Malaysia EFA MDA
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EDUCATION FOR ALL MID-DECADE ASSESSMENT REPORT 2000–2007 MALAYSIA EDUCATION FOR ALL MID-DECADE ASSESSMENT REPORT 2000–2007 MALAYSIA REACHING THE UNREACHED REACHING THE UNREACHED
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Transcript of Malaysia EFA MDA
EDUCATION FOR ALLMID-DECADE ASSESSMENT REPORT 2000–2007
M A L A Y S I A
SAB AH M AJ UJA
YA
EDUCATION FOR ALLMID-DECADE ASSESSMENT REPORT 2000–2007
M A L A Y S I A
REACHING THE UNREACHEDREACHING THE UNREACHED
SSAABBAAHH MMAAJJUU JJAAYYAA
EDUCATION FOR ALL MID-DECADE ASSESSMENT
REPORT 2000–2007
MALAYSIA
Published by the Ministry of Education
© MOE 2008. All rights reserved.First published September 2008
ISBN 983-XXXX-XX-X
Printed in MalaysiaMinistry of EducationLevel 1-4, Block E8, Government Complex Parcel E,Federal Government Administrative Centre,62604 Putrajaya, Malaysia.www.moe.gov.my
A catalogue record for this book is available from the Libraryof the Ministry of Education.
The contents may be freely reproduced for non-commercial purposes with attribution to the copyright holders.
Maps are not authoritative on boundaries.
Designed by Thumb-Print Studio Sdn Bhd
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In the name of Allah the Most Gracious and Most Merciful
In 2000, at the World Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal, 164 governments,including Malaysia, made a commitment to achieve the Education For All(EFA) goals by 2015. This commitment was a reaffirmation of thecommitment initiated in Jomtiem, Thailand, in 1990 to provide educationalopportunities to all children, youths and adults.
Malaysia’s commitment to meeting the Dakar goals can be seen in thepolicies and strategies the Government has initiated as well as the politicalwill and the financial support provided to the education sector and to humancapital development as a whole. The Ministry of Education has taken the necessary measures toensure that all education development plans are practical, realistic and action-oriented, besidebeing responsive to the needs of the nation. The Education Development Master Plan 2006–2010(EDMP) continues to concentrate on matters pertaining to educational access and equity whileensuring the efficiency and effectiveness of the education system in developing the human capitalof the country.
As a means of monitoring the progress and outcomes of the education system againstinternational benchmarks, Malaysia participates in several international surveys such as the Trendsin International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS), the World Education Indicator (WEI) andthe Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS). Malaysia’s performance against theseinternational benchmarks has been commendable.
This report is a showcase of Malaysia’s achievements in providing quality education for all. It alsoserves as a timely reminder of the work to be accomplished and the milestones to be reached.I remain confident that the EFA Steering Committee helmed by the Secretary General and theDirector General of Education, Malaysia will achieve the EFA goals within the specified timeframe.
DATO’ SERI HISHAMMUDDIN BIN TUN HUSSEINMinister of Education Malaysia
FOREWORD
Minister of Education Malaysia
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In the Name of Allah the Most Gracious and Most Merciful
The government of Malaysia opted to pursue the goals of the DakarFramework for Action through its existing mechanisms, rather than througha separate stand-alone EFA plan. In fact, Malaysia’s previous and current five-year national development plans take into account the MillenniumDevelopment Goals (MDG) and the Dakar Framework for Action advocatedby the United Nations in 2000.
In 2001, the Ministry of Education presented the Education Blueprint2001–2010 which charts the nation’s progress and plans of action for
education. The Blueprint incorporates UNESCO’s efforts in promoting country specific EFA actionplans. In 2005, the EDMP 2006–2010 was developed, drawing on the review of the EducationBlueprint 2001–2010. The goals stated in both the Education Blueprint and the EDMP go beyondthe targets specified in the MDG as well as the targets of the Dakar Framework for Action.
