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1 Managing the Classroom

MANAGING THE CLASSROOM

Introduction

Managing an orderly, efficient, effective classroom is almost always a

big concern of new and experienced teachers alike. This unit will explore

some of the theories underlying effective classroom management.

Rather than focusing only on learning outcomes, we will also examine

the importance of social and emotional development of students. A

teacher should help students learn about social concepts such as

working together with peers, describing their own feelings, or resolving

disagreements with friends. When teachers use effective classroom

management and guidance techniques, they are more able to lay the

foundation for positive social outcomes for their students and also

accomplish their other curriculum goals (Petersen, 2003). We will

consider several models for classroom management for children. We will

then elaborate on “preventive management and guidance,” and

discover how it can be applied to an English language classroom for

young learners. Finally, we will suggest several practical classroom

management techniques, routines, and procedures.

Applicable Theories and Approaches

Most effective teachers will tell you that the key to good classroom

management is preventing students from losing focus or acting out in

the first place. Our knowledge of educational theory and

language-teaching approaches can help us to keep our students focused

and on task.

Experiential learning, for example, insures that students will remain

适用的理论和方法

experiential learning(经验学习法)
more engaged in the learning process, and so act out less. That is,
children who are accomplishing some task, perhaps through the

manipulation of hands-on materials, will remain more focused than

those who are simply learning for learning’s sake. In the realm of

language teaching, this concept is often described as task-based learning
task-based learning(TBL)(任务学习法) (TBL). Teachers using the TBL approach assign their students some

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sort of task or even long-term project that will engage them in language

practice along the way. Teachers using experiential learning or TBL,

however, may need to keep several concerns in mind in terms of

classroom management. For example, if some children finish a given

task before others, they may become bored and cause disruptions unless

there is some sort of follow-up task planned for them in advance.

Ongoing projects can help in this regard, but in order for projects and

TBL to be effective, students must often be taught to self-manage their

progress and behavior, a topic addressed in the subsequent section of

this unit.

Our knowledge of early childhood development also gives us some

insight as to how classes can be effectively managed. For example, the

attention span1 of very young learners is very short versus that of older

children. Preschoolers can focus for only about five minutes per activity.

Longer activities must be broken into clear phases with mini-transitions

in order to hold their attention. The level of socio-emotional

development of students also plays a role in classroom management.

Very young children are still in the egocentric stage and not able to

empathize with the needs (or for that matter the emotional or physical

pain) of their classmates. For such young children, clear rules and

consequences, and material reinforcers may be more effective than

expecting them to manage their own behavior and interactions with

others.

Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory encourages us to

appeal to the differing thought processes among our students by

delivering material, facilitating activities, and encouraging output that

reflects a variety of human intelligences. These intelligences include the

linguistic intelligence, the musical intelligence, the logical-mathematical

intelligence, the spatial intelligence, the bodily-kinesthetic intelligence,

the naturalistic intelligence, the interpersonal intelligence, and the

intrapersonal intelligence. (These “multiple intelligences” and

suggestions for applying Gardner’s theory are discussed in much greater

detail in the unit entitled Multiple Intelligences Theory.) By appealing to

a wide variety of human intelligences, we run a better chance of keeping

ultiple Intelligenceseory元智能理论）

cio-emotionalvelopment会情感发展)

ocentric stage我中心阶段)


all our students actively engaged in learning, facilitating effective

classroom management.

Even when we use more traditional language teaching methods that

focus on repetitive language practice, such as the Aural–Oral Approach2
Aural–Oral Approachor Audio–LingualMethod (听说法)
or Audio-Lingual Method, we should consider how to best keep the

children focused on the learning process. Practice should be fast-paced

with students both asking and answering questions. To insure that they

pay attention to each question and response, students should not be able

to predict the order in which they will be called upon to speak. Drills

should be made more engaging by presenting them in the form of games

or activities. Using group or pair games and activities can give each child

more opportunities for practice, and so better retain their attention.

The Direct Approach3 and James Asher’s Total Physical Response

(TPR) approach encourages us to include real or imagined contexts and

representative physical movement in the language-teaching process.

This can also help children to stay engaged but can lead to noise and

chaos that will occasionally need to be reigned in if not well managed to

start with.

Drawing on Steve Krashen’s and Tracy Terrell’s hypothesis about

“lowering the affective filter”4 (discussed in greater detail in the unit

entitled The Natural Approach), it follows that young learners learn

more effectively when they feel relaxed and enjoy the experiences in the

classroom. Research has shown that children value a stable, secure

learning environment with minimal disruption or chaos. They feel more

comfortable when they know the rules and their behavioral limits.

Unruliness of a single child can also raise the affective filter of other

learners. The Natural Approach also tells us that comprehensible input5

that is still slightly challenging (expressed by Krashen and Terrell as i +

1) will hold a child’s interest more than input that is incomprehensible

or not at all challenging, thus avoiding management issues.

Finally, the Communicative Approach advises us to use language

and contexts that are authentic to the lives of the target age group we are

teaching. This will help hold student interest. However, heavy reliance

Direct Approach(直接法)Total PhysicalResponse (TPR)(整体动作反应法)

CommunicativeApproach(交际法)

课

违- 制管- 规量舒- 学后


on small group or pair work by the Communicative Approach means the

teacher will need good techniques for bringing the entire class back into

focus and making efficient transitions from activity to activity.

Despite the best efforts by the most talented and experienced

teachers, however, the learning process will still occasionally get

disrupted. Along with a busy, stimulating learning environment comes

many possible distractions. Also, some learners may lose focus as they

struggle to overcome a learning disability. For example, a child who is

dyslexic may quickly become frustrated or lose focus during activities

that require a great deal of reading practice. Some cultures recognize

another disability known as attention deficit disorder (ADD), which

causes the child to have difficulty keeping their attention on the task at

hand. The simple fact that a classroom brings together dozens of

individuals with distinct personalities should lead us to expect some

degree of conflict, even if they were all adults.

The good news is that a disrupted learning environment is not like

the proverbial Humpty Dumpty of childhood lore. Even if it does “fall

off the wall,” classroom order can be put back together again, and the

learning process can continue. The secret is knowing just how to

re-establish a well managed class when all our preventive measures fail

and the inevitable disruption occurs. The remainder of this unit focuses

on preventing the fall as well as putting the pieces back together when

necessary.

Classroom Management Models

The Rules and Consequences Model

One of the most widely discussed traditional models for classroom

management is called Rules and Consequences. The Rules and

Consequences Model of classroom management is useful to many

teachers because it is clear, easy to understand, and easy to use. As the

name implies, classrooms following this approach should have a

well-publicized set of rules and an associated set of consequences for

violating such rules. Ideally, students should be involved and vested in

堂管理模式

规惩罚模式定普遍接受的课堂理规则则由教师和学生商，目的是建立安全、适、有效的课堂秩序生承担违反规则的果


making the rules at the beginning of the school year. The rules should be

negotiated between the teacher and students based on the principle of

promoting a safe, comfortable, and efficient classroom.

If the idea of having rules is new to a classroom, the purpose must be

made clear to students. If they can’t think of any reason to have rules,

the purpose must be explained in a way they understand. Some students

might understand that different places have different rules. For

example, one acts differently on a soccer field than in a house. Other

students might understand that rules are needed to make the classroom

a safe and happy place. The teacher might ask them about things that

happen in school that they don’t like and provide examples like getting

pushed or having a favorite pencil taken away by another student. Once

they understand why rules are important, they will think of many of

their own rules.

