Malaysian Management Review Employee Turnover

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Malaysian Management Review

ORGANISATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR, TURNOVER

INTENTION AND ABSENTEEISM AMONG HOTEL EMPLOYEESFaculty of Business Management, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Kedah Hassan Ali Faculty of

Business Management, Universiti Teknologi Mara, Perlis Shaiful Annuar Khalid

ABSTRACT

This article investigates the relationship between

organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) and two forms of

withdrawal behaviours, that is, turnover intentions and

absenteeism among hotel employees. The sample of the study

consisted of 218 supervisor-subordinate dyads from 30 star-rated

hotels in Pulau Pinang. OCB was measured based on five

dimensions: altruism, courtesy, sportsmanship, conscientiousness

and civic virtue. Turnover intention was measured using a

three-item scale and absenteeism was measured using a

self-report measure. Supervisors provided ratings on employeeOCB. Employees provided self-ratings of turnover intention and

absenteeism. Factor analysis on the OCB items yielded four

dimensions, labelled as helping behaviour, sportsmanship,

conscientiousness and civic virtue. The findings indicate that

helping behaviour, sportsmanship and civic virtue significantly

influenced employee turnover intentions. The results also

indicate that only conscientiousness significantly influenced

absenteeism. Implication, limitations and lines of future

research are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

The concept of organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB), first

discussed in organisational research literature in the early

1980s, has attracted a number of researchers' attention and the

areas studied are its definition (Smith, Organ & Near, 1983),

classification (Morrison, 1994) and construct validity (George &

Brief, 1992). The study of OCB has received considerable

attention in recent years (Farh, Earley & Lin, 1997) and has

been identified as vital to the effectiveness of organisations

and teams (Bateman & Organ, 1983; Organ, 1988; Podsakoff,

Ahearne & MacKenzie, 1996). There has been increasing research

on attempting to identify the antecedents of OCB. However, not

much research has concentrated on the effects of OCB on

individual, group and organisational performance. According to

Podsakoff, McKenzie, Paine and Bachrach (2000), although over

160 studies have been identified in the literature examiningfactors that influence OCB, nevertheless only five studies

attempted to investigate whether OCB does contribute to

organisational effectiveness (Chen, Hui & Sego, 1998; Podsakoff

& MacKenzie, 1994; Podsakoff et al., 1996; Walz & Niehoff, 1996)

and only one study has investigated the relationship between OCB

and employee turnover. Hence, the objective of this study is to

investigate the relationship between OCB and two forms of

employee withdrawal behaviours, namely, turnover intention and

absenteeism.



LITERATURE REVIEW

The Concept of OCB and Withdrawal Behaviour

Employee behaviours such as helping co-workers or leaders,

willingness to tolerate inconvenience at workplace, complying

with organisation rules and procedures, and active involvement

in organisational development are considered critical to the

success of an organisation beyond role-prescribed performance

(Katz & Kahn, 1978). This aspect of human behaviour is named

organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB). Specifically, OCB

has been defined as, "individual behaviour that is

discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognised by the

formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the

effective functioning of the organisation" (Organ, 1988, p. 4).

Some examples of OCB include: an employee staying late to help a

co-worker finish his or her work assignment or project, a team

member spending many hours helping to resolve a conflict between

other team members and an employee who is willing to adapt to

new company policies, rather than complaining about them.

Researchers have long shown interest in the related physical

withdrawal behaviours of lateness, absence and turnover. These

forms of behaviours are the most frequently used indicators of

withdrawal behaviour in organisational settings (Koslowsky &

Dishon-Berkovits, 2001). Withdrawal refers to a set of

behaviours employees use in attempts to remove themselves from

their jobs or avoid work tasks (Koslowsky, Sagie, Krausz &

Singer, 1997). Turnover describes permanent removal, voluntarily

or involuntarily, of an employee from the organisation

(Koslowsky et al., 1997) whereas absenteeism refers to the fact

that the worker misses work during the entire day. Many

hospitality managers are convinced that excessive turnover is a

costly phenomenon. According to Koys (2003), ample evidence

shows that employee turnover influences company hotel

performance. Similarly, absenteeism is also one of the major

contributors to indirect costs such as productivity and

disruption of scheduled work (Albensi, 2003). For service

organisations like hotels, the effect of turnover and

absenteeism can be significant not just in term of costs but

also to the quality and continuity of services provided.