Currently, Malaysia is engaged in the Mid-Term Review (MTR) of the Ninth Malaysia Plan (9MP).In line with this, the EDMP is also being reviewed. The EFA Mid-Decade Assessment (EFA MDA)exercise is therefore timely, as it allows for inputs from the EFA MDA to be reflected in the reviewof the 9MP and the EDMP. In line with Malaysia’s commitment to the Dakar Framework for Action,various initiatives and programmes are being planned and implemented to ensure that the learningneeds of children, youths and adults are met.
The Government’s commitment is further evidenced by the substantial annual budget allocationsprovided to the education sector and to human capital development. However, the success of theEFA initiatives requires the continued support and cooperation of all involved. I am optimistic thatour efforts in realising all six goals of EFA will bear fruition by 2015.
TAN SRI DR ZULKURNAIN BIN HAJI AWANGSecretary General of Education Malaysia
Secretary General Ministry of Education
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PREAMBLE
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In The Name of Allah the Most Gracious and Most Merciful
The EFA MDA is a timely and valuable endeavour in the review of Malaysia’scurrent 9MP and EDMP 2006–2010. The Ministry of Education (MOE) hastaken note of its shortcomings and various steps have been taken inpropelling the MoE towards an improved education system.
By 2007, Malaysia had achieved 96 per cent participation rate at the primarylevel. Our combined Gross Enrollment Rate (GER) for primary and secondarylevels has improved from 85 per cent in 1985 to 92 per cent in 2007. Withthis development, issues related to and providing for quality education andefficiency in the delivery system are of utmost importance. We are indeed committed to theimprovement in providing education to all vis-à-vis achieving the EFA goals. By 2015, we wouldlike to see all primary and secondary school children, urban and rural alike, including more childrenwith special needs having access to quality education.
In responding to UNESCO’s focus on “inclusiveness” in the education sector, we are pilotingseveral initiatives in finding the right formula to ensure we have full Universal Primary Education(UPE) – such as “reaching the unreached”, increasing participation at the secondary level andaddressing issues such as the problem of dropouts among boys. Our efforts toward bridging thegap between the rural and urban primary schools include providing educational and physicalinfrastructure, professional and qualified teaching staff, and sufficient financial allocations forchildren in the rural areas and from poor families.
I would like to take this opportunity to urge all those involved in the EFA initiative to renew theircommitment to this endeavour and to sustain the momentum in implementing the strategies thatwill enable us to achieve the targets of EFA 2015.
DATO’ HAJI ALIMUDDIN BIN HAJI MOHD. DOMDirector General of Education Malaysia
Director General of Education Malaysia
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MESSAGE
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In The Name of Allah the Most Gracious and Most Merciful
The EFA MDA initiated by UNESCO, is an exercise to assess the level ofachievement of national and global EFA targets, identify and locate existing gapsrelated to quality and equity sub-nationally, and to focus on disadvantaged andunderserved populations. It also reviews, identifies and locates problems, issues,policies, strategies, actions and critical factors for success and failure. The resultsof the assessment are intended to be used to improve performance and to updatepolicies and strategies for attaining the EFA goals and the MDGs by 2015.
In Malaysia, oversight on the progress of achieving the EFA goals and conductingthe EFA MDA is the responsibility of the EFA Steering Committee, co-chaired by the SecretaryGeneral and the Director General of Education. Senior officials from the ministries linked to the sixgoals of EFA, UNICEF Malaysia, UNESCO Jakarta and NGOs are members of the committee. TheCommittee makes decisions relating to the direction of the EFA MDA and assists the EFATechnical Working Groups (TWGs) in conducting the EFA MDA. The Educational Planning andResearch Division (EPRD) is the National EFA Coordinator for Malaysia and the Secretariat to theEFA Steering Committee.
The EPRD is honoured to be given the chance to spearhead the EFA MDA for Malaysia. I wouldlike to take this opportunity to express my appreciation to, and to congratulate the variousministries, departments and divisions, the TWGs and my colleagues at EPRD for their cooperationand commitment to produce a report that covers all aspects of education provided in the country.To all individuals, schools and organisations that had contributed photographs in making this reportmore meaningful, I thank you all. My appreciation also goes to the EFA Steering Committee,UNESCO Jakarta, UNESCO Bangkok, and UNICEF Malaysia, for their advice and support. Myspecial appreciation goes to Mr. Anthony Dewees, Ph.D., the EFA MDA consultant for helping theEFA Secretariat to review and synthesize the six EFA reports produced by the TWGs into theNational EFA MDA Report.
