TEFL-C 04 The Direct Approach 2013 Btefl-c.coursewebs.com/Courses/CommonFiles/TEFL-C Modules 1-20...

Prepared in association with Teachers College, Columbia University. © 2012 TEFL-C International Ltd. All rights reserved.

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Unit

4

THEDIRECTAPPROACH

"Alanguagecannotbetaught.Onecanonlycreateconditionsforlearningtotakeplace."

–AlexandervonHumboldt


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THEDIRECTAPPROACH

Introduction

Inmuchthesamewaythatourunderstandingofcognitivedevelopmentandgeneraleducationhasevolved,sohasourunderstandingofhowbesttoteachasecondlanguage.Perhapsasevidencethatlanguageteachingisaninexactscience,trendsinteachingasecondlanguagehaveshiftedforcenturiesbackandforthfromfocusingonanalyzingthenewlanguage,especiallyintermsofitsgrammarandstructure,toconcentratingonhowthetargetlanguageisactuallyusedtocommunicate.Approachesthatteachthroughformalgrammaticalanalysisofalanguageareoftenreferredtoasdeductiveapproaches,whilethosethatfocusonlanguageuseratherthanlanguagestructureareoftencalledinductiveapproaches.

Aroundtheendofthe1800’s,thefieldwasimmerseddeepinadeductivelanguageanalysistrendthathascometobeknownastheGrammarTranslationApproach.Becausethisapproachwasnotalwayseffectiveinenablingstudentstotrulycommunicate,however,newapproachesforlanguageteachingbegantospringup.OneofthesewastheDirectApproach.TheDirectApproachincorporatedtechniquesdesignedtoaddressalltheareasthattheGrammarTranslationApproachdidnot.TheDirectApproachfocusedmuchmoreonoralcommunication,spontaneoususeofthelanguage,anddevelopingtheabilityto“think”inthetargetlanguage.AsadirectresponsetotheGrammarTranslationApproachorevenasovercompensationforthelimitationsofvarioustechniquestypicaloftheGrammarTranslationApproach,theDirectApproachimmediatelydistinguisheditselfinmanyways.Forexample,theDirectApproachavoidedusingthestudents’nativelanguage(L1)asthelanguageofinstruction.Itdownplayedtheimportanceof


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memorizinggrammaticalrulesandstrictlyavoidedtranslationbetweentheL1andthetargetlanguage.

WewillbeginthisunitbydiscussingthehistoryoftheDirectApproach.NextwewilldescribethegeneralfeaturesoftheDirectApproachandbrieflycomparethemtosomeotherapproachesusedinforeignlanguageorEnglishlanguageteaching(ELT)classrooms.ThenwewillconsidersomeofthepotentialproblemswithusingtheDirectApproach.Finally,wewillfocusonputtingsomeDirectApproachmethodsintopracticeintheclassroom.Inparticular,wewilllookattheRassiasMethod®toenrichingalessonandJamesAsher’sTotalPhysicalResponse(TPR)method,whichisstillheavilyusedtoday,especiallywithyounglearners.Anothermorerecentinnovation,TPRStorytelling(TPRS),willalsobeexplored.

HistoricalandTheoreticalBackground

ThepersoncreditedwithfirstdevelopingtheprinciplesoftheDirectApproachisFrançoisGouin,ateacherofLatinwholivedinFranceinthenineteenthcentury.Hisfirst‐handexperienceattemptingtolearnGermanasanadultencouragedhimtorethinkhisapproachtolanguageteaching.GouintraveledtoGermanytostudythelanguageattheUniversityofHamburg.Beingalanguageteacherhimself,hedecidedthatitwouldbevaluableforhimtofirstmemorizethegrammarrulesystemofGermanaswellasthelanguage’snearly250irregularverbs.Havingdoneso,hewenttotheuniversityandwasshockedtodiscoverthathecouldnotunderstandawordofspokenGerman.Gouinthendecidedthatitmaybehelpfultomemorizethe800wordrootsthatformthebasisofmostoftheGermanlanguageandtoreviewthegrammarrulesandirregularverbs.StillhefoundhecouldnotunderstandGerman.Next,GouinpracticedbytranslatingclassicsofGermanliterature.Thenhememorizedabookof

古安“系列法” 在课堂的使用 - 首先，学生看、听，并理解系列句 - 学生在理解后自己造句，边说边表演

理论和历史背景


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GermandialoguesandeventuallytriedtomemorizeanentireGermandictionary.Afterayearofrotememorizationandgrammartranslationpractice,GouinreturnedtoFrance,stillunabletounderstandorspeakfluentGerman,onlytofindthathisthree‐year‐oldnephewhadbecomefluentinFrenchwhilehewasaway.

Afterstudyingearlychildhoodlanguageacquisition,GouindevelopedanewteachingmethodhecalledtheSeriesMethod.TheSeriesMethodwasanearlydirectapproachthatdidnotincludegrammartranslationorrotememorization.Gouinbelievedthatlanguagecouldbelearnedmoreeasilyifitwerepresentedorallyasasequenceofevents.AGouinseriesconsistsofsixtoeightcommandsorstatementsofuptosevenoreightsyllableseach.Thestatementsshouldincludeactionverbsofuniformtenseandpersonsothattheteachercanmodelwhatthestatementssaid,possiblywiththeaidofsimpleprops,tohelpthestudentscomprehend.Thefollowingisanexample:

TodayisTim’sbirthday.Hegetsapresent.

Heopensthepresent.Helooksinsidethebox.Heseesatoycar.

Hetakesoutthetoycar.Heplayswiththetoycar.Thetoycarbreaks.

Atfirst,thestudentswereallowedtosimplywatchandlisten,tryingtounderstandthelanguageintheseries.Eventually,studentsweregivenopportunitiestoproducethelanguageoncetheyfeltcomfortablewiththeirabilitytocomprehendit,oftenperformingthemodelingactionsthemselvesastheyspoke.Wenowrefertoapproachesthatinitiallyfocusonlyonlisteningcomprehensionas


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comprehensionbasedapproaches.(Thosethatrequirelearnerstospeakor“produce”thelanguagefromtheverybeginningarereferredtoasproductionbasedapproaches.)Despitehisuniqueinsights,Gouin’sSeriesMethodneverenjoyedgreatpopularity,partlybecauseonlyagenerationlateritwasabsorbedintotheapproachofamoreflamboyantlanguage‐teachingbusinessmaninGermany,CharlesBerlitz,andrenamedtheDirectMethod(orDirectApproach).