Voluntary turnover is considered the most harmful as it usually

takes the organisation by surprise and causes a disruption in

operations for which the organisation may not be prepared

(Boshoff & Mels, 2000).

Previous Research

The relationship between OCB and employee turnover has not been

well documented. Indirect evidence of the relationship between

OCB and turnover is found in a study by Wells and Muchinsky

(1985). Their study involving entry-level managers of small

branch office retail credit institutions investigated the

relationship of 12-performance dimensions and turnover. The

12-performance dimensions are personal qualities, reliability

and dependability, human relations, initiative and ingenuity,



learning ability, knowledge of work, quality of work, collection

of ability, judgement, business development and communication.

They found that the mean for all the performance dimensions were

lower among employees who quit than among those who were

promoted.

Although Wells and Muchinsky (1985) did not define precisely the

12-performance dimensions, some of these dimensions such as

reliability, dependability, human relations, initiative and

learning ability appear to be more like extra-role than in-role

behaviours. In fact, the dimensions of reliability and

dependability are similar to one type of OCB - conscientiousness

(Chen et al., 1998). These findings suggest that OCB is

negatively related to employee turnover.

In particular, more direct evidence came from a study by Chen et

al. (1998). Study by Chen et al. (1998) involved 205

supervisor-subordinate dyads across 11 companies in the People's

Republic of China. These companies manufacture diversified

products from construction materials to computer diskettes to

bottled mineral water. The results revealed that turnoverintention was negatively related to the composite score of OCB

(r = -0.17). Subordinates who were rated as exhibiting low

levels of OCB were found to be more likely to leave an

organisation than those who were rated as exhibiting high levels

of OCB. They also found that self-report turnover intention was

a predictor of actual turnover. Specifically, their study

revealed that the level of altruism was higher among employees

with no turnover (M = 3.69, on a five-point scale) than among

employees who left (M = 2.94) the organisation. The level of

conscientiousness and sportsmanship was higher among those who

stayed (M = 3.80 for conscientiousness and M = 3.82 for

sportsmanship) than among those who left (M = 3.36 for

conscientiousness and M = 3.40 for sportsmanship). This is

consistent with the core of cognitive consistency theory that

posits - individuals strive for consistency in their cognitions

about attitudes and behaviours (Festinger, 1967). The limited

studies do not permit much generalisation on the relationship

between OCB and withdrawal behaviour, thereby warranting further

investigation and confirmation of research findings. Thus, it is

hypothesised that:

H1: Organisational citizenship behaviour is negatively related

to turnover intentions.

With respect to the relationship between OCB and absenteeism,

Podsakoff et al. (2000) state, "Although we are not aware of any

similar research on the relationship between OCB and other formsof withdrawal behaviour, like employee absenteeism, lateness and

tardiness, we would expect a similar pattern of effects" (p.

553). To the researcher's knowledge, only Lee, Mitchell,

Sablynski, Burton and Holtom (2004) have reported that superior

ratings of overall OCB could predict the subordinates'

absenteeism.

Some theoretical and empirical evidence supports the

relationship between OCB and absenteeism. Like turnover,



absenteeism involves physical withdrawal from the workplace.

Thus, it seems likely that they would have several such factors

in common. Van Scooter (2000) indicates that extra-role

behaviour such as OCB demonstrates an employee's willingness to

be actively involved in the organisation and to interact with

other members. In contrast, absenteeism could be an indication

of withdrawing efforts from work tasks as well as withdrawing

from the social and interpersonal work environment (Viswesvaran,

2002). Thus, the contrasting nature of both behaviours suggests

that OCB should also have a similar effect on absenteeism.

Moreover, Organ (1988) argues that conscientious employees are

those who are concerned with the life of the organisation and

thus have low inclination toward unscheduled absenteeism. Hence,

it is also hypothesised that:

H2: Organisational citizenship behaviour is negatively related

to absenteeism.

METHOD

Respondents

The respondents of the study were 218 employees and their

immediate supervisor from 30 star-rated hotels in Pulau Pinang.

