manajemen-sesi 3-4 kewirausahaan.ppt

Managing in Turbulent Times

Cha

pter

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Copyright © 2005 by South-Western, a division of Thomson Learning. All rights reserved.

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Organizational Change

Pace continues to accelerate Change is major source of business risk

Driving Forces– Telecommunications– Diversity of Workers– Public consciousness– Global marketplace– Community of stakeholders


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Driving Force: Technology

Ever-advancing Technology has shrunk the world


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Driving Force: Diversity

Increasing diversity of workers has brought in a wide array of differing values, perspectives, and expectations among workers


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Driving Force: Public Consciousness

Public consciousness has become much more sensitive and demanding that organizations be more socially responsible


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Driving Force: Global Marketplace

Strive to remain competitive in the face of increasingly tough global competition

Much of the 3rd-world countries have joined the global marketplace, creating a wider arena for sales and services


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Driving Force: Stakeholders

Community of Stakeholders

Organizations are responsible to stockholders, and

Focus on building relationships with employees, customers, partners, and suppliers


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Making a Difference Today

Requires integrating...– Tried and true management skills

+– New approaches that emphasize

Human touch Enhance flexibility Involve employees’ hearts, minds, and bodies

Successful organizations don’t just happen...

they are managed to be that way!


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Definition of Management

The attainment of organizational goals in an effective and efficient manner through

Four functions– planning, – organizing, – leading, and – controlling organizational resources.

Managers use a multitude of skills to perform functions


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Functions of Management

Planning

Leading

Controlling Organizing

Use influence to motivate employees

Select goals and ways to attain

them

Assign responsibility for task

accomplishment

Monitor activities and make corrections


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The Process of Management

Planning

Leading

Resources

Controlling Organizing

Performance

•Human

•Financial

•Raw Materials

•Technological

•Information

•Attain goals

•Products

•Services

•Efficiency

•Effectiveness

Use influence to motivate employees

Select goals and ways to attain

them

Assign responsibility for task

accomplishment

Monitor activities and make

corrections

Exhibit 1.1 – page 9


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Planning Function

Definition– Defines goals for future organizational

performance– Decides tasks and use of resources needed

Corporate Examples– Planning – AOL Time Warner – The Lord of the

Rings p. 8– Lack of planning – Merry-Go-Round – p. 8


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Organizing Function

Definition– Follows planning– Reflects how organization tries to accomplish plan– Involves assignment of

tasks into departments authority and allocation of resources across organization

Corporate Examples - Structural reorganizations– Hewlett-Packard, Sears, Xerox: accommodate changing plans– Voyant Technologies: increased sales; faster product

development


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Controlling Function

Definition

● Monitoring employees’ activities

● Determining whether the organization is on target toward its goals

● Making corrections as necessary


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Controlling Function

New Trends Empowerment and trust of employees = training

employees to monitor and correct themselves New information technology provides control without

strict top-down constraints

Lack of Control Information can lead to Organizational Failure


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Organizational Performance

Attainment of organizational goals in an efficient and effective manner

2nd half of definition of management

The Process of Management


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Organizational Performance

Organization - social entity that is goal directed and deliberately structured

Effectiveness - degree to which organization achieves a stated goal

Efficiency - use of minimal resources (raw materials, money, and people) to produce the desired volume of output

Performance – organization’s ability to attain its goals by using resources in an efficient and effective manner


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Management Skills

• Complex

• Multidimensional

• Range of skills

Manager’s JobExhibit 1.2, page 12


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Management Skills

Conceptual Skills – Cognitive ability to see the organization as a whole and the relationships among its parts

Human Skills – ability to work with and through other people and to work effectively as a group member

Technical Skills – understanding of and proficiency in the performance of specific tasks

When skills Fail Experiential Exercise: Management Aptitude Questionnaire


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Management Types - Vertical

Management Levels in the Organizational HierarchyManagerial Levels in the Organizational Hierarchy

Managerial Levels in the Organizational Hierarchy

Exhibit 1.3, p. 13


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Management Types - Horizontal

Functional Managers - – Responsible for a department that performs a

single functional task and – Has employees with similar training and skills

General Managers– Responsible for several departments that perform

different functions


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Ten Manager Roles

Category RoleInformational Monitor

Disseminator

Spokesperson

Interpersonal Figurehead

Leader

Liaison

Decisional Entrepreneur

Disturbance handler

Resource allocator

negotiator


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Management and the New Workplace