AlthoughBerlitzwasresponsibleforpopularizingtheapproachinEurope,itwasafollowerofGouin,EmileB.deSauzé,whofirsttooktheDirectApproachtotheUnitedStates.Intheearlytwentiethcentury,deSauzétraveledtoCleveland,Ohiotoconsultwiththecity’spublicschools,tryingtoensurethatallforeignlanguageteachingtherefollowedthebasictenetsoftheDirectApproach.Theapproach,however,nevercaughtoninAmerica,largelybecausetherewasashortageofforeignlanguageteacherswhowerefluentenoughinthelanguagestheytaughttousetheapproacheffectively.Thisdifficulty,alongwiththefactthattheDirectApproachrequiredmanyexpensivepropsanddidnotworkwellinlargeclasses,wouldlaterleadtoitsgeneraldownfallworldwide.

AlthoughthetraditionalformoftheDirectApproachwouldneveragainenjoythetypeofpopularityitonceheldinEurope,partsofithavebeenresurrectedinthelasthalf‐centuryintheformofnewmethodsthatusemanyofitsbasicprinciples,buthaveavoidedsomeofthemajordrawbacksthatledtoitsdecline.AmongthesenewmethodswerethoseoftwoAmericans,JohnRassiasandJamesJ.AsherwhodevelopedtheRassiasMethodandtheTotalPhysicalResponsemethod,respectively.ThesetwomethodsarediscussedingreaterdetailinthesectiononOvercomingtheDisadvantagesoftheDirectApproach.

comprehension-based approaches （以理解为基础的教学法） production-based approaches （以运用为基础的教学法）

以贝列兹命名的“直接教学法” 在欧洲推广

艾米莉·索斯 - 将直接法介绍到美国 - 未能在美国推广：缺乏外语教师，需贵重的道具，不能在人数多的班级推广


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CharacteristicsoftheDirectApproach

ThebasictenetsoftheDirectApproachwereasfollows:1)Allinstructionwasdeliveredinthetargetlanguage;2)Grammarwastaughtusinganinductiveapproach;3)LessonsbeganwithdialoguesorshortstoriesresemblingaGouinseries;4)Actions,props,andillustrationshelpedstudentstounderstand;5)Commonconcretevocabularywastaughtusingpicturesandrealia;6)Abstractwordsweretaughtthroughassociationandcontext;and7)Ateacherwithnative‐likeproficiencyinthetargetlanguagewasrequired.

Thenewschoolofthinkingatthetimewasthatforeignlanguageteachingshouldtakeplaceonlyinthetargetlanguage.Notranslationordescriptionofgrammarwasgiveninthestudents’nativelanguage.Studentswouldhavetosurviveinforeignlanguageclassastheywouldiftheyvisitedthecountrywherethelanguagewasspoken.Thestudentswereexpectedtoinductivelydiscovertherulesofthelanguage.TheDirectApproacharosefromthisfadofmonolingualteaching,whichwaspopularduringthebeginningofthetwentiethcenturyinprivatelanguageschoolsinEurope.

ThoughtheDirectApproachisanimmersionapproach,thisdoesnotnecessarilymeanitisacommunicativeapproach.AsRichard‐Amato(1996)pointsout,theDirectApproachmerelymakesanefforttoimmersestudentsinthetargetlanguage.Teachermonologues,formalquestionsandanswers,anddirectrepetitionoftheinputarefrequentandmaynotaccuratelyreflectthetypeoflanguageexchangethatistypicalofeverydaynative‐speakercommunication.(TheCommunicativeApproachisdiscussedinmuchgreaterdetailintheunitbythattitle.)

Ingeneral,therearefourimportantfeaturesthatdistinguishtheDirectApproachfromotherlanguage‐teaching

直接教学法的特点

直接教学法的原则 - 全部使用目的语教学 - 采用归纳法教语法 - 采用对话或类似古安系列法的小故事开始课程 - 用动作、道具和插图帮助学生理解 - 通过图片和实物道具教授实词 - 通过联想和上下文教授虚词 - 需有能熟练掌握目的语的教师

immersion approach （沉浸式教学法） communicative approach （交际教学法）


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approachescoveredinthiscourse.Whenweobserveteachersusingthisapproach,weusuallyseethefollowingclassroominteractions:

1)Whentheyarefirstlearningthetargetlanguage,studentsfrequentlyrelyontranslationfromtheirfirstlanguagetonegotiatethemeaningfornewvocabulary,muchlikeweseeinthemoretraditionalGrammarTranslationApproach.However,theDirectApproachteacherconsistentlystrivesfromtheoutsettoredirectthewaystudentslearnsothattheyuseasmuchofthetargetlanguageaspossibletoassignmeaningtonewwords.Studentsarestronglyencouragedtousenewvocabularyinameaningfulcontextwithoutresortingtotranslation.

2)TheDirectApproachteacheroftenisthesolesourceofinputofthenewlanguageandthereforeretainsastrong,somewhatauthoritarianroleasateacherandlanguageresource.Theteacherenforcesthe“targetlanguageonly”rule,andthisrequiresalotofteachercontrol.However,asuccessfulDirectApproachteacherquicklylearnstocedecontrolofthelanguagelearningprocesstothestudents.Theirenthusiasmandactiveparticipationinaskingquestionsandinteractingwithoneanothershouldbeencouraged.Theyaretaughttoexperimentwiththetargetlanguage,ratherthanrelyingsoexclusivelyontheteacherasthesoleproviderofcontentandvocabulary.

3)AllDirectApproachlessonsandactivitiesaredesignedaroundmeaningfulcontextswithanauthenticrealworldapplication.Forexample,dialogues,role‐plays,orlearningsituationsmightbebuiltaroundstudents’experiencesattheplayground,inthesupermarket,atthedoctor’soffice,orinthecafeteria.Insteadof

直接教学法有别于其他语言教学法的四个特征 - 尽量使用目的语，不求助于翻译 - 学生掌控自己的语言学习；学生自己用目的语实践 - 要求学生先练习目的语或其语言结构，然后引导学生通过归纳自己发现语言规则和语言模式 - 更注重口头交际


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teachinggrammarpointsdirectlybypresentingrulesandassigningwrittenexercisesordrills(methodscommonlyseenintheGrammarTranslationApproach),studentsaretaughttopracticethetargetlanguageorstructurefirstanddiscovertheruleorlanguagepatternthemselvesbyinduction.Thispracticalapproachmeansthatstudentswillinternalizethestructuresandbeabletousethemmorereadily.

4)Amongthefourskills,theDirectApproachfocusesmuchmoreonoralcommunicationthantheotherskills,especiallywriting.Arich,ongoingdialoguetakesplaceintheDirectApproachclassroomandhasmanyaspects.Precedenceshouldbegiventoauthenticspeakingpracticebetweenandamongstudentsinpairsorgroupsaswellasbetweentheteacherandthestudents.Thecontentoftheirreadingandthetopicsoftheirwritingassignmentsaredirectlyrelatedtotheconversationaltopicsthatformthecoreofthecurriculum.Thisfocusonoralcommunicationmeansthatvocabularyandpronunciationareemphasized.Explicitgrammarinstructionisminimizedortieddirectlytodailyconversationalpractice(Larsen‐Freeman,2001).

