Manfred Bierwisch

The Role of Replication in Different Sign Systems

This talk tries to provisionally identify and characterize

a range of specific phenomena; it does not attempt to provide a theory

of replication

1. Preliminaries about the Nature of Replication

1. Replication (or Repetition) is not restricted to language. It pervades all areas of structured behavior and interpretation (e.g. walking, counting, singing, dancing...)

2. With respect to language, Replication seems to be part of the “third factor” in the sense of Chomsky, i.e. the general operations and design features – alongside with symmetry, contrast, proportion and other general conditions. 3. But Replication creates also specific properties in different types of sign systems, like music, poetry, or painting.

A very peculiar case of replication shows up in a painting of René Magritte, where

the whole is repeated as part:

A completely different, but still two-dimensional, pictorial type of replication

shows up in a drawing of M.C. Escher:

Replication is, of course, also a fairly characteristic (though special) phenomenon in natural language.

It shows up in different types, as the following cases illustrate (replication underlined) :

Measure for Measure

Credo in unum deum,patrem omnipotentem

haihait

Singet leise leise leise Singt ein flüsternd Wiegenlied

2. Three Conditions of Replication

Replication involves at least three conditions:

1. Structural identifiability of the replicated element(s)

2. Structural distinction of the repeated elements, at least with respect to their position.

3. A common frame for the elements involved, on which a replication-bound property depends.

These are weak, necessary, and certainly not sufficient conditions, which need, moreover, further specification.

First illustration:

Schritt für SchrittMaß für Maß

Mann für MannWort für Wort

Punkt für Punkt

Zug um ZugAuge um Auge

von Land zu Landvon Haus zu Haus

von Fall zu Fall

Wort für Wort

1. Repeated element: Wort (Bare Noun)

2. Distinction: Position wrt. the common frame

3. Common frame: [ P N [ P für ] N ] Specific Property: denotes the scanning of items of the type specified by N.

(A more complete specification of the frame might be given in terms of Construction Grammar.)

Second illustration:

Credo in unum deum, partrem omnipotentem

Credo in unum dominum, patrem omnipotentem

1. Repeated element: um / em (accusativ singular nominal inflection)

2. Distinction: Concord position wrt. NP-structure

3. Common frame: NP-structure with two types of adjuncts – modifier and apposition Specific Property: determines modification

(Specified by Syntactic combination and Distributed Morphology)

Third illustration

Singet leise, leise, leise (Brentano)

Walle, walle manche Strecke (Goethe)

Wir weben hinein den dreifachen FluchWir weben, wir weben (Heine)

Singet leise, leise, leise Singt ein flüsternd Wiegenlied

1. Repeated element: leise

2. Distinction: Sequential Position

3. Common frame: Modifier position Specific property: Iconic intensification

(Here the replication is not part of the rules of language, but is due to conditions of poetry)

The character of Replication differs not only between pictures, music, and language,

there are also essential differences within language.

It is therefore useful to specify the conditions on which different types of signs depend.

3. Three Types of Signs

A sign relates a physical signal because of specified structural properties to its meaning. The meaning is a mental entity, which the signal refers to or expresses.

With respect to the relation between signal and meaning, three types of signs are distinguished in Semiotics:

Interpretant

Signal Meaning

Situational connection: Indexical signs Similarity: Iconic signs

Convention: Symbolic signs

Examples

Iconic signs, based on structural analogy :maps, diagrams, musical representation of bird-song,pictures, sculpures, ...

Symbols, based on arbitrary choice and agreement :traffic signs, digits, notes, conventional gestures like nodding, words, …

(Indexical signs can be left aside here, they involve a. o. spots of measles, smoke indicating fire, … )

With respect to replication, one has to distinguish between repetition of

sign, signal, and meaning.

To this effect, one has to look at the particular combinatorial principles in

different sign systems.

4. Language

Combination of Symbols

Language is a system of signs providing the correspondence between two completely different mental domains:

- (primarily phonetic) articulation and perception with sequential organization [sound structure]

- nonlinear conceptual patterns organizing all aspects of experience and behavior[conceptual structure]

The signal of Linguistic utterances exhibits many properties that are not determined by language:

- Speaker‘s identity, gender, age, mood, ...

The meaning of Linguistic utterances contains lots of (contextually determined) specifications that do not depend on lingustic structure:

„he is difficult to understand“„Mary left the institute quite a wile ago“

Hence Signal and Meaning of linguistic signs are rather abstract, mental structures

Signal <==> A/P PF LF C/I <==> Situ- ation

I-Language mental Systems

A/P: Articulation and Perception C/I: Conceptual-Intentional Structure

of experience

PF: Phonetic Form (Soundstructure) LF: Logical Form (Struktur of Meaning)

PF-Principle: sequential ordering of elements

LF-Principle: non-linear, hierarchical dependency of configurations

The overall PFLF-correspondence, that creates the correspondence between these structures, is determined by two interacting factors:

A the vast system of basic symbols, the lexical items, conventionally fixed PF-LF-configurations B the rules and principles, by which complex combinations of symbols are made up

The PF-LF-correspondence in A is basically arbitrary – including cases of replication in PF: rococo, Mississipi, cacao, liliput

This arbitrariness is relativized in B by Projectivity, according to which thelinear part-whole-relation in PF is preserved as hierarchical inclusion in LF.