DR. AMIR BIN SALLEH @ MOHD. SALEHDirector, Educational Planning and Research Division
Director, Educational Planning and Research Division
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
C o n t e n t sForeword by Minister of Education Malaysia
Preamble by Secretary General of Education
Message by Director General of Education Malaysia
Acknowledgement Director, Educational Planning and Research
Division
List of Maps, Charts, Tables and Figures
Acronyms
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1 INTRODUCTION
Country Background
National Development
The Role of Education in the Context of National Development
2 OVERVIEW OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEM
Development of the Education System
Education Structure and Management
EFA Coordination Mechanism
Data collection
3 PROGRESS IN ACHIEVING EFA GOALS
GOAL 1: Expanding early childhood care and education (ECCE)
GOAL 2: Equitable access to basic education
GOAL 3: Promote learning and skills for young people and adults
GOAL 4: Increase adult literacy
GOAL 5: Gender equality
GOAL 6: Enhance educational quality
4 CONCLUSION AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
References
Education for All Mid-Decade Assessment Task Force
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Maps
Map 1.1 Malaysia in the South East Asia Region
Map 1.2 Malaysia
Charts
Chart 2.1 Education and Assessment Structure
Chart 2.1 Ministry of Education
Chart 2.3 EFA Coordination Mechanism
Chart 2.4 EMIS Data Collection Flow
Tables
Table 1.1 Comparison of Malaysia’s PPP-adjusted GDP per capita with selected OECD
Economies
Table 1.2 The Outline Perspective Plan and Five-Year National Development Plan
Table 3.1 Student Achievement by Gender, 2003
Boxes
Box 1 Goal 1: Pre-school
Box 2 Goal 2: Indigenous Pupils Special Programme (PKMOA)
Box 3 Goal 4: Infodesa Programe by Ministry of Rural and Regional Development
Box 4 Goal 6: SQEM (Standard for Quality Education in Malaysia)
Figures
Figure 1.1 Real GDP Growth, 1991–2005
Figure 3.1 GER and Enrollment for ECCE 4–6 years old, 2001–2005
Figure 3.2 GER for ECCE 4–6 years old, by State, 2005
Figure 3.3 Children 4–6 years old Not Enrolled in ECCE, by State, 2000 & 2005
Figure 3.4 Indigenous Children 4–6 years old Enrolled in ECCE, 2000–2006
Figure 3.5 Special Needs Children 4–6 years old in ECCE, 2000–2006
Figure 3.6 GER for Primary and Combined Primary and Secondary, 2000–2005
List of Maps, Charts, Tables, Boxes andFigures
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Figure 3.7 GIR for Primary and Number of Children Not Enrolling in Year 1, 2000–2005
Figure 3.8 Survival Rates to Year 6 and Primary School Dropouts, 1989–2004
Figure 3.9 Number of Out of School Children in Primary School, by State, 2000–2005
Figure 3.10 Number of Children Who Enter and Abandoned School Before Year 6,
by State, 1995–2000 and 2000–2005 Cohorts
Figure 3.11 Number of Special Needs Students in Inclusive Programmes
in Regular Schools, 2002–2005
Figure 3.12 Number of Children in Education Support Programme, 2000–2005
Figure 3.13 Annual Spending on Education Support, 2001–2005
Figure 3.14 Further Skills Training for Secondary School Students and
Secondary Completers, 2000–2005
Figure 3.15 Literacy Rates and Number of Illiterates, 2000–2006
Figure 3.16 Urban and Rural Literacy Rates, by State, 2000
Figure 3.17 Participants in Literacy Programmes and Non-Formal Education, 2001–2005
Figure 3.18 GER and Enrollment for ECCE 4–6 years old by Gender, 2000–2005
Figure 3.19 GER and Enrollment for Primary Education by Gender, 2000–2005
Figure 3.20 GER and Enrollment for Secondary Education by Gender (public and private),
2000–2005
Figure 3.21 Number of Primary and Secondary Age Children Out of School by Gender,
2000–2005
Figure 3.22 Enrollment in Teacher Education Institutes by Gender, 2000–2005
Figure 3.23 Number of Teachers in Primary and Secondary School by Gender, 2000–2005
Figure 3.24 Number of Lecturers in Teacher Education Institutes and Polytechnics by
Gender, 2000–2005
Figure 3.25 Primary School Achievement Test, 2001–2005
Figure 3.26 Lower Secondary Assessment, 2003–2005
Figure 3.27 Total Federal Spending, Total Education Spending and Education Spending as