AdvantagesoftheDirectApproach

OneofthegreatestadvantagesoftheDirectApproachisthatitmaximizesthestudents’exposuretothetargetlanguage.ProponentsoftheApproachsuggestthatevenbasicinstructionsshouldnotbetranslated.Theteachershouldnotshieldthestudentfromthestruggleformeaningbyprovidingfirst‐languagesupport.Instead,theteacherandstudentshouldbothembracethestruggletomakemeaningoutofanewlanguage,tocommunicatebothclassroomlanguageandthecontentofideas,andtobemutuallyunderstood.Thisis

直接教学法的优点 - 让学生最大限度地接触目的语，尽量在陌生的语言中了解其含义 -大量使用道具、图片和插图来展示实词，帮助学生准确了解词义 - 听说领先，读写让路


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whenmostofthereallearningtakesplace.

Also,theApproach’sheavyuseofpropsandphotosorillustrationstorepresentconcretevocabularyhelpstomakethemeaningofwordsunmistakablycleartostudents.Props,images,andactionsalsohelpthestudentstoaccuratelydeductthemeaningofmoreabstractsurroundingwords.Havingstudentsinteractwiththesepropsandimagesastheypracticespeakingthemselvesalsohelpsthemtorememberorretainthelanguage.

TheDirectApproachadvocatesfocusingfirstonlyonlisteningandspeakingskillsratherthansharingclasstimewithreadingandwritingpractice.Thismayhelpthestudentstoimprovetheiroral‐auralskillsmorequickly.Somehaveargued,however,thatafourskillsapproachthatteacheslistening,speaking,reading,andwritingsimultaneouslyisactuallybetterforstudents’Aural–Oralprogressbecausetheothertwoskillshelptoreinforcethelearningthroughdifferentformsofdeliveryandpractice.

Manyresearchershavearguedthatinductivelearningapproaches,suchastheDirectApproach,alsofacilitategreaterstudentfluencythandeductivelearningapproachesthatfocusagreatdealonformallylearninggrammaticalrules.Theseresearchersproposethatstudentswholearndeductivelymustfirstprocesstheapplicationofagrammaticalrulementallybeforetheyspeak,butthatspeakingcomesmorenaturallytothosewhohavelearnedinductivelybecausetheycanskipthementalprocessofconsciouslyapplyingaformalrule.

DisadvantagesoftheDirectApproach

TheDirectApproachwasfeasibleforprivatelanguageschoolsbutnotforpubliceducationwheretherewerenotmanyfluentteachersofvariouslanguages.Inthepublic


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schools,GrammarTranslationenjoyed(andoftencontinuestoenjoy)itslongreignofpopularity.AlthoughtheGrammarTranslationApproachisoftenstronglycriticizedasbeingrelativelyineffective,thefactisthattheEnglishteachingpopulousdoesnothavethecommunicativeskillsrequiredtocarryouttheDirectApproach.WecanstillseethatmanyministriesofeducationandprivatelanguageschoolsencouragetheDirectApproach,butwhetherornotitiscarriedoutoftendependsontheteachers’speakingability.

Thegeneralgoalistobeabletoteachsolelyinthetargetlanguage,butchallengesremain.First,mostteachersarenotfluentenoughinthetargetlanguagetobeabletomanagetheentireclassinEnglish.Secondly,thereisanaturaltendencytoexplainandclarifydirectionsinthestudents’nativelanguage.Anotherdownfallofanon‐translationapproachisthatstudentssometimesdonotrespondatallwhentheycannotfollowinstructions.Inotherwords,they“tuneout.”Therefore,thechallengeofaDirectApproachteacheristoengagethestudentsusingappealingmethods.Inthenextsection,wewillexploresomewaysinwhichtheDirectApproachcanbemademorefun,exciting,andinteractive.

AnotherdrawbackisthatcoursebooksbasedontheDirectApproachoftenmovestudentssoquicklythroughnewsyntacticstructuresthattheirinternalizationbecomesdifficult,ifnotimpossible.Also,becausetheinputdeliveredbytheteacherintheDirectApproachoftentakestheformofanarrativemonologueorGouinseries,itmaynotaccuratelyreflectthesortofturn‐takingexchangemostcommonintruenative‐speakercommunication.Thismayleavestudentscapableofdescribingasetofinstructionsorseriesofevents,butill‐preparedtocarryonanormalconversation.

AnotherproblemisthattheDirectApproachrequirestheuseofmanyexpensivepropsandflashcards,makingit

直接教学法的缺点 - 对教师的语言熟练程度要求高，不适用于公立学校 - 直接法面临的困难：教师本身目的语不流利，必然用本族语阐释 - 有时学生不理解就无反应

直接教学法的缺点（续） - 句法结构过快介绍给学生，使其内在化产生困难 - 不能真实反映本族语使用者的交际情况 - 使用昂贵的道具和抽认卡，不够经济实用 - 可能造成学生的读写能力滞后


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financiallyinfeasibleformanyschools.Finally,becausetheDirectApproachfocusesprimarilyonlisteningandspeakingskills,studentsoftheApproachmaylagbehindothersintermsoftheirreadingandwritingskills.AlthoughtherearesignificantdisadvantagestothetraditionalDirectApproach,variationsonithavebecomepopularwithinthelastfewdecades.MostofthesevariationshavebecomesuccessfulbyfindingwaystoovercomesomeofthedisadvantagesoftheoriginalversionoftheDirectApproach.

OvercomingtheDisadvantagesoftheDirectApproach

InsteadofabandoningtheDirectApproachbecauseoftheproblemsdescribedabove,researchersandeducationspecialistshavedevelopednewmethodstoteachingEnglish"directly"orthroughimmersion.Onesuchmethod,theRassiasMethod,focusesontheuseofdramaorexaggeratedshowmanshipbytheteacher.Anothermethod,TotalPhysicalResponse(TPR),useslotsofphysicalaction,gestures,andbodylanguagetoconveymeaning.AvariationonTPR,TotalPhysicalResponseStorytelling,(TPRS)includesthesesamegesturesandbodylanguage,buttiesthemalltogetherintoamorecoherent,connected,ornarrativecontext.