Overall, a class should try to decide on a limited number of rules. It

is easier for students to remember a few key rules than dozens. Finally,

the rules should be phrased in positive language. For instance, “Don’t

yell in class,” becomes “Use a quiet voice in class.” The rules should be

reasonable, enforceable, and designed with the particular needs of the

class in mind. Once rules have been decided on, it is a good idea to post

them in a highly visible place in the classroom. Descriptive pictures

drawn next to the written rules are always helpful. If students violate the

rules, the teacher must be prepared to impose consequences fairly and

consistently.

Consequences need to meet certain conditions in order to be

effective. They should be related to the behavior so they make sense.

(For example, one of the consequences for walking into the school or

classroom wearing dirty shoes could be to clean the floors, or a student

who draws on someone else’s paper during an activity could have his or

her drawing materials taken away for a short time.) Consequences

should teach children how to express their feelings and desires in

acceptable ways, and they should be useful to modify behavior. They

need to be unpleasant enough that students do not want to repeat the


consequence, and they should teach self-control (Pantley, 2002).

Within the Rules and Consequences model, classroom behavior is

often further regulated by routines, which are a uniform set of daily

rituals for everything from taking attendance to leaving the classroom

for recess. As with the establishment of rules and consequences, students

should be involved with planning such routine procedures if they are

capable of doing so. Certain procedures should help to manage group

work, a typical type of interaction in a language learning class. They

should also govern seatwork (activities done by students individually)

and teacher-led activities (e.g., following directions). They also relate to

transitions between activities and how to address interruptions in the

classroom routine. Finally, they should regulate the use of classroom

materials and equipment and promote basic respect for personal and

school property (National Institute for Community Innovations, 2003a;

Pantley, 2005).

The Positive Classroom Management Model

Another model is called Positive Classroom Management. This

approach focuses on how to manage misbehavior of one or two students

without interrupting the other students in the class. The approach is

designed not to rely as heavily on rules and negative consequences.

Rather, it includes three types of interventions: preventive, supportive,

and corrective.

Preventive interventions are measures that can help to avoid

misbehavior from occurring in the first place, and may apply to

school-wide policies as well as those for individual classrooms. Student

records should be kept and new teachers should review them to learn

what accommodations or special arrangements for behavior might be

needed and make decisions ahead of time about procedures and

routines. For example, if two students haven’t been getting along in

other classes, the teacher might arrange the seating so the two students

sit apart from each other. Other preventive measures may include the

establishment of guidelines and rewards for good behavior; planning

fast-paced, engaging lessons; removing potential distractions from the

积极的课堂管理模式- 预防干预- 支持干预- 纠正干预


classroom; and taking into consideration variations in student abilities

or needs.

Supportive interventions focus on the modeling and maintaining of

student behavior to benefit the class as a whole. Teachers should model

and actively help students to achieve this goal by moving around the

classroom, making eye contact, walking near students who may be

losing their focus, giving supportive gestures such as nodding, and

reminding students occasionally about appropriate behaviors.

Corrective interventions refer to what to do after misbehavior has

occurred. In this case, teachers should respond to the misconduct with

three principles in mind: 1) continuity, which means not disrupting the

momentum of teaching and learning; 2) efficiency, which is to identify

and deal with misbehavior quickly and easily; and 3) dignity, which

means to never compromise the dignity of a student or the teacher. If, for

example, a student is spotted reading a comic book, the teacher might

approach and ask them a question about their class work to help them

refocus and give them an opportunity to show that they are learning.

In the Positive Classroom Management model, teachers should

respond nonverbally to some extent and use humor whenever possible.

They can use “therapeutic relocation” (e.g., reseating a problematic

student closer to the teacher). Explicit verbal approaches can also be

used. This means that the teacher may speak privately and directly to

an unruly student, publicly and directed at an individual, or publicly

and directed to the entire class. Physical responses are strongly

discouraged because teachers run the risk of being accused of child

abuse or inappropriate physical contact with students.

Another aspect of Positive Management involves teachers engaging

in reflective practice. Self-reflection drives improvement, and such

assessment works best when it is systematic. Self-assessment should be

done regularly, reviewing each week, for example. The teacher might

ask him or herself “Did I handle that situation the best way that I

could?” or “What specifically could have been improved?”

Self-reflection should also be comprehensive, meaning that it should

教师反思- 定期反思- 综合反思


cover all the physical, instructional, and managerial tasks of teaching

and serve as a measure of how well a teacher is achieving each goal

(DiGiulio, 1995).

The Student Self-Management Model

Another model for managing a class is Student Self-Management,

which often refers to cognitive (learning) outcomes, rather than social or

emotional ones. In the Self-Management model, teachers encourage

students to take on personal responsibility by providing them with

opportunities before, during, and after instruction to monitor their own

learning. Teachers engage students in specific strategies that offer them

opportunities to make decisions and solve problems on their own

without being told what to do all the time. Instead, students learn

strategies designed to help them process information effectively and to

become more self-confident. Most importantly, students become more

reflective about their thinking and learning processes. Specific strategies

include encouraging students to set their own goals for personal

development and instructional improvement and planning ways to

achieve these goals.

There are several steps to teaching students to use self-management

strategies. The first key component is to teach children to monitor their

own progress, looking for skills that are still in the acquisition stage. For

example, Mary may be learning how to write a paragraph. Perhaps she

is not quite sure how to write a topic sentence. It would not be

appropriate to ask Mary to self-monitor all her grammar errors and how

well she constructs each sentence of her paragraph because she still

needs a great deal of teacher feedback. Teachers should allow students

to select their own practice and elaboration targets based on those skills

that are already in their range of abilities. The teacher should then

explain and teach self-management strategies. These strategies may

include setting one’s own target learning outcomes, recording progress

towards those outcomes, monitoring the degree of success or failure, and

the delivery of rewards or consequences if necessary.

After the students understand and have practiced the skills

学生自我管理模式- 教师在课前、课上和课后鼓励学生进行学习的自我监控。

传授学生自我管理策略的步骤- 教导学生自我监控学习进展，寻求习得阶段的技能- 允许学生在其能力范围内选择练习和阐释目标- 解释并教导学生自我管理的策略- 指导学生选择一个评估其学习进展的标准- 帮助学生建立一套激励或奖励机制- 给学生一定的练习时间，对合理使用自我管理策略的学生给予正确的反馈


mentioned above, the teacher should instruct them to select a criterion

as a point of comparison to evaluate their own progress. For example,

Mary’s standard for completing the paragraph may be to write a topic

sentence and five other sentences with minimal grammar errors in 20

minutes. Once this standard has been established, the teacher should

help students develop a menu of “reinforcers” or rewards. This menu

should contain realistic, safe, and inexpensive items or privileges to be

obtained by the students for meeting their performance standard during

their self-management. Examples of reinforcers for young students may

include extra time using available computers, opportunities to help the

teacher in the classroom, or extra time doing some desired activity

(always with the approval of the teacher). Young students may also like

to earn privileges or honors such as sitting closer to the teacher or being

the line leader for a day.

The teacher should then provide a number of practice sessions with

corrective feedback for appropriate use of self-management strategies. It

is important to reinforce the appropriate use of the self-management

tactic and not the specific skill the student is self-monitoring or

self-evaluating. For example, the teacher should say, “You really did a

good job at correcting the errors in your revised paragraph,” rather than

“You got all five sentences correct!”

For students who can self-manage, the implications for assessment

(addressed in another unit in this course) are clear. In both the

during-instruction and after-instruction stages, students continuously

monitor and evaluate their own learning processes. Self-Management

implies that students begin to take a role in their own assessment rather

than leaving all evaluation to their teachers.

