ditches should not exceed 1 in 10 (10%).

f. Ruts

(1) Manoeuvring Area. Whether ruts become a limiting factor depends on their orientation, depth and load bearing capacity. All significant ruts in the touch down and take off areas should be filled. In other areas ruts exceeding 3 ins (76mm) in depth, or 2 ins (51mm) for aircraft with an AUW in excess of 147,000 lbs (66.679 kg), should be filled. Filled ruts should have a bearing capacity at least equal to that of the surrounding soil.

(2) Clear Areas. Ruts may be ignored.

g. Ploughed Fields. Contours of soil patterns produced by ploughing, either established to reduce erosion, or enhance drainage, or to prepare land for planting, usually contain a soft core. However ploughed areas will not normally require attention provided that all the other criteria for manoeuvring areas and clear areas listed in this para is satisfied.

h. Depressions and Soil Mounds

(1) Manoeuvring Area. Depressions and soil mounds have rounded profiles and can be recognised as oval or circular gradual sinks or rises. Those which have a top diameter greater than 15 ins (381mm) and a depth or height exceeding 3 ins (76mm) should be filled or levelled.

(2) Clear Areas. Depressions and mounds should not exceed 1 ft (305mm) in depth or height.

i. Potholes

(1) Manoeuvring Area. Potholes are circular or oval on plan and are distinguished from depressions by their smaller size and sharp angled profile. Those that exceed 15 ins (381mm) across their widest point and 6 ins (152mm) in depth should be filled. In addition, potholes of any dimension located less than 20 ft (6.1m) from one another should also be filled. For aircraft with an AUW in excess of 147,000 lbs (66.679 kg) the maximum permissible depth of potholes is 2 ins (51mm).

(2) Clear Areas. Potholes may be ignored.

42. Slipperiness. When surfaces of the manoeuvring area are soft and slippery, generous allowance should be made for handling difficulties in the ground manoeuvring of aircraft. Similarly, if the airfield surface has an overlying strata of clay or other non-cohesive soils it may result in a lack of longitudinal and/or directional control by the aircraft in wet weather.



The suitability of the surface of an airfield for use by aircraft relying on wheel brakes for stopping and nose-wheel steering for directional control should be assessed by the senior RAF officer available on the reconnaissance. There is no 'rule of thumb' method of assessment that can be used by officers who are neither qualified to fly nor experienced on the type of user aircraft.

43. Surface Roughness - Long Wavelength. Details of long wavelength surface roughness criteria are at Chapter 14 of this publication.



Annex 13A: Aircraft Data Sheets

Aircraft Data Sheets

Aircraft: BAe 146 Series 100

Manufacturer: British Aerospace

Function: Short/Medium Range Transport

Dimensions:

Wing Span: 86 ft -5 ins (26.34m)

Length: 85ft -10ins (26.16m)

Height: 28ft -3ins (8.61m)

Wheel Arrangement: Tricycle

Track: 15ft -6ins (4.72m)

Base: 33ft -1½ins (10.10m)

Load on Nose Wheel: 8-11%

Undercarriage Details:


Base: N/A



LCN/LCG – BAe 146 Series 100

Load Condition

Operating Weight Empty

Max Landing Weight

Max Take-off Weight

Max Wt for Operations on

Unprepared Runways All Up Weight (lbs) All Up Weight (kg) Tyre Pressure (psi) Tyre Pressure (MN/m2)

50,700 22,998

79 (Note 1) 0.55

73,350 33,270

82 (Note 1) 0.57

82,750 37,535

82 (Note 1) 0.57

76,500 34,700

82 (note 1) 0.57

ESWL LCN LCG ESWL LCN LCG ESWL LCN LCG ESWL LCN LCG lbf kgf lbf kgf lbf kgf lbf kgf Classification 13,000 5,897 14 VI 17,000 7,711 18 V 19,000 8,618 20 V 17,400 7,893 18 V ACN - BAe 146 Series 100 Load Condition

All Up Weight

Tyre Pressure (Note 1)

Aircraft Classification Number

Rigid Pavement Subgrades Flexible Pavement Subgrades

lbs

kg

psi

MN/m2 High

A

Medium

B

Low

C

Ultra Low

D

High

A

Medium

B

Low

C

Ultra Low

D Operating Weight Empty 50,700 22,998 79 0.55 9 10 11 12 7 9 10 13 Max Landing Weight 73,350 33,270 82 0.57 TO BE NOTIFIED Max Take-Off Weight 82,750 37,535 82 0.57 16 18 20 21 14 17 20 24 Overload Note: 1. The table assumes the aircraft is fitted with low pressure tyres.



Aircraft: Hercules C 130 Mk 1 and C 130J Mk 5

Manufacture: Lockheed - Georgia Co Ltd

Function: Medium Range (Tactical) Transport

Dimensions:

Wing Span: 132ft -7ins (40.41m)





Base: 32ft -2ins (9.80m)

Load on Nose Wheel: 4%

Undercarriage Details: Tandem

Track: N/A

Base: 5ft -0½ ins(1.54m)



LCN/LCG - Hercules C130 Mk1 & C130J Mk 5

Load Condition


Max Landing Weight

Max Take-off Weight

Overload

All Up Weight (lbs) All Up Weight (kg) Tyre Pressure (psi) Tyre Pressure (MN/m2)

74,166 33,642

80 0.55

135,000 61,236

110 0.76

156,061 70,789

110 0.76

175000 79380 119 0.82

ESWL LCN LCG ESWL LCN LCG ESWL LCN LCG ESWL LCN LCG lbf kgf lbf kgf lbf kgf lbf kgf Classification 21,650 9,820 22 V 38,990 17,686 41 IV 45,250 20,525 48 IV 50,890 23,084 55 III ACN - Hercules C130 Mk1 & C130J Mk 5

Load Condition

All Up Weight




lbs

kg

psi

MN/m2 High

A

Medium

B

Low

C

Ultra Low

D

High

A

Medium

B

Low

C

Ultra Low

D Operating Weight Empty 76,300 34,610 80 0.55 13 13 15 16 11 13 15 16 Max Landing Weight 135,000 61,236 110 0.76 23 26 28 31 21 25 28 31 Max Take-Off Weight 156,000 70,762 110 0.76 27 30 33 36 24 29 32 37 Overload 175,000 79,380 119 0.82 36 39 42 45 33 36 38 43



Aircraft: Hercules C 130 Mk 3 and C 130J Mk 4

Manufacturer: Lockheed - Georgia Co Ltd

Function: Medium Range (Tactical) Transport

Dimensions:







Load on Nose Wheel: 3.2%

Undercarriage Details: Tandem

Track: N/A

Base: 5ft -0½ ins (1.54m)



LCN/LCG – Hercules C130 Mk 3 & C130 Mk 4

Load Condition


Max Landing Weight

Max Take-off Weight

Overload


80,782 336,432

80 0.55

135,000 61,236

110 0.76

160,000 72,576

110 0.76

175,000 79,380

119 0.82

ESWL LCN LCG ESWL LCN LCG ESWL LCN LCG ESWL LCN LCG lbf kgf lbf kgf lbf kgf lbf kgf Classification 23,237 10,540 23 V 39,278 17,817 42 IV 47,374 21,489 50 IV 51,511 23,365 55 III ACN - Hercules C130 Mk 3 & C130 Mk 4:

Load Condition

All Up Weight



Rigid Pavement Subgrades Flexible Pavement Subgrades lbs kg psi MN/m2 High

A Medium

B Low

C

Ultra Low

D

High

A

Medium

B

Low

C

Ultra Low

D Operating Weight Empty 80,700 36,606 80 0.55 13 14 16 17 12 14 16 17 Max Landing Weight 135,000 61,236 110 0.76 23 26 28 31 21 25 28 31 Max Take-Off Weight 160,000 72,576 110 0.76 32 35 38 40 30 33 35 39 Overload 175,000 79,380 119 0.82 36 39 42 45 33 36 38 43



Aircraft: Islander BN-2T

Manufacturer: PBN Ltd

Function: Army Liaison/Light short range transport

Dimensions:







Load on Nose Wheel: (TBN)

Undercarriage Details: Twin

Track: (TBN)

Base: N/A



LCN/LCG - Islander BN-2T

Load Condition


Max Landing Weight

Max Take-off Weight

Overload


4434 2011 35

0.24

6670 3025 35

0.24

7000 3175 35

0.24

ESWL LCN LCG ESWL LCN LCG ESWL LCN LCG ESWL LCN LCG lbf kgf lbf kgf lbf kgf lbf kgf Classification 1,583 718 1 VII 2,456 1114 2 VII 2,538 1,151 2 VII ACN - Islander BN-2T

Load Condition

All Up Weight




lbs

Kg

psi

MN/m2 High

A

Medium

B

Low

C

Ultra Low

D

High

A

Medium

B

Low

C

Ultra Low

D Operating Weight Empty 4,220 1,914 35 0.24 ] Max Landing Weight 6,800 3,084 35 0.24 ] TO BE NOTIFIED Max Take-Off Weight 7,000 3,175 35 0.24 ] Overload



Annex 13B: Criteria for Temporary/Tactical Airfields for TAC AT Aircraft

Criteria

BATTLE FORWARD SUPPORT RUNWAYS Length (see Chapter 13 Para 5) Width (minimum) Longitudinal Gradient (maximum overall) (Note 1) Transverse Gradient (maximum) (Note 1) CBR (minimum) RUNWAY SHOULDERS Width (minimum) Transverse Gradient (maximum) (Note 1) CBR (Minimum) OVERRUNS Length (minimum) Width (minimum) Longitudinal Gradient (maximum) (Note 1) Transverse Gradient (maximum) (Note 1) CBR (minimum) TAXIWAY Length Width of straight section (minimum) Turn Radii (minimum) Clearance from Runway Centre Line to Edge of Taxiway Shoulder (minimum) Longitudinal Gradient (maximum overall) (Note 1)

-

60ft (18.29m) ±3.1%

±2%

3

10ft (3.05m) ±4%

3

100ft (30.48m) 60ft (18.29m) +1.5% or -2%

±2% 3

Variable 30ft (9.14m)

70ft (21.34m) 246ft (74.98m)

±3%

-

60ft (18.29m) ±3.1%

±2%

5

10ft (3.05m) ±4%

5

300ft (91.44m) 60ft (18.29m) +1.5% or -2%

±2% 5

Variable 30ft (9.14m)

70ft (21.34m) 246ft (74.98m)

±3%

-

60ft (18.29m) ±3.1%

±2% 10

10ft (3.05m) ±4% 10

300ft (91.44m) 60ft (18.29m) +1.5% or -2%

±2% 10

Variable 36ft (10.97m) 70ft (21.34m) 246ft (74.98m)

±3%



BATTLE FORWARD SUPPORT Transverse Gradient (maximum) (Note 1) CBR (minimum) TAXIWAY SHOULDERS Width (minimum) Transverse Gradient (maximum) (Note 1) CBR (minimum) APRON Length per Aircraft (see Chapter 13 Para 19) Width (see Chapter 13 Para 19) Clearance From Runway Centre Line to Edge of Apron Shoulder Longitudinal Gradient (maximum) (Note 1) Transverse Gradient (maximum) (Note 1) CBR (minimum) APRON SHOULDERS Width (minimum) Transverse Gradient (maximum) CBR (minimum) CLEAR AREAS Width for Runways (minimum) Width for Taxiway and Apron minimum) Transverse Gradient (maximum) (Note 1) Maximum height of obstacles Side slope of Drainage Ditches

±2% 3

10ft (3.05m) ±4%

3

N/A N/A N/A

N/A N/A N/A

N/A N/A N/A

35ft (10.67m) 65ft (19.81m)

±10% 3ft (0.91m)

10% (1 in 10)

±2% 5

10ft (3.05m) ±4%

5

143ft (43.59m) 150ft (45.72m) 246ft (74.98m)

±3% ±2%

5

10ft (3.05m) ±4%

5

35ft (10.67m) 65ft (19.81m)

±10% 3ft (0.91m)

10% (1 in 10)

±2% 10

10ft (3.05m) ±4% 10

143ft (43.59m) 150ft (45.72m) 246ft (74.98m)

±3% ±2 10

10ft (3.05m) ±4% 10

35ft (10.67m) 65ft (19.81m)

±10% 3ft (0.91m)

10% (1 in 10)

LATERAL SAFETY ZONES Width (minimum) Transverse Gradient (maximum) (Note 1) RUNWAY CLEAR ZONE Length (minimum) Inner Width Outer Width Maximum Height of Obstacles (Above Take-Off Surface Level) Side Slope of Drainage Ditches (maximum) AIR PORTABLE FUEL CONTAINER AREA Length (minimum) Width (minimum) CBR (minimum)

75ft (22.86m)

±10%

500ft (152.4m) 150ft (45.72m) 300ft (91.44m) 40ft (12.19m)

10% (1 in 10)

N/A N/A N/A

75ft (22.86m)

±10%

500ft (152.4m) 150ft (45.72m) 500ft (152.4m) 40ft (12.19m)

10% (1 in 10)

300ft (91.44m) 60ft (18.29m)

3

75ft (22.86m)

±10%

500ft (152.4m) 150ft (45.72m) 500ft (152.4m) 40ft (12.19m)

10% (1 in 10)

300ft (91.44m) 60ft (18.29m)

3

Note: The different combinations of the maximum longitudinal and transverse gradients are illustrated at Figure 13-1 and Figure 13-2.



Tac AT Airfield Gradients

Figure 13-1 Maximum Longitudinal Gradients

Notes:

1. The approach clearance plane is aligned on the extremity of the overrun at the level of the runway end, and is joined to the level of the extremity of the overrun as shown.

2. The formula for calculating the rate of gradient of change is:

a = 100A where L a = Rate of change A = Grade Angle = Gradient 1 minus Gradient 2

L = Length of curve

Figure 13-2 Gradient Angles



Example

Gradient 1 = 0.20%

Gradient 2 = 0.03%

Length of curve = 100ft

A = (+0.20) - (-0.03) = + 0.23% (Added algebraically)

∴ Φ3 α = +0.23 ξ 100 = 23 = 0.23% (1 in 435) 100 100 The rate of change is within the maximum permitted rate of 0.25%.

3. For Hercules C Mk 3 aircraft the maximum down gradient is 1% (1 in 100).

Figure 13-3 Maximum Transverse Gradients



Annex 13C: Minimum Dimensional Criteria for Temporary/Tactical

Airfields for Tactical Air Transport Aircraft

Figure 13-4 Dimension Criteria



Annex 13D: Strength Criteria Graphs for Temporary/Tactical Airfields

Figure 13-5 Strength Requirement For Unsurfaced Airfields

Notes:

1. Applies only to aircraft with tyre pressure less than 90 psi (0.62 MN/m²).

2. CBRs are average values in the critical layer as defined in the penetrometer handbook.

3. LCNs are full LCN of aircraft, ie not reduced for limited usage.

4. A movement is one landing or one take-off or one taxiing movement.

Examples

1. An aircraft with an LCN of 30 required to execute 50 planned movements requires the strip to have a minimum CBR of 9.

2. On a strip with a CBR of 10 an aircraft with a LCN of 30 can carry out up to 100 movements.

3. To carry out 1000 movements on a strip with a CBR of 13, the LCN of the aircraft must not exceed 20.



Figure 13-6 Hercules C Mk 1 - Reduction Of CBR for Limited Movements on Unsurfaced Airfields

Notes:

1. Tyre Pressure 60 psi (0.41 MN/m²).

2. The shaded area is usable for overload only.

Examples (shown above)

1. An aircraft with an AUW of 130,000 lbs required to execute 40 planned movements requires a strip with a minimum CBR of 7.

2. On a strip with a CBR of 6 an aircraft with an AUW of 110,000 lbs can carry out 20 movements.

3. To carry out 100 planned movements on a strip with a CBR of 8 the AUW of the aircraft must not exceed 114,000 lbs.



Chapter 14: Instrument Surveys and Marking of Temporary/Tactical Airfields

INSTRUMENT SURVEY OF LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE PROFILES AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

General

1. On any natural surface selected as a runway, or on a natural surface that will receive an expedient surfacing it is necessary to carry out an instrument survey to determine the longitudinal and transverse profiles of the strip. From this, the long wave length surface roughness is assessed. For shortwave surface roughness criteria see Chapter 13 Para 41.

Survey Lines and Intervals of Readings

2. On any strip used for training, levels should be taken at 10 ft (3m) intervals along the centre-line and along each edge of the runway. If there are no obvious differences in profile across the runway the latter may be omitted unless it is planned for aircraft to specifically use any one side of the runway. On operations, circumstances may dictate that level readings should be taken at intervals in excess of 10 ft (3.05m) on the centre-line only in order to save time. In such cases the intervals between level readings should not exceed 100 ft (30.48m).

Analysis of Results

3. The reduced levels calculated from the readings taken should be drawn as a longitudinal profile with the vertical scale for the amplitude greatly exaggerated. An undulations analysis should then be carried as the example shown at Figure 14-5. This entails joining with a straight line, the apex of all peaks and the valley of all troughs so that the line does not cut into the profile of any intermediate peaks or troughs. The vertical height (the amplitude) is then measured together with the horizontal distance between peaks or troughs (the wavelength).

4. For Hercules C Mk 1 and C Mk 3 aircraft, the analysis as Figure 14-5 is then applied to the graph at Figure 14-6 to determine which roughness zone the strip falls into. The highest numbered zone at any particular location determines the roughness zone for the complete strip. If the roughness falls outside zone 4 (on Figure 14-6), then the strip is unacceptable and engineer work will be required to improve the profile.

5. Table 14-4 shows the heaviest configurations of the aircraft applicable to the roughness zones from Figure 14-6 are indicated by a letter. The letter obtained is interpreted at Table 14-5 which shows the maximum all up weight, minimum main tyre pressures and the minimum CBR required for a natural surface.

MARKING OF TEMPORARY AIRFIELDS

General

6. General markings on aerodromes can be found at Chapter 6 Para 4. The markings placed on a temporary airfield will be dictated by the operational situation prevailing, by the need for security and the manpower and material available for marking. The recommended standard layouts for Battle, Forward and Support airfields may therefore be varied to meet the current situation, but in general they should conform to STANAG 3534 (airfield lighting marking and toned down systems for non-permanent/deployed operations). However, it is not permissible to vary them below the following minimum requirements:



a. Battle

(1) Runway corner markers.

(2) Closed and temporarily closed symbols (if required).

b. Forward

(1) Runway corner, side and end markers.


(3) Taxiway and apron markers (if applicable).

c. Support

(1) Runway corner, side and end markers.


(3) Taxiway, apron and marwilling line markers.

d. Additional Markings. The following additional markings may be added if time and material permit.

(1) Airfield boundary markers.

(2) Overrun edges.

(3) Acquisition light.

(4) Apron parking positions.

Marking Devices

7. Marking Panels. For day operations, raised ('A' frame) fluorescent panels with each side measuring 6 ft (1.83m) long by 2ft (0.61m) wide should be used. For Special Forces strips it may be accepted that the panels are laid flat rather than being raised. The panels should be coloured red/orange for use on backgrounds of vegetation or dark lime green for use in desert areas. Panels should be securely anchored to the ground to resist propeller slipstream or jet blast.

8. Marking Lights. During darkness tactical airfields can be marked with portable lighting equipment. This equipment can provide adequate visual guidance to aircraft on visual approaches by night in a minimum meteorological visibility of 2.3 miles (3.7km) and to aircraft on instrument approaches at night in a minimum meteorological visibility of ½ mile (800m). The average luminous intensity of the white runway edge lights should be 50 candela and the green and red runway end lights 10 candela.

9. Tactical Lighting

a. This comprises portable lighting equipment used where there is no requirement to provide lighting at short notice, or where infrequency of use does not justify a fixed installation or where it is not operationally practical to provide a permanent installation.

b. The performance of airfield portable lighting is generally inferior to that achieved by the permanent installations. The reasons for this are attributable to the need to limit



the size and weight of fittings, the limited power available and the requirement of easy and rapid installation under tactical conditions. The general effect of these limitations will raise operating minima.

c. The equipment should be capable of being quickly and easily installed and aligned by a small number of trained personnel. It should also be capable of being removed and re-installed elsewhere. All equipment should comply with the appropriate military environmental specifications. It should be lightweight but able to withstand repeated handling and transportation. Complete systems should be easily transportable by air and military vehicle. The heaviest component should be capable of being manhandled.

d. There are 2 general circumstances where airfield lighting is required:

(1) On runways, taxiways and other manoeuvring areas where lighting permanent installations conforming have been damaged.