TheRassiasMethod

TheatricalanddramatictechniquesarenotnormallytaughttofutureELTteachersaspartoftheirstandardpreparation,butforDirectApproachteacherstheyreallyshouldbe,atleastaccordingtoDr.JohnRassiasofDartmouthUniversityintheU.S.HedevelopedhisRassiasMethodasanintensivelearningmethodforstudentsofforeignlanguagesintheU.S.Rassiasbecameahighlysoughtafterteacherofshort‐termimmersionprogramsthatwouldquicklytakestudentsfromanabsolutebeginnerleveltoafunctionallevel.The

克服直接教学法的缺点 - 拉夏氏法：采用戏剧或教师的夸张表演 - 整体动作反应法：通过身体动作、手势和肢体语言表达含义

拉夏氏法 - 要求教师学习掌握一定的戏剧技巧 - 该方法建立在全沉浸式教学法基础上



RassiasMethodwasusedtotrainPeaceCorpsworkers,missionaries,orstudentswhowereplanningtostudyabroad.

LikethetraditionalDirectApproach,theRassiasMethodisbasedontotalimmersion,butitvariesfromotherimmersionapproachesbecauseitreliesmoreondramaandtheatricaltechniquesthanrealiaandpicturestoliterallymovestudentstounderstanding.Rassiasdescribeshisapproachasuniqueinthat“itincludessomefiftydramatictechniquesthatbanishinhibitions,whichretardtheacquisitionofforeignlanguages.”Rassiasisfamousforhisshowmanship.Anexampleisthatwhenheteacheshisownstudentsthewordegghecracksanimaginaryeggoverhishead,andwhenteachingthepluralofthisword,hehasthestudentsthrow“eggs”athim.

BecausetheRassiasMethoddemandssomuchshowmanshipfromitsteachers,actorsaregoodpotentialRassiasteachers.TheRassiasMethodisthuscurrentlytaughtatactingschoolstogiveactorsback‐upcareerskillsasEnglishlanguageteachers.MostteachersinthefieldofEnglishasaForeignLanguage(EFL)haveneverheardaboutRassiasbecausethisapproachismorecommonlypracticedinU.S.highschoolsanduniversitiesforteachingAmericansforeignlanguagessuchasFrenchandSpanish.TheapproachhasnotyetmadearealcrossovertoEFL.However,itisamodeltobeconsideredwhenplanningtousetheDirectApproach.ImmersionEFLteachersareusuallysimply



encouragedtousestrongvisualsandmeaningfulconversationstoimpartmeaningofnewwordsorexpressions,butmostlanguageteachersarenotadeptintheatricaltechniques,whichRassiasteachersconsideraveryimportanttool.

ThekeylessonfromRassiasisthatDirectApproachteachersmustbeverycreativetoengagetheirstudentsandinvolvethemdirectlyinthelearningprocess.LikeRassias,theyneedtodevelopsomesortofdramaticmethodorasenseofshowmanship.(ThetopicofusingdramamethodstoteachEnglishasaforeignlanguageisdiscussedinmuchgreaterdetailintheunitofthiscourseentitledTeachingThroughDrama.)

TheTotalPhysicalResponseMethod

TotalPhysicalResponse(TPR)isanotherinteractiveDirectApproachmethodusuallycreditedtoDr.JamesJ.AsherofSanJoseStateUniversityintheU.S.stateofCalifornia.However,AsherattributessomeofhisideastotechniquesoriginallydevelopedbyHaroldandDorothyPalmerin1925.Inthe1960’s,AsherintroducedtheideaofteachinglanguagesusingTotalPhysicalResponsetomakeinputmorecomprehensible.HedevelopedtheTPRtechniquebecausehethoughttheAudio–LingualMethod(ALM)invogueatthetimehadmany

整体动作反应法 - 教师先给出指令，随后结合指令做、示范，最后学生完成动作

Figure 2: James J. Asher



drawbacks.(ALMisdiscussedingreaterdetailintheunitofthiscourseentitledTheAural–OralApproaches.)

Initssimplestform,TPRisawaytomakekeywordsandexpressions,particularlyactions,moremeaningfulandmoreeasilyunderstood.Ashershowedhowlanguagescanbetaughtusingaseriesofcommands.Theapproachwasverystructuredandsystematic.Firsttheteachergivesthecommand,thentheteachermodelsthemovementassociatedwiththecommand,andfinallythestudentperformstheaction.InthepureformofTPR,studentsarenotaskedtospeak,butonlytrytounderstandandobeythecommand.Theteacher,forexample,says,“Raiseyourhand,”andthenraiseshisorherhand.Allthestudentsraisetheirhandsaccordingly.Theteachersays,“Putyourheaddownonthetable,”andputshisorherheadonthetable,whilethestudentsimitatetheactionexactly.Graduallythecommandsgetmorecomplicated(e.g.,“IfPeteriswearingaredshirt,thenraiseyourhandandknockonthetabletwice.”)(Asher,1965)

Byincorporatinggesturestorepresentnounvocabularyorevenadjectives,prepositions,andsooninadditiontoactions,someteachersuseTPRforlanguagepracticebeyondactioncommandstructures.(Forexample,whentheteachersays,“It’ssunnytoday,”everyoneshadestheireyesasiftoprotectthemfromthebrightsun.)Oftenothercuessuchasvisuals,pictures,realia,andevencostumesareusedtoreinforcethemeaningofnewwordsorexpressions.ThroughroleplaysTPRcanalsobeappliedtomoreauthenticcontextssuchasstartingthefirstdayofschool,takingafieldtrip,goingtothedoctor’sofficeororderinginarestaurantratherthanonlytoclassroominteractions.

Regardlessoftheformittakes,thekeyfeaturesofTPRarethatalllanguageinputispresentedonlyinthetargetlanguage,thatstudentsdemonstratecomprehensionby

整体动作反应法的特征 - 语言输入全部为目的语 - 学生通过肢体动作表达是否理解 - 指令由简到难 - 给学生更多情感帮助：提高学习动机，加强学生自信，提高学生自我评价，降低情感障碍，为以后更具挑战性的课程做准备 - 学生在接触大量实例后，归纳语法规则和语言形式 - 遵循循序渐进的语言发展过程



performingsomeactionorphysicalresponse,andthatthecommandsorotherstructuresproceedfrommoresimpletomorecomplexoverthecourseofseverallessons.

AnotherdistinguishingfeatureofTPRisthatitoffersmanyaffectivebenefitstostudents.Aclassinvolvinglotsofmovementandpraisecanbehighlymotivating.Studentsshouldfeelmoreconfidentaftertheyareabletorespondnaturallyandwithouthesitationtovariouscommandsofincreasingdifficulty.AneffectiveTPRteachershouldrecognizewhensomestudentsarestrugglingtocomprehend,andshouldadjustthemethodaccordingly.TheTPRteachermustbesensitiveandtunedintothesubtlevariationsinresponses,especiallythebodylanguageofhisorherstudents.Ifastudentisuncomfortableorhesitateswhenthecommandisgiven,forexample,thentheinstructormustfine‐tunetheinput,slowdownthecommands,andmakeaccommodationssothatallthestudentscanfollowalongandfeelasenseofinclusionandaccomplishment.Suchanapproachwillraisethestudents’self‐esteem,lowertheaffectivefilter(aconceptcoveredingreaterdetailintheunitofthiscourseentitledTheNaturalApproach),andpreparethemformorechallenginginteractionsinfuturelessons(Asher,1984).