Employees from this industry were selected due to several

reasons. First, the hotel industry is facing a high rate of

employee turnover. Kaak, Field, Giles and Norris (1998) reported

that turnover rates exceeding 100% were common in the

hospitality industry. Furthermore, a high turnover rate in the

hotel industry are not country specific but a world epidemic

(Ron, 1997). Blau (1985) suggests that the study of turnover

intention and absenteeism is most applicable to either

blue-collar workers or shift-related jobs.

To avoid the problem of same-source bias (Podsakoff & Organ,

1986; Organ & Ryan, 1995) data was collected using two separate

questionnaires, one of which was completed by the respondents

during working hours. The respondent's immediate supervisor

completed the second questionnaire. Measures of turnover

intentions and absenteeism were collected from respondents and

their immediate supervisor rated OCB in the second set of

questionnaire. The first and the second questionnaire were coded

so that they could be matched. Data collection involved one or

two personal trips to each hotel to obtain approval, and explain

the objectives of the study and rating procedures. A list of

employee's name was obtained from the Human Resource department

of the respective hotels for the purpose of coding the two sets

of questionnaires. A code number representing a particularemployee was printed on each subordinate's questionnaire and

their name and code number were printed on the supervisor's

questionnaire for immediate supervisor evaluation of OCB. Both

questionnaires were distributed and collected with the help of

the Human Resource department of each hotel. The average age of

respondents was 30.28 years. Altogether, there were 121 (55.5%)

male respondents and 97 (44.5%) female respondents. The average

organisation tenure of the respondents was 5.33 years.



Independent Variable: Organisational Citizenship Behaviour

OCB was measured based on a 20-item scale developed by Podsakoff

and Mackenzie (as cited in Niehoff & Moorman, 1993). Each of the

five constructs: altruism, courtesy, sportsmanship,

conscientiousness and civic virtue include items describing

specific behaviours. These dimensions have been conceptualised

by Organ in 1988 and selected for this study because they have

been most frequently examined by researchers (LePine, Erez &

Johnson, 2002; Schnake & Dumler, 2003). Supervisors and

subordinates indicated their agreement on each item using a

five-point Likert scale format ranging from strongly disagree

(1) to strongly agree (5). Minor modifications were made to the

questionnaire to suit with the study sample. The words

"organisation" and "company" were replaced by the word "hotel".

For the supervisor questionnaire, every statement about OCB

started with the words "This employee...".

Dependent Variables: Turnover Intention and Absenteeism

The first dependent variable in this study is turnoverintention. In addition to measuring actual turnover, which

requires the use of a longitudinal study, studies have also

adopted the intention to turnover as proxy to actual turnover

for a number of reasons. First, the use of turnover intentions

is justified since according to the theory of reasoned action,

the best predictor of behaviour is the behavioural intentions

(Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Second, the relationship between

propensity to leave and actual turnover is consistently strong

and positive, although the range of correlation coefficient is

quite ranging from r = 0.41 to r = 0.71 (Naumann, Widmier &

Jackson, 2000).

In this study, turnover intention was measured using a 3-item

scale adapted from Camman, Fichman, Jenkins and Klesh (cited in

Chen et al., 1998). The internal consistency coefficient for

this scale was 0.78 (Chen et. al., 1998). The items were: (1) I

often think of leaving the hotel; (2) It is very possible that I

will look for a new job within the next year; and (3) If I may

choose again, I will choose to work for the current

organisation. Respondents rated their level of agreement with

each item on a five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly (1)

disagree to (5) strongly agree. Question 3 was reversed coded

during analysis so that the higher score indicated higher

turnover intention. The three items were averaged to form a

single scale for the subjective measure of turnover intention.

Absenteeism was measured based on self-reported absence data.The item is as follows: "People have many reasons for missing

work. Most people miss an occasional day once in a while.

Excluding annual leave and any other leave allocated by the

hotel, how many total days were you absent from work for any

reasons for the past three months?" Absence data was collected

for only three months in order to limit problems related to span

of attention and memory recall. According to Johns (1994), the

use of self-reported absence is not uncommon in absenteeism

research and several studies found that self-reported



absenteeism correlated with records-based data (Spector, 1987).