Percentage of GNP, 1995–2005
Figure 3.28 Recurrent Spending Per Student as a Percentage of Per Capita GNP, 2000–2005
Figure 3.29 Number and Percentage of Certified Teachers in Public Primary Schools,
2000–2005
Figure 3.30 Pupil Teacher Ratios in Public Primary Schools, 2000–2005
Figure 3.31 Student Classroom Ratio in Public Primary Schools, by State, 2000–2005
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Acronyms
9MP Ninth Malaysia PlanADTEC Advanced Technology Training CentresAIM Amanah Iktiar MalaysiaASEAN Association of Southeast Asian NationCIAST The Centre for Instructor and Advanced Skill TrainingCRC Convention on the Rights of the Child DOS Department of Statistics ECCD Early Childhood Care and Development ECCE Early Childhood Care and EducationEDMP Education Development Master Plan (2006-2010)EDP Education Development Plan (2001-2010)EFA Education for AllEMIS Education Management Information SystemEPC Educational Planning CommitteeEPRD Educational Planning and Research DivisionFELDA Federal Land Development AuthorityGDP Gross Domestic Product GDP Gross Domestic ProductGER Gross Enrollment Rate GIR Gross Intake rateGNP Gross National ProductGPI Gender Parity IndexHDI Human Development Index IAB Aminuddin Baki InstituteICT information and communications technologyIKBN National Youth Skills Training InstituteISSC Integrated Secondary School Curriculum ITI Industrial Training InstitutesJHEOA Department of Orang Asli AffairsJMTi Japan Centre for Instructor and Advanced Skill TrainingKEMAS Department of Regional and Rural Development KIA2M Intervention Class for Basic Reading and WritingKWAMP Poor Students’ Trust FundLCD Liquid Crystal DisplayMDA Mid-Decade Assessment MDG Millennium Development Goals
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MECD Ministry of Entrepreneur and Cooperative DevelopmentMLFS Malaysia Labour Force Survey MOE Ministry of Education MOH Ministry of Health MOHE Ministry of Higher Education MOHR Ministry of Human Resources MRAT Ministry of Rural Advancement and TerritoryMRRD Ministry of Regional and Rural DevelopmentMWFCD Ministry of Women, Family and Community DevelopmentMYS Ministry of Youth and SportsNDP National Development PolicyNDTS National Dual Training SystemNEP New Economic PolicyNER Net Enrollment RateNESTLE Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk CompanyNGOs Non-government organizationsNIP National Integrity PlanNIR Net Intake RateNOSS National Occupational Skills StandardsNPE National Philosophy of Education NPSC New Primary School Curriculum NPW National Policy for Women NVP National Vision PolicyOECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentOPP Outline Perspective PlanPACOS Partners of Community OrganizationsPERPADUAN Department of National Unity and IntegrationPKMOA Special Program for Orang Asli School ChildrenPMR Lower Secondary EvaluationPPSMI Science and Mathematics in EnglishPROSTAR Health Programme for YouthPTA Parents, Teachers and Associations PTR Pupil-Teacher RatioRIMUP Student Integration Plan For Unity RISDA Rubber Institute Smallholder Development AuthoritySARS Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
Acronyms
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SBT Tuition Voucher SchemeSEDs State Education DepartmentsSENS Special Education National Schools SKIPS Quality Standard for Private Education InstitutionsSPED Special EducationSPM Certificate of EducationSQEMS Standard for Quality Education in MalaysiaSTPM Malaysia Higher School Certificate ExaminationSTPM(R) Malaysia Higher School Certificate Examination (Religious Education) SUHAKAM Human Rights Commission MalaysiaTALIS Teaching and Learning International SurveyTEDP Teacher Education and Development Programme TIMMS Quality Standard for Private Education InstitutionsTVET Technical and Vocational Education and TrainingTWGs Technical Working GroupsUIS UNESCO Institute of StatisticsUNESCO United Nation, Education, Science and Culture OrganizationUNGEI United Nations Girls’ Education InitiativeUNICEF United Nation Children Education FundUPSR Primary School Achievement TestUSD United States DollarWEF World Education ForumWEI World Education IndicatorsYBK Yayasan Basmi Kemiskinan