Based on arbitrary symbols, a coherent complex of meaning corresponds arbitrarily to an equally coherent

sequence of sound structure:The part-whole-relation of PF is motivated

by and carries over to LF.

This is the automatic consequence of External Merge

V V D A N A D A N V P V A | | | | | | | the new wine is un drink able

At least two combinatorial operations are not in line with this projective PF-LF-combination:

1. Movement or Internal Merge

2. Concord, Agreement, and related phenomena of overt repetition

Whatever formal treatment one assumes – both operations suspend the strict projectivity of the PF-LF-correspondence.

Restricted projectivity by Move

Projective PF-LF-correspondence is suspended by „internal Merge“, which reassigns constituents, thereby violating projecivity:

what did they [ talk about ___ ] |

es fängt [gleich an____ ]

|

If MOVE is considered as copying and subsequent deletion, it becomes a kind of semi-replication, namely replication of PF

without preserving the original.

CONCORD combines replication with morpholocical rules of PF-realization

(indicated by ):

N N N A A

N Acc A Acc A Acc | | | pan - em nostr - um cottidian - um | | |

These are cases, where surface-replication emerges from complex interaction of different structural conditions and operations, the analysis of which is a matter of debate.

Yet another PF-replication corresponding to specific LF-conditions is REDUPLICATION in certain systems of infletional morphology:

Gothic:

fâh fai - fâh (catch)hait hai - hait (be called)

Greek:

- - - (write)- - - (educate)

The initial segment is duplicated and a neutral vowel inserted.

Yet another type of replication shows up in idiomatic constructions like

measure for measure

On the one hand, [ N for N ]repeats the instances of N as complete lexical items with PF, LF and grammatical features.

On the other hand, it is subject to specific conditions of the construction as a complex

lexical entry of its own.

Linguistic expressions are paired LF-PF-structures based on essentially arbitrary PF-LF-correpondence.

Hence repetition of sequences in PF may, but need not correspond to the repetition of configurations in LF.

Replication in PF can in particular indicate connection between non-repeated components of LF.

This differs remarkably from other sign systems.

An important case in point is music, which is, like language, based on acoustic signals with sequential structure,

but with rather different types of repetition

5. Music

Iconic combination of sounds

Two points ahead:

1. The structure of signs in music depends on conventions, it is determined by tradition.(Who is not familiar with a musical culture, may often fail to grasp its manifestations)

2. But music does not have conventional, symbolic meaning. There are two positions:

a) Music has no meaning, but only structured signals (the position of Hanslick and others) b) Meaning of music is not symbolic, but iconic. (The position adopted here)

Surpsingly, the two positions don‘t have different consequences wrt. Replication:

For principled reasons, if there is meaning in music, it must be iconic: its structure cannot essentially differ from that of the musical signal. In fact, the structure of music directly exhibits its meaning.

Thus, whether meaning in music is recognized or denied: There can be no structural discrepancy.

However, like in language, the signals of music must be distinguished from their (reproducable) structure.

As in language, musical utterances have many properties that are not determined by their musical structure.

The same tune or melody can be realized in very diffent ways. (That is actually the domain of the art of interpretation)

Signal<==> A/P MF GF E/I <==>State of affairs

Musial Structure

Mental Systems

A/P: Articulation und Perception E/I : Emotional-intentional Structures

MF: Musical Form GF: Gestural Form (musical meaning)

The Musical Form MF is – like the Phonetic and Grammatical Form of language – determined by Rules and Principles. (Tonal systems, functional harmonic, periodical architecture... )

The Gestural Form GF is iconically associated with MF, that is with all its combinations (motivs, themes, tunes, phrases, movements)

Two Essentials of Music

A. Music has, contrary to language, no basic signs with arbitrary meaning:

There is no musical lexicon.(New words must be lerned, new themes are understood.)

B. Music is, like language, combinatorial. But combination is strictly temporal – the combination of the signal corresponds completely the combination of its meaning.

Basic elements of combination are sounds, which are sequentially and simultaneausly connected.

Thereby structural hierarchies are formed, with repetetion of sounds and sequences as one of the central types of configuration.