Factor Analysis

Although the OCB items were based on the five dimensions as

suggested by Podsakoff and MacKenzie (cited in Niehoff &

Moorman, 1993), a principal component analysis with varimax

rotation revealed four factors. A cut-off point of 0.30 for

factor loading and a difference of at least 0.20 between the

highest loading and the next highest loading were used in this

study. The first factor consisted of nine items (four altruism

items, four courtesy items and one civic virtue item). Organ

(1988) states that courtesy is hardly distinguishable from

altruism and normally, the label "helping behaviour" is used to

mean a composite of several types of citizenship behaviour,

especially altruism and courtesy. Four sportsmanship items were

loaded on factor two, three conscientiousness items loaded on

factor three and three civic virtue items loaded on factor four.

These factors were labelled as helping behaviour, sportsmanship,

conscientiousness and civic virtue. One item was deleted due to

cross-loading. The complete result of the factor analysis isavailable upon request from the first author.

RESULTS

Table 1.0 presents the mean, standard deviation, reliability

coefficient and correlation of all the variables used in the

present study. An examination of results in Table 1 indicates

that the reliability for the OCB dimensions ranged from 0.75

(civic virtue); 0.83 (conscientiousness); 0.88 (helping

behaviour); to 0.89 for sportsmanship. The reliability for

turnover intention was 0.75.

The results of the bivariate correlation indicated that the OCB

dimension of sportsmanship clearly had the strongest correlation

with employee turnover intention (r = -0.35, p < 0.01), followed

by helping behaviour (r = -0.30, p < 0.01) and civic virtue (r =

-0.28, p < 0.01). There is no significant correlation between

conscientiousness (r = -0.07, n. s.) and turnover intention. The



correlations were all negative and significant indicating that

relationship between OCB dimensions and turnover intention among

hotel employees was negative. The results of the bivariate

correlation between OCB and absenteeism indicated that only

conscientiousness is related significantly and negatively with

absenteeism (r = -0.23, p < 0.01).

Multiple regression analyses were carried out to determine which

of the OCB dimensions best predicted turnover intentions and

absenteeism. Table 2.0 and Table 3.0 present the results of the

multiple regression analyses for turnover intentions and

absenteeism respectively. The results indicate that the four

dimensions of OCB were able to explain 26% of the variance in

turnover intentions and only 6% of variance in absenteeism. An

examination of the beta weights in Table 2.0 indicate that

helping behaviour (b = -0.29, p = 0.00), sportsmanship (b =

-0.27, p = 0.00) and civic virtue (b = -0.27, p = 0.00) were

significantly related to turnover intentions albeit negatively.

However, conscientiousness was not significantly related to

turnover intention (b = -0.08, n. s.). The three OCB dimensions

were related to turnover intentions according to the directionhypothesised.

The results shown in Table 3.0 indicate that of the four OCB

dimensions, only conscientiousness (b = -0.24, p = 0.00) has a

significant negative relationship with absenteeism. The

remaining OCB dimensions namely helping behaviour (b = 0.06, n.

s.), sportsmanship (b = 0.04, n. s.) and civic virtue (b =

-0.05, n. s.) were not significant related to absenteeism.



DISCUSSION

This study investigates the effects of OCB on turnover intention

and absenteeism among star-rated hotel employees in Malaysian.

The study hypothesised that both turnover intentions and

absenteeism are negatively related to OCB. The results yield a

stronger relationship albeit negative between OCB dimensions and

turnover intentions. There was however little empirical support

to indicate OCB influences absenteeism. The study revealed that

conscientiousness was able to predict absenteeism behaviour.

Specifically, multiple regression analysis found threedimensions in the superior ratings of OCB, that is,

sportsmanship, helping behaviour and civic virtue (except

conscientiousness), showing significant and negative

relationship with turnover intention. Generally, the findings of

this study are consistent with previous research by Chen et al.

(1998) indicating that sportsmanship, conscientiousness and

altruism are significantly related to employee turnover. Based

on the cognitive consistency theory, OCB reflects voluntary



behaviour that is beneficial to organisations, whereas turnover

intention is considered as resentment toward the organisation.

The positive attitude and behaviour as reflected through a high

level of OCB should be aligned consistently and shape other

attitudes and behaviour, for example, by having lower turnover

intention and absenteeism (e.g. Parish & Necessary, 1996; Coon,

1983; Ward, 1986).