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Acronyms
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E xe c u t i v eS u m m a r y
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There were about 200,000 more children under 6 years of age attending preschools or childcarecentres in 2005 than there were in 2000. The Ninth Malaysia Plan is committed to providingeducational opportunities to all 5-and 6-year-olds throughout the country by 2010. Special attention tothe expansion of preschool and childcare centres in rural areas has been given through public spendingpriorities. And special programmes for children from indigenous communities have been implementedwhile other initiatives are still in the development process.
Primary/Secondary GER has improved by about six percent since 1985 and over 91 percent of thechildren born in Malaysia and of primary or secondary school age were enrolled in school in 2005. Thenumber of children of primary and secondary school-age not enrolled in school in 2005 decreased byabout 150,000 to 200,000 when compared to 1985. In 2005, 98 percent of all children who enter Year 1 in 2000 are still in school at Year 6. A series of five-year national development plans have alsorapidly increased student access to school in the country’s more remote regions and also for childrenfrom indigenous communities.
Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care andeducation, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children
GOAL 1:
GOAL 3:
GOAL 2:Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficultcircumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to andcomplete free and compulsory primary education of good quality
In 2005 more than 70,000 students were enrolled in Technical Secondary Schools and a similar numberwere pursuing certificates or diplomas in vocational/technical studies in the Polytechnics. Also in 2005about 100,000 young persons participated in one of the various skills and/or entrepreneur programmesprovided by the MECD and nearly 10 thousand attended a diploma or certificate level programme ofstudy in the newly established MOHE Community Colleges. The MOHR also provided training to nearly12,000 participants and administered skills certification exams to over 100 thousand persons.Inaddition, more than 130,000 students were enrolled in certificate level courses at public and privatehigher education institutions.
Ensure that the learning needs of all young people and adults are metthrough equitable access to learning and life skills programmes
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GOAL 4:
Investments in education have allowed Malaysia to raise its youth (15–24 years old) literacy rate to 98 percent. High levels of youth literacy are pushing up adult literacy rates to over 92 percent. From2000 to 2005 between 130,000 and 150,000 persons participated each year in functional literacyclasses, skills classes or income generation programmes available for those without a completesecondary education.
Achieving a 50 percent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015,especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing educationfor all adults
In Malaysia, gender as a development focus was first mentioned in the Third Malaysia Plan (1976–80), whichencouraged women’s contribution to the economy and their active participation in development. Later five-year development plans have given greater prominence to gender issues and since the Sixth Malaysia Plan (1991–95), a full chapter of the plan has been devoted to policies and programmes that promoteparticipation of women in national development initiatives. The National Policy for Women formulatedin 1989 was a major initiative focused on gender equality and women’s empowerment in Malaysia andhave formed the basis for many of the subsequent policies relating to women in development.
By 2000 Malaysia had already achieved high levels of participation in primary and secondaryschooling and relative parity of participation and outcomes between girls and boys. These achievements havebeen made possible by combining political will and public resources in equal measure.
Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005,and achieving gender equality in education by 2015 with a focus ensuring girls’ full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality
The Government of Malaysia recognised early on that simply providing schools and teachers did notensure full access to and participation in a quality education system. Expanded opportunities at alllevels of the system in terms of infrastructure, teachers and programmes have been combined withacademic support to ensure that all children regardless of their location or economic circumstanceshave optimal opportunities for success in school. The MOE also demonstrates a serious commitmentto a holistic concept of educational quality. This is evident in the provision of per capita grants toschools for co-curricular activities.
Improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellenceof all so that recognised and measurable learning outcomes are achievedby all , especially in l iteracy, numeric and essential l i fe skil ls.
GOAL 5:
GOAL 6:
1
I n t r o d u c t i o n
Malaysia is located in one of the world’s fastestgrowing economic regions. Its neighbours areChina, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei Darussalam,Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Philippines,Myanmar and Lao PDR (Map 1.1). Being in theheart of South East Asia, Malaysia had forcenturies attracted traders and merchants plyingthe ancient spice route between India and China.Indian, Arab and Chinese traders made Malaccatheir sojourn to replenish supplies and engage inthe lucrative spice and silk trade in the MalayArchipelago. During these early days the MalaccaSultanate reigned supreme. However, during thesixteenth century the Portuguese, the Dutch andlater the British vying for supremacy, establishedthemselves as colonial masters in the region.
Today Malaysia is an independent nation statewith a parliamentary constitutional monarchy,administered through a federal Governmentstructure inherited from British colonisation.Malaysia gained independence as the Federation
of Malaya from Britain in 1957 and subsequently,in 1963, the unification of the Federation ofMalaya with Sarawak, Sabah, and Singaporeresulted in the formation of the Federation ofMalaysia. Malaysia as it is today was establishedfollowing the separation of Singapore from theFederation of Malaysia in 1965.
Malaysia comprises thirteen states and threefederal territories spread across two regionsseparated by the South China Sea (Map 1.2).Peninsular Malaysia comprising the statesof Perlis, Kedah, Kelantan, Terengganu, PulauPinang, Perak, Selangor, Pahang, NegeriSembilan, Melaka and Johor, and the FederalTerritories of Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya isconnected to mainland South-East Asia via thelong, narrow isthmus of Southern Thailand. EastMalaysia comprises the states of Sabah andSarawak, on the island of Borneo, and the FederalTerritory of Labuan, an island Southwest of Sabah.
Malaysia is a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural, and
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Country Background
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multi-religious society comprising the Malays and other Bumiputera of Sabah and Sarawak(65.9 %), Chinese (25.3%), Indians (7.5 %) and
others (1.3%). The transformation of the demo-graphy of the country from a homogeneousindigenous society to a hetero-geneous nature
occurred during the nineteenth century.Under British rule, the Chinese andIndians were encouraged to migrate intothe country; the Chinese as tin miners andtraders in urban areas and the Indians asrubber plantation or railway workers.
Populat ion 1
Malaysia’s population stands at 26.75million in 2005 compared to 23.49 millionin 2000; recording a declining populationgrowth as a result of the decrease in totalfertility rate from 2.88 in 2000 to 2.76 in2005. In the next five years (2006–2010),the population is projected to increase to28.96 million, growing at an average rateof 1.6 percent per annum, lower than the2.6 percent per annum recorded duringthe 2000–2005 period.
Indonesia
Indonesia
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia Vietnam
PhilippinesThailand
Myanmar
Lao PDR
China
Malaysia
Malaysia
Singapore
Map 1.1 | Malaysia in the South East Asia Region
0
International boundary
Kuching
INDONESIA
SARAWAK
SABAH
Kota KinabaluLABUAN
BRUNEI DARUSSALAM
SOUTH CHINA SEA
STRAITS OF MALACCA SINGAPORE
JOHORMELAKA
NEGERI SEMBILANMelaka
Putrajaya
SELANGOR
PERAK
KELANTANTERENGGANU
Kuala Terengganu
Ipoh
PULAU PINANG
KEDAHPERLIS
THAILAND
Georgetown
Kota Bharu
Alor SetarKangar
PAHANG
Kuala LumpurSeremban
Kuantan
Johor Bahru
State boundary
State capital
100 200 300 KM
Map 1.2 | Malaysia
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Employment 2
During the 2001–2005 period, employment inMalaysia increased at an average rate of 3.3 percent per annum and 1.6 million new jobs were created. The services and themanufacturing sectors generated 1,062,800 jobsand 566,300 jobs respectively. In the next fiveyears (2006–2010), employment is expected togrow at an average rate of 1.9 percent perannum, contributing 1.1 million jobs, particularlythose requiring tertiary education.