Characteristics Resources = Bits--information Work = Flexible, virtual Workers = Empowered employees,

free agents

Forces on Organizations Technology = Digital, e-business Markets = Global, including internet Workforce = Diverse Values = Change, speed Events = Turbulent, more frequent

crises

Management Competencies Leadership = Dispersed,

empowering Focus = Connection to

customers, employees Doing Work = By teams Relationships = Collaboration Design = Experimentation,

learning organization


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Human Resource Perspective

Suggests jobs should be designed to meet

higher-level needs by allowing workers to

use their full potential


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Physiological

Safety

Belongingness

Esteem

Self-actualization

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Based on needs satisfaction

1908-1970

Chapter 16 – Maslow in more detail


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Dislike work –will avoid it Must be coerced, controlled,

directed, or threatened with punishment

Prefer direction, avoid responsibility, little ambition, want security

Do not dislike work Self direction and self control Seek responsibility Imagination, creativity widely

distributed Intellectual potential only

partially utilized

Douglas McGregor Theory X & Y

Theory X Assumptions Theory Y Assumptions

1906-1964


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Organizational Environment

All elements existing outside the boundary of the organization that have the potential to affect the organization

Manager’s Challenge: IBM, p. 77


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External Environment

● General environment – affects indirectly

● Task environment- Affects directly- Influences operations and performances

● Internal environment – elements within the organization’s boundaries


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Organizational Environments

Management

Empl

oyee

s Culture

Internal Environment

Suppliers

Co

mp

etitors

CustomersL

abo

r M

arke

t

Legal/Political Economic

Technological

Socio-C

ulturalIn

tern

atio

nal

General Environment

Task Environment

Technological

Suppliers


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International Dimension

● Provides New• Customers• Competitors• Suppliers

● Shapes:• Social trends• Technological trends• Economic trends


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Importance of International Business

If you are not thinking international,

you are not thinking business management


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A Borderless World

Business is becoming a unified, global field

Companies that think globally have a competitive edge

Domestic markets are saturated for many companies

Consumers can no longer tell from which country they are buying


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Ethics and Social Responsibility

Ethical values

Social responsibility

Fundamental approaches to ethical issues

Chapter 5 Topics

Managers’s Challenge: Timberland


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Ethics

The code of moral principles and values that govern the

behaviors of a person or group with respect to what is

right or wrong.


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Ethical Dilemma

A situation that arises when all alternative choices or behaviors have been deemed undesirable because...

potentially of negative ethical consequences, making it difficult to distinguish right from wrong


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Ethical Decision Making Approaches

Utilitarian Approach

Individualism Approach

Moral-Rights Approach

Justice Approach


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Utilitarian Approach

● Moral behavior produces the greatest good for the greatest number

● Critics fear a “Big Brother” approach and ask if the common good is squeezing the life out of the individual

● Example – Oregon’s decision to extend Medicaid to 400,000 previously ineligible recipients by refusing to pay for high-cost, high-risk procedures


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Individualism Approach

● Acts are moral when they promote the individual's best long-term interests, which ultimately leads to the greater good

● Individual self-direction paramount

● Individualism is believed to lead to honesty & integrity since that works best in the long run

● Examples: Top executives from WorldCom, Enron, Tyco demonstrate flaws of approach


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Moral-Rights Approach

Moral decisions are those that best maintain the rights of those people affected by them.

An ethical decision is one that avoids interfering with the fundamental rights of others


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Justice Approach

Moral Decisions must be based on standards of equity, fairness, impartiality

Three types of Justice Approaches: Distributive Justice Procedural Justice Compensatory Justice


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Factors Affecting Ethical Choices

The Manager Levels or stages of moral

development• Pre-conventional• Conventional• Post-conventional

The Organization


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Social Responsibility

Organization’s obligation to make choices and take actions that will contribute to the welfare and interests of society and organization

Being a good corporate citizen

Difficulty in understanding – issues can be ambiguous with respect to right and wrong


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Environmental Responsibility Commitment

Activist Approach

StakeholderApproach

Market Approach

Legal Approach

The Shades of Corporate Green


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Total Corporate Responsibility

Economic Responsibility

Legal Responsibility

EthicalResponsibility

Discretionary Responsibility

Ethical Dilemma: Should We Go Beyond the Law?