The main goal of Self-Management is to develop an awareness by

all students of their learning potential by identifying, valuing, and

utilizing specific thinking skills. These include acknowledging how

thoughts affect actions; believing in one’s ability to succeed; persisting;

accepting responsibility for personal actions; overcoming impulsive

actions and thinking through decisions; becoming more open to others’

学生自我管理的目标- 通过识别、评估和运用一些特定的思维技能，发展学生的学习潜能意识


ideas; listening; cooperating; and believing in the necessity for precision

and clarity of thought (Marzano, 1992; National Institute for

Community Innovations, 2003b).

The Token Economy Model

Another approach to classroom management is a token economy

system. A token is used much like money in that it can be exchanged for

a desired object (a sticker, a pencil, etc.) or activity (a game, class party,

etc.) at some future time. Token economy systems can also include

principles such as self-evaluation, reflection, and goal setting (Larrivee,

2005).

In one variation on this system, students are treated as productive

members of a community. Hence, students earn a weekly salary (often

represented by star stickers, pre-printed reward cards, or some other

token) based on their behavior and the quality of their class work.

Students also have the chance to earn “bonuses” throughout the week

for many reasons including outstanding productive behavior, helping

fellow students, completing and returning all homework, improving

behavior, honesty, and so forth. Often, students are even allowed a

certain number of “sick days.” That is, they can be absent from school

for a limited number of days (five, for example), and still get paid. Once

a week, students are charged rent for the use of their desk, their chair,

and the school facilities. They are also charged for any damage they may

cause to any school property. The number of tokens charged is minimal,

but it reinforces the idea of respecting one’s surroundings. Students may

also be fined tokens for inappropriate behavior. There can be set

consequences for each offense, escalating from a verbal warning; to a

warning plus the loss of one token; to a conference with the teacher and

the principal and a three-token penalty; to a meeting with the principal

and parents and the loss of all tokens. At the end of the week, students

are given an opportunity to purchase items out of the class store with

their salary. These items may range from books, to toys, to juice drinks

and are priced in numbers of tokens according to their value. Students

also have the option to save their salary for larger items that will be sold

代币奖励机制- 学生可用代币物换取喜爱的物品或参加向往的活动- 该系统包含自我评估、反思和确立目标等原则

代币奖励的种类- 根据课堂表现和课堂作业质量，学生每周可获得代币“薪水”- 根据全班学生的表现发放代币物，加强学生的集体责任感- 在全校范围内所有班级实行统一的代币奖励机制


at the end of each month or grading period (Ahlersmeyer, n.d.).

Another variation on this model is to make the tokens reflect overall

class behavior to enforce the idea of collective responsibility. For

example, one teacher uses a system in which the class as a whole earns

blue chips for positive behavior and red chips for negative behavior.

During each class day, blue chips are dropped into a container for good

behaviors—following directions quickly and efficiently, cleaning up

after arts and crafts activities, all students completing class work, and so

on. Red chips are dropped into the container for behaviors such as

fighting or arguing, excessive noise or throwing trash on the floor. At the

end of each day, the chips are counted with the blue chips adding to the

daily tally and red chips subtracting from it. Students are made aware of

what kind of day they have had in terms of their overall behavior, and

they can measure their general progress toward the goal of improved

behavior. When a certain goal for the number of chips is reached, the

class is rewarded with a special treat or privilege. These rewards might

include a class party or outing (Larrivee, 2005).

It is also possible to operate a token economy on a school-wide basis.

In this case, all of the classes in a particular school or language institute

participate in the same token economy and the school store is located

centrally and perhaps is controlled by a single staff member or the front

reception desk. One caution for a school considering this option,

however, is to issue each teacher a limited number of tokens to distribute

each week or month based on how many students they have. Otherwise,

some teachers tend to be much more liberal at giving out tokens than

others, causing the more conservative teachers to be disliked by students

and leading to inflation of the prices at the store and a devaluation of

tokens—effects that can ruin the real economy of an entire country and

certainly the token economy of a school.

Preventive Management and Guidance Model

Many educators talk about preventive planning as the basis for

effective classroom management. Preventive planning consists of

teacher strategies that actually prevent management and disciplinary

预防性管理和引导模式- 预防性管理：通过良好行为的教导，预防管理和纪律方面的问题- 引导：“更宽容更温和”，更强调学习的目标


problems from occurring by teaching good behavior explicitly. Guidance

is one component of a “kinder and gentler” approach to classroom

management without the focus on negative reinforcement used in the

rules and consequences model. If teachers spend less time using negative

reinforcements, they have more time to focus on the learning objectives.

More formally, this model is called Preventive Management and

Guidance. This concept relates mostly to social and emotional outcomes

for students (Petersen, 2003) and will guide many of the practical

techniques for classroom management for our young learner classes

included in the Applications section of this unit. In practical terms, this

approach relates to factors such as scheduling, the layout of the

classroom, and parental involvement, all of which will be explained in

more detail below.

Schedule

Every day should include plenty of time for both routines and

transitions between activities. Once again, routines define the procedure

for common classroom actions such as lining up. Transitions are

techniques used to stop one activity, and start another. For young

learners, there should be a balance of scheduled work time, breaks, and

playtime. Children need to have a sense of completion for each activity,

and auditory or visual cues can help to signal transitions from one

activity to the next (e.g., the tinkling of a bell or a gong, turning lights on

and off, or singing a brief transition song.) A simple gesture, such as the

open palm of a hand, can be used to signify “quiet” or “Let’s get ready

for something new.”

If the curriculum is developmentally appropriate and interesting for

the students, they are less likely to get “off task” or become disruptive.

Constant reminders should become less necessary. In any event, teachers

should plan periods for movement, experimentation, exploration, and

manipulation (touching) of materials. Also teachers may want to

alternate between motivating activities such as movement games and

calming activities such as written deskwork or craft projects. It is

important to keep in mind that the younger the children, the shorter

预防性管理和引导模式的实际操作时间表

游戏时间和游戏场地

学

教


their attention span. Preschoolers may need a change in activities every

five to ten minutes while older students can stay focused for longer

periods of time. When students are interested and engaged in the

excitement of learning, they are much less likely to stray from the

activity and behave inappropriately.

Materials

Learning materials can be a source of contention, or they can serve

as a model for teaching principles such as turn-taking and respecting

school property. There should be plenty of materials to go around so that

disputes are less likely to arise. Ideally, the materials should be concrete,

hands-on, and open-ended and should activate the senses. There should

be a limited number of students in particular work or study areas at one

time. To achieve this, learning centers can be established in the

classroom.

Students can be taught the value of smaller materials like markers,

colored pencils or hand puppets in a different way. At the beginning of

the year, only a few classroom materials are made available, and others

are added as the year continues. Every time a new set of materials (such

as markers) is introduced, the teacher wraps them up in gift paper and

the class opens them together. This action emphasizes that the materials

are special and belong to everyone in the classroom.

Room Arrangement and Accessibility

The layout of the room, particularly students’ desks, tables, and

work stations, is very important. The main consideration is a good

“traffic flow” with no areas that might cause children to bump into each

other or be tempted to run. Teachers should be able to see the students

at all times. No high cupboards should obstruct the teacher’s view.

Learning centers should be well labeled so that children can see the

choices available to them. Signs should be clear, attractive, and at the

child’s eye level.

习材料

室布置要便捷

有

缓

儿


Play Slots or Play Spaces

Play slots refer to specific times allotted to specific activities, and

play spaces refer to activity zones set aside in the classroom for specific

purposes. In general, children should be busy, happy, and learning,

rather than bored, restless, and waiting for direction. This will minimize

disruption. At times, children should have some structured free time,

during which they can choose play spaces with one or more of their

classmates. There should be plenty of alternative choices (e.g., a

computer work station, a small housekeeping area, an exercise mat,

crayons and paper, a large easel, puzzles and beads on another table,

etc.) More work or play slots means easier classroom management.