InmuchthesamewaythattheDirectApproachrelatesthemasteryofgrammarstructuresasanaturalprocessthatcomesafterplentyofexposuretothetargetlanguage,studentsexposedtoTPRtechniqueslearntherulesofgrammarandforminductively,figuringitoutthemselvesafterhearingnumerousexamples.Althoughatfirstthefocusisonlisteningandrespondingtothetargetlanguage,Ashersuggeststhatstudentswillbeginspeakingwhentheyareready,inmuchthesamewaythatyoungchildrenfirstcommunicateorallyintheirfirstlanguage.Hereferstoresearchwithinfantsthatdemonstratehowtheyinteractedwiththeirparents.Ashernotesthatallresponsesareinitially



basedonlistening.Thebabycanonlyregisterunderstandingbyrespondingwithsomesortofmovementorgesture.Atfirstaparentmaygivesimplecommandssuchas“Taketherattle.”Then,thenextstepwouldbe“Taketherattleandshakeit,”then“Pickitupandputitdown,”andsoforth,sothataseriesofactionsaretaughtbyexample.Parentssystematicallybuildonthechild’slanguageawareness.

Gradually,childrenrespondattheirownpaceandthenspontaneouslybegintocreatetheirownlanguageandevenspeakafewwords.TheTPRapproachshouldfollowthissamegradual,incrementalprocessoflanguagedevelopment,accordingtoAsher.Hegoesontosuggestthatlisteningandspeakingskillsshouldcomplementreadingandwritingskills,whichshouldalsoarisespontaneouslyafterrepeatedTPRsessions.ThusovertimeatypicalTPRclassshouldallotsometimeforallfourskills,butnotequally,withperhaps70percentdevotedtolisteningcomprehension,twentypercenttospeaking,andjusttenpercenttoreadingandwriting(Asher,Kusodo,&delaTorre,1974).

AccordingtoAsher,“Instudyafterstudyfortwenty‐fiveyears,laboratoryexperimentsandclassroomobservationshavedemonstratedresultsthatwereextremelypositive.Whentheinstructorskillfullyusesthetargetlanguagetodirectthestudent’sbehavior,understandingoftheutteranceistransparent,ofteninonlyoneexposure.Also,theunderstandingisachievedwithoutstressandthenretainedforweeks,months,andevenyears”(Asher,1984).

SomeresearchersnotethattheTPRtechniquehasseveralmeritsbutalsomanydrawbacks.Objectivelyspeaking,perhapsTPRshouldonlybeusedforspecificpurposesandduringparticularstagesinalanguagelesson.ItcannotrealisticallyserveasthecornerstoneofanentireEFLprogram,aspractitionersaffiliatedwithAsherhave

要点 - 整体动作反应法对层次较高的学生依然有帮助，使其在角色扮演中情感更丰富，交流更自由



suggested.RatheritshouldbeconsideredasonehighlyeffectiveinstrumentintheELTteacher’stoolboxwhenusedinconjunctionwithothertoolsandtechniques.

RegardingthedrawbacksassociatedwithTPR,manycriticscitethemechanicalandrepetitiousnatureofthe“commandandresponse”techniqueasboringorcounterproductive,andverylimitingintermsofvocabulary.Also,byfocusingmosttargetlanguageontheimperativeformorrelatedlanguagestructures,thevastarrayofotherlanguageformsareautomaticallyexcluded.Inaddition,TPRisusuallyonlyeffectiveatthebeginnerleveloflanguageinstruction,sincemostdiscourseextendswellbeyondtheone‐wordresponsesandshortphrasestypicalofTPR.Also,sinceTPRteachersoftenlimittheircommandstonarrowlydefinedcontexts,studentsareoftenunabletoapplythetargetlanguageoutsidetheclassroom.Finally,gettingallstudents“onboard”andreadytomovefrompassivelanguageinput(listening)toactivelanguageoutput(speaking)isverydifficultinlargeordiverseclassrooms.

TPRdefinitelyhasitsplaceinanELTclass.Usingthismethodisalogicalfirststeptoreinforcebasiccommandformsandprepareformorecomplexfluencyactivitiesinfuturelessons.IfTPRisnotoverused,itcanmakeapowerfulimpressiononlanguagelearners.TPRisanespeciallyeffectiveteachingtoolwhenitisusedasawarm‐upactivity,tointroducenewcontent,orasthebasisforlanguagegamesorreviewactivities.

AnExpandedTotalPhysicalResponseMethod

Manyteachersandcertainlymanyparentsdisagreewiththeideaofallowingstudentstosimplypracticelisteningcomprehensionuntiltheyreachacomfortlevelthatallowsthemtospeakstructuresontheirown.Asaresult,someteacherspracticealesspureformofTPRthatbeginsmuch

整体动作反应法的缺点 - 仅适用于特定的目的和语言课程某个特定阶段 - 仅仅是教师教学手段中的一种 - 机械、重复的“命令 -回答”模式较枯燥，达不到预期目标，用词有限 - 很多语言形式被排除 - 仅在语言学习初期有效 - 学生不会在课堂之外应用目的语 - 班级大、学生程度参差不齐难以采用

整体动作反应法的扩展



liketraditionalTPR,butthenencouragesstudentstobeginproducingthelanguagesoonerthantheymightattheirownpace.InalesspureversionofTPR,thestudentsbeginwithacomprehension‐basedapproach,butaftersomeexperiencewithitareencouragedtoproducethecommandsthemselves,eithertooneanotherinsmallgroupsorinwholeclasssituations.OnesuchexpandedapproachtoTPRrecommendssixsteps,takingstudentsfrompurecomprehension‐basedlearningthroughlanguageproduction.ThesestepsarereflectedinTable1.

Table1:SixStepsofanExpandedApproachtoTPR

Ascanbeseen,thefirsttwostepsinthisexpandedapproachtoTPRbasicallycomprisethestepsofpureTPR.Firsttheteachersaysacommandanddoesarelatedactionwhilethestudentswatch.Thentheteachersaysanddoesthecommandagain,watchingtoseethatthestudentsperformtheappropriatephysicalresponsetothecommand.Inthethirdstep,however,thestudentsareencouragedtonotonlywatchtheteacheranddotheactionsalongwithhimorher,butalsotospeakthecommandalongwiththeteacher.Fourth,theteachergivesthecommandandobservesthestudentstomakesuretheyrepeatandfollowtheappropriate

整体动作反应法的扩展分为六步（见表 1） -从学生纯粹的以理解为基础的语言学习到其语言的运用



commandwithouthavingtheactionmodeledbytheteacher.Next,theteacherdoesanactionandthestudentsrespondbygivingtheoralcommandandrepeatingtheaction.Finally,studentstaketurnsintheroleoftheteacherandgivecommandsthattherestoftheclassisexpectedtofollowwhiletherealteacheronlyobservestomakesuretheclasscomprehendscorrectly.