This result indicates that employees with a high propensity in

helping others (e.g. help others who have heavy work loads, help

train new people even though it is not required), are concerned

about the life of the hotel (e.g. attend non-mandatory

functions, participate in hotel meetings), and that the more

willing employees are to be "good sports", the lower their

tendency towards turnover intention. The present study found no

support for the effect of superior ratings of conscientiousness

on turnover intention. Unfortunately, the reason why

conscientiousness was not related to turnover intention is not

obvious. Nevertheless, it is possible to speculate on several

potential explanations. One difficulty in comparing the results

of the present study with those obtained in a study by Chen et.al. (1998) is that both used different measures of

conscientiousness. The conflicting findings may be attributable

to the fact that this study tested a narrow measure of

conscientiousness adapted from Podsakoff and Mackenzie (cited in

Niehoff & Moorman, 1993) such as "Never takes long lunches"; "Is

always punctual at work"; and "Does not take extra breaks". On

the other hand, Chen et al. (1998) explores the effect of global

measure of conscientiousness such as "Is one of my most

conscientious employee" and "Believes in giving an honest day's

work for an honest day's pay". It is possible that different

measures of conscientiousness influence the criterion variable

differently. Items tapping the conscientiousness in this study

can be considered as normal behaviours among the majority of

employees, regardless of their level of turnover intention.

Hotel rules should have specified the time duration for lunch

and working hours. Failure to adhere to hotel policies (e.g. not

being punctual) may result in some penalty (e.g. oral or written

warning). Hence, even though an employee is always punctual at

work and never takes long lunches or breaks so as to adhere to

hotel rules, it does not translate into any effect on their

turnover intention. In contrast, the global measure of superior

ratings of conscientiousness as used by Chen et al. (1998) may

reflect a strong organisational attachment among employees. With

strong organisational attachment, it is possible that employees

are less likely to withdraw from the organisation. Second, the

bivariate analysis showed a weak correlation between

conscientiousness and turnover intention (r = -0.08). Thisrelationship was not strong enough to hold up in the

multivariate analysis.

This finding suggests that to retain employees in a high

turnover organisation, management needs to focus on nurturing

certain critical aspects of extra-role behaviour namely

sportsmanship, civic virtue and helping behaviour.

Interestingly, conscientiousness was the only OCB dimension that

significantly explained absence behaviour. This finding is



generally consistent with theoretical arguments advanced by

Organ (1988), who states that conscientious employees have low

inclination towards absenteeism. Organ (1988) theorises that

conscientious employees improve organisational effectiveness

through its impact on employee attendance whereby these

employees generally avoid unnecessary absence. This finding

suggests that employees with a high level of conscientiousness,

that is, with low propensity in taking long lunches and extra

breaks, and are always punctual, are less likely to be absent

from work. It can be expected that employees with low propensity

in taking long lunches and extra breaks, and who are always

punctual are employees who are committed and who adhere to hotel

policies. With these positive behaviours, these employees are

less likely to be absent from work without any good reason. One

possible explanation for why other OCB dimensions (helping

behaviour, sportsmanship and civic virtue) were not related to

absenteeism was that employees might be high in these dimensions

of OCB, but they were not translated into any effect on

absenteeism. Certainly, further research is needed to confirm

these findings.

This study demonstrates that the relationship between OCB and

withdrawal behaviour, and the theoretical justification behind

this relationship is applicable to non-Western organisational

members. Several lines of future research suggest themselves.

Firstly, the sample size of the present study can be considered

small. Therefore, the study has to be carried further to include

a larger sample. Further, it would be of interest to study the

impact of OCB on other types of withdrawal behaviour such as

lateness behaviour or social loafing. It would also be

worthwhile to investigate the presence of possible moderators in

research of OCB consequences. Several studies (e.g. Lovel,

Aston, Mason & Davidson, 1999; Morrison, 1994) have documented

that women have a higher level of OCB such as altruism and

helping behaviour than men. These suggest that OCB may interact

with some personal factors such as gender in explaining employee

withdrawal behaviour. Finally, the results of this study may

have some implications for managers in the hotel industry.

Efforts should be directed toward encouraging citizenship

behaviours among employees as a way to reduce turnover

intention. The results of the present study also suggest that

hotel managers can address employee absenteeism using approaches

other than disciplinary actions. The present study has provided

empirical evidence that employees with high levels of

conscientiousness reported lower levels of absenteeism. Hence,

hotel managers may cultivate this dimension of OCB to reduce

employee absenteeism. It is believed that this kind of strategy

is more manageable and less expensive than punishment.

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