Balance of Stimulation

Teachers should spread stimulating and high-interest activities

around several parts of the room to draw children’s attention to different

areas for learning. Some examples of more stimulating kinds of activities

include doing a food-tasting activity, use of a story-building program on

a computer, or using finger paints. In this example, these four activities

might be spread out into four corners of the classroom.

Stress Reducers

Hands-on materials such as clay, paint, water, and sand are useful

media to relieve stress and should be used periodically every day if

possible. Especially for students who arrive to class under stress or in a

bad mood, a short session of interacting with clay or paint will help to

ease their tension and get them ready for learning. If conflicts develop

between children, assigning the more aggressive child to a hands-on

activity might diffuse the problem or simply redirect the child’s

attention.

Child/Adult Ratio

There should be enough adults to insure safety and adequate

attention to each student. Volunteers, student teachers, or community

趣的活动均匀分布

解压力的方法

童与成人的比例

父

规- 学- 规- 规- 规- 规- 规- 以- 严行- 加定


workers can help the teacher and offer more guidance. The presence of

more adults offers a greater sense of security for children, more

opportunities for children to interact safely, and also more chances to ask

questions about classroom activities. It is important to make sure that all

helpers are adequately trained about classroom routines and procedures

to keep the approach to classroom management consistent throughout

the day.

Parents as Staff

Parents should also be welcomed to help in the class. They should be

informed about class policies and class activities so that there will be no

surprises if a disciplinary issue comes up with their child. They should be

invited into the classroom itself so that they can see firsthand how the

class functions and how their children behave and perform. Ideally, they

should also be encouraged to volunteer assistance for special projects,

field trips, and other activities.

Applications

Although we have examined a variety of classroom management

models, they all rely on a few basic concepts: the establishment and

enforcement of rules, taking advance measures to prevent potential

disruptions, maintaining order during class, and regaining focus once a

disruption has occurred. Good classroom managers also use a standard

set of rewards and consequences to encourage good behavior and

discourage undesirable behavior. Below are some practical tips for

applying rules, preventing disruption, maintaining class order, and

regaining order. Also offered are some ideas for rewards and

consequences teachers may use to reinforce behavior. Some are derived

from various sources (e.g., Curtain & Dahlberg, 2004; Larrivee, 2005;

Petersen, 2003; Wong & Wong, 1997).

Rules

As explained in the section about the Rules and Consequences model

above, teachers may want to post a set of rules. The rules should be a

母的参与

则生参与制定规则则应正面阐述则的目的明确则要分类则应因地因事制宜则具有可调整性问答形式告知规则格并一视同仁地执规则强对正确行为的肯


reasonable set of expectations to ensure a safe and comfortable

classroom for both the teacher and the students. Below are some

practical tactics for the development and enforcement of classroom

rules.

Children Help Write the Rules—Children meet in small- or

large-group discussions with adults to help set simple rules for the safety

and comfort of their classmates. An example might be “We walk indoors;

we can run outdoors.”

Rules Should be Stated Positively—Rules should state what

students can or should do rather than what they are not allowed to do

(e.g., “We walk indoors,” rather than “We don’t run indoors.”)

Rules Should Have a Clear Purpose—Students should be aware of

why certain rules exist. For example, they should discuss why they

should walk indoors (less space, more sharp corners, echoing noise, etc.)

but can run outdoors.

Rules Can be Separated into Categories—For example, safety rules

can be considered separately from rules for the use of materials. Such

categorization may help to make it clear to children why each rule exists.

Also, there may be different consequences for breaking safety rules as

opposed to those for classroom procedures.

Rules Can be Area- or Activity-Specific—The teacher should guide

the students to create special rules that may apply only to certain areas

of the classroom or school. For example, there may be certain rules that

apply only to certain learning centers within the classroom. There may

also be special rules for the cafeteria or library. Similarly, there may be

special rules for certain activities such as pair work, group work, or

whole class discussion.

Rule Sets Can be Adjustable—It’s best to allow for rules to be added

as the need arises, perhaps by leaving blank spaces at the end of each

category where the rules are posted. Alternatively, the teacher can hold

monthly sessions in class during which students discuss any changes

they feel are necessary to the classroom rules.

预


Ask the Rules Rather Than Tell the Rules—Children are “turned

off” by repeated recitations of rules by adults. Instead of telling the rule,

the teacher should ask the rule: “What was the rule we made about

where we can walk and where we can run?” Then the teacher asks the

reason for the rule.

Enforce Rules Consistently—In order for rules to be effective, they

must be applied consistently. That is every time a student is seen

running indoors, he or she should be asked what the rule is about it. Also,

rules must be applied equitably to all students. If a student who rarely

misbehaves is seen running indoors, for example, he or she should be

reminded of the rule just as quickly and sternly as a student who

regularly acts out.

Use Positive Reinforcement—Teachers shouldn’t respond to

negative behavior only. A teacher should make a point to also discuss

positive behaviors with students and should try to point out when

students are following their rules well at least as often as he or she points

out when rules are being violated.

Preventive Measures

While establishing rules is one way of preventing management

problems, more contemporary models call for more positive and

proactive approaches to prevent disruptions from occurring. For

example, the Positive Classroom Management model calls for

“preventative interventions” while another model calls for “preventive

management.” In addition to establishing rules, here are some

techniques that can make classes operate more efficiently and prevent

disruptions far in advance.

Many of these take the form of established classroom procedures or

routines. Procedures should have an organizational purpose and a

calming effect in the classroom. In order to develop a procedure, a

teacher should decide on what one thing he or she would like the

students to do in order to make the classroom run smoother. Teachers

should also keep in mind that procedures should fall into the realm of

防性措施

- 出

- 每


classroom management rather than student behavior per se. The

teacher should teach that one procedure every day for a week until it

becomes a routine. The following week and every week thereafter, he or

she should teach another procedure. All the procedures should build on

one another until the teacher has a full battery of procedures to manage

almost any situation (Wong & Wong, 1997).

The main goal for any routine, procedure, or learning activity is to

enable each student to succeed with at least one thing in every class

period. Many of the procedures outlined below should help to achieve

this worthwhile goal (Curtain & Dahlberg, 2004).

Attendance Board—Many teachers waste valuable class time taking

attendance student by student. This practice also leaves “down time” in

which students may begin to act out. This can be avoided by making an

attendance board. A photo of each student is kept in a tray at the bottom

of the board and their names are written on the board above a nail or

hook. As students enter the class, they hang their photo under their

name. (See Figure 1.) A special area of the board can also be created

where students hang their photo if they arrived late. At a glance, the

teacher, school staff, or a teacher’s assistant can tell who is absent or

tardy.

Daily Homework Trays—In lieu of keeping an attendance board,

the teacher can give a regular, daily homework assignment, such as

writing a few sentences on a given topic or completing a page in an

activity book. Then as students enter the classroom, they deposit their

勤板

Figure 1: Attendance Board

日家庭作业

- 签

- 课

- 每


completed homework assignment into either an “on time” or a “tardy”

tray. At any time when the students are busy doing an activity, the

teacher can then collect the assignments from the two trays and use

them as a record of who arrived on time, who arrived late, and who is

absent.

Signing In—This is another way to have students manage the

roll-taking process. Place a writing pad with blank pages in the same

place every day. Students sign their name on the pad as they enter. This

has several benefits for younger students. If they are developing their

writing skills, this gives them another opportunity to practice at the

beginning of every day. If the pages are labeled with the date, they will

begin to recognize sequence of days. This procedure works best when it

is part of a larger beginning the day procedure, for example:

1) Walk into class.