(2) On temporary airfields, reserve airfields, minimum operating strips and other tactical facilities, where there is a requirement to provide lighting aids at short notice or where the frequency of use does not justify a fixed installation.

e. Although portable lighting does not match the highest standards of performance that can be achieved with fixed installations, the permanent and portable systems should have as much commonality as possible in such aspects as pattern and colour of lighting signals.

Table 14-1 Operating Criteria for Minimum Strips

Notes:

1. The decision height/altitude to be used with each type of lighting is an operational decision.

2. During daytime when the runway is marked in accordance with Chapter 6 Para 54, the visual guidance may be enhanced by using an abbreviated precision approach path indicator (APAPI) at full intensity and with Type 2 approach lights deployed in accordance with the Type 2 system layout.

3. Installation times are measured from when the operating authority permits entry into a prepared area. Installation times include the time required for the installation of any control systems, which may be necessary.

f. Tactical Lighting Equipment

(1) Minimum Operating Strip Lighting Kit (MOSKIT). MOSKIT comprises: omni-directional runway edge lights (ORELs); uni-directional approach lights (UAL); tactical PAPIs (TAC PAPI) and night vision device (NVD) compatible PAPIs. When deployed the MOSKIT conforms to a Type 2 lighting system.

SYSTEM TYPE VISUAL CONDITIONS MAXIMUM

INSTALLATION TIME

TYPICAL OPERATIONAL

PERIOD 1 Night Met Vis >7 km 20 min 8hrs

2A (Visual App) 2B (Instrument App)

Night Met Vis > 3.7 km Night Met Vis > 0.8 km

20 min 20 min

8 hrs 8 hrs

3 Day/Night Met Vis > 0.4 km 4 hrs Continuous



(2) Portable Airfield Ground Lighting (PAGL). The PAGL will provide a full replacement lighting system and incorporates runway edge, approach and taxiway lighting and tactical PAPIs.

g. Lighting Patterns

(1) Type 1. Tactical portable lighting, in the form of MOSKIT should be provided for flying operations at night in visibility not below 7km. The minimum characteristics and layout are shown in Table 14-1 or Figure 14-7.

(2) When a taxiway will be delineated, light types A and B emitting blue should be used. The interval between the units should not exceed 60m. Where aircraft taxiing lights can be used the taxiway may be delineated with retro reflective markers in accordance with Chapter 6 Para 54.

h. Unit Characteristics. The requirements of para 9f are to be met by the light types shown in Table 14-2 together with a PAPI, where applicable. The photometric characteristics of the light fittings are given at Figure 14-2 to Figure 14-4.

Table 14-2 Light Unit Characteristic

LIGHT TYPE BEAMSPREAD INTENSITY (Cd) LOCATION

A Omni-directional 15 Runway Edge

B Omni-directional 50 Runway Edge

C Omni-directional 250 Approach

D Uni-directional 5000 Runway Edge, Approach

Notes:

1. If area sources such as fluorescent tubes or electroluminescent panels are used without lenses or reflectors for Type A (or possible Type B) systems the equivalent intensity is determined by the relationship: I = L x A where I = Intensity ICd); L=Luminance of source (Cd/rn²) and A=Area of source (m²).

2. Where a glidepath indicator system is required an abbreviate PAPI system is sufficient – see Figure 14-3 and Figure 14-4).

3. Brilliancy control is required on the Type D lights and high intensity visual indicators (VGSI) for use at night when visibility conditions are better than 3.7km.



Figure 14-1 Photometric Characteristics: Omnidirectional Runway Edge (Type a and B) and Approach Lights (Type C)

Figure 14-2 Photometric Characteristics: (A: Unidirectional Runway Edge and B: Unidirectional Approach Lights (Type D))

RUNWAY EDGE UNI/BI DIRECTIONAL

Figure A

Note: Light units conforming to Figure A may also be used as approach lights.



APPROACH CENTRE-LINE AND CROSSBAR UNI DIRECTIONAL

Figure B



Figure 14-3 Abbreviated PAPI System (APAPI)

Note: Dimensions shown in metres and approximate feet. Dimensions

A= 6m (20ft)

B=Not less than 7.5m (25ft)

APAPI LAYOUT

Note: Each light unit projects a white over red light signal into the approach aimed at such angles that an approaching pilot when on glideslope will see one red light inboard of one white light. As the pilot diverges above or below the glideslope he will see two number white or red lights respectively.

SIGNAL FORMAT



Figure 14-4 Abbreviated PAPI System (APAPI) (Photometric Characteristics: Isocandela diagram for white light. Transmission Factor for Red Sector not less than 20%)

10. Light System Specification. The light systems should be deployed as shown in Figures 14-7 to 14-9. The layouts illustrated are the minimum patterns to meet the operating criteria. They may be supplemented to meet operational need, but the basic patterns and coding should be maintained.

Table 14-3 Light System Specifications

SYSTEM TYPE LIGHT TYPE 1 A. (Runway Edge)

2 B. (Runway Edge) C. (Approach High Intensity VGSI)

3 D. (Runway Edge, Approach) High Intensity VGSI

Smoke. As an indication of the wind direction and speed, smoke other than red may be used.

It should be so placed that other airfield markings are not obscured.

11. Airfield Acquisition Light. If an airfield acquisition light is available it should be placed to the right of the threshold at the approach end.

12. Illuminated Arrester Cable Markers. Portable illuminated arrester cable markers are for temporary deployment with aircraft arrester gear in association with Type 1 and Type 2 Airfield Portable Lighting. Reference should be made to Chapter 6 Para 54 for arrester cable marking in association with Type 3 Airfield Portable Lighting and Fixed Airfield Lighting.

a. The location of the markers should be as follows:

(1) Markers should be placed on both sides of the runway in line with the cable and normally equidistant to the centre-line of the runway.

(2) The distance of the markers from the edge of the useable runway should not be less than 7.5m (25ft) or greater than half the delineated runway width.



(3) Marker position adjustments outside the above criteria are permissible, when require, to avoid obscuration of or damage to markers by arrester equipment. Such adjustments should be consistently applied to both boards marking a given cable.

b. Marking.

(1) The marker shall be a circular annulus of yellow. The outer diameter of the annulus shall be 51cm (20in) and the inner shall be 43.5cm (17in).

(2) The bottom of the annulus must be a minimum of 30cm (12in) above ground level when installed.

(3) The luminance of the yellow surface of the annulus shall be uniform with a minimum average luminance of 60cd/m².

(4) The markers should be made as light and as frangible as practicable and be designed to function for the same operational period as the airfield portable light fittings they are deployed with.

13. LED Light Fittings. See Chapter 6 Para 45.

Layout of Airfield Markings

14. Runway. The layout of markers on a uni-directional runway is illustrated as follows:

a. STANAG minimum markings for day operations with visual glideslope not available at Figure 14-10.

b. STANAG minimum markings for day operations with visual glideslope available at Figure 14-11.

c. STANAG minimum markings for night operations with visual glideslope not available at Figure 14-12.

d. STANAG minimum markings for night operations with visual glideslope available at Figure 14-13.

15. It should be noted that for night marking, the approach end runway lights include a green light and at the overshoot end of the runway a red light is included. The runway edge lights are white.

16. Taxiway. The taxiway entrance will be indicated by a corner marker on both sides of the taxiway. The sides of the taxiway will be marked by a single marker panel or a white light at convenient intervals to maintain continuity of direction.

17. Taxiway Holding Line. The taxiway holding line or marwilling point line should be indicated by a marker line across the full width of the taxiway at right angles to its centre line. The minimum thickness of the line should be 2 ft (0.61m). Where practicable, the line should be located at least 120 ft (36.58m) from the nearest runway edge (ie at the edge of the lateral safety zone).



18. Apron. A single panel or a white light should be placed at each corner of the aircraft apron.

Emergency Markings

19. If a tactical airfield has to be closed the following symbols should be used:

a. Temporary Closure. Two parallel bars, each 2ft (0.61m) wide placed across the threshold of the runway at 90 to its a lignme n off.

b. Permanent Closure. A cross (X) at the threshold of the runway indicates that the airfield has been permanently closed. The cross should be a minimum of 20 ft by 20 ft (6.1m) and desirably 45 ft by 45 ft (13.72m x 13.72m). Each member should have a minimum width of 2 ft (0.61m).



Annex 14A: Examples Undulation Analysis on Temporary Airfields

Figure 14-5 Example of Undulation Analysis for Hercules C130 Mk 1 and 3

Amplitude Height difference

(mm)

Chainage (m)

Wavelength (m)

Roughness zone (see

figure22)

Remarks ( ‹ means less than)

A A+B

A+B+C D E

E+F E+F+G

H H+J

K L

L+M N

N+O P

P+Q R S

50 65 78 48 80 95

115 80 92 25

110 115 90 98 55 70 15 22

0-6 0-12 0-21 3-9

6-12 0-12 0-21 9-15 9-18 9-18 12-21 0-21 18-27 18-30 18-27 18-30 24-30 18-30

6 12 21 6 6

12 21 6 9 9 9

21 9

12 9

12 6

12

2 2 3 2 4 3 4 4 4 1

Outside 4 4

4 2 3 1 1

Wavelength ‹ 9m - ignore Wavelength ‹ 9m - ignore Wavelength ‹ 9m - ignore Wavelength ‹ 9m - ignore

Unacceptable - Engineer work required Wavelength ‹ 9 m - ignore



Figure 14-6 Hercules C130 Mk 1 and Mk 3 - Allowable Undulation Amplitudes for Different

Aircraft Configurations

Notes:

1. For the conditions applicable to roughness zones 1, 2, 3 and 4 see Table 14-4 of this Annex.

2. The dotted lines relate to runways with expedient surfacing.

Table 14-4 Heaviest Configurations for Hercules C130 Mk1 and Mk3 Applicable to Permissible Roughness Zones

Roughness Zone No

Hercules C Mk 1 Hercules C Mk 3 Take - Off Landing Take - Off Landing

Normal Operational Necessity




1 2 3 4

D C A -

E D B A

B B A -

D C B A

C A - -

D B A -

B A - -

C B A -

Note:

1. For the interpretation of configurations A, B, C, D and E see Table 14-4.



Table 14-5 Parameters Applicable to Configurations A,B,C,D and E For Hercules C 130 Mk 1 And Mk3

Configuration Reference

(from table 1)

Maximum All Up Weight Minimum Tyre Pressures Minimum CBR of Natural Surface

lbs Kg lbs kg

A B C D E

124000 135000 147000 155000 174000

56246 61236 66679 70308 78926

65 70 80 85 105

0.45 0.48 0.55 0.59 0.72

5% 5% 9%

10% not cleared



Annex 14B: Bare Minimum Temporary Landing Zone Markings

Figure 14-7 Minimum TLZ Marking for Landing and Take-Off from Landing Threshold or Opposite Direction Take-Off

155 m (500 ft)

610 – 1375 m (2000 - 4499 ft)

Go/No-Go Line

Touch-down Zone

CAUTIONS

1. Minimum Runway length (A-B to E-F) of 2500ft required. 2. Aircraft must land by Go/No-Go Line. 3. Take-off run available should be the more limiting of Take-off Run Required or 2500ft.

D C

B A

E F



Figure 14-8 Minimum TLZ Marking for Landing and Stop/Go Take-Off

A

155m (500ft)

610m (2000 ft)

Go/No-Go Line

Touch-down Zone

DB

C

F E

Y

Minimum Distance 765m (2500 ft)

Z

CAUTIONS

1. Minimum Runway length (A-B to Y-Z) of 1530m (5000 ft) required for a Stop/Go Take-off. 2. Aircraft must land by Go/No-Go Line. 3. Take-off run available should be the greater of Take-off Run Required or 765m (2500 ft).

Take-Off Run

Landing Run

B



Figure 14-9 Minimum TLZ Marking-Night (White Light) for Landing and Take-Off from Landing Threshold or Opposite Direction Take-Off

155m (500 ft)

230m (750 ft)

Go/No-Go Line

Touch-down Z

Minimum Distance 380m (1250 ft)

CAUTIONS

1. Minimum Runway length (A-B to Y-Z) of 765m (2500 feet) required. 2. Aircraft must land by Go/No-Go Line. 3. Take-off run available should be the greater of Take-off Run Required or 765m (2500 feet).

B A

F E

Middle Markers

D C



Annex 14C: Diagram of STANAG Marking of Temporary Airfields

Figure 14-10 Minimum Temporary Airfield Markings for Day Operations on a Uni-directional Runway (visual glideslope not available)



Figure 14-11 Minimum Temporary Airfield Markings for Day Operations on a Uni-directional Runway (visual glideslope available)



Figure 14-12 Minimum Temporary Airfield Markings for Night Operations on a Uni-directional Runway (visual glideslope not available)



Figure 14-13 Minimum Temporary Airfield Markings for Night Operations on a Uni-directional

Runway (visual glideslope available)



Chapter 15: Aerodrome Pavement Design, Construction and Maintenance

INTRODUCTION

Functional requirements of Airfield Pavements

1. The pavements should facilitate safe aircraft ground operations. In order to do this they should meet specialist performance requirements. See Chapter 4. The following sets out the main requirements:

a. Good rideability.

b. Good friction characteristics.

c. High strengths and stability to withstand the shear stresses induced by heavy wheel loads and high tyre pressures.

d. A durable, hard-wearing weatherproof surface free from loose material and sharp edges which might endanger aircraft.

e. Resistance to fuel spillage and jet blast. Depending on the nature and type of aircraft operations, these requirements are likely to be too onerous for bituminous surfacings in certain areas of the airfield.

f. Facilitate economic maintenance.

Foreign Object Damage (FOD)

2. Aircraft and helicopters are very susceptible to damage from loose material being drawn into engine intakes, propeller blades and rotors. Such materials can also damage tyres, hydraulic systems and aircraft skins. Potential sources of damage are generally referred to as a FOD (Foreign Object Damage) hazard. The FOD sensitivity will very much depend on the aircraft type and the nature of operations. FOD sensitivity is likely to be most critical for runway operations especially for high performance jets carrying out formation take-offs. Nevertheless the risks on taxiways and hardstandings can also be high, for certain aircraft types, especially when they are manoeuvring in proximity. Hence the need for all airfield pavements to have high surface integrity.

Access for Maintenance/Restoration Works

3. It is generally very difficult to gain access to carry out maintenance work on airfield pavements, especially on a main runway. Major restoration works requiring long possession periods can have serious operational and planning implications. These considerations are likely to affect the maintenance strategy and further strengthen the need for durable and hard wearing pavement surfaces.

Relative Importance of Functional Requirements

4. The relative importance and stringency of the above requirements depends on the nature, type and frequency of aircraft operations, the function of the pavement (eg runway or hard-standing) and other economic and local factors.

5. For runways, good rideability and friction characteristics are very important. In addition runway ends, dependent on aircraft types and frequency of operations may also need to have high resistance to jet blast and fuel spillage. Aircraft parking areas and runway holding



positions will generally need to have high resistance to fuel and oil spillage. In addition, some of these areas, especially heavily used ASP's, may also need to be resistant to indentation by high tyre pressure aircraft and impact and wear from ground equipment and trolleys. Harrier Vertical Take-off and Landing (VTOL) pads and Engine Running Platforms (ERP's) for high performance jet aircraft provide the most severe conditions for pavements on MOD airfields.

6. The above considerations, the FOD risk and the likely restricted access for maintenance will greatly affect the selection of materials and specifications used for airfield pavement works as well as strategies for maintenance and restoration. Further details on these subjects are given at Annex 15A and Annex 15B respectively.

PAVEMENT FRICTION CHARACTERISTICS AND MEASUREMENTS

Introduction

7. Background. Chapter 15 is aimed primarily at runway friction characteristics and measurement, but also covers other operating surfaces. The friction properties of a surface represent the interface between the pavement and the aircraft using it and have a significant influence on operations. Further background to the whole topic of friction and its relation to specific aerodromes is included at Annex 15C.

8. MOD Standards. The MOD has 2 mandatory terms, Maintenance Planning Level (MPL) and Minimum Friction Level (MFL), for use when referring to the friction characteristics of aerodrome runways and pavements. In order to establish these friction characteristics a number of friction surveys are required.

9. Types of Friction Survey. Aerodromes are required to carry out 3 types of runway friction testing:

a. Runway Friction Classification Surveys.

b. Runway Friction Monitoring Surveys.

c. Special Friction Surveys.

10. Definitions. For the purposes of this section, the definitions, as detailed in MAA 02 - Definitions, of the following need to be understood:

a. Contaminants

b. CFME

c. Declared Runway

d. Friction Level

e. MPL

f. MFL

g. Portions of the Runway

h. Runway Friction Classification Survey

i. Runway Friction Monitoring Survey



j. Special Friction Survey

11. Factors Affecting Friction Levels. While most dry surfaces will usually provide satisfactory results irrespective of the type of surface, there are various factors that can affect these values. Those of particular relevance are water, rubber deposits, oil/grease, snow/ice/slush and de-icing chemicals all of which can reduce the friction level. In the limit, any of these can reduce to the friction level to zero resulting in aquaplaning. In general runway surfaces are designed to minimise the risk of aquaplaning. Debilitating factors should be ameliorated as a matter of urgency.

MOD Runway Friction Categories

12. Aerodrome Friction Categories. There are 3 MOD friction categories as given in MAA 02 - Definitions. Their applicability to individual aerodromes is the responsibility of the Appropriate Military Authority. See Annex 15A Para 7.

Friction Criteria for Manoeuvring Areas

13. MOD Runway Friction Criteria. Table 15-1 gives the current MPL and MFL friction levels.

Table 15-1 Pavementa Classification Friction Table for the 65 km/h Self Wetting Test

Device MPL MFL Water Depth (mm)

Speed (km/h)

Tyre Pressure

(kPa)

Tyre

Mu-Meter Mk4/5/6 0.55b 0.50b 1.0 ±0.025 65 ± 5 70 ± 3.5 DICO

16 x 4 – 8 a Primarily for runways. Seek MOD specialist advice for friction concerns with other operating surfaces b Levels are for runway markings as well as pavements. Seek MOD specialist advice for friction concerns.

Friction Survey Requirements

14. Table 15-2 gives the requirements for the 3 types of friction survey.

Runway Friction Classification/Monitoring Survey Procedure

15. Table 15-3 gives the procedures for classification and monitoring friction surveys. Procedures for special friction surveys will be detailed by the MOD specialists on a case-by-case basis.



Table 15-2 Friction Survey Requirements

Item Friction Survey Type Monitoringa Special Classification

Programme Drafted by MOD specialists, promulgated by RAFIO.

Frequency ≤ 6 monthly or at SATCO discretion

As required by MOD specialists, Relevant Military

Authority or Station.

≤ 4 yearlyc

Survey notification Calling notice by MOD specialists

Survey timing By arrangement Station/DE Term Contractor.

Survey duration 1-2 days depending on survey scope, weather and availability of water.

Conducted by Station MOD specialists Term Contractor. Measuring speed 65km/hb 65/80/95km/hb

Survey validity If the maximum absolute difference between the average

friction values for any two check runs is greater than 0.06 the entire survey is invalid.

Results reporting format As per Table 15-5 As per Table 15-4

Results Reporting/ Evaluation

To Relevant Military Authority

MOD specialists Term Contractor to MOD specialists and onward to Relevant

Military Authority and Station Equipment calibration/usage In accordance with relevant Service Operator’s Manual

Results retention Until next classification Survey Survey funding Stnde a There is no correlation between monitoring and classification survey results. b For straight runs only. MOP specialists can advise on test methods for curved or restricted areas. c But see Table 15-1 for variations. d Except for survey prior to handover of new/reconstructed pavements – paid for by Project. e Additional costs caused by Station imposed restricted access to pavements during survey fall to Station.



Table 15-3 Runway Friction Classification/Monitoring Survey Procedures

Item Criteria Classification Survey Monitoring Survey

Equipment Mk 5 Mu-Meter, or other MOD specialists approved equipment.

Equipment calibration interval

a. Before every survey

a. ≤ 12 months b. In accordance with

manufacturer’s instructions.

c. Results to be retained. Operator DE Term Contractor approved person Authorised ATC Personnel Team size ≥ 2 people (Driver and recorder) Recording medium

Purpose designed software with instant VDU and hard-copy read out together with database recording capability

Pavement surface conditions

a. Dry before and during survey. b. Conditions and changes in condition to be

recorded.

a. Natural rain or in detrimental to aircraft movement conditions.

b. Conditions and changes in condition to be

recorded. Met conditions Ambient air temperature ≥ 2oC Aircraft arrestor systems

De-rigged

Procedure Method/Criteria

Establish run start position

a. See Table 15-2 which shows the stationary vehicle start position. b. Enables location of data relative to runway threshold lights to be determineda. c. Mark on pavement and record position.