TheTPRStorytellingMethod

Inresponsetosomeoftheproblemsmentionedpreviously,TPRStorytelling(TPRS)hasemergedandrapidlygainedpopularity.TPRSwasdevelopedbyBlaineRayofBakersfield,Californiain1990.It“fillsintheblanks”thatTPRteachersfoundtobeweaknessesintraditionallypracticedTPR.Themethodologycanbeincorporatedintoanycourseorsyllabusandrequiresfewmaterials.

TPRSembedsTPRintostorytelling.ThestoriescontextualizetheTPRcommandsandactions.Studentsfirsthearthestory,seeit(throughvisuals),actitout,retellit,reviseit,andfinallyrewriteit.Thismethodhasallthegoodcomponentsofafluencybuildingactivity.Themanyaspectsoftheprocessappealtostudentsofvarioustalentsandintelligences.Thephysicalaspectappealstokinestheticlearners,whichisoneofthemainattractionsofTPR,butthroughTPRS,wecanalsostimulatestudentswithotherlearningstylesorintelligences.

Thefollowingisastep‐by‐stepexplanationofatypicalTPRSlesson.ThisexamplelessoncomesfromabeginninglevelSpanishasaforeignlanguagetextbookcalled¡CuéntameMás!(TellMeMore!)

整体动作反应讲故事法



1)UseTPRpracticeandscenariostoteachvocabulary.TheteacherusesTPRtoteachasmallgroupofwords.Afterintroducingawordanditsassociatedaction,heorshe"playswith"thevocabularyinTPRpracticetoprovidemorecomprehensibleinput.Usinggestures,manipulatives,pictures,andfamiliarvocabulary,theteacherthenfurtherreinforcesnewvocabularybygivingstudentsaseriesofcommandstoexecuteandshortscenariostoactout.Forexample,inabeginning‐levelstorylessonfrom¡CuéntameMás!,thefollowingvocabularyitemsaretaughtviaTPR:thecoyote,sees,thebird,wantstoeat,grabs,offers.SampleTPRcommandsmightincludethefollowing:

Eat.

Eatabigplateofspinach.(Yuck!)Eatfouricecreamcones.(Yum!)Eatasmallbirdandabigcoyote.

Grabthecoyote.Offerittothestudentonyourright.

Thereisabigcoyote.Thereisalsoatinybird.Thecoyoteseesthebird.Thecoyotewantstoeatthebird.Thecoyotegrabsthebird.Ohno!Butthebirdoffersthecoyoteapeanutbuttersandwich.Whata

relief!

整体动作反应讲故事法课的五个步骤 - 采用整体动作反应和故事情节教词汇 - 学生自己说和练习生词 - 讲一个小故事让学生修改和复述（教师采用的技巧：讲故事中中断，让学生补充或表演动作；故意犯错让学生纠正；提出简答题或主观题） - 讲一个主要故事让学生修改和复述 - 学生用新旧词汇编故事



Offerthatstudentabigbird.Grabacoyoteandputitonthatstudent'shead.

Afterpracticewithshortcommands,asamplescenario,whichstudentsactoutwhiletheteachernarrates,mightlooklikethis:

Thereisatinybird.("Studentbird"takesabowandsays"tweet,tweet.")

Thereisabigcoyote.("Studentcoyote"takesabowandhowls.)

Thebigcoyotehasfoursandwiches.Thetinybirdwantstoeatthesandwiches.Thecoyoteoffersthebirdtwosandwiches.Yum!

2)Studentsproduceandpracticevocabularywords.OncestudentshaveinternalizedvocabularywordsthroughTPRpracticeandscenarios,theclassdividesintostudentpairstopracticeproducingthewords.Onestudentinthepairreadsthewordandtheothergivesthecorrespondinggesture,thenviceversa.Next,onestudentdoesthegestureandtheothersaysthecorrespondingword.

3)Studentsproduceandpracticevocabularywords.OncestudentshaveinternalizedvocabularywordsthroughTPRpracticeandscenarios,theclassdividesintostudentpairstopracticeproducingthewords.Onestudentinthepairreadsthewordandtheothergivesthecorrespondinggesture,thenviceversa.Next,onestudentdoesthegestureandtheothersaysthecorrespondingword.

4)Presentaministorythatstudentsthenreviseandretell.Usingstudentactors,puppets,orpicturesfromthetext,theteachernarratesamini‐storycontainingthetargetvocabularywords.Themini‐storyandillustrationscorrespondingtotheabovevocabularywordsfollow:

Thereisabigcoyote.Thereisalsoatinybird.Thecoyoteseesthebird.Thecoyotewantstoeatthebird.Thecoyotegrabs

thebird.Ohno!Butthebirdoffersthecoyoteapeanutbutter



sandwich.Whatarelief!

5)Theteacherusesavarietyoftechniquestoincreaseexposuretothestoryandtohelpthestudentsstarttellingit:1)Heorshepausesinthestorytoallowstudentstofillinwordsoractoutgestures;2)Heorshemakesmistakesandencouragesthestudentstocorrectthem;3)Heorsheasksshort‐answerandopen‐endedquestions.(Isthecoyotebigorlittle?Whodoesthecoyotegrab?Whatisthecoyote'sname?Wheredoeshelive?etc.)Oncethestoryisinternalized,studentsthenretellittoapartner.Studentsmaytellthestoryfrommemoryormayuseillustrationsorguidewordswrittenupontheboardascues.Theclassthenreconvenesandstudentvolunteersretellthestoryfortheotherstudentstoactout.Theteachermayalsohelptheclassrevisethestory,changingafewdetailsabouttheplotorcharacterstocreateanewversionoftheoriginalstoryline.

6)Presentamainstorythatstudentsthenreviseandretell.Smallgroupsofmini‐storiesaredesignedtopreparestudentstonarrate,read,andwritealongermainstorythatusesthevocabularyfromthemini‐stories.Onceanentiregroupofmini‐storieshasbeenmasteredbytheclass,theteacherrepeatsstepthreetointroducethemainstory.Afterthemainstoryhasbeenpresentedandactedout,itisreinforcedwithreadingsandexercisesfromthetextbook.Aswithmini‐stories,studentsbuilduponthemainstory,usingtheirexistinglanguageskillstoembellishtheplot,personalizethecharacters,andcreaterevisions.