2) Hang up your bag and coat.

3) Take out your notebook and pencil.

4) Sign into class.

5) Sit down at your seat.

Opening/Closing Assignment—Because the first and last five

minutes of any class period are prime for learning, it is wise to have an

established routine for what students do during that time. The students

should begin work as soon as they walk into the classroom. That means

an opening assignment is already posted in the same place every day. It

could always be a topic for journal writing, written sentences with

intentional grammar and spelling errors for students to correct, or a

unique assignment each day. Similarly, the teacher may want to make it

a routine that every class ends with work from an activity book or

having each student state something they learned that day.

Daily Agenda—The teacher devotes one section of a bulletin board

to a daily agenda. The daily agenda lists the main activities for that day.

Create spaces for six to ten agenda items on the board. Make signs for

common features of your daily schedule (for example, “morning

message/circle time,” “choice time/center time,” “writing time,” “snack

到

首和课尾作业

日活动表

- 值


time,” and so on. Place Velcro on the back of these, and each day put

them up according to the activities that you are doing that day. Move a

marker (a Velcro arrow, or some related symbol) as you finish one

activity and progress to the next. (See Figure 2.) You can transition into

the next activity by asking students what is next on the agenda. This

encourages students to become aware of time management and the

progress of the class.

Daily Reports—Many teachers open each day by asking students

what day it is, what the date is, what the weather is like, what the

previous day’s topic was, and so on. It may be wise to start the term by

asking just one of these questions each day, but as the weeks go by, other

questions can be added to the daily report. Students can also take turns

asking the questions, rather than the teacher always filling this role. It is

also possible to make a daily record of the answers to these questions

日生报告

Figure 3: Daily Report Pocket Chart

Figure 2: Daily Agenda Board

-“小

- 统

- 座

- 围

- 不


using a pocket chart (see Figure 3). (Making pocket charts is discussed

in the unit entitled Managing Materials.)

Teaching Assistants—One or more students can be designated as

“teaching assistants.” For example it can be one student’s duty for the

week to record attendance, another’s duty to assist in distributing

materials, another’s job to collect homework, and so on. Students often

enjoy such recognition and the chance to help in this way, and their

assistance is especially valuable in keeping the class operating efficiently.

Consistent Lesson Planning—Children usually behave better and

make transitions more quickly if there is an established pattern for every

class. Teachers should endeavor to format each day’s lesson similarly.

For example, the lesson might always begin with a review, then progress

to introduction of new material, group practice of the new material,

individual or turn-taking practice of new material, and a final

assignment. (Planning lessons is discussed in greater detail in the unit by

that name.)

Seating Assignments—Often certain children are more unruly in the

close company of particular friends. Teachers should consider speaking

with a class’ previous teacher to inquire if such cases exist in the group

and can arrange a seating assignment chart such that problem pairs or

groups are not seated together.

Circle Time—One very effective technique to build community and

engage all students in learning is to reserve part of the school day for

Circle Time. As the name implies, children gather around their teacher

in a large circle and major classroom management issues, discussions,

show and tell, or similar activities can be addressed. If another adult is

present, two smaller circles can be formed and more time can be allotted

for each student to speak and participate.

Ignore the Bell—From the first day of class the students should be

made aware that they are only dismissed by the teacher, not the school

bell. The bell is only a guideline, and the students should respond to the

teacher’s signal as the only cue for the conclusion of the day’s lesson. In

老师”

一上课程序

位安排

着老师讨论

理下课铃

支

- 课

- (

- 举

- 随


this way, final clean-up procedures, homework assignments, and

mutual respect can be reinforced.

Supportive Measures

While preventive measures can be taken far in advance to help avoid

situations that may lead to management issues, teachers will also need

to continually take supportive measures to remind students of rules, help

students to manage their own behavior, reward positive behavior, and

quell problems before they boil over into disruptive situations. The best

supportive measures are those that can be taken without stopping or

otherwise disrupting the lesson. Following are some tips for such

supportive measures that can be taken by teachers.

Proxemics—Students are usually less likely to become distracted or

act up if the teacher is near them. For this reason, it is often best for the

teacher to walk around the room while delivering or monitoring a lesson.

If the teacher notices one student starting to lose focus or behave

inappropriately, a good first step is to simply walk to that part of the

classroom and stand next to him or her without stopping the lesson

delivery.

Touch—If mere proximity of the teacher is not enough to refocus a

student, the teacher can simply touch the student on the top of the head

with a single finger to let them know they are being watched. (Note that

in some cultures, physical contact of any sort between a teacher and

student is not accepted. In any event, it is best to limit any such touch to

the top of the head and using a single extended finger.)

Name Dropping—A good technique for regaining the attention of a

student who has lost focus in a language class is to use them by name in

an example. For example, if the language target is (Name) has

(adjective) (body part), and a student named John has lost focus, the

teacher can use the example sentence John has long legs.

Random Calling—To insure that students are called on randomly as

recommended in the discussion about applying the Aural–Oral

Approach in the above Applicable Theories and Approaches section and

持性措施

堂巡行

用手指) 轻点脑袋

名暗示

意点名

- 复

- 记

- 发


to keep track of which students have and have not had a turn, the

teacher can simply remove photos from the previously discussed

attendance board as students are called on. For the next round of

nominating students, the teacher chooses students at random by just

picking photos out of a hat. In this case, he or she returns all the photos

one by one to the attendance board. Another way to do this is to use

name cards or name sticks. The teacher writes student names on note

cards or craft sticks (popsicle sticks) then draws a card or stick from the

pack and calls on the student whose name is written there.

What Did So-And-So Say?—Another way to insure that all students

are paying attention during practice drills or activities is to regularly

follow them up by calling on various students and asking them what a

certain other student’s response was. In this way, students must pay

close attention to each of their classmates during the initial exercise in

order to be prepared to respond correctly during the follow-up.

Memory Chain—Yet another method of encouraging students to

pay attention during turn-taking practice is an activity called Memory

Chain. In this activity, the practice does take place in a predictable order,

but each student must provide his or her own response along with the

responses provided by each student who responded before them. For

example, if the language target is I like (food item), the activity may

progress like this:

S1: I like bananas.

S2: I like bananas and apples.

S3: I like bananas, apples, and fish.

S4: I like bananas, apples, fish, and pizza.

(and so on)

It is best to continue around the room a second or even third time, so

that students who are first to respond are also motivated to pay

attention to subsequent respondents. If you have a very large class,

consider dividing the students into more than one group before doing

this activity.

The Talking Stick—To manage class or group discussions such that

述同学的回答

忆链

言棒

- 图

- 黄


students take turns talking, we can adopt a tool used for centuries by

Native American Indians. For important meetings, tribes often used a

“talking stick,” or “talking feather.” One could only speak while holding

the special stick, then handed it on to another who wanted to speak. In a

class discussion, the talking stick is passed around the circle until each

child who wants to share something has had a chance to do so. A more

modern prop that could be used for this purpose is a toy or cardboard

microphone.

Visual Cues—Visual cues or secret signals can be used to make

instructions more clear to beginners or as reminders of rules. For

example, illustrations of common classroom commands can be posted in

a beginner classroom. When the teacher gives one of the commands in

English, he or she also points to the corresponding picture to be certain

the children understand (see Figure 4.) Likewise, charts of various desk

arrangements can be posted (e.g., desks facing each other in pairs,

groups of four, two large circles, one large circle, etc.) When the teacher

says, “Put your desks in groups of four,” he or she points to the

appropriate chart to make certain the children comprehend the

instructions. Similarly, simple icons can be drawn next to each posted

classroom rule so the teacher can point to rules that are being violated

(often without disrupting the lesson) and know the students will

understand.