Conduct runs a. In accordance with pattern in Figure 15-3 and Table 15-4. b. 1st run starts from runway end with the higher QDM.

Water depth 1mm Natural wet conditions. Speed As given in Table 15-4 ± 5 km/h. 65km/h ± 5 km/h Run track separation

a. 3m b. Start 1.5m from runway centre-line

Track tolerance ± 1m

Check runs

a. Runs 1, 11 and 17. b. Run 1 taken @ 3m from runway edge. c. Runs to be consistently wet or dry throughout. d. All runs in the same direction.

a. Runs 7 and 8. b. All runs in the same direction.

Check run 10 a. Self-wetted. b. 1.5m from runway centre-line.

Speed runs 2, 3, 8 and 9

a. To establish speed friction curve. b. Self-wetted. c. Each run to traverse the same track in the same direction. d. Located outside area of rubber deposits but ≤ 15m either side of runway centre-line.

Standard Runsb

a. Self-wetted. b. Start at run 4 @ 1.5m from runway centre-line. c. Subsequent runs @ 3m spacing out to 19.5m.

a. Runs 1-6. b. Surface soaked but no standing water.

Reports In accordance with Para 16.



Item Criteria Classification Survey Monitoring Survey

a Distances before the threshold in the landing direction will be negative see Figure 15-2. b Known as wet runs for monitoring survey. c In the case of monitoring survey, use Table 15-5.

Figure 15-1 Friction Classification Survey Frequency from Before Handover of New or

Resurfaced Runways

Undertake Friction Classification Survey

Are allFriction Levels≥ MPL

No

Repeat Friction ClassificationSurvey at interval≤ 12 months

Yes Repeat Friction ClassificationSurvey at interval≤ 4 years

Are allFriction Levels≥ MFLYes

No

a. Stn to consult Relevant Military Authority onNOTAM(liable to be slippery when wet).b. Take action to improve Friction Level.

Construction/Re-construction complete

Commence/continue planningof remedial measures toimprove Friction Level

Figure 15-2 Runs Start With Stationary Friction Machine Measuring Wheel/s 10m from Pavement End

10m Start position line

10m Start position linex



Figure 15-3 Runway Friction Classification Survey Run Sequence

Classification Surveys Monitoring

Surveys R

un

Dis

tanc

e to

Run

way

C

entr

e-lin

e

<< LOWER QDM HIGHER QDM >>

Direction of Travel

Run

Dis

tanc

e to

Run

way

C

entr

e-lin

e

20 19.5m 19 16.5m 5 3.0ma

18,16 13.5m 3, 9,

10.5 1 10.5m 14 7.5m 7 4.5m 6 1.5m 2, 8 1.5m RUNWAY CENTRE-LINE

4, 10 1.5m 4, 7 1.5m 5 4.5m 12 7.5 13 10.5m 3 10.5m

2, 8,

13.5m 21 16.5m 22 19.5m 6 3.0ma

1, 11, 17

3ma

a From runway edge

Table 15-4 Runway Friction Classification Survey Run Sequence and Results

Aerodrome Runway Date

Run

No

Tim

e

Run

Typ

e

Dire

ctio

n of

Run

(S

tarti

ng Q

DM

)

Dis

tanc

e fro

m

Run

way

Cen

tre-

line

(m)

Side

of C

entre

-lin

eb

Spee

d (k

m/h

)

Self-

Wet

ting

ON

/OFF

Surfa

ce C

ondi

tion

Surfa

ce

Tem

pera

ture

(o C)

Rem

arks

1f Check Hi 3.0 a L/ Rd 65 On/ Offcd

2 Speed Lo 13.5 R 80 On 3 Speed Hi 10.5 R 95 On 4 Standard Lo 1.5 R 65 On 5 Standard Hi 4.5 L 65 On 6 Standard Lo 1.5 L 65 On 7 Standard Hi 4.5 R 65 On 8 Speed Lo 13.5 R 95 On 9 Speed Hi 10.5 R 80 On 10 Check Lo 1.5 R 65 On 11 Check Hi 3.0 a L/Rd 65 On/

Offcd



12 Standard Lo 7.5 R 65 On 13 Standard Hi 10.5 L 65 On 14 Standard Lo 7.5 L 65 On 15 Standard Hi 10.5 R 65 On 16 Standard Lo 13.5 R 65 On 17 Check Hi 3.0 a L/Rd 65 On/

Offcd

18 Standard Lo 13.5 L 65 On 19e Standard Hi 16.5 R 65 On 20e Standard Lo 19.5 L 65 On 21e Standard Hi 16.5 L 65 On 22e Standard Lo 19.5 R 65 On a From Runway edge b Side is taken relative to the Centre-line in the direction of travel, run specific c To be consistent throughout runs 1, 11 and 17 d Delete as required e For narrow runways ignore runs 19-22 f Run 1 must start from the higher QDM

Table 15-5 Runway Friction Monitoring Survey Run Sequence and Results

Aerodrome Runway Date

Run

No

Tim

e

Run

Typ

e

Run

Dire

ctio

n (S

tart

QD

M)

Dis

tanc

e fro

m R

unw

ay

Cen

tre-li

ne (m

)

Side

of C

entre

-line

b

Spee

d (k

m/h

)

Surfa

ce C

ondi

tion

Surfa

ce T

empe

ratu

re (o C

)

Aver

age

Fric

tion

Valu

e (r

elat

ive

to H

i Q

DM

/Cen

tre/ L

o Q

DM

1/

3 po

rtion

s of

runw

ay)

Rem

arks

Lo ‘A’

Ctr ‘B’

Hi ‘C’

1 Wet Hi 10.5 R 65 2 Wet Lo 1.5 L 65 3 Wet Hi 10.5 L 65 4 Wet Lo 1.5 R 65 5 Wet Hi 3.0a R 65 6 Wet Lo 3.0a R 65 7 Chec

k Lo 1.5 Lc 65

8 Check

Lo 1.5 Rc 65

a From runway edge. b Relative to the Centre-line in the direction of travel, run specific. c Should be from the lower to the higher QDM.



Reports

a. Content. Written reports, including the information detailed at Para 16a(i)-(vii), the completed Survey Report see Table 15-6 and Survey Results see Table 15-4) or Table 15-5 as applicable. Description of rubber deposits should follow the guidance in Table 15-7, with surface conditions specified in accordance with Table 15-8. The operator should retain the original data.

(1) Remarks.

(2) Results.

(3) Average friction reading of each track should be correctly identified, and highlights of significant features of the test detailed. Friction values should be marked on a plan of the runway showing exact location and friction values as measured.

(4) The following photographs should be taken (each close-up photograph should include a scale rule within the shot):

(a) Location shot showing complete extent of rubber deposits at each runway end (not required for night surveys).

(b) Close-up of rubber deposits (not required for night surveys).

(c) Close-up of runway surface.

(d) Any significant features on the runway surface (not required for night surveys).

(5) Conclusions.

(6) Recommendations, signature and date of report.

(7) The classification survey data on a disk in digital format using Mk 5 Mu-Meter Software Version 5.6 or later.

b. Distribution

(1) Calibration Survey Reports. Four copies of the report together with one survey data disk are required by MOD specialists. The MOD specialists will review the report before further distributing it to the Relevant Military Authority and to the Station concerned (2 – SATCO and PROM).

(2) Monitoring Survey Reports. All data and reports should be retained by Stations.

Table 15-6 Runway Friction Survey Report

Survey Type Friction Machine Type Friction Machine Serial No.

Distance Per Reading Station Runway



Date Of Survey Contractor Operators Tyre Serial No(s). Calculated Water Depth

Air Temperature (°C) Weather Rubber Deposits Remarks

Offset distance from threshold end 1 (m) Offset distance from threshold end 2 (m) Mu-Meter friction board Ser No No of passes over Mu-Meter friction board to date Confirm correct Mu-Meter calibration before survey Confirm correct Mu-Meter tyre pressures before survey a Classification Survey only

Table 15-7 Classification of Rubber Deposits

Description of Rubber Covering Pavement Texture in Touchdown Zone - Central 18m

Classification of Rubber Deposit

No tyre tracks None Intermittent individual tyre tracks. Very light Individual tyre tracks begin to overlap. Light Up to 60% surface texture exposed Medium Rubber bonded to pavement surface: less than 40% of surface, texture exposed Heavy

Table 15-8 Classification of Surface Conditions

Descriptor Observation Damp The surface shows a change of colour due to moisture. Wet The surface is soaked but there is no standing water. Water patches Significant patches of standing water are visible Flooded Extensive standing water is visible. Dry No visible moisture

Movement Area Friction Measurement of Compacted Snow and Ice

16. Background. Pavement friction should be maintained under conditions of compacted snow and Ice. Friction values under compacted snow and ice conditions do not vary with speed, so for safety reasons testing should be carried out at 32 km/h. Knowledge of current friction values in adverse conditions is essential.



17. Measurement. Procedures for friction monitoring in conditions of compacted snow and Ice are detailed in Table 15-9. Note, CFME can produce inaccurate readings in water greater than 3 mm in depth or slush.

Table 15-9 Friction Monitoring Procedures in Compacted Snow and Ice Conditions

Item Runways Other Movement Areas Condition: snow or ice Monitoring testab @

32km/h b. Repeat as conditions change

a. Monitoring testa when friction level ≤ 0.35 @ 32km/h

a See Table 15-5/ Figure 15-3 for details of test and runs required). b When reporting to pilots give friction levels in runway thirds, 1st part being the part where the aircraft will land.

18. Reporting Methods

a. The standard method of reporting relies on the definitions of the contaminant (eg compacted snow or slush – see MAA 02 - Definitions.

b. The friction characteristics of a runway are expressed as “braking action information” in terms of the measured/calculated friction values or estimated braking action as described in Table 15-10.

c. Table 15-10 is for use with compacted snow and ice only and should not be taken to be absolute friction values applicable for all conditions. If the braking action is described as “Good”, pilots should not expect to find conditions as good as for a dry, clean runway. The value “Good” is a comparative value only and infers that aeroplanes should not experience directional control or braking difficulties when landing.

Table 15-10 Friction values for compacted snow and/or ice-covered runways

Mu-Meter Reading Estimated Braking Action Braking Code 0.40 and above Good 5

0.39 to 0.36 Medium to Good 4 0.35 to 0.30 Medium 3 0.29 to 0.26 Medium to Poor 2

0.25 and below Poor 1

d. Whenever snow or slush is present on a runway, an estimate of the mean depth over each third of the runway should be made to an accuracy of approximately 2cm for dry snow, 1cm for wet snow and 0.3cm for slush.

e. Table 15-11 gives verbal descriptions of runway surface conditions under compacted snow, ice and slush.



Table 15-11 Condition Descriptions for Compacted Snow and/or Ice/Slush-Covered Runways

Basic Conditions Descriptive Conditions 1 Flooded 1 Wet 2 Ice 2 Loose 3 Snow 3 Frozen 4 Slush 4 Dry 5 Rubber deposits

5 Compacted

6 Frost 6 Drifted 7 Ruts and Ridges 7 Sanded

a The degree of coverage, eg ‘Patches’ or ‘Covered’, and a description of the conditions may qualify these descriptions

f. When there are significant differences in conditions along the runway length, descriptions should be given for each third of the runway. For example:

(1) ‘Slush on Runway’; Braking conditions Medium/Poor; Heavy rubber deposits on first and last third of runway.

(2) ‘Compacted Snow on Runway’; Braking condition in thirds - Medium/Good, Medium, Medium/Good; Mu-Meter 0.36, 0.38, 0.34.

19. Collection And Dissemination of Pavement State Information. For conditions due to snow, ice or slush, information should be promulgated by means of a SNOWTAM, details of which are contained in the UK Military Aeronautical Information Publication – Vol 1 and The Manual of Military ATM.

20. Snow Removal and Ice Control

a. Aprons should be kept clear of snow, slush, ice etc to the extent necessary to enable aircraft to manoeuvre safely or, where appropriate, to be towed or pushed.

b. Whenever the clearance of snow, slush, ice etc. from various parts of the Movement Area cannot be carried out simultaneously, the order of priority should be as follows, but may be altered following consultation with the users: -

(1) Runway(s) in use

(2) Taxiways serving runway(s) in use

(3) Apron(s)

(4) Holding Bays

(5) Other areas

c. Chemicals should be used to remove or prevent the formation of ice and frost on aerodrome pavements when conditions indicate their use can be effective. Caution should be used in their application so as not to create a more slippery condition. The friction of the area treated should be measured periodically after the application of the chemical.



Application to Aircraft Operations

21. Background

a. The friction properties of a surface represent the interface between the pavement and the aircraft using it. Friction will consequently have a significant influence on operations, in particular the ability of aircraft to utilise their brakes. The inherent friction characteristics of a paved surface deteriorate slowly over time. However the friction of a runway surface and the related braking action can vary significantly over a short period due to the presence of contaminants eg snow, ice, slush and water.

b. Unless notified otherwise, a runway always has acceptable friction characteristics when “dry” and “wet”.

22. Wet Runway Braking Action

a. A “wet runway” covers a range of conditions from “Damp” to “Flooded see Table 15-8. It does not include runways contaminated with snow, ice, slush or water associated with slush.

b. Where the measured friction value of a portion of a runway (see definitions in MAA 02) has deteriorated to the MFL value or less, the runway should be notified as “liable to be slippery when wet”.

c. When a runway is reported as “Damp” or “Wet”, and unless notified otherwise eg as a runway “liable to be slippery when wet”, pilots may assume that an acceptable level of runway friction braking action is available.

d. When a runway is reported as having “Water Patches” or being “Flooded”, the braking action may be affected by aquaplaning and appropriate operational adjustments should be considered.

e. When a runway is notified as “liable to be slippery when wet”, take-off and landing in wet conditions should only be considered when the distances available equal or exceed those required for a very slippery or icy runway as determined from the information in the aeroplane’s Flight Manual.

SURFACE EVENNESS

Introduction

23. Uneven surfaces can critically affect the safety of aircraft ground operations. The main consequences that can result from poor surface irregularity are as follows:

a. Depending on the amplitude and wavelength of profile irregularities and aircraft characteristics, excessive vertical accelerations can sometimes be set up causing weakening/fatigue of parts of an aircraft structure.

b. Aircraft's tyres subject to excessive dynamic loads.

c. Vibrations in the cockpit can affect instruments and also cause discomfort to pilots.

d. Long wavelength surface irregularities can give rise to pitching and yawing of the aircraft with possible loss of contact with the ground and loss of directional control.



e. Unevenness or deformation of the pavement surface can result in ponding of water in wet weather. This in turn can cause differential braking characteristics and/or aquaplaning when an aircraft is travelling at high speed on a runway.

f. Whilst the above considerations are important for all aircraft movement areas, they are most critical for runways.

Design and Evaluation

24. For new or refurbished pavements the functional requirement in respect of surface evenness will be achieved if the design is in accordance with the geometric criteria set out in Chapters 4 and 5 and the construction tolerances set out in the Material Specifications referred to in Annex 15A. Bituminous surfacings generally give better rideability than concrete with the latter being more susceptible to surface undulations produced in the laying process and also being more dependent on the spacing, detail and quality of joints. Hence bituminous surfacings are generally preferred for the main lengths of runways.

25. Circumstances such as the following may arise which necessitate a more systematic approach to evenness assessment with regard to aircraft operations.

a. Design and/or refurbishment of intersecting runways may necessitate some compromise on gradient criteria at and in the vicinity of the junction.

b. Differential settlement on any of the movement areas with time may result in surface irregularities, which give cause for concern in respect of aircraft operations.

26. For evaluations in circumstances outlined in Para 24 maximum acceptable deviations will vary depending on aircraft type and speed. A detailed assessment would involve taking account of a number of variables including amplitudes and wavelengths of irregularities and the consequent dynamic response of the aircraft concerned. Techniques for carrying out such assessments include profile measurement and its likely effect in terms of vertical acceleration at wheel gear and cockpit positions of standard aircraft types using proprietary software and also instrumented aircraft testing and dynamic response analysis as carried out by aircraft manufacturers.

The Bearing Capacity and Load Classification of Airfield Pavements

General

27. Pavements need to be of sufficient strength to allow aircraft that that they are intended to serve, to operate on them without risk of damage either to aircraft or the pavements. See Chapter 7 Para 8. To comply with this requirement standard reference documents are used for the structural design and evaluation of airfield pavements at MOD aerodromes together with a load classification system to directly compare pavement strengths with aircraft loads. Further details are given in Paras 37 to 42.

28. Aircraft movements which under the Load Classification system are deemed to be overloads should be strictly controlled in order to ensure safety of aircraft ground operations and safeguard against premature pavement failure. Further details are given at Para 44.

29. Stopways, Arrester Net Barrier Overruns and Shoulders whether paved or unpaved are normally designed to a different concept than that for the movement areas. Further details are given at Para 46.

30. MOD specialists hold central records of pavement construction and load classifications. Changes to pavement constructions and load classifications as a result of pavement



restoration or upgrade works should be notified by project managers to MOD specialists, see Chapter 1.

31. For the design, evaluation and setting of load/tyre pressure limits for useage of temporary unsurfaced strips by specific aircraft types refer to Chapter 13.

Pavement Design

32. Pavement designs as well as ensuring adequate strength for safe aircraft ground operations should also provide an economic design life. This in turn necessitates account being taken of the functional requirements of the pavement, selection of materials, refer to Annex 15A, the maintenance regime, aircraft useage and whole life costs. The MOD's reference document for pavement design is "A Guide to Airfield Pavement Design and Evaluation" – PSA 1981. MOD specialists should be contacted for any updates to this document in respect of MOD standards.

33. For various reasons it may be necessary to reappraise the bearing capacity of a pavement. Such circumstance could include one or more of the following:

a. Pavement inspections indicate signs of structural fatigue.

b. Determination of residual fatigue life to plan future restoration works.

c. Determination of strengthening requirements for a planned change of use.

d. The pavement has been disused for some time and should be rehabilitated.

34. In the above circumstances it will usually be necessary to carry out comprehensive site investigations including destructive (eg coring, trial pits and material testing) and non-destructive testing (eg falling weight deflectometer and ground penetrating radar). This is particularly so in the case of a large proportion of pavements at MOD aerodromes with sub-structures dating back to the 1940s and 1950s.

35. The MOD's reference document for structural evaluation of pavements is "A Guide to Airfield Pavement Design and Evaluation" – PSA 1989. This should be used in conjunction with a supplementary DIO document entitled "Guidance Note on Structural Investigations of Airfield Pavements" – March 2002. MOD specialists should be contacted for any further updates/supplements to these documents.

Load Classification of Aircraft and Airfield Pavements

36. MOD currently classifies its aircraft and airfield pavements in terms of LCN/LCG but is in the process of changing to the ICAO ACN-PCN method. The strength of a pavement is reported in terms of the load rating of aircraft that the pavement can accept on an unrestricted basis. Detailed descriptions of the ACN-PCN method are given in the ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 3 (1983) and in the PSA ‘A Guide to Airfield Pavement Design & Evaluation’ (1989).

Aircraft Classification Number (ACN)

37. The ACN of an aircraft expresses its relative loading severity on a pavement supported by a specified subgrade. ACN are reported as 2 x 4 x 2 = 16 separate figures from a choice of:

a. Rigid or flexible pavement.

b. 4 x subgrade category, see Table 15-12 Part 3.



c. Maximum Ramp Weight and a representative operating empty weight.

38. ICAO publishes ACN for civil aircraft. In UK tables of ACNs are published in the UK AIP (Section AGA-7). ACN for military aircraft are contained in the NATO AEP-46 at Annex 515A. For aircraft not included in these publications, ACNs may be obtained from the MOD Specialists or from the manufacturers.

Pavement Classification Number (PCN)

39. The PCN is the ACN of the aircraft that imposes a severity of loading equal to the maximum permitted on the pavement for unrestricted use.