The main theme of the second movement of Beethoven‘s op. 92 is based on this elementary motiv:

| ♩ ♪♪ | ♩ ♩ |

By repetition, variation, and merging four structural layers of musical form are made up:

♩ ♪♪| ♩ ♩ | ♩ ♪♪ | ♩ ♩ | ♩ ♪♪ | ♩ ♩ | ♩ ♪♪ | ♩

♩ ♪♪| ♩ ♩ | ♩ ♪♪ | ♩ ♩ | ♩ ♪♪ | ♩ ♩ | ♩ ♪♪ | ♩ a b a' b' a" b" a"' d A A' A" A"'

AA AA''

A

♩ ♪♪| ♩ ♩ | ♩ ♪♪ | ♩ ♩ | ♩ ♪♪ | ♩ ♩ | ♩ ♪♪ | ♩

The Gestural Form, organizing the meaning of Musical Structurehas three aspects or dimensions:

1. The Motoric Dimension

2. The Affective and Emotional Dimension

3. The Structural Dimension

The Motoric Dimension (rhythm, motion)andThe Emotional Dimension (affect, mood)are fairly obvious;

The Structural Dimension (functional dependencies among constituents of Musical Form like leading note, repetition, modification)

concernes innermusical tension, laxing, relation.

It heavily rests on the musical tradition.

Two important observations:

1. Musical Form is metrical, relying on numerical proportion, which Phonetic Form is not.

2. Repetition in Musical Structure is substantial content, in Linguistic Structure it essentially serves to organize the content.

6. Poetry and Singing

Poetry uses Repetition with variation and regularized meter as central possibilities.

They are based on language, exploit its structure, but they impose additional patterns with quite a different role of replication.

A canonical example: Brentano‘s lullaby

Singet leise leise, leise Singt ein flüsternd Wiegenlied Von dem Monde lernt die Weise Der so still am Himmel zieht.

Singt ein Lied so süß gelinde Wie die Quellen auf den Kieseln Wie die Bienen um die Linde Summen, murmeln, flüstern, rieseln.

Clemens Brentano

Singing can integrate the properties of language and music combining both structures within the same signal.

This possibility rests crucially on the corresponding conditions of PF and MF.The decisive pattern is Meter, where PF und MF coincide.

The linguistic structure thereby automatically provides the regular correspondence with LF, due to the compatibility with the peculiarity of singing.

Under these conditions,Repetition can exploit properties of music as well as (language based)

poetry, according to independent, though interacting regularities.

A suggestive example:

Bertolt Brecht, Mutter Beimlen (1923/24)Music by Hanns Eisler.

The three verses have three connected, but substantially differrent topics: Beimlen‘s wooden leg, key and suitor.

The plebeian theme comes with an intentionally limping meter and syntax.

Mutter Beimlen hat ein HolzbeinDamit kann sie ganz gut gehnUnd mit‘m Schuh, und wenn wir brav sind Dürfen wir das Holzbein sehn.

Mutter Beimlein

Irmgard Arnold, SopranAndré Asriel, Klavier

Mutter Beimlein hat ein Holzbein Damit kann sie ganz gut gehn Und mit’m Schuh, und wenn wir brav sind Dürfen wir das Holzbein sehn.  In dem Holzbein steckt ein Nagel Daran hängt sie’n Hausschlüssel dran Daß sie ihn, wenn sie vom Wirtshaus heimkommt Auch im Dunkeln finden kann.

1. Remark

The music is limping, disturbing the regular trochaic pattern by syncopation. (feeding the Motoric aspect of Gestural Form)

2. Remark

The music keeps to the same Gestural Form in different verses with varying topics.(The same gesture accompanies different situations by constant repetition.)

To sum up:

Replication as a structural phenomenon in language serves an important function, primarily to structure the representation of meaning, rather than representing it.

Repetition (with Variation) in music, on the other hand, is a constitutive principle of the substance of meaning on various layers (Note Motive Theme Phrase ...)

Obviously, this distinction is closely related to the iconic nature of music as

opposed to the arbitrary aspect of language as a symbolic system –

both iconic and symbolic aspects being available and used in poetry.

Hence –correspondingly different and presumably autonomous conditions are to be expected with respect to different types of repetition in different sign systems.

Moreover, various phenomena of replication in language are likely to be subject to autonomous principles of pertinent aspects of language structure – a topic for interesting exploration.

Happy Replication!

Some References

Bierwisch, Manfred (2009) Musik – Sprache – Bild: Zeichentypen und ihre Konsequenzen, Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschgaft und Linguistik 155, 8-34 Chomsky, Noam (1985) Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin, and Use, New York: Praeger

Chomsky, Noam (2005) Three Factors in Language Design, Linguistic Inquiry 36, p.1-22 Eco, Umberto (1976) A Theory of Semiotics, Bloomington: Indiana University Press

Goodman, Nelson (1968) Languages of Art. An Approach to a Theory of Symbols, New York: Bobbs-Merrill Jackendoff, Ray and Fred Lerdahl (2006) The Capacity for Music: What’s Special about it?, Cognition 100, p. 33-72 Meyer, Leonard B. (1956) Emotion and Meaning in Music, Chicago: University of Chicago Press Raffman, Diana (1993) Language, Music, and Mind, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press