Pointing to Visual Cues Yellow Card, Red Card—A yellow card or

red card (familiar reminders from the sport of soccer) can be used as

visual cues to signal a warning or a consequence for misconduct. If a

child breaks a rule, the teacher simply hands them a yellow card while

continuing the lesson. The student must hold up the yellow card until it

is retrieved again by the teacher. If the student breaks a rule while

holding a yellow card, he or she is handed a red one, which indicates

that a more severe consequence will be administered later. One caveat

with using visual cues for rules is that students must be aware of which

rule they have broken. This can be achieved by giving the visual cue,

then pointing to the posted rule that was violated.

画暗示

牌/红牌警告


Stoplight—The teacher can make a cardboard stoplight with

changeable lights and hang it in the front of the room. Each light color

has a different meaning. For example, the green light might indicate that

students are free to move about the classroom and speak at will during

an activity, while the yellow light means they may speak in turns but

must remain in their seats. The red light might then mean that all

students should return to their seats immediately, become quiet, and

focus on the teacher. (Making such a “stoplight” is discussed in the unit

on Managing Materials.)

Hand Signs—It may be wise to establish certain hand signs for

common permission requests that students make. For example, holding

up a hand with a single finger extended can be the signal for, “May I go

to the bathroom?” while two extended fingers can be the sign for “May I

sharpen my pencil?” Rather than stopping the lesson to call on students

who are making one of these signs, the teacher can simply make eye

contact with the student and nod his or her head for approval or shake

his or her head to deny permission.

Passes—Printed passes can be made for common requests such as

going to the bathroom. Each student is then given a limited number of

each type of pass at the beginning of the month or term. If a student

wants permission to use one of their color-coded passes, they simply

Figure 4: Pointing to Visual Cues Yellow Card, Red Card.

- 彩色行动指示灯

- 打手势

- 通行证


hold it up in the air. If the teacher comes by and collects it (again without

stopping the lesson), permission has been granted and the student has

used up one of their passes for that time period. If the teacher makes eye

contact and shakes his or her head, permission to use the pass at that

time has been denied. Possibly unused passes could be turned in at the

end of the term for extra credit.

Making Transitions

Another important set of procedures relates to managing smooth

transitions between one activity and the next. Transitions can be used to

redirect children’s attention to a new activity. They can also be used to

defuse potential problems or divert attention away from conflicts or

another child’s misbehavior. Sometimes simply exposing materials for a

new activity will redirect student attention quickly. It is usually wise to

keep such materials hidden until the time has come to introduce the

activity in which they will be used; otherwise they will become a

distraction rather than a transition tool.

A kazoo, a tambourine, or a ukulele (small musical instruments; see

Figure 5 below) are other simple tools to redirect children’s attention.

Striking up a familiar song also serves to release tension immediately.

Fingerplays or funny rhymes are the easiest kinds of transitions to use

“on the spot” to diffuse problems or redirect instruction.

Transitions are the glue that holds the children together as they

switch between the events or activities in the schedule. Without planned

transitions, the children wander off or begin to play again and need to be

re-gathered. What should be short transitions can easily become ten or

活动之间的过渡方法- 让学生看见新活动的材料- 弹奏学生熟悉的歌- 手指活动- 有趣的同韵词

Figure 5: Small Musical Instruments foruse in Making Transitions

- 音

- 魔

- 走

- 认


more minutes of chaos (Petersen, 2003). Using a variety of transitions

keeps children engaged, interested, and on task. Among the most

effective transitions are musical, creative, physical, and cognitive

transitions. Some ideas for such transitions follow:

Musical Transitions—To make transitions between one classroom

activity and another, the teacher can write simple transition songs. When

a transition needs to be made, the teacher begins singing the song and

students join in as they make the transition. Their goal is to have

completed the transition by the time the song is finished. Songs could

vary from a very simple song called “Make a Line” to a more

complicated one like “Get Ready to Go Home.” (The topic of writing

your own teaching songs and chants is discussed in much greater detail

in the unit entitled Teaching Through Songs and Chants.)

Magic Carpets—A good way to settle children down quickly during

Circle Time or for other activities in which you want students to stand or

sit in a particular arrangement on the floor is to use carpet squares as

spaces to clearly designate a seat for each child. Colored carpet squares

with names or numbers help to clarify the location of each child’s

personal space. If you can’t access carpet squares, you may also use large

sheets of inexpensive paper.

Walk This Way—To motivate children to make transitions in an

efficient, orderly, and entertaining manner, have them form a line and

walk together in an unusual way from one place to the other. For

example, they can all form a train and make chugging sounds as they

walk or they can pretend they are baby ducklings waddling behind the

mother duck, the teacher.

Cognitive Transitions—This kind of transition is more of a thinking

exercise. Children might be asked to identify their names printed on

cards as they leave the room or a learning center one at a time. They

might also have to identify shapes, colors, and animals. Another such

transition is to have children who are wearing a particular color go wash

their hands first, then those wearing another color.

乐过渡

毯

这条路

知过渡


Classroom Jobs

Creating and maintaining classroom jobs is another very useful

management procedure. Classroom jobs build class community,

encourage responsibility, save time, and take care of everyday events.

Students are selected for classroom jobs for a specified period of time—a

day, a week, or two weeks. Classroom jobs can be giving as rewards for

good behavior. A student that has been polite might be asked to be a line

leader for that day. They can also be given the role to prevent

inappropriate behavior. For example, if you have a student that often

misbehaves at the end of class, you might give them a job that keeps

them involved until the end of class. Each job should have its own

necklace or nametag, with a picture that reminds the student and others

of their responsibilities. Also, it might be helpful to have a section of a

bulletin board dedicated to who is responsible for doing each job for that

day.

Attendance Checker—Just before class begins, this student checks

the sign-in book or sign-in bulletin board to make sure that everyone is

signed in.

Equipment Manager—This student makes sure that there are no

supplies left out at the end of the day. He or she may also make sure that

no one leaves behind books, toys, or articles of clothing as they line up

for the bus.

Line Leader—The teacher chooses one person to be in the front of

all lines for each day. This helps reinforce the lining up procedure and

prevents conflicts for the initial position.

Caboose—Sometimes the last person in line feels left out from the

group. This job gives the person at the back of the line an important

duty—to watch and make sure that nobody falls behind or strays from

the line.

Chair Checker—This student makes sure that all chairs are pushed

in at the end of the day. Rotating this job (and the Equipment Manager)

frequently reminds students to tidy up after themselves at the end of the

过渡活动举例

- 出勤考核员

- 设备管理员

- 领队

- 殿后

- 椅子检查员


day.

Door Holder—This student holds the door open for all of the

students to walk through. A door holder models polite, patient behavior,

and stops the door from being slammed. Also, this is a good preventive

intervention for students who are impatient and try to leave class in a

rush.

Corrective Measures

Younger students are very easily distracted, so teachers should

establish ways to refocus their attention. The most useful methods

involve visual cues, auditory cues, or both. Some examples follow:

Zero Noise Signal—A “zero noise signal” or the “universal

cooperative learning signal” might be triggered by the teacher by raising

his or her hand and making the sign of “OK” or “peace.” Students

should be taught to stop their activity upon seeing the signal and to quiet

down, make the gesture themselves, and communicate silently to their

classmates that they should do the same.

SALAME—Some teachers hold up their hand and use their five

extended fingers to indicate the words represented by the acronym

SALAME (Stop And Look At Me). The teacher calls out “SALAME”

(pronounced, “sah-lah-mae”) and has the children repeat each of the

five words as he or she points to the tip of each finger in turn with his or

her free hand.