40. PCNs are reported as a five part code as shown in Table 15-12.

Table 15-12 PCN Reporting

Part Description Remarks 1 PCN ACNmax at appropriate subgrade category 2 Pavement type Rigid Flexible 3 Pavement subgrade category A = High

B = Medium C = Low D = Ultra Low

4 Tyre pressuremax authorised 1.5 MPa (217 psi) < W (high) 1.0 MPa (145 psi) < X (medium) ≤ 1.5 MPa (217 psi) 0.5 MPa (73 psi) < Y (low) ≤ 1.0 MPa (145 psi) Z (very low) ≤ 0.5 MPa (73 psi)

5 Pavement design method T = Technical design or evaluation U = By experience of aircraft actually using the pavement

Pavement Classification for Light Aircraft

41. The ACN-PCN method is not intended for reporting the strength of pavements meant for light aircraft with a weight less than 5700 kg.

42. The bearing strength of a pavement intended for use by light aircraft should be classified in terms of allowable Aircraft Weightmax and Tyre Pressuremax.

Overload Operations

43. Provided the PCN for a pavement is equal to or greater than the ACN of the aircraft and the operating tyre pressure does not exceed the PCN limitation, unrestricted use of the pavement by that aircraft (or those with lower ACNs) is permitted. The term ‘unrestricted use’ of a pavement is not specifically defined. However, it relates directly to the design/evaluation parameter for aircraft usage and design/residual design life.

44. Unless a pavement is subject to extreme overloading it is unlikely to fail suddenly or catastrophically. Nevertheless regular overload operations can substantially reduce the design life of the pavement. Advice from MOD DIO Pavement specialists should be sought before pavement overloading is authorised.



Stopways, Arrester Net Barrier Overruns and Shoulders

45. Stopways and shoulders either paved or unpaved should be designed in accordance with the MOD’s reference document for pavement design – "A Guide to Airfield Pavement Design and Evaluation". – PSA 1989. The decision on whether to provide a paved or unpaved surface will depend on a number of factors including jet blast and FOD sensitivity, the maintenance regime, the climate and feasibility of sustaining grass stabilised surfaces and cost.

46. The pavement construction for Arrester Net Barrier Overruns should be designed as for a stopway except that a paved surface must be provided from the end of the runway up to a point at least 2 metres beyond the barrier and in the case of flexible pavements a minimum bituminous surfacing thickness of 100mm must be provided. The run-out area beyond this point can either be paved or unpaved designed as for a stopway.



Annex 15A: Aerodrome Pavement Materials and Construction

Introduction

1. To comply with the functional requirements for airfield pavements as described at Chapter 16 necessitates a special focus in respect of the materials specifications and consistency and quality of work. As previously stated the relative importance of the various requirements very much depend on the nature, type and frequency of aircraft operations. The principal specifications hitherto used for works on MOD aerodromes have been developed over a number of years and have a proven track record; further details are given in Chapter 15 Para 2. When alternative construction methods and materials are being considered a risk management strategy having regard to safety of aircraft operations and the need to minimise disruption to aircraft operations (ie for future maintenance) should be established. Previously this has entailed the provision and monitoring of trial areas as part of a measured approach to validating new methods and materials.

Material Specification

2. The following Specifications/Defence Works Functional Standards are the principal surfacing materials currently used on MOD aerodromes:

a. Marshall Asphalt for Airfield Pavement Works

b. Porous Friction Course for Airfields – Specification 040

c. Hot Rolled Asphalt and Coated Macadam for Airfield Pavement Works

d. Pavement Quality Concrete for Airfields – Specification 033

e. Concrete Block Paving for Airfields – Specification 035

f. Slurry Seal (Bitumen Emulsion) for Airfields – Specification 045

3. The above standards contain guidance on their application with particular regard to the function of the pavement. Particular project specifications should include a description of the functional requirements as outlined at Chapter 15; MOD specialists should be contacted for the latest amendments/updates to the standards.

Runway Surfacing Materials

4. The selection of runway surfacing materials and specifications will need particular consideration in respect of a range of functional requirements. In particular the requirements for surface integrity and durability can conflict and therefore a special consideration for runways should ensure that both are fully met. For new or resurfacing works the requirements for friction on runways on MOD aerodromes is defined in terms of 3 friction categories, see Chapter 15 Para 2 and MAA 02 - Definitions refer.

5. Porous Friction Course (PFC) in accordance with Specification 040, Pavement Quality Concrete (PQC) in accordance with Specification 033 and Coarse Textured Slurry Seal in accordance with Specification 045 can comply with MOD Friction Category 1 and the other functional requirements for runways. For PQC it is possible to meet the friction requirement by grooving instead of forming a coarse surface texture in-situ. When such an option is being considered further advice should be sought from MOD specialists. Grooved Marshall Asphalt in accordance with the above technical standard and the specification amendment on surface texture requirements can comply with MOD Friction Category 2 and the other functional requirements for runways; MOD specialists can provide further details. Figure



15-4, Figure 15-5 and Figure 15-6 show the range and variation of friction values with time for 3 of the standard runway surfacing materials. PFC and Bitumen Emulsion Slurry Seal have a low resistance to fuel spillage and the heat and blast effect of jet engines. Therefore their use is not recommended for runway ends or Harrier STOL runways/strips. Specifications 040 and 045 provide further details on the application of these materials including their advantages and limitations.

6. The provision of PFC as part of a night-time runway resurfacing project is not recommended unless a sustained possession period of about 2 weeks can be provided to lay it. This is because the series of transverse construction joints necessitated by night time working can impair the free draining properties of PFC. A further consideration is that friction values on temporary surfaces (ie before the new PFC is laid) during the construction period are likely to be below the MFL (ie classified as liable to be slippery when wet).

7. Runway resurfacing work using grooved Marshall asphalt and carried out in a series of night time possession periods will usually result in 'temporary' surfaces either for part or the whole length of the runway which have friction values below the MFC. This could arise either due to there being several material layers to lay and/or the fact that it is not practical to attempt to groove asphalt until it is 2-3 days old.

8. Having regard to the considerations at paras 6 and 7 it may be necessary for project teams planning runway resurfacing works to agree temporary limits on low friction values and the extent and timing of with Aerodrome Staff.

Construction Work/Aircraft Operations Interface

9. Airfield pavement works should be subject to special provisions and constraints to safeguard aircraft operations. This will particularly apply to the construction/operations interfaces including the handover of working areas, clearance criteria, FOD control measures, access to working areas and management controls. Further information is given in Defence Works Functional Standard – "Guidance Notes for Preparation of Specification Preliminaries for Airfield Pavement Works”.

Restrictions on Surfacing Materials for Roads in Proximity to Aircraft Movement Areas

10. Surface dressing, typically applied as low cost maintenance treatments on roads can create a FOD risk to aircraft when such roads are in proximity to aircraft movement areas. Some of these treatments are prone to loss of particles which can subsequently migrate onto or be picked up by MT vehicles and carried onto aircraft movement areas. In determining the restrictions for maintenance treatments to access roads and the extent to which these limits will apply on an aerodrome, consideration should be given to the FOD sensitivity and frequency of aircraft operations.

Figure 15-4 Typical Friction Values for PFC using 65 km/h Test



Figure 15-5 Typical Friction Values for Grooved Marshall Asphalt using 65 km/h Test

Figure 15-6 Typical Friction Values for Coarse Slurry Seal using 65 km/h Test



Annex 15B: Maintenance and Restoration of Aerodrome Pavements

Introduction

1. The aim of a maintenance/restoration strategy will ensure that pavements meet functional requirements consistent with the need to minimise whole life costs and disruption to aircraft operations. These requirements in turn however depend on the nature, type and frequency of aircraft operations as well as budget constraints. See Chapter 2 Hence a principal runway for fast jet operations where FOD sensitivity, friction and surface evenness are critical and where access for maintenance is somewhat limited will necessitate a different maintenance/restoration strategy to that for an aircraft parking area.

2. The following areas set out some of the key technical aspects of a pavement management system with particular regard to the ageing pavement sub-structures at most MOD aerodromes.

Pavement Distress

3. A key factor in the planning and programming of cost effective maintenance and restoration works is the recognition of the various pavement distresses, their early signs of development and the assessment of rates of deterioration.

4. Most of the pavements at MOD aerodromes were originally constructed between 45 and 60 years ago and a large proportion of these are composite construction (i.e. bituminous layers on cement bound/concrete layers) with major variations in overall thickness especially on runways. Consequently a number of the pavement distresses observed on the surface are as a result of movement or degradation of the lower layers. Further details on pavement distresses and maintenance treatments are given in Defence Works Functional Standard 06 – “Guide to Airfield Pavement Maintenance”. The most common mechanisms/processes that cause pavement distresses/degradation are outlined in Annex 15B Para 5 – 9.

Surface Degradation Effects of Climate and Aircraft Operations

5. The main cause of maintenance/restoration works being required on MOD aerodromes is the degradation of the surface material due to a combination of weathering and ‘traffic’ abrasion and sometimes jet blast and fuel spillage.

Reflection Cracking

6. Many of the pavements on MOD airfields are of composite construction comprising 1940s and/or 1950s concrete pavements with multiple blacktop overlays. As a consequence of movements at the joints or cracks in the underlying concrete slabs, reflection cracking has progressively occurred through many of the blacktop overlays. Reflection cracking of a less pronounced nature has also occurred in blacktop surfaces due to movement in underlying cement bound bases and also due to movement at cracks or lane joints in underlying age-hardened asphalt.

7. The development and propagation of reflective cracking is affected by a number of variables. MOD specialists can provide advice based on research carried out on performance of composite pavements at MOD aerodromes.

Affects of Moisture in Pavements

8. There have been a few occurrences on MOD aerodromes involving widespread blistering of the surface of large pavement areas and also circular/oval cracking. The



evidence from pavement investigations strongly indicates that these distresses are initiated by vapour pressure generated from trapped water/moisture in the pavement structure.

Structural

9. Structural failure of a pavement is generally caused by a combination of magnitude and repetition of loading (i.e. fatigue) but can also be due to excessive overloads. The mode of structural failure can be complex especially for old multilayer composite pavements as often found on MOD aerodromes. This is due to the number of variables including number, type, condition and thickness of material layers as well as subgrade properties and any effects of moisture on subsoil/pavements. The MOD reference document - "A Guide to Design and Evaluation of Airfield Pavements" PSA 1989 provides further details.

Functional Requirements

10. The relative importance and stringency of the functional requirements of a pavement can considerably affect the strategy for maintenance and restoration. In the case of reflection cracking, extensive ongoing minor maintenance is likely to be much less viable on a runway than on a taxiway because of the high sensitivity of FOD and friction requirements on a runway and also difficulty of access for maintenance. Hence the trigger points for maintenance can vary dependant on location of pavement, the type and frequency of aircraft operations and the type of surface material and pavement distress.

Pavement Assessment/Evaluation

11. The determination of maintenance/restoration requirements to ensure that pavements remain safe for aircraft operations is dependent on airfield pavement evaluation procedures involving professional surveys and site testing and investigations. Current procedures include monthly and biennial inspections of pavement surfaces and runway friction classification and monitoring surveys as detailed in Chapter 15. Monthly inspections are carried out by Aerodrome maintenance staff as a regular check on pavement condition and also to aid determination of short-term maintenance requirements and to check works undertaken/completed. Biennial inspections are carried out by specialist teams mainly for the purpose of providing long term strategic maintenance/restoration work forecasts but also to provide a check and technical support to the short-term maintenance planning process.

12. Both the monthly and biennial pavement inspections are limited to surface condition assessments. However if either unanticipated or abnormal distresses are noted further and more detailed site investigations may be required.

13. Extensive site investigations should be carried out in the early planning stages of restoration works as this can have a major effect on scope and cost of the works. This is especially so in the case of old multi-layer pavements for which the potential for or status of the distress types outlined in Annex 15B Para 3 - 9 should be investigated and assessed along with any other apparent distresses. Guidance on the structural evaluation of airfield pavements is given in "A Guide to Airfield Pavement Design and Evaluation" - PSA 1989 and the supplementary document "Guidance Note on Structural Investigations of Airfield Pavements" DIO - March 2002. MOD specialists can provide guidance on assessment/evaluation of pavements in respect of other distress mechanisms as outlined above.

Design/Maintenance Solutions

14. The functional requirements and the evaluation/assessment of pavements, Chapter 16 refers, in relation to the various distress types provide the basic technical inputs for producing optimum design/maintenance solutions. Minor and/or preventative maintenance



measures in many instances can provide a cost-effective means of complying with the functional requirements. However, as outlined in Annex 15B Para 10 the stringency of the functional requirements including future access constraints will have a considerable bearing on the latitude for ongoing maintenance/small works programmes and also on options for restoration/major works.

15. For guidance on maintenance measures including their application, reference should be made to Defence Works Functional Standards 06 - "Guide to Airfield Pavement Maintenance". MOD specialists can provide design advice in relation to the distress mechanisms outlined in Annex 15B.



Annex 15C: Surface Friction Measurement

Rationale

1. The friction properties of a surface represent the interface between the pavement and the aircraft using it. Friction will consequently have a significant influence on operations, in particular the ability of aircraft to utilise their brakes. Some understanding of surface friction of pavements is therefore an important element in the safe operation of any runway.

2. ICAO Standards. ICAO has 3 categories of friction standard:

a. Design Objective Level (Recommended only).

b. Maintenance Planning Level (MPL) (Mandatory).

c. Minimum Friction Level (MFL) (Mandatory).

3. MOD Standards. MOD has adopted the latter 2 standards, for use when referring to the friction characteristics of airfield runways and pavements. These standards are checked by use of 3 types of runway friction survey which are defined in MAA 02 - Definitions and described in Chapter 15 Para 17.

a. Runway friction classification surveys.

b. Runway friction monitoring surveys.

c. Special friction surveys.

Technical Background

4. Coefficient of Friction. When any solid object moves across a surface it experiences a resistance proportional to its weight. This proportion is known as the friction coefficient and will vary depending on the properties of the two materials in contact. It will however be a constant that does not vary with the speed of movement. However, aircraft tyres, even at high inflation pressures, are not solid objects and the resistance experienced by a tyre travelling across a pavement will decrease as speed increases.

5. Braking Force Coefficient. To reduce the weight of the brake heat sink all aircraft brakes are torque limited. This means that they can, in general, only apply a drag force of up to about 0.5g even if the friction capabilities of the surface could generate a higher force in braking. The term Braking Force Coefficient is therefore used to distinguish between the actual and maximum capability of the tyre/surface interface.

6. Braking Friction Process. From research, it is known that the main factors affecting the braking capability of aircraft for a given speed are the characteristics of the tyre, the friction characteristics of the runway and the design of the braking system. Although modern anti-lock braking systems are designed to operate near peak friction values for any surface, it should be recognised that these will vary with speed. The characteristics of the surface will affect the rate of this variation. From a runway construction perspective the only variable that can be influenced is the surface texture. Dynamic testing machines have been developed in an effort to simulate an aircraft undercarriage more accurately. How the values obtained from these machines will affect individual aircraft will vary dependant on the weight, tyre design, tyre pressures, braking system and undercarriage configuration of specific aircraft.



7. Runway Friction Characteristics. Using a dynamic testing machine it is possible to establish a friction value for the surface of a runway. For a runway offering no resistance this value would be 0 while the maximum theoretical value would be 1. In practice typical friction values might range from 0.2 to 0.9. As the machine and test procedure used has been standardised for military runways, these values give a satisfactory indication of the relative friction available. Every surface is different and will vary, within limits, over its area. Given a standard speed and machine, other factors that have a significant effect on the friction value obtained include:

a. Macrotexture

b. Microtexture

c. Drainage

8. Surface Condition. While most dry surfaces will usually provide satisfactory results irrespective of the type of surface, there are various factors that can affect these values. Those of particular relevance are:

a. Water. Presence of water on the runway will have a significant effect on the friction value for a runway surface. Wet runways have two distinct zones that are of interest to aircraft operations. Up to a certain depth, presence of water reduces the friction value of the runway considerably. The percentage reduction compared with that available on a dry surface also increases with speed. However, as there is still some tyre/runway contact the aircraft braking system will still operate. Once a critical depth of water is reached the tyres and runway surface can become separated by a thin film of water and the friction available becomes negligible (nearly 0) which in turn makes braking and nose wheel steering ineffective. This state is known as aquaplaning. In general runway surfaces are designed to minimise the risk of aquaplaning.

b. Rubber Deposits. Rubber deposits, particularly when wet, can significantly reduce the friction value for the surface.

c. Oil and/or Grease. As expected oil and/or grease deposits will reduce the friction value of an operating surface considerably.

d. Snow, Ice and Slush. The presence of snow, ice or slush on a runway will obviously reduce the friction value. However, while the drag caused by any significant depth will reduce aircraft ability to accelerate, it can improve braking characteristics due to build up of material in front of the wheel.

e. De-Icing Chemicals. Use of de-icing chemicals on runways can cause a greater reduction in the available friction on runways than would be expected with a similar depth of water.

Responsibilities

9. See Chapter 1 for responsibilities.

Runway Friction Measurement

10. There are many runway friction measuring devices in operation throughout the world, in general they can be divided into two main categories:

a. Continuous Friction Measuring Equipment (CFME). Continuous Friction Measuring Equipment (CFME) provides a continuous plot of the friction value over a



length of travel. Typical devices in this category are the Mu-Meter and the GripTester. Currently the Mu-Meter is the only HQ AIR ATC approved CFME for friction classification of MOD airfields.

b. Spot Measuring Devices. Spot measuring devices provide a single value at a specific location. A typical device in this category is the Tapley meter that is used to provide a friction value on surfaces covered by snow or ice where dynamic or continuous measuring devices will not operate effectively. Another useful device in this category is the Pendulum Tester.

Friction Criteria for Manoeuvring Areas

11. STANAG 3634 requires member states that agree to implement the STANAG to comply with ICAO recommendations. In Annex 14 to The International Standards and Recommended Practices for Aerodromes (July 1995) ICAO require States to set their own National minimum and maintenance friction levels for runway surfaces and associated paint markings. Table 15-1 shows the MOD friction levels for MPL and MFL. MOD specialist advice should be sought for friction levels on other manoeuvring surfaces.

12. Variations to CAA Criteria. Due to the different types of aircraft operating out of the MOD airfields, particularly the high performance fast jets, the MOD criteria are different from CAA criteria. The variations are:

a. Water Depth. For Runway Friction Classification Surveys CAA use a water depth of 0.5 mm. In most cases this does not give any significant difference in the value obtained. However, research has shown that on some surfaces, particularly those with low macrotexture (eg. Marwill Asphalt), the values obtained can be significantly different. MOD Friction Classification Surveys use the ICAO recommended water depth of 1.0 mm.

b. MPL and MFL. Based on an analysis of all types of pavement surfaces, rather than surfaces with low macrotexture, the CAA has adopted friction values of MPL of 0.57 and MFL of 0.50 (at 0.5mm wetted depth).

Application to Aircraft Operations

13. The application of runway friction to aircraft operations is an important element of flight safety procedures. The information relating to aircraft operations is included as a section of the flight safety handbook.