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The Ethical Organization

● Ethical individuals = honest, have integrity, strive for a high level of moral development

● Ethical leadership = provides the necessary actions, committed to ethical values and helps others to embody those values

● Organizational structure = embodies a code of ethics, and methods to implement ethical behavior


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Planning for the Future

Most organizations are facing turbulence and growing uncertainty

● Economic, political, & social turmoil = managers wonder how to cope

● Renewed interest in organizational planning

Manager’s Challenge: Europa hotel


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The Importance of Goals and Plans

Guides to actionGuides to action

Rationale for decisionsRationale for decisions Standard of performanceStandard of performance

Goals and Plans


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Goals and Plans

Goal - A desired future state that the organization attempts to realize.

Plan - A blueprint specifying the resource allocations, schedules, and other actions necessary for attaining goals

Planning – determining the organization’s goals and the means for achieving them

– the most fundamental management function– the most controversial management function.


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Mission Statement

Strategic Goals/Plans Senior Management

(Organization as a whole)

Tactical Goals/Plans Middle Management (Major divisions, functions)

Operational Goals/Plans Lower Management

(Departments, individuals)

Internal Message Legitimacy,

motivation, guides, rationale,

standards

External Message Legitimacy for

investors, customers, suppliers, community

Levels of Goals/Plans & Their Importance


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Organizational Mission

Mission = organization’s reason for existing Mission Statement

– Broadly states the basic business scope and operations that distinguishes it from similar types of organizations

– May include the market and customers– Some may describe company values, product quality,

attitudes toward employees


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Bristol-Myers Squibb Mission Statement

Our company’s mission is to extend and enhance human life by providing the highest-quality pharmaceutical and related health care products.


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Strategic Goals and Plans

Strategic Goals Where the organization wants to be in the future

Pertain to the organization as a whole

Strategic Plans Action Steps used to attain strategic goals Blueprint that defines the organizational activities

and resource allocations Tends to be long term


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Tactical Goals and Plans

●Tactical Goals- Apply to middle management

- Goals that define the outcomes that major divisions and departments must achieve

●Tactical Plans

-Plans designed to help execute major strategic plans

-Shorter than time frame than strategic plans


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Operational Goals and Plans

• Operational Goals- Specific, measurable results - Expected from departments, work groups, and

individuals

• Operational Plans- Organization’s lower levels that specify action

steps toward achieving operational goals- Tool for daily and weekly operations- Schedules are an important component


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Hierarchy of Goals

Operational Goals

Tactical Goals

Strategic Goals

Mission

Traditional Responsibility

Top Management

Middle Management

1st-line Management & Workers

•Shrinking middle management

•Employee empowerment

Employees

Today


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Characteristics of EffectiveGoal Setting

Specific and measurable Challenging but realistic

● Defined time period

● Linked to rewards


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Organizing

Organization is the deployment of resources to achieve strategic goals.

It is reflected in– Division of labor into specific departments & jobs– Formal lines of authority– Mechanisms for coordinating diverse organizational

tasks

Manager’s Challenge: Nissan


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Organization Structure

Defines how tasks are divided, resources are deployed, and departments are coordinated●Set of formal tasks assigned●Formal reporting relationships

• The design of systems to ensure effective coordination of employees across department


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The Organization Chart

“The Home Depot is the world's largest home improvement retailer currently operating 1,363 stores.

Visual representation

Set of formal tasks

Formal reporting relationships

Framework for vertical control


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Work Specialization

Tasks are subdivided into individual jobs Employees perform only the tasks relevant

to their specialized function Jobs tend to be small, but they can be

performed efficiently

Division of labor concept


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Chain of Command

Unbroken line of authority that links all persons in an organization

Shows who reports to whom

Associated with two underlying principles Unity of Command Scalar Principle

Unbroken line of authority that links all persons in an organization

Shows who reports to whom

Associated with two underlying principles Unity of Command Scalar Principle


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Authority

Formal and legitimate right of a manager to make decisions and issue orders

Allocate resources to achieve organizationally desired outcomes

Authority is distinguished by three characteristics Authority is vested in organizational positions, not

people Authority is accepted by subordinates Authority flows down the vertical hierarchy