Give Me Five—The teacher says, “Give Me Five,” and the students

go through five steps: 1) Eyes on speaker, 2) Quiet, 3) Be still, 4) Hands

free, and 5) Listen. In five seconds, the class is quiet (Wong & Wong,

1997).

Dan, Da-Da, Da, Dan ...—The teacher sings all but the last two

notes to the familiar tune that goes, “Dan, da-da, da, dan ... dan, dan!”

but lets the students sing the last two notes, showing their attention.

Rhythmic Clapping—The teacher starts clapping in the rhythm of

a familiar beat, song, or chant. Upon seeing and hearing this signal,

- 教室门岗

纠正性措施

- 安静信号

- 停下看老师

- 我跟老师唱


students should join in the repetitive, rhythmic clapping until all

students are clapping along. This not only secures their attention, but

requires that they put down whatever they were doing in order to have

both hands free.

Left in the Dark—As a signal for the students to return to their seats

and become quiet, the teacher switches off the classroom lights. Often a

given amount of time is allotted with the lights out, then they are turned

back on. Any child not in his or her seat, still, and quiet when the lights

come back on is given a minor negative consequence.

Lights, Camera, Action!—The teacher snaps a clapboard (see

Figure 6) or a similar prop to stop an activity. He or she may also wear a

director’s hat or speak through a director’s cone to say firmly, “Lights!

Camera! Action!” to indicate a change of “scene” or a transition to a new

activity. (Instructions for making a director’s clapboard and

announcement cone are included in the unit on Managing Materials.)

Counting Down—The teacher raises his or her hand and begins to

count down from five to zero. When zero is reached, students should be

in their seats, quiet, and ready to move on to a new activity or accept a

consequence. Counting down can often be used in conjunction with

another management technique, such as turning the lights out or

switching the “stoplight” described in the Supportive Measures section

to red then counting down. The length of the countdown can also be

adjusted for more complicated commands or transitions (e.g., “Put your

desks in a big circle, fifteen, fourteen, thirteen ...”)

- 保持安静五步骤

- 按节奏拍手

- 安静再开灯

- 灯光！摄像！走！

Figure 6: Director’s Clapboard and Cone


Reinforcers and Rewards

Another idea we first introduced in the Student Self-Management

Model is the concept of reinforcers, or tools to encourage desired

behaviors among children. Reinforcers range from more tangible

rewards to intangible ones, from traditional tokens like chocolates and

stickers, to more abstract notions like a sense of personal satisfaction.

Another way to think of reinforcers is to consider the “consumable”

reinforcers (candy and so forth) as lower-order incentives that are less

effective over the long term. More effective reinforcers occur more

naturally in the classroom and include special privileges, teacher praise,

and at the highest order, student pride in their own sense of achievement

(Larrivee, 2005).

Material Reinforcers—Material reinforcers may include

consumable, tangible, and often edible rewards such as M&Ms,

jellybeans, peanuts, or raisins. (Note that some parents may take offense

to their children being given unhealthy treats such as candies.) Young

children also appreciate items such as toys, pencils, certificates, stars, or

stickers. Material reinforcers are also used in the Token Economy

System described in a previous section. In the token economy scenario,

positive behavior is reinforced with stars, checkmarks, happy faces, or

points. Token systems are successful because they allow the

reinforcement to be broken down into smaller parts, thereby providing

immediate and frequent reinforcement. Some teachers make homework

charts where boxes are checked or star stickers are applied to openly

acknowledge which students have (and have not) completed particular

assignments (see Figure 7).

reinforcers and

rewards

(强化刺激和奖励)

- 物质强化刺激

- 活激

- 社


Activity and Privilege Reinforcers—Another class of reinforcers

includes activity or privilege rewards. These rewards are things students

prefer to do, such as playing a game, helping the teacher, having lunch

with the principal, taking roll for the class, or distributing and collecting

materials. One advantage of using this type of reinforcer is that it saves

the teacher money compared to the material reinforcers described

above. Also, they have the advantage of teaching children responsibility

when their privilege consists of helping the teacher or principal, serving

as a hall monitor or messenger, or running audiovisual equipment, for

example.

Social Reinforcers—These rewards are much more intangible. They

include adult approval, peer recognition, and other forms of public

attention or praise. Typically, these reinforcers are used together with

other material and privilege reinforcers at first. Over time, however,

students will grow to be less insistent that they receive consumable

rewards, so that social reinforcers alone will be enough to sustain

positive behavior.

动及优先权强化刺

会强化刺激

Figure 7: Homework Chart

co(惩- 留- 家- 代

- 重

- 暂


Consequences

When children continue to act out inappropriately, the next logical

result is to enforce consequences. Examples of typical consequences

include detention at recess or after school, parent-teacher-principal

conferences, and the like. If a token economy is being used, students can

also be charged tokens for inappropriate behavior. One warning for

teachers is that assigning additional schoolwork should never be used as

a negative consequence. Doing so just suggests to the child that school is

punishment and punishment is school. Also, many teachers use removal

from the classroom to punish unruly students; although this may

temporarily eliminate the problem and distraction, the child should be

removed to another location where he or she will be supervised.

Teachers should also remember that removing the child from the

classroom also removes the child from the learning process, so it should

be done only as a last resort. Following are some additional tips on

administering consequences:

Structured Contingency Systems—In a structured contingency

system, consequences for certain behaviors are explicitly defined. Also,

they often increase in severity for repeated infractions. For example, on

the first offense, the student loses a token; on the second offense, the

student is given detention; on the third offense, the child’s parents are

contacted. Some teachers write a student’s name on the board on the

first offense, then make tick marks next to the name to acknowledge

second, third, and fourth infractions, each with an accompanying

consequence to be administered later. Contingency contracts are a

variation on such a system. In this case, the teacher and student(s) agree

on a structured, written, and signed contract with lots of If…, then…

clauses. Finally, teachers should be aware that some behaviors do not

escalate up a scale of consequences. This is called a severity clause. For

example, actions that are intentionally harmful, such as throwing

dangerous objects at another student, will immediately result in the

most direct and serious consequence.

Time-Out—Time-out, as the name implies, is a short period when

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children are given the opportunity to calm down and take some time out

from a stressful situation or confrontation. It should only be used as a

guidance technique when the goal is for the child to regain control of

himself or herself. It should not be used as punishment or for isolation.

There are two types of time-out, either in-class or out of class. In both

types, if a child becomes rowdy or misbehaves, the teacher suggests that

he or she needs to sit down for a time to regain self-control. Many

children respond better to being held on an adult’s lap for a short time

instead of sitting alone on a chair. When the adult senses that the child

has relaxed and calmed down, the child can be asked if he or she is ready

to go back and play or participate in class. In some cases time-out can

take place in a somewhat isolated play area with clay or other media

nearby to divert attention away from the child’s current agitation. It can

also be a quiet place to read alone independently. Some teachers prefer

the time-out area to be stimulation-free, or even a separate time-out

room. In this case, there should be no windows, no secretaries to watch

(such as in the principal’s office), no appealing magazines or toys

nearby, and no equipment to play with. Typically children are sent to

time-out for no more than a few minutes (Larrivee, 2005; Petersen,

2003). This strategy works best when the teacher is able to give students

a problem to solve or something to consider while they are in time out.

For instance, a student may receive a time out for something they did

because they were angry. The teacher might ask them to use their time

out to try to think of a better way to express their anger, and ask them

about their answer when the time out is finished.