Annex 15D: Aircraft Classification Numbers (ACN) – Tables for Military Aircraft

Table 15-13

AIRCRAFT DESIGNATOR

Mass (kg)

RIGID SYSTEM (R) FLEXIBLE SYSTEM (F) MASS (lb)

A B C D A B C D Alphajet 7,500 6 6 6 6 5 6 6 7 16,500 AJET 3,600 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 7,900 ANDOVER 24,948 12 13 14 16 11 13 15 16 55,000 HS-74 21,591 9 11 12 13 9 10 12 14 47,600 14,515 6 7 8 8 5 6 7 8 32,000 ANDOVER 22,680 10 11 12 13 9 11 12 15 50,000 C Mk 1 13,472 6 6 7 7 6 6 7 8 29,700 ANDOVER 21,092 11 12 13 13 9 10 12 14 46,500 CC Mk 2 20,185 10 11 11 12 8 9 11 13 44,500 11,884 5 6 6 7 5 5 6 7 26,200 ANDOVER 22,680 10 11 12 13 9 11 12 15 50,000 E Mk 3 14,742 7 7 8 8 6 7 8 9 32,500 Atlantic 46,200 28 30 31 32 25 26 30 32 101,900 ATLA 36,000 21 22 23 24 18 19 22 24 79,400 CP-140 64,410 44 46 48 49 38 41 44 47 142,000 AURORA 27,890 16 17 18 19 14 14 16 18 61,500 B-1B 216,384 69 79 98 117 65 79 92 101 477,000 85,729 21 22 25 33 19 22 26 29 189,000 BAC 111 40,007 29 30 31 31 24 25 28 29 88,200 300/400 24,993 16 17 18 18 14 14 16 18 55,100 BAE 146-100 37,557 20 21 23 24 18 20 22 25 82,800 21,183 10 11 12 13 9 10 11 13 46,700 BOEING 727-100 80,739 45 47 50 52 41 42 49 54 178,000 64,637 35 37 39 41 32 33 37 42 142,500 44,452 21 23 25 27 20 21 22 26 98,000 BOEING 727 (US) 95,255 56 61 54 67 52 55 62 66 210,000 45,995 22 24 26 27 20 21 24 28 101,400 BUCKEYE T-20 5,967 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 13,200 T2 3,674 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 8,100 CC-115 22,317 17 17 18 18 13 15 15 16 49,200 BUFFALO 11,340 9 9 9 9 7 7 8 8 25,000 C9 48,988 30 32 33 34 28 31 34 39 110,000 28,214 11 12 13 14 10 12 14 17 57,000 C17 263,086 52 52 52 70 52 59 71 94 580,000 145,559 22 22 22 24 18 20 22 28 320,900 C23 11,158 7 8 8 8 6 7 9 9 24,600 7,893 4.2 5.3 5.3 5.3 3.2 5.3 5.3 5.3 17,400 CANBERRA 25,764 20 20 21 21 20 21 21 22 56,800 B57 (US) 14,288 11 11 12 12 11 12 12 12 31,500 CANBERRA 17,690 13 14 14 14 13 15 16 16 39,000 T Mk 4 10,115 8 8 8 8 7 8 9 9 22,300 CANBERRA 24,948 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 55,000 PR Mk 7 11,249 9 9 9 9 8 9 10 10 24,800 CANBERRA 26,082 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 57,500 PR Mk 9 12,973 10 10 11 11 9 10 11 12 28,600 CORSAIR II 19,051 18 18 18 17 17 16 16 16 42,000 A7 9,979 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 22,000 CC-142 15,649 10 11 11 11 9 9 11 11 34,500 DASH 8 9,752 6 6 6 7 5 5 6 6 21,500



AIRCRAFT DESIGNATOR

Mass (kg)


A B C D A B C D DC-3 (Super) 15,255 8 8 9 10 6 8 10 12 33,600 C117 10,750 6 6 7 7 5 6 7 8 23,700 DOMINIE 9,662 5 5 6 6 4 5 5 6 21,300 T Mk 1 5,171 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 11,400 CC-144/CE-144 19,550 17 18 18 18 15 15 15 15 43,100 CHALLENGER 11,204 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 9 24,700 CC-150 157,900 45 54 64 72 47 53 65 82 348,170 POLARIS 80,000 14 15 19 23 15 16 17 26 176,400 CH-113/CH-113A 9,707 6 6 7 7 5 5 6 6 21,400 LABRADOR 5,126 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 11,300 CH-124A 9,752 10 10 10 10 8 8 8 7 21,500 SEA KING 4,445 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 9,800 CHINOOK 22,680 11 11 12 12 8 10 12 13 50,000 HC Mk 1 10,433 4 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 23,000 CT-133 8,346 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 18,400 T-BIRD 3,901 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 8,600 EH-101 13,018 9 9 10 10 7 9 11 11 28,700 NSA 9,299 6 7 7 7 5 6 8 8 20,500 DC-10 268,983 48 57 68 79 58 64 75 102 590,000 KC10 124,059 12 13 15 18 14 17 21 27 240,000 DRAGONFLY 6,350 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 14,000 A37 3,719 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 8,200 EAGLE 30,845 32 32 30 30 32 29 28 28 68,000 F15 13,064 14 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 28,800 E3 147,419 38 45 55 52 38 45 54 61 325,000 81,965 16 20 23 26 16 20 24 29 180,700 E4 361,970 45 55 63 73 57 58 85 125 798,000 221,355 23 26 31 37 27 29 33 44 488,000 FALCON 20 13,200 12.5 12.1 12 11.9 12.8 12.9 12.7 12.5 29,100 DA20 (NO) 9,979 9.5 9.2 9.1 9 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.4 22,000 FALCON 20 EW 13,767 13.2 12.7 12.6 12.4 13.6 13.5 13.4 13.2 30,350 DA20 (NO) 9,979 9.6 9.2 9.1 9 9.7 9.7 9.7 9.5 22,000 F-111 45,360 45 45 45 44 48 47 47 47 100,000 F111 22,226 15 16 16 17 18 20 21 22 49,000 F-111C 50,777 48 48 48 48 48 46 46 45 111,945 20,800 20 20 19 19 19 19 19 19 45,856 FIGHTING FALCON 17,010 18 17 17 17 17 16 16 15 37,500 F16 7,893 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 17,400 FIGHTING FALCON (MLU)

16,057 15.7 15.2 14.8 14.6 16.6 16.5 16.2 15.9 35,400

F16 (NO) 7,258 7.1 6.9 6.7 6.6 7.3 7.3 7.2 7.1 16,000 GALAXY 381,022 28 32 39 48 37 42 55 80 840,000 C5A 170,008 8 12 12 14 9 14 16 25 374,800 GREYHOUND 26,082 26 26 25 25 25 24 24 24 57,500 C2 15,921 16 16 15 15 15 15 15 14 35,100 GUARDIAN 15,196 9 10 10 11 11 11 11 12 33,500 HU25 9,480 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 20,900 GULFSTREAM III G3

31,616 22 23 23 24 19 20 22 23 69,700

C20A 16,329 10 11 11 11 8 9 10 11 36,000 HARRIER II 13,517 9 9 10 10 9 10 10 10 29,800 AV8A 7,212 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 15,900 HARRIER 11,884 9 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 26,200 T Mk 4 5,942 4 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 13,100 HARRIER 11,884 9 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 26,200



AIRCRAFT DESIGNATOR

Mass (kg)


A B C D A B C D T Mk 4A 6,260 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 13,800 HARRIER 11,884 9 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 26,200 T Mk 4N 6,123 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 13,500 HARRIER 14,515 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 32,000 GR Mk 7 7,398 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 16,310 HAWK 5,715 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 12,600 T Mk 1 3,493 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 7,700 HORNET 24,000 20 20 20 20 20 19 19 19 52,911 F/A-18 9,000 7 7 7 7 8 7 7 7 19,842 CF-18A/CF-18B 23,542 21 21 21 20 20 19 19 19 51,900 HORNET 10,435 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 23,000 HAWKEYE 24,041 23 22 22 22 22 22 22 21 53,000 E2 18,597 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 41,000 HERCULES 70,300 26 29 31 34 23 27 30 35 154,985 C-130 33,100 12 12 13 14 10 12 13 14 72,973 HERCULES 70,300 26 29 31 34 23 27 30 35 154,985 C-130 33,100 12 12 13 14 10 12 13 14 72,973 CC-130 79,382 31 35 38 41 33 36 38 44 175,000 HERCULES (CA) 33,000 13 13 14 15 13 14 14 15 72,800 HERCULES 70,307 31 34 37 39 24 28 32 37 155,000 C-130 (NZ) 58,967 24 26 28 30 18 22 25 30 130,000 36,287 12 13 14 16 8 12 14 17 80,000 HERCULES 70,760 27 30 33 36 24 29 32 37 156,000 C Mk 1 (UK) 34,609 13 13 15 16 11 13 15 16 76,300 HERCULES 73,028 32 35 38 40 30 33 35 39 161,000 C Mk 3 (UK) 36,605 13 14 16 17 12 14 16 17 80,700 HERCULES 70,307 31 34 37 39 24 28 32 37 155,000 C-130 (NO) 58,967 24 26 28 30 18 22 25 30 130,000 36,287 12 13 14 16 8 12 14 17 80,000 HS 125-400 10,614 6 6 7 7 5 5 6 7 23,400 5,670 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 12,500 HS 125-600 11,340 7 7 7 8 5 6 7 8 25,000 5,670 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 12,500 HS 125-700 11,567 7 7 8 8 6 6 7 8 25,500 6,486 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 14,300 HS 748 21,100 10 11 12 12 8 10 11 13 46,518 9,900 4 4 5 5 3 4 4 5 21,826 INTRUDER 27,624 25 25 25 25 25 24 24 24 60,900 A6 13,789 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 12 30,400 JAGUAR 15,700 9 10 10 11 9 11 12 13 34,600 GR Mk 1/T Mk 2 7,424 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 16,400 JETSTREAM 5,987 3 3 4 4 2 3 4 5 13,200 T Mk 1 4,126 2 3 3 3 2 3 3 4 9,100 JETSTREAM 5,987 3 3 4 4 2 3 4 5 13,200 T Mk 2 4,491 2 3 3 3 2 3 3 4 9,900 JETSTREAM 6,940 4 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 15,300 T Mk 3 4,218 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 9,300 KC 135 134,700 33 40 49 55 33 40 48 55 296,963 STRATO-TANKER 43,600 10 10 10 12 9 10 11 13 96,122 KING AIR 200 7,530 4 4 4 5 3 4 4 5 16,600 C12 4,309 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 9,500 MIRAGE 2000 16,511 16 16 15 15 15 15 15 15 36,400 MIR2 7,575 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 16,700 MITCHELL 18,960 10 11 12 12 8 10 11 13 41,800 B25 9,571 4 5 5 6 3 4 5 6 21,100



AIRCRAFT DESIGNATOR

Mass (kg)


A B C D A B C D NIMROD R Mk 1 80,513 29 33 38 41 31 32 36 42 177,500 42,411 12 14 16 18 13 14 16 19 93,500 NIMROD MR Mk 2 83,462 31 35 39 43 32 34 37 44 184,000 NIM 41,459 12 13 15 17 12 13 15 18 91,400 ORION 57,833 37 39 41 43 33 35 39 43 127,500 P-3 47,627 30 32 34 36 26 27 31 34 105,000 29,483 17 19 21 23 13 14 17 20 65,000 ORION 61,200 38 40 41 43 33 35 39 42 134,923 P-3 29,900 16 17 18 19 14 14 16 19 65,918 ORION 61,236 35.3 37.8 41.7 44.4 40.1 42.6 44.2 45.2 135,000 P-3C (NO) 34,539 17.9 18.4 20.4 23.5 20.2 21.5 22.7 23.3 76,144 ORION 58,061 32.8 34.9 39.1 41.9 37.2 39.4 41.1 42.1 128,000 P-3N (NO) 30,845 15.6 16 17.7 20.5 17.4 18.6 19.7 20.3 68,000 ELECTRA/ORION 64,410 44 46 48 49 38 41 44 47 142,000 P3 27,890 16 17 18 19 14 14 16 18 61,500 OV1 8,165 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 18,000 3,629 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 8,000 PHANTOM 26,308 27 27 26 26 26 25 24 23 58,000 F4 14,515 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 32,000 PROWLER 27,236 26 26 26 26 26 25 25 24 60,000 EA6B 15,244 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 14 33,600 PUMA 6,985 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 3 15,400 HC Mk 1 3,719 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 8,200 SABRELINER 10,886 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 10 24,000 T39 6,237 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 13,800 SEA HARRIER 11,844 9 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 26,200 FA2 6,259 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 6 13,800 SEA HARRIER 11,884 9 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 26,200 FRS Mk 1 5,942 4 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 13,100 SENTRY 151,953 43 50 58 56 47 52 62 79 335,000 AEW Mk 1 83,915 22 23 26 29 23 25 27 35 185,000 SHORTS SHERPA 10,387 6 7 8 8 7 8 9 9 22,900 SHD3 6,680 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 14,700 SKYHAWK 11,113 12 11 11 11 12 11 11 11 24,500 A4K 7,257 8 7 7 7 8 7 7 7 16,000 5,443 6 6 5 5 6 5 5 5 12,000 STARLIFTER 156,000 48 58 68 75 51 58 70 85 343,900 C141 99,500 25 30 35 40 27 32 38 48 219,400 STRATOFORTRESS 221,000 103 116 128 173 94 101 114 135 487,200 B52 83,200 19 23 28 33 23 25 30 37 183,400 SUPER SABRE 18,824 20 20 20 19 19 18 18 17 41,500 F100 9,400 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 20,700 TACAMO II 155,125 42 50 60 68 45 51 62 79 342,000 78,378 17 20 23 27 19 20 23 31 172,800 TALON 5,443 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 12,000 T38 3,175 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 7,000 THUNDERBOLT 22,680 21 21 21 21 20 20 20 20 50,000 A10 12,701 9 9 9 10 9 10 10 11 28,000 TOMCAT 33,724 36 36 35 35 34 33 33 32 74,300 F14 18,191 19 19 19 19 19 18 18 17 40,100 TORNADO 28,576 32 32 31 31 31 29 28 27 63,000 GR Mk 1 13,744 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 13 30,300 TORNADO 26,581 27 27 27 27 27 25 25 24 58,600 F Mk 2/F Mk 3 14,243 15 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 31,400 Transail C 160 49,500 9 9 10 12 7 10 12 17 109,100



AIRCRAFT DESIGNATOR

Mass (kg)


A B C D A B C D ND16 27,844 4 5 5 6 4 5 6 8 61,400 TRISTAR 229,000 55 64 75 88 62 68 83 110 504,853 C Mk 2 109,000 24 25 28 32 26 27 29 37 240,300 TRISTAR 245,847 59 69 82 95 68 74 90 120 542,000 K Mk 1/KC Mk 1/C2A 109,543 24 25 28 32 26 27 29 37 241,500 T43 58,060 32 35 37 38 30 31 35 39 128,000 27,443 13 14 15 16 13 13 14 16 60,500 VC10 147,417 35 43 52 60 44 47 58 73 325,000 C Mk 1 67,631 15 15 18 21 16 17 19 25 149,100 VC 10 143,335 31 38 46 54 39 43 52 67 316,000 K Mk 2 67,993 15 15 18 21 16 17 19 25 149,900 VC10 152,861 36 44 53 61 45 48 61 76 337,000 K Mk 3/K Mk 4 70,987 15 16 19 22 17 18 20 26 156,500 VIKING 33,724 36 36 35 35 34 33 33 32 74,300 S3A 18,191 19 19 19 19 19 18 18 17 40,100



Chapter 16: Safeguarding – Aerodromes and the Surrounding Environments

SAFEGUARDING PROCEDURES

Introduction

1. The procedures involved in safeguarding the operational environment of military aerodromes depend upon whether the proposed obstacle is sited within or outside MOD property.

Safeguarding on MOD Property

2. It is MOD policy for Siting Boards to be held for any new installation to be built on MOD property. Where the property contains an aerodrome, SATCO, or his nominated deputy, should attend the Siting Board to give specialist advice and comments in relation to safeguarding criteria. The safeguarding criteria should not be violated except when the proposed obstacle is operationally essential and a waiver or exemption has been granted by the MAA.

3. SATCO should ensure that the safeguarding criteria is strictly adhered to and, where appropriate, comprehensive specialist remarks are recorded in the Findings and Recommendations of Siting Boards (Form 2). Annex 17A contains the Air Traffic Control Officers’ Certificate, which should be completed and attached to the Form 2 following each Siting Board. Amplification of the remarks by an accurate plan of the proposed siting area, together with all relevant dimensions, should be included as an Annex to the Findings of the Siting Board.

4. Safeguarding criteria includes considering the potential to increase the bird strike risk hazard.

5. Any paperwork associated with Aerodrome Siting Boards for obstacles/buildings, which could affect aerodrome design and safeguarding standards, should be retained indefinitely or until the obstacle/building is removed.

Safeguarding Outside MOD Property

6. Planning decisions in the UK are the responsibility of local or central government, or appointed bodies. Aviation interests, and hence the MOD, have no specific power to override a planning decision. However, the MOD may offer advice to the planning authority such that aviation safety or their operational directives may be taken into consideration.

7. Under the terms of the Town and Country Planning (Aerodromes) Direction 1992 for England and Wales and the Town and Country Planning (Aerodromes) (Scotland) Direction 1992, the Ministry of Defence safeguards military aerodromes against future developments which might prejudice their actual or potential use for aviation purposes. The MOD publishes an official safeguarding map (Plan A) which is issued to County and Local Planning Authorities and to certain other bodies. MOD aerodromes are also issued with copies of the map, through the MOD specialists.

8. Obstruction Hazard. The Statutory safeguarding map (Plan A) is colour coded into sections for which different reference heights are given. These are the heights above which new construction, on and near an aerodrome, may interfere with flying activity. Planning Authorities are required to consult the MOD specialists (Safeguarding) about any application they receive for any development exceeding the appropriate reference level. The area covered by the map depends upon the length of the longest safeguarded runway, either



existing or planned. Other factors are incorporated in accordance with the obstruction limitation criteria shown in Chapter 5 Para 4. Account is also taken of the need to protect instrument approach procedures and radio and radar aids, some of which cannot be utilised satisfactorily unless stringent rules are observed to protect the operating environment.

9. The MOD is also consulted about developments in the area of the circle that involve flying activities including gliding, micro-light aircraft and hang-gliding sites. Some plans also show explosive storage safeguarded areas.

10. The MOD specialist (Safeguarding) is the co-ordinating authority for safeguarding military aerodromes. Air 1Gp BM ATM Infra SO2 Infra is the Air Traffic Control Specialist Adviser and AOS Flight Checking and Safeguarding is the Engineering Specialist Adviser. Any queries relating to the content of this chapter or any difficulty in interpreting the requirements for safeguarding MOD aerodromes should be drawn to the attention of the MAA.

Instrument Approach and Departure Criteria

11. Instrument approach and departure criteria, as laid down in PANS-Ops are unlikely to be infringed by obstacles that do not violate safeguarding criteria. If, when considering the implication of obstacles, doubt exists about their effect on instrument approach and departure criteria advice may be sought from OC A Flt No 1 AIDU, RAF Northolt.

Clearance of Obstructions in Aerodrome Approaches

12. When a unit considers that an approach to its aerodrome is in danger of becoming, or has been, obstructed within the terms of this Publication, it should submit details to the relevant military authority and request that a survey be carried out with a view to remedial action.

Survey Procedure

13. Should the relevant military authority consider that an obstruction survey is justified, it should submit comprehensive details to the MOD specialist (Pavements) and request that appropriate action be taken. A plan defining the area of survey is, if possible, to accompany the request.

14. In the first instance an unobtrusive survey will be undertaken which will not involve access to privately owned land. This will be followed when necessary by a more detailed survey for which access to land may be required. If so, clearance will be arranged by the Regional Defence Land Agent.

Remedial Action

15. The survey, when completed, will be forwarded via the MOD specialists to the Station, relevant military authority and OC A Flt No 1 AIDU, who will determine whether remedial action is necessary. If it is, DIO Land should be requested to provide an estimate of cost for the physical works involved and an estimate of compensation payable to landowners/occupiers.

16. The project should then be viewed in relation to its overall cost. If it is decided to proceed with remedial work, Commands should first request the Defence Land Agent/ Regional Estate Surveyor to clear the cost of compensation. When this clearance has been given, arrangements for the physical work of removal should be made under normal Works Service procedure.



17. Commands will be responsible for co-ordinating action and for making the necessary arrangements through the Defence Land Agent/Regional Estate Surveyor with landowners / occupiers for obtaining entry to land, to carry out the work. In Germany, RAF MLO Frankfurt should ensure that the Joint Services Liaison Organisation (JSLO) is involved in making contact with land-owners/occupiers.

18. In the UK, any political difficulties considered likely to arise from proposed land entry, either for detailed survey purposes or the execution of remedial work, should be reported at an early stage through the usual channels to MOD specialists Safeguarding. In Germany, MLO Frankfurt should similarly be informed.

19. Further guidance on safeguarding is available through DIO, Sutton Coldfield or the relevant Authority as stated Table 1-2 grass and habitat management

20. Bird strike Hazard. Although safeguarding primarily addresses the potential infringement of flight safety surfaces, the potential for the proposed development to become a bird attractant site and increase the bird strike risk may also be addressed. For most aerodromes, in addition to the normal safeguarding map (Plan A), County and Local Planning Authorities are issued with a bird strike safeguarding map, (Plan B), which depicts a bird hazard circle, of radius of 8 statute miles. Planning authorities are statutorily required to consult the MOD about planning applications they receive for development within the area of the circle which could be a major source of attraction to birds. These developments include refuse tips, reservoirs, sewage disposal works, nature reserves, bird sanctuaries or any similar source that is attractive to birds and should be assessed individually or as part of a cumulative process against the potential to become bird-attractants and increase the bird strike risk at a nearby aerodrome. Annex 17B contains the guidance for assessing the bird strike risk hazard when considering planning proposals.