7)Studentsusenewandoldvocabularytocreateoriginalstories.Capitalizingontheircreativity,studentsaregivenopportunitiestowrite,illustrate,actout,andshareoriginalstories.Activitiesmayincludedrama,essays,videotaping,creatingstudentbooklets,contests,grouporpairwork,



illustrationexercises,andback‐to‐backcommunicationactivities.

Thesearethesimplestepsattheheartofacompleteandcomprehensivemethodologythatallowsstudentstorapidlyacquire,internalize,andproducesophisticatedlanguage.TPRSisbeingusedwithgrowingnumbersofstudentsatalllevelsinforeignlanguageandbilingualclasseswithunparalleledsuccess.

Applications

BecausetheRassiasMethodandTPRareusefulwaystoimplementDirectApproachinstructionthatislow‐stressandengagingforstudents,herewewillofferavarietyofteachingtechniquesthatcanbeusedwiththesetwomethods.TheseactivitieswillalsohelptoclarifyhowthesetwomethodscanbeputintopracticeinarealEFLclassroom.AlthoughadditionalstorytellingactivitiesforusewiththeTPRSmethodarenotprovidedhere,awidevarietyofstorytellingactivitiesareofferedintheApplicationssectionoftheunitofthiscourseentitledTeachingThroughStories.

RassiasMethodActivities

BelowareseveralexamplesofhowtheatricaltechniquescanbeappliedtotypicallessonsforyounglearnersofEFLasadvocatedbytheRassiasMethod.(Additionaldrama‐basedteachingactivitiesareprovidedintheunitofthiscourseentitledTeachingThroughDrama.)

BalletNumbers—Theteachertellsstudentsthatheorsheisaballetdancerandisdancinginthepositionofeachnumber.Backgroundballetmusicisplayed.Theteacherstandselegantly(likeaballetdancer)intheformationofeachnumber(seeFigure2).Theclasslooksonandguessesthenumber.Theteachertheninvitesvolunteerstodothesame.

整体动作反应法活动

拉夏氏法活动 - 数字芭蕾



Volunteersareencouragedtodanceelegantlyintoandoutofeachnumberposition.

MusicalColors—Astheteacherholdsupflashcardstointroducethecolors,musicthatrepresentseachcolorissimultaneouslyplayed.Afterthecolorsarepresented,theteacherplaysthemusicagainandasksstudentswhichcolorwasintroducedwiththatmusic.Inthefinalstageofthisactivity,theteacherplaysothermusicandasksstudentstolistentothemusicandtellwhatcoloritelicitsintheirminds.

DrillSergeant—Whenteachingexpressionssuchasstandup,sitdown,turnaround,goleft,andgoright,theteachercandramatizetheroleofastrictdrillsergeant.Thestudentsbecomethe“soldiers.”Theteachercallsouteachcommand,andthestudentsfollow.Thenvolunteerstaketurnsbeingthedrillsergeant.

TheTeacherPuppet—Theteacherpretendstobeamarionettehangingonstrings.Thestudentsareallowedtomanipulatethepuppetbyorallytellingtheteacherwhattodo.Theteacherfollowsthestudentinstructionswithsomewhatsloppymotionsasifbeingoperatedbypuppet

- 军训教官

- 木偶老师

- 音乐、颜色联想 Figure2:BalletNumbers



strings.Asavariation,theteachercanpretendtobearobotthatrespondstoverbalcommands.

TPRMethodActivities

TheactivitiesthatfollowarespecificallydesignedforuseinaTPRlesson.Therearealsomanyotheractivitiesdescribedinotherunitsofthiscourse,however,thatcaneasilybeadaptedforTPRpractice.

VarytheSpeed—OncestudentshavepracticedafewTPRcommands,theteacherstartstogivesomeofthecommandsspeakingveryslowlyandothersspeakingveryquickly.Thestudentsperformtherequiredactionsatmatchingspeed—slowlywhentheteacherspeaksslowly,quicklywhentheteacherspeaksquickly.

ChainofCommands—AftersomeTPRpracticeinwhichthestudentsfollowonecommandatatime,theteacherbeginsgivingtwoorthreecommandsatatime.Studentsmustremembertheorderofthecommandsthenperformtheappropriatephysicalactionsinthecorrectorder.Theteacherthengiveslongerandlongerstringsofcommands,makingitmoreandmoredifficultforstudentstoaccuratelyrememberthesequence.

OnaRoll—AfterpracticewithanumberofTPRcommands,studentstaketurnsrollingadie.Thenumberresultingfromtherollindicateshowmanycommandsinaseriestheteacherwillgivethestudent.Ifthechildrollsaone,theteachergivesthatstudentonlyonecommand.Ifthestudentrollsasix,theteachergivesthatchildastringofsixcommandstofollow.

CorrecttheTeacher—AfteraclasshaslearnedanumberofTPRcommandsandtheappropriatephysicalresponses,theteacheroccasionallymodelsthewrongresponsetoanoralcommand.Thestudentsmustdeterminewhentheteacher

- 快动作，慢动作



hasmadea“mistake”andcorrecthimorherbysaying,“no”andperformingtheappropriateresponsetothecommand.

Who’stheLeader?—Onestudentleavestheclassroomandtheotherstudentsselectaleaderfromamongthosewhoareleft.Thenthechildisbroughtbackintotheroom.TheleaderbeginstoperformTPRactions.Theotherstudentswatchtheleader,dothesameactions,andspeaktheappropriatecommandastheydoso.Thestudentwhowastakenintothehallwaymusttrytofigureoutwhoisleadingtheactivity.Oncetheleaderiscorrectlyidentified,anotherstudentistakenintothehallwayandanewleaderischosenforanotherround.

Say“Please”—Thisgameisplayedmuchlikethepopularchildren’sgameSimonSays.TheteacherorastudentistheleaderandgivesTPRcommandsoneatatime.Theotherstudentsfollowthecommandsonlyiftheleaderstartsorfinishesthecommandwiththepoliteword,please.Ifaplayerstartstoperformacommandwhenpleasewasn’tused,theyareeliminatedfromplay.

Conclusions

WehaveexploredthehistoryandtheoreticalunderpinningsoftheDirectApproachtolanguageteaching.WethendiscussedtheprimarycharacteristicsoftheApproachanditsadvantagesanddisadvantages.BeforelearninganumberofDirectApproachclassroomactivities,wethendescribedseverallanguageteachingmethodsthatstrivetogenerallyfollowtheDirectApproachwhileeliminatingsomeofitsdisadvantages.