Class Videos—If a group of students is particularly unruly, consider

setting up a video camera in the corner of the room and recording each

class session. (Note that in some countries, provinces, or school systems

there are laws or policies against video recording students without the

permission of parents.) Knowing that there is a video record of their

actions may help some students to manage their behavior in a more

appropriate way. If necessary, portions of the resulting recording can be

shown to a school administrator or parents to make them aware of how

children behaved in class.

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Peer Pressure—Perhaps the most severe (and effective) negative

consequence that can be administered is peer pressure. For example, the

class can be divided into two teams that compete to be the best behaved.

Some sort of point keeping system is established to keep track of which

team is winning throughout the class. One method is to construct a

simple balance scale (see Figure 8). Each team is represented by a cup,

and the teacher keeps a pocketful of identical small-denomination coins.

If a student exhibits positive behavior, a coin is dropped in their team’s

cup. If, however, a student is caught exhibiting negative behavior, a coin

is dropped into the opposing team’s cup. In this way, the student’s

negative actions will affect his or her entire team and the teammates

may exert peer pressure for the child to be better behaved. It should be

noted that this sort of peer pressure system can have negative social

consequences for children who have difficulty controlling their behavior

and that it may cause animosity between children, so it should only be

used as a last resort. (The process for constructing a balance scale for use

in this way is described in the unit on Materials Management.)

Conclusions

In this unit, we have considered how various theories and

approaches in general education and language teaching relate to

classroom management. We discussed, for example, how engaging

children in experiential learning activities with hands-on materials will

better keep them focused on learning. We also mentioned that

task-based learning (TBL) and project work serve the same purpose,

自同学的压力

Figure 8: Peer Pressure Balance Scale


but that teachers should prepare follow-up activities to occupy students

who finish the initial task sooner than others. Also students engaging in

experiential, task-based, or project-based learning will need to have

strong self-management skills.

What we know of early childhood development may give us insight

as to how to manage classes of very young learners. Preschoolers, for

example, have a very short attention span, so activities need to be short

or divided into short distinct phases. Also, children who are still in the

egocentric stage of socio-emotional development will have great

difficulty managing their own behavior and may respond better to clear

rules and consequences and material reinforcers.

We also discussed how different children think differently, as

described by Multiple Intelligences Theory, so we have a better chance

of keeping the attention of all our students if lessons engage a variety of

the eight intelligences—the linguistic intelligence, the musical

intelligence, the logical-mathematical intelligence, the spatial

intelligence, the bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, the interpersonal

intelligence, and the intrapersonal intelligence.

From the perspective of language teaching approaches, we discussed

how more traditional approaches such as the Aural–Oral Approach or

the Audio-Lingual Approach will better hold students’ attention if the

practice is fast-paced and students are required to respond randomly,

perhaps in groups or pairs to increase each child’s opportunities to

participate. We also discussed how engaging children in physical

movement related to real or imagined contexts as advocated by the

Direct Approach and the Total Physical Response (TPR) approach will

help to keep them engaged in the learning at hand. We mentioned that it

is easier for children to focus on material that is comprehensible yet

slightly challenging, as advocated by the Input Hypothesis of the

Natural Approach. The Affective Filter Hypothesis of the same approach

suggests to us that students will learn more readily in the sort of stable,

secure learning environment that exists in a well-managed classroom.

Finally the Communicative Approach recommends teaching language in


communicative contexts that are authentic for the target age group. This

approach, however, relies heavily on group and pair work, so teachers

using it may need good techniques for regaining class-wide focus and

making efficient transitions.

Following our exploration of how educational theories and

approaches relate to classroom management, we explored several

prominent classroom management models. These include the Rules and

Consequences Model; the Positive Classroom Management Model which

focuses on three types of interventions (preventive interventions,

supportive interventions, and corrective interventions) and encourages

teachers to engage in reflective practice concerning classroom

management; the Student Self-Management Model, which strives to

teach students to establish and monitor their own learning outcomes;

Token Economy Systems, whether they are applied to students

individually, the class collectively, or even to all the students of a given

school or institute; and the Preventive Management and Guidance

Model, among others. All of these approaches share organizing features

and focus on either social-emotional outcomes (how the students

interact and relate to their feelings) or cognitive outcomes (how they

learn most effectively).

When choosing a particular way of managing a class, teachers

should consider the impact of rules, routines, and procedures on

learning. They should consider how the daily schedule of activities can

optimize learning and manage behavior. Materials, the room

arrangement, and play slots or play spaces should be organized in such a

way so as to minimize disruption. There should also be a balance of

stimulation, and stress reducers should be available to maintain a sense

of calm while children learn. The child/adult ratio should also be

addressed, meaning that there should be enough adults present to keep

all children on task. In some cases, parents can also be considered as

staff volunteers.

Sometimes a detailed list of rules is necessary and more effective

when children are stakeholders and help to write them. Establishing


routines and procedures for every contingency helps to clarify teacher

expectations and manage all activities and free time during the school

day. Such procedures can be used to begin class, redirect or diffuse

misbehavior, manage materials, end class, call on students, and

transition from one activity to the next.

Another important concept in managing a class is the use of

reinforcers and rewards. Reinforcers are tools to serve as frequent

reminders about the merits of good behavior, and consist of either

Material Reinforcers, Activity or Privilege Reinforcers, or Social

Reinforcers. In some cases, reinforcers are expressed negatively, and

offer distinct consequences for misbehavior. One such type of negative

reinforcer is called a Structured Contingency System, which includes

formal behavioral contracts or the use of a Token Economy System. The

other key term related to rules is consequences, or some sort of penalty

for misbehavior. One of the more extreme but often effective examples of

a consequence is Time-Out, a short period of isolated time allotted to a

misbehaving child where he or she can calm down in a low-stress

environment.

Notes

1) attention span (注意广度): 指专注于某件事或某项活动的

时间长度。在学习理论中，注意被认为是学习的第一阶段。

2) Aural–Oral Approach (听说法理论): 该理论对于语言和语言

教学的观点包括：1.听、说是最基本的语言能力；2.每门

语言都有其独特的结构和规则；3.语言通过形成习惯而自

然习得。

3) Direct Approach (直接法): 外语或第二语言教学的一种方

法，具有以下特点：课堂上应只使用目的语；意思应该通

过将语言和动作、物体、模仿、手势及情景结合起来直接

表达出来（这是这种方法名称的由来）；读、写应该在说

之后教；语法应该只用归纳的方法教，即通过实例教语法。

4) affective filter (情感障碍，也称情感滤器假说):该理论认为，

第二语言习得的成功与否取决于学习者的情感因素。消极


态度（包括缺少动机或缺乏自信和学习热情）被认为是一

种滤器，阻碍学习者对输入信息的运用，从而影响语言学

习的效果。

5) comprehensible input (可理解性输入、提高性输入): 向学习

者输入略高于其现有语言能力的语言项目。

6) ADD (attention deficit disorder): 注意缺失症

References

Ahlersmeyer, L. (n.d.). Token economy. Retrieved on June 9, 2005 from

http://www.lsc.k12.in.us/earhart/ahlersmeyer/Token_Economy.html

Curtain, H. & Dahlberg, C. (2004). Languages and Children—Making

the Match: New Languages for Young Learners, Grades K–8. Boston:

Pearson Education.

DiGiulio, R. C. (1995). Positive Classroom Management: A Step-By-Step

Guide to Successfully Running the Show Without Destroying Student

Dignity. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Larrivee, B. (2005). Authentic Classroom Management: Creating a

Learning Community and Building Reflective Practice, second

edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Marzano, R. J. (1992). A Different Kind of Learning: Teaching with

Dimensions of Learning. Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision

and Curriculum Development.

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