Bird Strike Risk Management

21. The MOD, by policy, conforms to ICAO standards and practices provided that they do not conflict with military requirements. ICAO Annex 14 states that “when a birdstrike hazard is identified at an aerodrome, the appropriate authority will take action to decrease the number of birds constituting a potential hazard to aircraft operations by adopting measures for discouraging their presence on, or in the vicinity of, an aerodrome6”. The appropriate authority at Government aerodromes within the UK is the MOD.

22. The UK the Air Navigation Order (ANO) requires that the aerodrome license holder take all reasonable steps to secure that the aerodrome and the airspace within which its visual pattern is normally contained are safe at all times for use by aircraft. For the purposes of the ANO, the aerodrome license holder at Government aerodromes is the MOD. The MOD is therefore responsible for the development and implementation of birdstrike risk control measures at its aerodromes7.

23. Principles and Objectives. As with other forms of aviation risk, the management of the risk of a birdstrike involves specialist knowledge and specific measures. These measures are aimed at deterring birds from flying on and in the lower flight paths in the vicinity of the aerodrome and primarily include the use of risk assessment, aerodrome habitat management, bird control procedures and safeguarding. However, the birdstrike risk is not uniform across all types of aerodromes and flight operations, and therefore it is essential that the most appropriate measures are identified and adopted to suit the local situation.

6 ‘In the vicinity of’ is internationally taken to be land or water within 13 km of the aerodrome reference point. 7 An Aerodrome is defined as ‘an area prepared for accommodation (including any buildings, installations and equipments) landing and take-off of aircraft’.



Effective techniques in risk assessment, bird control, habitat management and safeguarding exist that can reduce the presence of birds on aerodromes and the risk of a birdstrike.

24. The basis of all birdstrike risk management policy and action is the planning and the effective use of human resources, procedures and diligence which reflects the principles of safety management that the MOD is required to apply to aspects of aircraft operations within its responsibility.

25. The objective of birdstrike risk management is to implement those measures necessary to reduce the birdstrike risk to a level which accords to the ALARP principles within MOD Risk Management.

26. Policy. Air Weapons Ranges (AWRs) are predominantly large expanses of ground/water similar to aerodromes but much larger. Being a food rich area, relatively undisturbed by human surface activity, areas on and around AWRs are attractive to birds. Aircraft operating along prescriptive Lines of Attack at high speed and low altitude within this background are vulnerable to birdstrike. Whilst the guidance provided within this document is primarily aimed at aerodrome activity it is valid for all flying facilities, including AWRs. However, the mitigation methods identified as reasonable will be reduced due to nature of task and/or topography. It is expected therefore that mitigation will predominantly focus on habitat management and effecting levels of control over background bird activity/numbers through Safeguarding.

27. Bird Control Management Plan (RA 3270). The Bird Control Management Plan (BCMP) should record the results of birdstrike risk assessments that are conducted and specify the birdstrike risk mitigation measures that are in place. The measures should relate to the threat posed by each identified risk and, due to the relative unpredictability of bird activities, should be responsive to changes as the risk rises or falls. Those measures should include the bird control techniques detailed in this and other authoritative documents.

28. The emphasis should be to minimise the presence of flocks of birds on, or in the vicinity of, the aerodrome as much as possible. However, this may be difficult outside the aerodrome boundary. Nevertheless, an awareness of bird attractant activities taking place, such as farmers ploughing fields, and constructive dialogue with the landowner should permit timely and effective action to be carried out.

29. A BCMP should aim to assess the potential birdstrike risk, at minimum, include details of:

a. The roles and responsibilities of the station executive and bird control personnel.

b. The policies and procedures for:

(1) Risk identification and assessment.

(2) On-aerodrome bird control.

(3) The recording of bird control activities and bird control issues.

(4) Personnel training and appraisal.

(5) Bird control performance monitoring, measurement and improvement systems.

(6) The logging of bird species, data analysis and the recording and analysis of birdstrike reports.



(7) Obtaining permissions for control measures, as necessary, including rookery culls, hangar clearance and rabbit removal etc.

(8) The periodic assessment and review of the birdstrike risk recording and information system, bird control procedures and associated activities.

c. Recording the detail and results of the birdstrike risk assessments that are conducted and the birdstrike risk mitigation measures that are in place.

d. The means to ensure that flocks of birds, whether resident or visiting, do not habituate8 on the aerodrome, achieved through the deployment of effective habitat management and bird dispersal and control measures to reduce bird activity on the aerodrome.

e. The measures employed by Defence Estates (Safeguarding) on behalf of the station to control or influence areas in the vicinity of the aerodrome to minimise the attraction to birds, including:

(1) Confirming the correct level of safeguarding appropriate to the station flying task for consultation with Local Planning Authorities on proposed developments that have the potential to be bird attractant in the vicinity of the aerodrome.

(2) The means to influence land use and development surrounding the aerodrome so that the birdstrike risk does not increase and, wherever possible, is reduced.

(3) The means to help encourage landowners to adopt bird control measures and support landowners' efforts to reduce birdstrike risks.

(4) The procedures to conduct, and record the results of, site monitoring visits.

f. The BCMP should be referred to or included in the relevant Flying/ATC Orders and the Defence Aerodrome Manual (DAM) and made available for audit in accordance with RA 1026, Aerodrome Operator.

30. Roles and Responsibilities. Clearly defined roles and responsibilities of all personnel are important elements of the effectiveness of the BCMP. All personnel should have a thorough understanding of their roles within the plan and be able to collaborate actively with other organizations on and off the aerodrome, such as air traffic control and local landowners. The roles and responsibilities of personnel associated with bird control duties undertaken on a typical aerodrome are described in this Annex but responsibilities may be adjusted to suit an aerodrome's specific bird control circumstances.

31. Many of the species which are common on aerodromes are successful and numerous because they are adaptable generalists and quick to exploit opportunities and changes in the environment, especially those unwittingly provided by man. Therefore, bird problems can never be considered to be 'solved' or overcome. Environmental and weather changes, the adaptive behaviour of the birds, and many unpredictable factors may cause major problems to arise very quickly. There must, therefore, be a sustained awareness of the potential dangers and an efficient system to detect and respond to changes, not only by those immediately involved in bird control, but also by management and air traffic control. This highlights again the crucial importance of organization and management. 8 Cease to react to meaningless stimuli. Habituation is one of the simplest forms of learning shown by all animals.



32. Head of Establishment (HoE). Although the HoE has overall accountability for bird control at each aerodrome, responsibility for bird control and the implementation of the BCMP may be delegated, usually to the Aerodrome Operator, SATCO, Aerodrome Manager or another senior person in the air operations function. The core responsibilities of such a person, with respect to the BCMP, should be to:

a. Assess the birdstrike risk level.

b. Determine policy, produce and implement the BCMP.

c. Ensure that the BCMP reference or inclusion in the relevant Flying and/or ATC Order Books is correct.

33. Further responsibilities should include the:

a. Monitoring and acting on habitat changes on and in the vicinity of the aerodrome and development of appropriate management and control activities.

b. Implementation of habitat management/long grass policy maintenance programmes in accordance with the BCMP, and to introduce modifications to the maintenance programmes as necessary.

c. Analysis and interpretation of log records of bird control activities, birdstrike reports and bird count data.

d. Regular survey of bird concentrations and movements in the local area and liaison with local bird watchers for additional information.

e. Liaison with local landowners, farmers and gamekeepers to obtain intelligence on farming plans, game conservation, etc and on mitigation action.

f. Monitoring of the effectiveness of any mitigation measures in place.

g. Identification of potential birdstrike risks by collating local ornithological and other data.

h. Seeking of advice and assistance from outside specialists on matters requiring expertise not available at the aerodrome.

i. Production and promulgation of reports on the development of BCMP and on specific topics, safety briefs and birdstrike risk warnings as required.

34. Bird control Officer/Manager. Whilst the Aerodrome Operator may have overall responsibility for bird control delegated from the HoE, a technical specialist, such as a Bird Control Officer or the BCU Manager, may undertake day-to-day management and efficient implementation of the BMCP. In more detail, this role will involve key duties such as to:

a. Advise on all matters relating to birds and birdstrike prevention, and to assist with the production and development of the BCMP.

b. Plan and organize bird control operations in accordance with the BCMP.

c. Supervise and monitor bird control operations to ensure that BCMP is implemented correctly.

d. Supervise bird control record keeping (log, bird counts, birdstrike recording and reporting, bird dispersal, culling and habitat management diaries, etc.).



e. Provide technical supervision of bird control operators, intelligence gathering, and planning.

f. Facilitate the active surveillance, bird dispersal, culling and other field tasks.

g. Ensure that all necessary licenses, insurances, passes and permits are current.

h. Ensure the effective supply, safe keeping and correct maintenance of bird control equipment and consumables.

i. Provide a communications channel between the aerodrome policy makers/providers, bird control operators and other interested parties, such as the flying sqns/units and air traffic control.

35. Bird Control Officer. A bird control operator performs the front line role and can be any suitably trained member of aerodrome staff. This role will involve key duties such as to:

a. Maintain surveillance of bird activity on the aerodrome and beyond, to the limit of visibility.

b. Implement active bird control measures in accordance with the BCMP to counter any detected birdstrike risk.

c. Provide the air traffic service, where applicable, with details of a potential birdstrike risk.

d. Record bird and bird control activity.

e. Record actual, potential or suspected birdstrikes.

f. Advise senior personnel on improvements to the bird control task.

g. Assist with surveys, etc.

36. Risk Identification. There are significant factors that should be considered in an assessment of the birdstrike risk at a flying facility. Risk assessments should be undertaken whenever changes in the environment, in operating procedures, in aircraft types, etc are likely to affect safety. Characteristically, bird hazards at aerodromes are continuously changing and, therefore, continuous re-assessment is necessary.

37. Assessment of the Birdstrike Risk. In order to manage the risk of a birdstrike, the Unit should develop a systematic method of obtaining information regarding potential birdstrike risks on and in the vicinity of the aerodrome/AWR on a regular basis and:

a. Assess those risks, in the context of aircraft operations.

b. Analyse bird strike records to identify how many birds have been struck and which species.

c. Identify and target those birds more likely to cause damage to aircraft, such as flocking and/or larger species.

d. Develop a structured approach to bird control.



38. Before any risk assessment can be conducted with any degree of accuracy, it is necessary to establish the background risk level9 to demonstrate the need for a bird hazard control programme and against which to assess the changing hazard. This level also provides a measure against which to assess the effectiveness of the plan. Details of existing bird locations and bird movements relative to those locations and the aerodrome will need to be ascertained, both to establish an accurate database and to keep the information flow current. A risk assessment should therefore be conducted initially to provide a quantifiable benchmark and repeated thereafter on a periodic basis such that:

a. Each potential birdstrike risk can be assessed in detail.

b. Each risk can be quantified in the short and long term, dependent upon bird population and habitat seasonal changes.

c. The potential risks can be assessed on a comparable basis.

d. The continuing risk can be monitored.

e. Control actions can be focused in a structured manner.

39. A typical risk assessment process should therefore involve:

a. A detailed hazard description, identifying bird species and associated habitats that influence the size and behaviour of bird populations in the area.

b. An assessment of the probability of a birdstrike with a particular species, taking into consideration the current mitigation procedures in place and seasonal factors.

c. Consideration of the species involved including size and numbers (eg solitary or in flocks), an assessment of the likely severity of the outcome of a birdstrike.

d. An assessment of the frequency of serious multiple birdstrikes10.

e. The determination of the acceptability of the level of risk by summing the probability and severity, based on a probability/severity matrix.

f. The identification of further risk management options available.

g. The development and implementation of an action plan to eliminate reduce or mitigate unacceptable risks.

40. Applying the Assessment to Bird Hazards. Accidents from all causes should occur at a frequency of 1 x 10-7, or lower. Thus, individual hazards must pose a lower level of risk. However, because of the low frequency of accidents, it is not possible to quantify accurately risks from individual causes, such as birdstrikes. Individual UK aerodromes all have different local conditions and hazard levels, and there are not sufficient aircraft movements to provide statistically valid samples. All categories of aircraft have suffered catastrophic accidents (the worst case on the severity scale) following strikes with common birds and strikes with the potential for catastrophic results occur relatively frequently. Therefore, the probability level is, at best, ‘extremely remote’ and may even be as high as ‘remote’. Also, serious incidents such as loss of an engine on takeoff, (severity classification 9 The level and type of bird activity that would occur in the absence of any monitoring or control measures. 10 Where more than 2 birds are struck and more than 10 birds are seen, or when more than 10 birds are struck. Allan J. – A Heuristic Risk Assessment Technique for Birdstrike Management at Airports, Society for Risk Assessment Journal, Vol 26 No 3, 2006.



‘hazardous’ and ‘major’) occur sufficiently frequently to fall into the ‘reasonably probable’ category.

41. Because of the small but real risk of catastrophic accidents, the risk must be reduced to a lower ‘tolerability’ level. Even the middle ground ‘review’ risk level requires action to reduce it to as low as reasonably practical. To minimize the risk of the very rare catastrophic incidents, the only practical approach is to minimize the opportunities for any birdstrikes to occur.

42. Following on from this, it is useful to produce a baseline statement describing the aerodrome’s particular bird hazards: species; concentration sites (roosts, breeding colonies, etc.); movements; and seasonal and temporal changes. All flying stations will then be able to develop a comprehensive and sustainable BCMP from the risk assessment process above. However, further review of bird movements and changes in populations, including the effect of mitigation action, and the environment is necessary to re-assess the residual risk once the BCMP is in place.

43. Intelligence Gathering. Intelligence gathering is an essential component of the birdstrike risk assessment process and involves the monitoring of all potential bird attractants, concentrations and movement patterns, both on and in the vicinity of the aerodrome. In addition to field observations by aerodrome personnel or other specialists who understand the importance of such monitoring, liaison with local landowners and land users such as local bird watchers and ornithological societies, nature reserve wardens, water bailiffs, gamekeepers, farmers and pigeon fanciers may yield useful information.

44. Awareness and understanding of bird concentrations and movements can improve the efficiency and effectiveness of bird control on the aerodrome and will determine the amount of effort required to manage the risk and the type of control actions. When assessing attractants, a clear understanding is needed of the direct impact each potential bird attractant site and its proximity to the aerodrome is likely to have on the potential birdstrike risk, having identified and taken into account the bird species involved.

45. Surveys should be conducted in the local area in different seasons to identify attractants, concentrations and regular movement patterns. Each potential bird attractant feature or development on the aerodrome and in its vicinity should be assessed. Having identified the potential bird attractants the possible impact should be assessed so that the level of risk presented to flights at the aerodrome can be determined. Specialist advice should be sought from BCU experts or CSL regarding the factors to be considered within this assessment.

46. Defence Estates (Safeguarding) coordinate the appropriate action on behalf of flying stations which may include legal proceedings. Individual units should not engage in consultations with Local Planning Authorities or with local landowners/developers beyond that necessary to facilitate access iaw the BCMP.

47. Bird Attractant Habitats. The differing landscapes on the aerodrome may create a variety of attractants that need to be identified and assessed, to determine the appropriate prevention or control actions required. The following paragraphs also apply to sites in the vicinity of the aerodrome.

48. Food. Birds require high-energy foods and many species depend on earthworms, snails, slugs, spiders, millipedes, and insects (especially larvae) present in grassland and the underlying soil. Fieldfares, redwings and starlings may occur in large flocks to feed on soil invertebrates on aerodromes. Carnivorous birds may feed on small mammals, such as rodents.



49. Very few birds eat grass. Only Geese and some other Wildfowl graze grass and, then, only when it is short and in vigorous growth. Therefore, the grass itself is not a bird attractant but other plants among it can attract large numbers of birds. The leaves, flowers and seeds of weeds, such as clovers, dandelion, chickweeds and vetches are food for Pigeons, Game birds, Finches and other small birds. Therefore, consideration should be given to the need to minimize or eliminate such attractants through, for example, the use of herbicides.

50. Parts of an aerodrome are sometimes let for growing crops. Although tall crops are mostly unattractive to birds, they have the potential to cause a variety of problems immediately adjacent to the movement areas. Activities like ploughing, harrowing and cropping which disturb the soil, and also sludge spraying, manure spreading, seed drilling, ripe crops, harvesting, and hay and silage cutting create feeding opportunities for Gulls, Lapwings, Corvids, Starlings and Pigeons. Such activities inevitably attract birds and will increase the resources required for bird control. Having fed, birds such as Gulls and Lapwings will rest in the vicinity for many hours.

51. Wastes from litterbins etc. attract Gulls, Feral pigeons, Corvids, Starlings and other Passerines (perching birds). Refuse bins associated with food preparation and consumption ie kitchen and catering areas, is a particular attractant.

52. Open Terrain. Flat, open terrain is an inherent characteristic of an aerodrome, which cannot be modified. Expanses of grassland covering large areas between runways, taxiways and aprons and paved surfaces create bird attractions on aerodromes, as do buildings and other installations such as radar towers. The unobstructed view and open space provides security (plus, for flocking species, mutual protection from many pairs of eyes) and affords a warning of potential danger for large flocks. Open terrain attracts all species except those which avoid danger by living in trees or dense cover. However, maintaining the grass sward at an appropriate height can eliminate the open aspect on the grassed areas. The bird attractant aspects of open terrain are relatively simple and well understood, and effective countermeasures are available.

53. The presence of other, less prominent features such as open drainage ditches, ponds, scrub, bushes and trees, earth banks, and waste food also provide more habitats, for larger numbers of birds and additional species, to exploit.

54. Attention should be paid to grass reinstatement in areas after aerodrome works.

55. Landscaping. Landscaping developments include grass, tree and shrub planting and may involve the creation or enhancement of a water feature. Landscaping schemes have the potential to:

a. Create dense vegetation that may become a roost.

b. Provide an abundant autumn and winter food supply in the form of fruits and berries.

c. Create standing water or watercourses which attract Gulls and waterfowl.

56. Landscapes commonly include trees and shrubs, which may provide food and shelter for nesting and roosting. Finches, Thrushes, Pigeons and Starlings commonly feed on fruits and berries. Finch flocks will only move onto aerodromes where there is a weed seed food source, and native thrushes do not form flocks or visit the open spaces of aerodromes to a significant extent. Thus in the autumn, masses of berries may attract large flocks to the aerodrome and, once the berries are all eaten, the flocks move onto the aerodrome to hunt earthworms, etc. Numerous fruit- and berry-bearing trees and shrubs have the potential to attract birds.



57. Oak and Beech in particular provide food for Wood pigeons, which feed on acorns and beechmast extensively in autumn. They also eat the flowers of Ash in spring. Rooks eat acorns and sometimes plant them in the aerodrome grass.

58. Nests and Roosts. Many birds nest in trees and bushes. Rooks nest colonially in traditional rookeries in small woods and lines of mature trees but recently they have expanded into a wider variety of smaller trees and man-made structures, such as aerodrome lighting gantries and electricity distribution pylons. Wood pigeons nest in dense bushes, hedgerows and woods.

59. From late summer through the winter, starlings form large communal roosts in dense vegetation such as thorn thickets, game coverts, young unthinned conifer plantations, shelter and screening belts and reed beds. Less dense cover may be used where there is artificial shelter from nearby large buildings.

60. Buildings and structures with access holes and crevices provide nest sites and roosts, especially for Feral pigeons and Starlings. Pigeons roost and nest on ledges on the exteriors of buildings and inside them.

61. Water. Open standing water and watercourses attract Waterfowl that are nearly all large birds and may also occur in large flocks. Waterfowl resort to water for security and it is usually impossible to evict them with scaring devices. The more open water sites there are on and around an aerodrome, the more complex and frequent will be the movements of Waterfowl between them. There may be more activity at night than during the day.

62. Wet and waterlogged grass attracts feeding Ducks (especially at night) and nesting Waders, and drainage should be installed or improved, wherever possible. Flooding flushes soil invertebrates to the surface making them very accessible to birds, attracting Ducks, Gulls and Waders.

63. Larger, permanent waters, such as ponds, balancing reservoirs, etc, attract Ducks, Geese, Swans, Herons, Coot, Moorhen and Cormorants.