Formal and legitimate right of a manager to make decisions and issue orders

Allocate resources to achieve organizationally desired outcomes

Authority is distinguished by three characteristics Authority is vested in organizational positions, not

people Authority is accepted by subordinates Authority flows down the vertical hierarchy


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Responsibility

The duty to perform the task or activity an employee has been assigned

Managers are assigned authority commensurate with responsibility

Flip side of the authority coin


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Accountability

● Mechanism through which authority and responsibility are brought into alignment

● People are subject to reporting and justifying task outcomes to those above them in the chain of command

● Can be built into the organization structure


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Delegation

●Process managers use to transfer authority and responsibility

●Organizations encourage managers to delegate authority to lowest possible level

Ethical Dilemma: A Matter of Delegation


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Span of Management/Span of Control

Number of employees who report to a supervisor– Traditional view = seven subordinates per manager– Lean organizations today = 30+ subordinates

Supervisor Involvement– must be closely involved with subordinates, the span

should be small– need little involvement with subordinates, it can be

large

Number of employees who report to a supervisor– Traditional view = seven subordinates per manager– Lean organizations today = 30+ subordinates

Supervisor Involvement– must be closely involved with subordinates, the span

should be small– need little involvement with subordinates, it can be

large


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Factors Associated With Less Supervisor Involvement

Work is stable and routine Subordinates perform similar work tasks Subordinates are concentrated in a single location Subordinates are highly trained Rules and procedure defining task activities are available Support systems and personnel are available for the

manager Little time is required in nonsupervisory activities Managers’ preferences and styles favor a large span

Work is stable and routine Subordinates perform similar work tasks Subordinates are concentrated in a single location Subordinates are highly trained Rules and procedure defining task activities are available Support systems and personnel are available for the

manager Little time is required in nonsupervisory activities Managers’ preferences and styles favor a large span


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Centralization versus Decentralization

Greater change and uncertainty in the environment are usually associated with decentralization

The amount of centralization or decentralization should fit the firm’s strategy

In times of crisis or risk of company failure, authority may be centralized at the top


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Five Approaches to Structural Design


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Five Approaches to Structural DesignSlide 2


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Dual Authority Structure in a Matrix Organization


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Types of Organizational Change

Culture/People

Strategy

Structure

Technology Products

SOURCE: Based on Harold J. Leavitt, “Applied Organizational Change in Industry: Structural, Technical, and Human Approaches,” In New Perspectives in Organization Research, ed.W.W. Cooper, H.J. Leavitt, and Shelly II (New York: Wiley, 1964), 55-74.


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Organizational Change

Technology: General rule = change is bottom up

New product:

· Horizontal linkage model emphasizes shared development of innovations among several departments

· Time-based competition is based on the ability to deliver products and services faster than competitors

Structure: Successful change = through a top-down approach

Culture/people:

· Training is the most frequently used tool for changing the organization’s mind-set


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Human Resource Management

All managersare resource

managers

Employees areviewed as

assets

Matching process,integrating theorganization’sgoals withemployees’ needs

How a company manages its workforce may be single more important factor in sustained competitive success


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Current Strategic Issues

Becoming more competitive globally

Improving quality, productivity, & customer service

Managing mergers & acquisitions

Applying new information technology for e-business

Determine a company’s need for skills and employees

Experiential Exercise: Do You Want to be an HR Manager?


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Human Resource Management Goals

Develop an Effective Workforce

TrainingDevelopmentAppraisal

Maintain an Effective Workforce

Wage and salaryBenefitsLabor relationsTerminations

HRM planningJob analysisForecastingRecruitingSelecting

Attract an Effective Workforce

Company StrategyHRM EnvironmentLegislationTrends in societyInternational eventsChanging technology


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Attracting an Effective Workforce

Choose RecruitingSourcesWant adsHeadhuntersInternet

Choose RecruitingSourcesWant adsHeadhuntersInternet

HR PlanningRetirementsGrowthResignations

Select theCandidateApplicationInterviewTests

Welcome NewEmployee

Employee ContributionsAbilityEducationCreativityCommitmentExpertise

Company InducementsPay and benefitsMeaningful workAdvancementTrainingChallenge

Matching Model

Match with

Company NeedsStrategic goalsCurrent & future competenciesMarket changesEmployee turnoverCorporate culture

Employee NeedsStage of careerPersonal valuesPromotion aspirationsOutside interestsFamily concerns