FrançoisGouindiscoveredtheunderlyingprinciplesoftheDirectApproachthroughhisownempiricalresearchandobservationwhilelearningGerman.CharlesBerlitz,averyenterprisingGermanteacher,thendevelopedtheBerlitz



method,oftensynonymouswiththeDirectApproach,whichcontinuestobetaughtinmanyschoolsaroundtheworld.BothGouinandBerlitzpavedthewayforotherinductuctivelearningapproachesinthetwentiethcentury,largelyreplacingtheolddeductivelearningparadigmusedheavilyinpreviousapproachessuchastheGrammarTranslationApproach.

ThemostdistinguishingfeatureoftheDirectApproachisitsdistainfortheuseofthestudents’firstlanguageintheclassroom,butstrictadherencetothisrulehasbeenmodifiedsomewhatinpractice.LikeothermonolingualteachingapproachestheDirectApproachisanimmersionapproachthatstrivestoexposestudentstoasmuchofthetargetlanguageaspossible.IntheDirectApproach,lessonsoftenbeganwithdialoguesorshortstoriesresemblingaGouinseries.Actions,props,andillustrationsareusedtohelpstudentstounderstandconcretewordswhileabstractwordsaretaughtthroughassociationandcontext.Amongthefourskills,listeningcomprehensionisgivenfirstpriority,followedbyspeakingskillswithlittleemphasisonreadingandwritingpractice.

DrawbacksoftheDirectApproachincludeitsdependencyonteacherswithnative‐likefluency,expensiveprops,andflashcards.Also,somestudentstendtotuneoutiftheycannotcomprehendinaclassthatistaughtentirelyinthetargetlanguage.Restrictinginstructiontothetargetlanguagealsomakesitdifficultfortheteachertoconveymeaningandconcepts.Often,inputprovidedintheDirectApproachdoesnotaccuratelyreflectthesortofturntakingexchangecommonoftruenativespeakercommunicationandstudentsareintroducedtonewsyntacticstructuressorapidlythattheyneverhavethechancetointernalizethem.

Dr.JohnRassiasdevelopedtheRassiasMethod,which



employsawidevarietyoftheatricaltechniquestomakeinstructionintheDirectApproachmoreengagingforstudents.Similarly,Dr.JamesJ.AsherdevelopedtheTotalPhysicalResponse(TPR)method,whichallowschildrentodemonstratecomprehensionofcommandsandotherstructuresbyperformingsomephysicalaction.Asherarguesthatbynotrequiringstudentstoproducethelanguageinitially,theaffectivefilterisloweredandtheylearnmoreeffectively.BlaineRayadaptedtraditionalTPRintoatechniqueknownasTPRStorytelling(TPRS).InTPRS,studentsfirstpracticekeystoryvocabularyusingTPR,thenperformactionsalongwiththelinesofanumberofmini‐storiesthatbuilduptoamainstorythatthestudentsreviseandretellbeforecomposingtheirownstories.ItisuptotheclassroomteachertodecidewhichoftheseDirectApproachmethodscanbeeffectivelyincorporatedintohisorherclassroom.Onething,however,seemscertain—thattheDirectApproachorthemorerecentmethodsthatemployitarebestusedincombinationwithotherlanguageteachingapproachesratherthanbeingusedexclusivelyorevenasthecornerstoneofthecurriculum.ItisuptotheclassroomteachertodecidewhichoftheseDirectApproachmethodscanbeeffectivelyincorporatedintohisorherclassroom.

Notes

1) deductiveapproach（演绎教学法）：向学习者讲授语言规则及具体语言知识的教学方法，如语法教学法。

2) inductiveapproach（归纳教学法）：这种教学法与演绎教学法形成对比，主张不把语法研发或其他规则教给学习者，而是让他们通过运用语言，自己去发现、掌握原则，如直接法，交际教学法等。

3) SeriesMethod



（系列法）：由法国心理学家古安创立，他在探索儿童语言学习的过程中发现他们是通过一系列的动作来学习语言的。古安的系列法，不使用语法翻译法和死记硬背，每个系列包括六到八个命令句或陈述句，每句含七到八个音节，使用统一的时态和人称。系列法是直接教学法的前身。

4) RassiasMethod(拉夏氏法)：由美国教师拉夏氏创立。该方法是建立在全浸式教学基础上，要求教师学习掌握一定的戏剧技巧，在授课过程中用较为夸张表演的帮助学生理解。”注解6：维果茨基的建架理论。

5) TPRstorytellingmethod（整体动作讲故事法）：由美国人布莱因·雷在1990年创立，将整体动作反应法融于讲故事中，故事中包含了整体动作反应法的命令和行为。该教学法要求学生听、看（通过视觉教具）、表演、复述、修改，最后改写故事；包含了培养语言流利度练习的各要素；能吸引有各种天赋和才能的学生。

References

Anderson,C.andMarsh,V.(1993).¡Cuéntamemás!Chandler,AZ:CWPublishing.

Asher,J.(1965).Thestrategyoftotalphysicalresponse:AnapplicationtolearningRussian.InternationalReviewofAppliedLinguistics,3,291–300.

Asher,J.(1984).Incontext,“languagebycommand.”Summer1984.

Asher,J.,Kusudo,J.,anddelaTorre,R.(1974).Learningasecondlanguagethroughcommands:Thesecondfieldtest.ModernLanguageJournal,58,24–32.

Bowen,T.OneStopMagazine.“TotalPhysicalResponse.”RetrievedfromtheWorldWideWebat



http://www.onestopenglish.com/News/Magazine/Archive/totalphysical.htm

ComparativeTeachingMethodologiesinLanguageLink.RetrievedfromtheWorldWideWebatwww.languagelink.ru/e/tefl/methodologies.php.

Krashen,S.D.(1998).TPR:stillaverygoodidea."Novelty,Volume5,Number4.December1998.

Larsen‐Freeman,D.TechniquesandPrinciplesinLanguageTeaching.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

LearningaForeignLanguage–SomeGeneralConsiderations.RetrievedfromtheWorldWideWebathttp://www‐lu.hive.no/engelsk/LearningForeignLanguages‐gencon.htm

Marsh,V.“TotalPhysicalResponseStorytelling:ACommunicativeApproachtoLanguageLearning.”Retrievedonlineathttp://www.tprstorytelling.com

Richard‐Amato,P.(1996).Makingithappen:Interactioninthesecondlanguageclassroom:Fromtheorytopractice,secondedition.WhitePlains,NY:Addison‐WesleyPublishingCompany.

Thanasoulas,D.TheChangingWindsandShiftingSandsoftheHistoryofEnglishLanguageTeachingby“WrongWay”FrancoisGouin.RetrievedfromtheWorldWideWebathttp://lists.ibiblio.org/pipermail/b‐greek/1999‐December/oo8833.html

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