Aerodrome Long Grass Policy - Guidance for Units and Agencies Responsible for Letting Aerodrome Ground Maintenance Contracts

64. Aerodromes naturally offer birds food and/or security for foraging, resting and, sometimes, breeding. While the employment of a Bird Control Unit (BCU) may remove birds from the aerodrome, the birds will return for as long as the attraction remains. A tailored habitat management process on aerodromes, aimed at reducing the attractant to birds, is therefore essential in reducing the bird strike risk. It is impossible to eliminate the bird strike risk by habitat management alone. This passive measure can however reduce bird numbers to a level whereby active measures (BCU Operators) can be effective. The combination of active and passive measures is essential in providing effective bird control. One significant measure that may be employed will manage the grassed areas to maintain an erect and dense ‘long grass’ sward of 150mm and 200mm (MOD (RAF) Long Grass Policy). It should be recognised however, that each aerodrome environment is unique and that the most effective bird deterrent swards are dependant upon local soil type, climate, geographic location and methods of bird control available. Therefore, the maintenance process should be tailored to work in consort with local conditions.

65. The current standard, Technical Bulletin (TB) 97/34, was produced to provide units with a ‘standard’ process for supporting the MOD (RAF) Long Grass Policy where, at the time, no appropriate expertise was available at aerodrome level and this standard was considered ‘best practice’. However, it is understood that due to the aforementioned uniqueness of aerodromes, strict adherence to TB 97/34 at some units could prove counterproductive to the



desired end-state. This understanding, along with the creation of specialist technical support contracts such as civilian BCU and knowledgeable grounds maintenance companies, now affords the MOD the opportunity to review the guidance on standard process contained within TB 97/34.

66. Pending the publication of the new standard, units should consult with the SATCOs/Aerodrome Managers prior to letting or managing any aerodrome grass management contract in order to identify whether adherence to the current TB 97/34 would be effective at the subject aerodrome. If it is believed that variance from TB 97/34 is warranted then a request for dispensation, along with the supporting argument and the proposed alternative, should be forwarded to the relevant aerodrome specialist authority for consideration.

Grass Maintenance Scheme

67. All grass areas within the aerodrome boundary, including the margins adjacent to runways and taxiways should be included in the aerodrome grass maintenance scheme. As grass grows according to season, so does the presence of certain bird species; therefore, grass maintenance should be planned accordingly to deter the targeted birds when necessary.

68. Short, gang mown grass is the greatest long-term attraction on an aerodrome for birds and the adoption of a long-grass regime is considered to be a very effective aerodrome bird deterrent. It spoils the habitat for birds by restricting their vision at ground level, thus reducing their security, and also by considerably restricting their access to any food sources which might be available in the soil. The term ‘long-grass’ however, is a misnomer and can lead to misunderstanding of this habitat management technique.

Grass Management

69. The main difference between short grass management on aerodromes and the long grass technique lies in the cutting regime. Long grass is maintained at a height of between 150mm and 200mm either permanently or for specified periods throughout the year depending on the regime adopted as being the most suitable at a particular location. To be properly effective the long-grass policy should apply to as much of the aerodrome as is practicable and especially to those areas adjacent to aircraft operating surfaces. The result is that any attraction to birds is minimized and fewer birds frequent the immediate area. Moreover, those birds which are present are more easily dispersed by active bird-scaring measures. Consequently, routine scaring techniques retain their effectiveness and are required less frequently.

70. Various types of grass maintenance schemes exist, such as the long grass policy and silaging, and each has its own advantages and disadvantages for aviation use. The aerodrome authority should employ the scheme most appropriate to the aerodrome. The Bird Control Management Plan (BCMP) should be revisited to identify any additional measures that may be necessary to complement the scheme. For example, a long grass policy should be complemented by dispersal methods to deter other birds that may frequent the aerodrome.

Long Grass Policy (LGP)

71. There are three recommended options for maintenance of long-grass on an aerodrome:

a. Regime 1. Standard Long-Grass Management. When considering Flight Safety, this is the preferred solution.



b. Regime 2. Long-Grass Management involving commercial cropping (Hay/Silage). This policy is only suitable at those inland aerodromes where LGP is not required as a year round bird deterrent.

c. Regime 3. The Basic System which is only suitable for aerodromes where there is no local demand for hay/silage or a requirement for year round LGP. This method is economical, simple to implement and practical to sustain. However, the overriding factor when determining the appropriate level of LGP for a particular aerodrome is Flight Safety. This regime can therefore only be used with the express authority of the appropriate authority.

72. All regimes are aimed at producing a healthy, erect, dense sward that is free from broadleaved weeds. The grass should be maintained at a height of between 150mm and 200mm and be capable of standing upright during the winter months. Good strands of grass may be obtained by simply allowing an existing sward to grow but in some areas re-seeding may be necessary due to climatic, soil or existing sward condition. It may be necessary to experiment with different grass seed mixtures and techniques to find the most effective and economic mixture for a particular aerodrome.

73. Before a long grass policy is first established, and periodically thereafter, it may be prudent to have soil analyses carried out and any nutrient deficiency made good in spring. When seeking advice from agronomists, who commonly advise farmers on grass crops and pasture and may be unfamiliar with the unique requirements for aerodrome long grass, the need for sustained strong growth of appropriate grass species, rather than a flush of rapid lush grass, should be stressed. General-purpose fertiliser in slow acting granular form, rather than a high nitrogen formulation, is appropriate. In almost all cases, good stands of long grass can be obtained by allowing the existing sward to grow taller. Re-seeding is rarely necessary.

74. Long grass regimes are usually effective only when the aerodrome bird control organisation is involved in planning, monitoring and regulating the maintenance programme. Any grass maintenance regime will be confirmed as that which is necessary to support flying operations at the facility and should be recorded within the unit Bird Control Management Plan.

75. Long grass maintenance requires activity throughout the year. Several dates are given in the paras below but aerodrome operators should take account of local climatic conditions when planning their maintenance regime.

76. In some areas, rabbits may be a particular problem. Large populations of rabbits can make it impossible to grow effective long grass, and may undermine the effectiveness of a surface to support the movement of vehicles or aircraft iaw Chapter 4 Para 0. The rabbit population may need to be controlled accordingly.

77. The long grass regime intended to deter the most common birds found on an aerodrome is shown at Annex 17C. However, whilst the aim is to achieve a tall freestanding sward, units should confirm the effectiveness of this or any other methodology for their particular facility and seek dispensation from the relevant Authority should variance be deemed appropriate.

Over-seeding

78. Existing grasses on some aerodromes may not be suitable for successful long-grass. Re-seeding with a mixture of perennial ryegrasses can give good results. These should be of an upright growing cultivar. The mixture should also contain a strong creeping Red Fescue cultivar, a vigorous Chewing’s Fescue and a small amount of Browntop Bent.



79. Specific mixes should be formulated to meet the requirements of each aerodrome. Over-seeding of an aerodrome should be carried out a section at a time over a period of years to avoid disruption to operational use. The percentage make up of the mixture will vary with site location but the following is a general guide:

a. 25% perennial ryegrass ‘Melle’

b. 25% perennial ryegrass ‘Preference’

c. 25% strong creeping Red Fescue cultivar

d. 20% Chewing’s Fescue cultivar

e. 5% Browntop Bent ‘Highland’

Sites of Special Scientific Interest

80. Some aerodromes may contain Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) or other Nature Conservation designation areas which may influence the grass regime adopted. However, iaw JSP 362 Chapter 5 Conservation states that Flight Safety is the overriding criteria and specialist advice should be sought from the appropriate authority before proceeding. Further, any proposed major changes to habitat will require a Sustainability Appraisal to ensure compliance with legislation and MOD policy. DIO Environmental Support Team should be contacted for advice.

81. The Environment Agency may impose restrictions on the use of certain fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides due to the potential pollution of water course, catchments or tables. Specialist advice should be sought from the appropriate authority before proceeding.

Pest Control

82. Pests that directly affect successful long-grass management include rabbits, moles and field voles. A well organized pest control programme should be implemented as part of the grass management plan.

Land Drainage

83. Poor land drainage will prevent effective grass management due to the soft, wet soil being unable to bear the weight of maintenance machines, and cutting will give an uneven and torn height of grass. Wet areas will also encourage plant species which are not desirable in a long-grass policy. The following practices should be incorporated within the aerodrome maintenance plan:

a. Land drains are to be routinely inspected and defective runs, causing local wet spots, repaired. Outfalls and culverts should be clean and unobstructed with ditches and watercourses free flowing.

b. Surface compaction as a result of vehicle movements should be corrected by the use of a heavy duty aerator after ‘Bottoming Out’.

c. Natural pools which attract gulls and waders should, where practicable, be drained and filled in.



Chapter 17: Safeguarding – Obstructions and Waivers

SURFACE OBSTRUCTIONS

1. General Provisions. Any obstacle which projects above the surface of an aircraft movement area and its associated shoulder and runway/taxiway strip, constitutes an obstacle hazardous to aircraft. The number of such obstacles should be kept to an absolute minimum and are only permitted if they are operationally essential. Wherever possible the runway/taxiway strip should be obstacle free. Obstacles should be constructed and sited in such a manner as to reduce the hazard to a minimum. They should be frangibly mounted and should be of the lightest feasible construction. In this context a frangible object is one which retains its structural integrity and stiffness up to a desired maximum load, but when subjected to a greater load than desired will break, distort or yield in such a manner as to present the minimum hazard to an aeroplane. Guidance on frangibility is detailed in ICAO document Interim Guidance on Frangibility. Where the justification for such obstacles no longer exists, consideration should be given to having them removed. Aerodrome defence installations, such as dannert wire, cannot be classified as operationally essential obstructions and should be excluded from the runway strip and other protected areas within the movement area in peacetime, unless there are essential operational reasons for waiver. Any aid to air navigation to be sited within a runway strip should be made as light and as frangible as design and function will permit. The height of any object, which is permitted within a runway strip, should be kept to the minimum for the particular site and function of the equipment. See Chapter 5 Para 1.

2. Paved Surfaces. Obstacles are not permitted on runways, taxiways, or hardstandings. However, frangible elevated light fittings and airfield reflective markers are permissible on the edges of paved surfaces up to a maximum height of 0.5m.

3. Shoulders. Shoulders should be obstacle free. Only when it proves impossible, for operational reasons, to locate an obstacle further away from the runway, taxiway or hardstanding, will it be permitted as an obstruction on a shoulder. The feasibility of locating obstacles further away from the paved surfaces than the shoulder e.g. in the runway strip, should always be considered. (For dimensions of shoulders see Table 4-3 and Table 4-12.

4. Runway and Taxiway Strips. The general provisions of Chapter 17 Para 1 apply to runway and taxiway strips, however, the location of operationally essential objects in these areas may be unavoidable. Such objects include radio and radar facilities, runway approach aids, sign boards and runway visual range towers. The distance from the runway or taxiway centre-line should be the maximum, and their height the minimum, commensurate with their function and provision of safe passage to aircraft taxiing whilst keeping all wheels on the paved surface. Restrictions can be placed on the type of aircraft that can use a particular paved surface if an object does not allow wing tip clearance.(For dimensions of runway and taxiway strips see Table 4-4 and Table 4-13.

5. Stopways. The only obstacles permitted in stopways are approach lights. These should be of a lightweight construction, frangibly mounted and should not exceed 0.46m in height.

6. Clearways. Any obstacle that has to be located in the clearway should not penetrate the prescribed clearway gradient, see Table 4-6 Any obstacle which does penetrate this gradient will define the end of the clearway. Light wooden frangible fencing not containing wire elements and not exceeding 1.2m in height is permitted in the clearway provided that it does not penetrate the prescribed clearway gradient see Table 4-6.



7. Overlapping Areas. Where 2 or more areas overlap, e.g. clearway overlapping stopway, the more stringent obstacle limitation should apply.

8. ATC Tower Visibility. The VCR should be suitably positioned and elevated to provide the maximum visibility of the aircraft manoeuvring area. New constructions on the airfield should not obscure the line of sight from existing control towers. The absolute minimum visibility requirement should be considered as a clear and uninterrupted view of all runways, thresholds, approach paths and circuit patterns. Also, the VCR should be provided with the maximum possible uninterrupted view of all taxiways, aprons and dispersal areas.

SUB SURFACE OBSTRUCTIONS

9. General Provisions. Any structure which lies within 300mm of the surface or is flush with the surface of the unpaved parts of the movement areas, shoulders or runway strips may be hazardous to an aircraft which runs off the paved surface. It is important to keep such potential hazards to a minimum by critically examining each stated need in the first instance and by ensuring that any existing obstructions continue to meet an essential function. Where sub-surface structures cannot be dispensed with they should be constructed so that they present the minimum practical vertical face to undercarriage wheels, if necessary by the provision of sub-surface ramps, see Chapter 4 Para 3.b.

WAIVERS

Operationally essential obstructions exempt from waiver

10. There is no requirement for the MAA to issue waivers against operational essential obstructions, by the nature of this equipment it is required for an aerodrome to operate effectively. However, each aerodrome must have the appropriate siting board paperwork in place, as laid down by the relevant PT and comply to Chapter 5 Para 3 and Chapter 17 Para 1-7 of this manual, to be exempt from waiver. Additionally each item should be placed on the appropriate risk register/hazard log If the original siting board paperwork is not available a safety assessment should be conducted and submitted to the MAA. The following items are examples of operationally essential equipment:

a. Runway Caravan.

b. Arrestor Equipment including Barrier and RHAG installations.

c. RVR Towers.

d. Illuminated Runway Distance Marking Signs.

e. PAR and ILS.

f. IRVR equipment.

The MAA will offer guidance on any additional items considered to be operationally essential.

11. Alternate ATC facilities e.g, anemometers, search radars and other navigational aids should be sited, wherever possible outside runway or parallel taxiway shoulders but may be sighted within the runway strips. If there is any doubt as to whether a proposed obstacle will infringe military Aerodrome Safeguarding Criteria, advice should be sought from the appropriate FLC or equivalent.



Extended waivers for extenuating circumstances

12. The MAA may issue waivers extending beyond 3 years for extenuating circumstances where Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) (MAA/RN/12/1111) has established that the potential expenditure to reduce risk is ‘disproportionate’ to the level of risk. CBA should not be the only tool in determining that the risk is at least tolerable and ALARP; it should be completed in conjunction with a Safety Assessment highlighting the risks and mitigation, including DH risk acceptance.

13. Prior to staffing an extended waiver certain considerations should be taken into account:

a. Operational impact

b. Air safety implications

14. If funding becomes available and works are planned on the aerodrome or the operational use of the aerodrome changes, the waiver should be reviewed and the non-compliance considered and/or improved where possible.

Exemptions

15. The MAA may issue an exemption for a permanent waiver against regulation. The staff work necessary to support a request for exemption would be the same as that required for a request for waiver, see paragraph 12. Each request would be reviewed on a case by case basis.

AERODROME OBSTACLE LIMITATION ZONES

16. The effective utilization of an aerodrome may be considerably influenced by natural features and man-made constructions inside and outside its boundary. For this reason the airspace above the aerodrome and its surrounding area should be regarded as an integral part of the aerodrome environment. The degree of freedom from obstacles in the aerodrome environment is as important, in the retention of operational effectiveness, as the more obvious requirement to protect the movement area, and in particular the flight strip, from obstacles hazardous to aircraft.

17. To safeguard the aerodrome environment obstacle limitation zones, together with their associated surfaces and approach clearance planes, are prescribed around aerodromes. Obstacle limitation surfaces and their characteristics are described in Chapter 5 Para 4. The safeguarding procedures associated with the protection of the aerodrome environment are described in Chapter 16. Safeguarding of the movement area is dealt with in Chapter 17.

APPROACH CLEARANCE PLANES

Description

18. Determination of the sloping planes in approach surfaces is based on the primary need to ensure that aircraft of all types, whether on visual or instrument approaches to runways, have an adequate safety height margin over obstructions that may be erected in the approaches to runways. The purpose of the slopes, so defined, is to establish the limits to

11 MAA/RN/12/11 (DG) – COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF POTENTIAL AIR SAFETY MEASURES – PRINCIPLES should be adhered to and read in conjunction with this Manual and (RA) 1210.



which structural development of all kinds need not be resisted. The dimensions of the slopes of Obstacle Limitation Surfaces are given in Table 5-1 & Table 5-2.

Clearance Over Roads and Railways

19. Any road or railway within the approach funnel will be 4.5m below the approach clearance plane. Where the required clearance cannot be achieved, or when the road or railway passes through the clearway, measures should be taken within the UK to control the road traffic, or, as will invariably be the case with railways, to withdraw the end of the runway so that the necessary clearance is obtained. In addition, at aerodromes operating jet aircraft which are liable to engine failure from bird strike, the need for control of traffic on any road up to 460m (1500 ft) from runway end should be considered. Applications for the control of road traffic should be submitted to DIO/relevant FLC for consideration and decisions to withdraw ends of runways should be confirmed, by the appropriate FLC or equivalent, with the appropriate Operations Staff at MOD. Overseas, normal peacetime procedures for liaison with the host nation should be followed.

RADIO/RADAR NAVIGATION

20. The criteria that should be observed for the safeguarding of radio/radar navigational aids, together with the relevant information on siting restrictions can be found in AP 100G-03 - Site Restrictions for Ground Radio Installations.

EXTRANEOUS LIGHTING ON OR IN THE VICINITY OF AERODROMES

General

21. The conspicuity of an AGL pattern can be reduced when the installation is set in a highly illuminated background. To avoid confusion between the AGL patterns and adjacent airfield lighting or lights in the vicinity of the airfield, and to avoid obscuring the AGL pattern by glare from adjacent airfield lighting or lights in the vicinity of the airfield, it is necessary to impose restrictions on the amount of upward light emitted in certain areas.

Restrictions

22. The restriction on upward emission of light will be as shown in Figures 17-1, 17-2, and Figure 17-3.

23. Floodlighting intensities within the controlled areas shown in Figures 17-1, Figure 17-2 and Figure 17-3, should be limited as shown in Table 17-1, except that no floodlights are to be installed where they may obscure the view of the manoeuvring area from the air traffic controller.



Table 17-1 Floodlighting Intensities

Elevation above horizontal (degrees) Maximum intensity (Candelas) Within shaded area No upward emission of light is permitted

0 1000 10 500 15 250

30 or over 100

24. Street lighting intensities within the controlled areas shown in Figure 17-1, Figure 7-2), and Figure 17-3 should be limited as shown in Table 17-2, except where the pattern of street lighting may be confused with the aeronautical ground lighting in which case no upward light is permitted.

25. Display lighting intensities within the controlled areas shown in Figure 17-1, Figure 17-2, and Figure 17-3, should be limited as shown in Table 17-2 for floodlighting, except that coloured display lighting should not to be sited where it can cause confusion with colour coded AGL when viewed from the air or ground. For non-instrument runway see Figure 17-4.

Figure 17-1 Extraneous Lighting Controlled Area for Instrument Runways Longer Than 2150m

Note: Controlled area 750m either side of the runway centre-line for the length of the runway and 750m either side of the extended centre-line for a distance of 4500m from each end of the runway.

Table 17-2 Street Lighting Intensities

Elevation above horizontal (degrees) Maximum intensity (Candelas) Within shaded area No upward emission of light is permitted

0 750 2 300 4 95 6 75

10 60 30 30 40 20 50 10 60 0

15o

Approach ¢

1800m

300m

Runway

750m

4500m



Figure 17-2 Extraneous Lighting Controlled Area for Instrument Runways of Length Equal to or

Less than 2150m and not Less than 1200m

Note: Controlled area 750m either side of the runway centre line for the length of the runway and 750m either side of the extended centre-line for a distance of 3000m from each end of the runway.

Figure 17-3 Extraneous Lighting Controlled Area for Instrument Runways of Length Less than 1200m

Note: Controlled area 750m either side of the runway centre line for the length of the runway and 750m either side of the extended centre-line for a distance of 3000m from each end of the runway.

15o

Runway

1800m

3000m

750m

150m or 300m depending on runway length (R<1200m=150m, R>or equal to

1200m=300m

Approach ¢

300m



Figure 17-4 Extraneous Lighting Controlled Area for Non-Instrument Runway

Note: Controlled area 105m either side of the runway centre line for the length of the runway and opening out to 600m on either side of the extended centre line at a distance of 3000m from the end of the runway.