Match with


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Human Resource Planning

Forecasting of human resource needs and the projected matching of individuals with expected vacancies

● ? = New technologies emerging

● ? = Volume of business likely next 5-10 years

● ? = Turnover rate, how much is avoidable, if any


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Recruiting

Recruiting = activities or practices that define the desired characteristics of applicants for specific jobs

● Internal – promote-from-within policies used by many to fill high-level positions

● External = recruiting newcomers from outside has advantage of multiple sources

● E-cruiting = use of Internet - fastest-growing approach to recruiting


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Basic Building Blocks of HR Management

Job Analysis

Job Description

Job Specification


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Selecting

Selection = process of determining the skills, abilities, and other attributes a person needs to perform a particular job

Validity = relationship between an applicant’s score on a selection device and his or her future job performance


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Selecting

Application form - device used for collecting information about an applicant’s education, previous job experience, and other background characteristics

Research = biographical information inventories can validly predict future job success


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Interviewing An Applicant

Know what you want

Prepare a road map

Use open-ended questions

Do not ask irrelevant questions

Do not rush interview

Do not rely on your memory


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Termination

Employees who are poor performers can be dismissed Employers can use exit interviews in a positive manner

Value of termination for maintaining an effective workforce is two fold


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Dynamics of Behavior in Organizations

Employees and managers bring their individual differences to work each day

Differences in attitudes, values, personality, and behavior influence

– how people interpret an assignment,

– whether they like to be told what to do

– how they handle challenges

– how they interact with othersManager’s Challenge: Quick Eagle

Networks

Managers need to understand the way individuals & groups act


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Dynamics of Behavior in Organizations

Attitudes

Personality

Perception

Learning

Stress management

Topics Topics Chapter 14Chapter 14


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Organizational Behavior

• Interdisciplinary field dedicated to the study of

attitudes

behavior

performance

Commonly called OB


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Attitudes

Cognitive and affective evaluation that predisposes a person to act in a certain way

Attitudes determine how people– Perceive the work environment– Interact with others– Behave on the job oror


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Components of an Attitude


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Components of Attitudes

Cognitive component includes the beliefs, opinions, and information the person has about the object of the attitude

Affective component is the person’s emotions or feelings about the object of the attitude

Behavioral component of an attitude is the person’s intention to behave toward the object of the attitude in a certain way

Particularly important when attempting to change attitudes


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High-Performance Work Attitudes

Two attitudes that might relate to high performance

– Job Satisfaction

– Organizational Commitment

Managers of today’s knowledge workers often rely on Managers of today’s knowledge workers often rely on job satisfaction to keep motivation and enthusiasm for job satisfaction to keep motivation and enthusiasm for the organization highthe organization high


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High-Performance Work Attitudes

Job Satisfaction = positive attitude toward one’s job

Organizational Commitment = loyalty to and heavy involvement in one’s organization


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Conflicts Among Attitudes

Cognitive Dissonance = condition in which two attitudes or a behavior and an attitude conflict– Leon Festinger – 1950s– People want to behave in accordance with their

attitudes– Usually will take corrective action


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Perception

Cognitive process people use to make sense out of the environment by

● Selecting

● Organizing

● Interpreting information


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Personality

Set of characteristics that underlie a relatively stable pattern of behavior in response to ideas, objects, or people in the environment– Big Five Personality Factors

ExtroversionAgreeablenessConscientiousnessEmotional StabilityOpenness to Experience


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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

Personality test that measures a person’s preference for

– introversion vs. extroversion – sensation vs. intuition – thinking vs. feeling– judging vs. perceiving

Experiential Exercise: Personality Assessment (MBTI)Experiential Exercise: Personality Assessment (MBTI)


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Stress and Stress Management

Stress = physiological and emotional response to stimuli that place physical or psychological demands on an individual

Type A Behavior = pattern characterized by extreme competitiveness, impatience, aggressiveness, and devotion to work

Type B Behavior = pattern that lacks Type A and includes a more balanced, relaxed lifestyle

Ethical Dilemma: Should I Fudge the Numbers?Ethical Dilemma: Should I Fudge the Numbers?


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Work Stress

Four Categories Job Tasks Demands Physical Demands Role Demand (Sets of expected

behaviors) Interpersonal Demands

Work stress is skyrocketing

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