Approach ¢

600m

Runway 1800m 3000m

210m Runway Strip



Annex 17A: Air Traffic Control Officers’ Certificate-Siting, Handover

and Re-Appropriation Boards

1. The following Air Traffic Control Specialist Officers’ Certificate is given in accordance with the requirements of this Manual.

a. Proposed facility:

b. Reference:

Certificate by Unit

2. I certify that:

a. *The proposed facility will not infringe any runway, taxiway or ASP/ORP strips as defined and detailed in this Manual.

b. *The proposed facility will not infringe any Obstacle Limitation Surface as defined and detailed in this Manual.

c. *The proposed facility will infringe the safeguarding criteria for the movement area or aerodrome environment and I have the following comments:

*(delete as appropriate)

Date……………….Signature…………………….Name……………………

Appointment…………………...........Rank……………………..

Comments by HQ AIR/NCHQ/HQ Land/MOD DE&S

3. We have seen the plans for the proposed facility and have the following comments:

Date……………….Signature…………………….Name……………………

Appointment………………….........Rank……………………..



Annex 17B: Birdstrike Hazard – Safeguarding Off Base

Introduction

1. A safeguarding consultation process exists as part of the planning process12 to address proposed developments with the potential to affect the safety of aircraft operations at certain military aerodromes. The consultation process includes a means to address potential bird attractant developments within a 8 statute miles radius of the centrepoint of the runway ends (not including stopways and clearways) of declared aerodromes. Safeguarding maps (Plan B) are used to define the 8 statute miles radius circle and are lodged with local planning authorities. The 8 statute miles circle is based on a statistic that the majority of bird strikes occur below a height of 2000 ft, and that an aircraft on a normal approach would descend into this circle at approximately this distance from the runway.

2. Not all MOD aerodromes have or require a standard 8 statute miles radius Plan B. Units are responsible for ensuring that the necessary level of safeguarding is in place for their task/facility and should contact DIO Safeguarding see Table 1-2 to confirm appropriate safeguarding levels and consultation procedures are in place.

Consultation

3. Ideally, informal consultations on a potential bird attractant development should take place between applicants and DE Safeguarding before the submission of a planning application. This may make it easier to achieve a mutually acceptable outcome with regard to bird strike risk management. The following factors should be taken into consideration when assessing the potential increase in risk:

a. Location - the proximity of the development relative to aircraft arrival and departure flightpaths and within the visual circuit.

b. The numbers, including seasonal variations, size and types of birds that may be attracted to the development.

c. The site attractiveness - whether it is used as a source of food, a roost or nesting site, any proposed landscaping or habitat designs.

d. Bird flightlines to/from the site in relation to the aerodrome - whether flightlines are direct to the aerodrome, across aircraft flightpaths outside the aerodrome boundary, overhead the aerodrome or not across the aerodrome/flightpaths; for example, waterfowl move primarily between wetlands and along watercourses. Creating new bodies of water may cause more waterfowl movements and the increase of bird strike risk.

e. Any control action undertaken by the site operator - actions may range from no action to housekeeping actions only, passive and active bird scaring measures to culling.

12 For England and Wales, a joint Town and Country Planning (Safeguarded Aerodromes, Technical Sites and Military Explosives Storage areas) Direction, came into force on 10 February 2003 (ODPM Circular and NAFW Circular1/2003 refers); and in Scotland an essentially identical Scottish Planning Series Planning Circular 2/2003, was issued with the same effective date. Annex 1 of the Circulars describe the formal consultation process and Annex 2 the various safeguarding aspects.



f. Daily/seasonal factors - whether the site is a continuous risk (each day and throughout the day), a regular daily risk (once/twice a day), a risk related to specific daily or seasonal activities, or an annual risk.

4. Where an assessment shows that the bird strike risk may increase or could increase under certain conditions in the future, and the Authority and developer are unable to agree a solution, the MOD could object to the planning application on safety grounds. The MOD may use local knowledge of bird populations and activities or an appropriate precedent of a similar safeguarding case to support the objection and may request that the objection cannot be withdrawn until measures to ensure there will be no increase in risk are implemented. It may be possible to modify a development (e.g. exclusion of food wastes from a new landfill) or impose planning conditions that require specific action to exclude birds or reduce their numbers; e.g. an effective Bird Control Management Plan (BCMP). Where a safeguarding case is resolved through the imposition of planning conditions, it may be appropriate for the conditions (and a BCMP) to be subject to a legal agreement between the planning authority and the developer or property owner, or its successors.

5. BCMP should identify the aerodrome personnel holding responsibility for the assessment of a proposed development with the potential to attract birds (this would normally be coordinated through DIO Safeguarding).

6. After planning permission has been granted, the aerodrome should monitor the development for compliance with any planning conditions that are imposed and report any alleged breach or non-compliance to DIO Safeguarding via the appropriate authority.

Hazard Assessment

7. Birds can travel long distances relatively quickly; therefore an environment that does not meet all their requirements can be exchanged for one that does. Birds can establish nesting colonies or overnight roosts at sites remote from disturbance and commute to distant feeding grounds. If feeding sites are widely distributed and numerous (e.g. ploughed fields in autumn), daily dispersion may be diffuse or unpredictable, with the overnight roost the only constant feature. Flying from one site to another may establish bird flightlines that traverse an aerodrome or low level aircraft arrival or departure routes. The aerodrome itself may be the birds' destination.

8. A food supply that is concentrated and abundant at only a few sites causes fixed dispersal patterns and more predictable dawn and dusk flight lines. Overnight roosts for birds such as Gulls, Corvids and Starlings tend to be very stable and fulfill a social function as well as providing shelter and security.

9. Species that depend on abundant food supplies tend to roost in larger aggregations, and it is thought that the roost assembly provides a mechanism for the transmission of information on the location of food. Awareness and understanding of bird concentrations and movements can improve the efficiency of bird control on the aerodrome. For example, if the dusk return passage of Gulls over the aerodrome to a roost is understood, aerodrome bird control personnel may be able to warn air traffic control at the appropriate time. Similar precautions may be taken for dawn and dusk movements of starlings, or it may also be possible to locate the roost site and disperse the birds to another roosting site. Also, the spring build-up at a local rookery can be predicted and plans made for action to deny breeding success.

The Coast

10. Sandy and muddy shores, especially around estuaries, support very large numbers of Gulls, Waders, and, sometimes, Wildfowl. Generally, coastal aerodromes have larger



numbers of birds of more species, whose activity patterns are complicated by tide state and more affected by the weather, than at inland aerodromes.

Landfills for Food Wastes

11. Wastes from household and commercial premises contain a high proportion of waste food which, in a landfill site, supports very large numbers of Gulls. Most wastes containing food are disposed of by controlled landfilling in which they are compacted into layers around 2m in depth and covered daily with inert material. This does not limit access by Gulls, which feed as the wastes are tipped, spread and compacted.

12. Gulls congregating at landfills could contribute to the bird strike risk to nearby aerodromes in several ways:

a. When not feeding, they spend most of the day on open sites within 6km (4 miles) or more from the landfill;

b. They commonly soar up to 450m (1500 ft) or more in clear weather; and

c. They may commute between the landfill and their roost, which may involve crossing an aerodrome or its approach and departure routes as shown in Figure 17-5.

Figure 17-5 Landfill Site Flightline Hazards

13. Corvids and Starlings also feed on landfills but their concentrations and flightlines are more local and less pronounced. They usually present no significant contribution to the birdstrike risk except where the landfill is very close to the aerodrome.

14. A netting exclosure is inherently the most effective and reliable system to control birds at a landfill site and its operation is easier to monitor. Netting may not, however, be effective against all birds, for example Starlings, and an active bird control programme should be provided as a back-up. When active bird control is provided, the necessary levels of vigilance and dispersal action need to be sustained to achieve an effective level of deterrence.

Sewage Treatment and Disposal

15. Modern sewage treatment plants, unlike their predecessors, do not attract large numbers of birds because of the lack of open availability of effluent. If the primary separation of solids from the liquid fraction is in open tanks, Gulls may visit them in relatively Modest numbers. Percolating filter beds are breeding grounds for flies, and Black-headed gulls and Starlings may feed on the adult insects.

AERODROME AERODROME

ROOST

ROOST

LANDFILL

LANDFILL



16. The effluent from obsolescent or overloaded plants at some estuarine and coastal sites may contain sufficient organic solids to attract large flocks of Gulls to the outfalls. Where discharge is not continuous, but at certain times or tide states, Gulls learn the pattern and congregate at the appropriate times.

17. A netting enclosure is inherently the most effective and reliable system to control birds at sewage treatment and disposal sites with open tanks, and its operation is easier to monitor. Netting may not, however, be effective against all birds, for example Starlings, and an active bird control program should be provided as a back-up. When active bird control is provided, the necessary levels of vigilance and dispersal action need to be sustained to achieve an effective level of deterrence.

Water

18. Open standing water and watercourses attract Waterfowl that are nearly all large birds and may also occur in large flocks. Waterfowl resort to water for security and it is usually impossible to evict them with scaring devices. The more open water sites there are on and around an aerodrome, the more complex and frequent will be the movements of Waterfowl between them. There may be more activity at night than during the day.

19. Wet and waterlogged grass attracts feeding Ducks (especially at night) and nesting Waders, and drainage should be installed or improved, wherever possible. Flooding flushes soil invertebrates to the surface making them very accessible to birds, attracting Ducks, Gulls and Waders.

20. Larger, permanent waters, such as ponds, balancing reservoirs, etc, attract Ducks, Geese, Swans, Herons, Coot, Moorhen and Cormorants. See Figure 17-6.

Figure 17-6 Water Flightline Hazards

21. Populations of birds with specialised aquatic habits are concentrated on and around freshwater bodies that may be relatively widely separated in the landscape. In addition, large water supply reservoirs (over 10 hectares, 25 acres), canal feeder reservoirs, and other large lakes may be used as regular overnight roosts by tens of thousands of Gulls.

Mineral Extraction

22. Mineral extraction does not itself attract birds. However, the large voids created sometimes fill with water either during working (wet extraction) or, when they are worked out, are allowed to flood and restored as amenity lakes or nature reserves.

23. Sand, gravel and clay pits can sometimes be filled in with water, or their shape can be Modified during or after excavation to break up the expanse of open water. Narrow

AERODROME

AERODROME

Large Increase in Birdstrike Risk

Current Water New Water Potential Flight Lines

Slight Increase in Birdstrike Risk



causeways, piers and islands are usually insufficient and may increase the attractiveness to Gulls by providing inaccessible dry land roosting sites. Increasing the extent of shoreline by creating promontories, bays and islands increases the attraction to other waterfowl. Active scaring around dusk may remove a roost if it were to occur.

Agricultural Attractants

24. Growing and harvesting crops inevitably attracts birds at some stage. However, the attraction usually arises suddenly and persists for only hours or a few days. The contribution of agricultural activities to the birdstrike risk is mainly confined to local farms.

25. Livestock can also attract birds. Free-range pig farming, for example, is comparable with a landfill in that the attraction continues for as long as the field is in use. Collared doves and Feral pigeons occur in large colonies wherever grain is accessible, either as spillage or in store. Grazing cattle, sheep and horses keep grass short and maintain suitable feeding conditions for Gulls, Grassland plovers, Corvids and Starlings. Their droppings are breeding habitats for insects whose adults and larvae are also sought by birds.

Landscaping

26. Generally, in terms of bird attraction, landscaping schemes attract smaller concentrations of birds from a smaller area, have less potential for increasing birdstrike risk than developments such as landfills, sewage treatment plants and wetlands, and have much in common with many natural and semi-natural features commonly found around aerodromes. Therefore, the bird attraction and potential birdstrike risk of most landscaping developments, except for wetlands and starling roosts, is comparatively local in effect, i.e. usually limited to within about 6.5km (4 miles) of the aerodrome, or less.

Protected Sites and Nature Reserves

27. Although the designation and classification of national and internationally protected sites, such as Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), do not require planning permission, the creation of new conservation sites commonly involves a number of different habitats and is usually associated with other developments that require planning permission and, as applicable, safeguarding consultation.

28. Many nature reserves are created to protect particular florae or invertebrate communities, which do not represent a potential to increase the birdstrike risk; however, others, such as estuaries, may be major bird sites. It is essential that the MOD establishes contact and works closely with agencies charged with the management of sites, such as the RSPB, etc.



Annex 17C: Standard Long Grass Policy Maintenance Regime

1. This is an example of the ‘standard’ Regime 1 Long Grass Policy (LGP) regime only and units are reminded of the need to ensure compatibility with their unique conditions against the required aim of a healthy free-standing long grass sward. Blind adherence to this exemplar may be counter productive and attention is drawn to Chapter 16 Paras 24 and 27.

Maintenance Regime

2. Mid-March to late May is normally the period of minimum bird activity on most aerodromes, when most species breed; therefore, in mid-March or as soon as the ground will permit without compacting and rutting, dead growth and the accumulated clippings from past topping cuts should be removed. This operation is called "bottoming-out". Bottoming out should not be attempted earlier than mid-March as wintering flocks of small Gulls or Lapwings may still be present and will be attracted to the cut areas. If not done, decaying material ("thatch") would exclude light and air, suppressing growth and weakening or even killing the grass, and encouraging pests and disease. Bottoming-out also encourages the grasses to flower by May. Delayed flowering produces fewer and smaller flowers, and hence fewer woody stems to hold the subsequent leafy growth erect through the winter.

3. Bottoming-out involves two processes: cutting the grass uniformly to within 50 mm of the ground; and removing the freshly cut grass together with the accumulated thatch. The recommended method for bottoming-out is a flail-type forage harvester and a forager harvester, which has rotating discs or drums with cutting blades. The equipment should dislodge and lift the accumulated thatch for removal directly into an accompanying trailer, thus avoiding a separate operation to collect the loose material, which is a potential foreign object debris (FOD) issue.

4. Depending on local climate, soil type and grass species, bottoming-out is usually required every 1 to 3 years, or specific areas of the aerodrome may be bottomed-out each spring on a 2 or 3 year rotation.

5. If thatch build-up has been heavy, it may be necessary to harrow, rake and clear again immediately after cutting and clearing and, possibly, to repeat the operation. Similarly, if the ground is uneven, rolling with a heavy roller may be needed.

6. Herbicide. Herbicide, if required, should be applied during Mid-March to late May. Even moderate weed infestation that does not seriously harm grass should not be tolerated as it may attract birds such as Pigeons. However, Pigeons only visit the grassed areas of aerodromes to feed on weeds, which can be removed by the application of appropriate selective herbicides before the weeds set seed.

7. Topping Cut. The first topping cut should be taken in late Spring when the majority of grasses have produced flowering heads. The majority of grasses in aerodrome swards produce flowering stems taller than 200mm; therefore, it will probably be necessary to allow initially the grass to grow to that height or slightly taller. Topping cuts are taken thereafter with a rotary mower set to give a cut between 150mm and 200mm in height. Topping cuts are usually required throughout the growing season. Depending on the thickness of the sward, the grass should not be cut too much in one cut, or the clippings will lie on the surface, exclude light and air, and prevent the grass beneath from growing.

8. Grass Collection. Quantities of cut grass left ungathered on an aerodrome constitute a FOD hazard and should be avoided. Forage harvesting remains the recommended method for grass collection on aerodromes.



9. After growth ceases in autumn, no further maintenance should be necessary. The accumulation of clippings from topping cuts during the growing season and die-back of the grass due to frost will create a build-up of thatch which will need to be removed at the start of the maintenance cycle as shown at Figure 17-7.

Figure 17-7 Optimising a Standard Long Grass Policy Maintenance Regime

10. The standard long grass policy maintenance regime is devised to maintain aerodrome grass in a way that is less attractive to birds than traditional gang mowing. It is biased towards non-interference with aerodrome operations, rather than bird repellence. However, the best and most cost effective bird deterrent swards will be achieved where expertise and control is exercised to fine tune maintenance procedures in a manner more sensitive and reactive to local conditions, including:

a. The need for bottoming out every year if thatch build-up is minimal.

b. The frequency of topping cuts as the growing season progresses.

c. Delaying the first topping cut if young birds are present in the grass.

11. Introducing a flexible maintenance regime requires expertise to monitor and react to grass condition over a short time scale, which may require the availability of funds for maintenance operations to be carried out at short notice as the need arises.

Navigational and Visual Aids

12. The height of the grass in certain areas on the aerodrome may affect the performance of aeronautical navigational and visual aids, especially the instrument landing system (ILS) and Precision Approach Radar (PAR).

13. The height of the grass should not obstruct the display of an aeronautical ground light, sign or other type of visual aid.

14. Aerodrome operators are advised to consult the relevant technical organisation on the issues of grass length in proximity to navigational and visual aids.



Chapter 18: STANAGS

STANAG NUMBER

TITLE EDITION STATUS

3111 Airfield Marking Tone Down (Amalgamated into 3685)

2 Cancelled

3158 Day Marking of Airfield Lighting and Taxiways

8 Ratified with Reservations

3316 Airfield Lighting 10 Ratified with Reservations

3346 Marking and Lighting of Airfield Obstructions 6 Ratified 3534 Airfield Lighting, Marking and Tone Down

Systems for Non-Permanent/Deployed Operations.

6 Ratified with Reservations

3619 Helipad Marking and Lighting 4 Ratified with Reservation

3634 Runway Friction and Braking Conditions 4 Ratified 3685 Airfield Portable Marking 3 Cancelled 3697 Airfield Arresting Systems 5 Ratified 3711 Airfield Marking and Lighting Colour

Standards 3 Ratified *

7010 Provision of Airfield Marking Information 2 Cancelled 7114 Helipad Clearance Plane Requirements 1 Ratified for Future

Implementation 7131 Aircraft Classification Number

(ACN)/Pavement Classification Number (PCN) – AEP 46

3 Ratified

7134 Control of Lighting at Airfields During NVG Operations

1 Ratified

7174 Airfield Clearance Planes 1 Ratified with Reservation

7181 NATO Standard Method for Airfield Pavement Condition Index (PCI) Surveys – AEP-56.

1 Ratified for Future Implementation

Note. * = Implemented Document is the STANAG



Chapter 19: Reference Documents

1. This Reference to Documents gives a comprehensive, but not exhaustive, list of related publications. Of particular note are ICAO, CAA and NATO publications, any of which may contain conflicting standards and criteria. Where uncertainty exists, advice should be sought from the sponsor of the relevant section of this Manual. Relevant STANAGS have been extracted from this list.

a. AP 100B-01 RAF Engineering Orders and Procedures

b. AP 113A-0201-1 Earthing of Aircraft and General Support Equipment - General and Technical Information

c. AP 119J-1405-1 Rotary Hydraulic Arrestor Gear

d. Manual of Military ATM

e. JSP 375 MOD's Health and Safety Policy

f. JSP 317 Joint Service Safety Regulations for the Storage and Handling of Fuels and Lubricants

g. AP 119J-1400-1 Aircraft Arresting System, Operational Data and Aircraft Clearances - General and Technical Information

h. GAI 1006 Compass Swinging Platforms

i. Support Helicopter Air Staff Order A-2-2310 Minimum Clearances for Ground Taxiing

j. PSA Airfield Design Guide A Guide to Airfield Pavement Design and Evaluation - 1989 (BRE)

k. NATO BI-MNCD 85-5 NATO Approved Criteria and Standards for Airfields - 1999

l. PSA Standard Specification M&E No

m. ATP49(A) Use of Helicopters in Land Operations

n. ATP49(A) UK SUPP-1 Use of Helicopters in Land Operations UK Supplement-1

o. ICAO Convention Annex 14 Volume 1 Aerodrome Design and Operations

p. ICAO Convention Annex 14 Volume 2 Heliports

q. ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157 P1) Part 1 Runways

r. ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157 P2) Part 2 Taxiways Aprons and Holding Bays

s. ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157 P3) Part 3 Pavements

t. ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157 P4) Pt 4 Visual Aids



u. ICAO Aerodrome Services Manual (Doc 9137 P2) Pt 2 Pavement Surface Conditions

v. ICAO Aerodrome Services Manual (Doc 9137P3] Part 3 Bird Control and Reduction

w. ICAO Aerodrome Services Manual (Doc 9137 P6) Part 6 Control of Asbestos

x. CAP 168 Licensing of Aerodromes

y. ICAO Interim Guidance on Frangibility [AN4/1/137-91/64]

z. Manual of Runway Visual Range Observing and Reporting Practices First Edition 1981

aa. CAP 642 Airside Safety Management

bb. DE Technical Publications Index ISBN 0-11-772500-5

2. Airfield related documents, pavement and AGL, produced by DE are listed in the DIO Technical Publications Index. Copies of most of the DE Technical Bulletins, Health and Safety Warning Notices, Safety Rules and Procedures, and Functional Standards can be downloaded from the DIO Website - www.mod.uk/DIO

http://www.mod.uk/DIO



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