Economy 3
The Malaysian economy grew at an average rateof 6.2 percent per annum during the 1991–2005period, as shown in Figure 1.1. This strong rate ofgrowth was achieved despite the challenges
faced from unpredecented situations such as the1997–98 Asian financial crisis, the September 11incident in 2001, wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, outbreaks of Severe Acute RespiratorySyndrome (SARS) and avian flu as well asincrease in world oil prices.
GDP per capita in current prices grew at anaverage of 7.1 percent per annum to RM18,489or US$4,904 in 2005. When adjusted forMalaysia’s cost of living, the PPP-adjusted GDP per capita in 2005 doubled to US$10,318.Compared to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries,Malaysia’s PPP-adjusted GDP per capita isabove Mexico’s and below Poland’s, as shownin Table 1.1.
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 20052004200320022001
% Growth15
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Figure 1.1 | Real GDP Growth, 1991–2005
Source: Department of Statistics (DOS)
1 Ninth Malaysia plan pp238–2502 Ibid pp 240 - 2513 Ninth Malaysia Plan pp 5 - 7
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Table 1.1 | Comparison of Malaysia’s PPP-Adjusted GDP per capita with Selected | OECD Economies
2005ø1990 1991–2005
Country 1971–90 Average Annual Growth Rate
United States of America
Japan
Korea, Republic of
Hungary
Poland
Malaysia
Mexico
Turkey
Source: National Accounts of OECD, OECD Paris 2005 and EIU database; Note: ø refers to estimates
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31,386
21,383
16,628
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10,318
9,991
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8,504
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6,098
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Today Malaysia stands at the threshold of oneof the most challenging times in its history. Thenational development intervention policies andprogrammes initiated since the 1970s managedto address the controversies surrounding thePre-New Economy Policy (NEP) period ensuringthat growth with equity between the ethnicgroups is realised. In just a short span of five decades since independence, the nationhas successfully emerged from an agrarianeconomy to a producer and exporter of highquality products. Amidst the exponentialdevelopments in science and informationtechnology, it is gearing itself towards full industrialisation and making its impact in the knowledge-based economy of today’sglobalised world.
Malaysia’s progress is attributed to thesystematic planning process in place since thefirst five-year national development plan (FirstMalaya Plan: 1956–1960) was conceived. Thefive-year national development plan is fine-tunedand adjusted to meet the demands of the rapidlychanging environment through mid-termreviews of the plan. The five-year national
development plan is a medium term plan withina three-tiered cascading planning framework for development in Malaysia. The OutlinePerspective Plan (OPP), a long-term planningframework guides the nation in setting thenational agenda for operationalising the five-year national development plan. The OPP,implemented through the five-year nationaldevelopment plan had always identifiededucation as one of the main mechanism formoving the nation ahead. Built into the planningframework is also a short-term plan conductedthrough an annual budget.
All these plans place the development ofhuman resources, namely, children, youths andadults, as a major thrust in ensuring a sustainablesocio-economic growth. The five-year nationaldevelopment plans ensure sufficient funds areallocated to the education sector for thedevelopment of the nation’s human resource. It isthrough this process that the Malaysian educationsystem succeeds in responding to issues ofaccess, equity, quality and effectiveness ofeducation. The OPP and the five-year nationaldevelopment plans are presented in Table 1.2.
National Development
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Table 1.2| The Outline Perspective Plan and Five-Year National Development Plan
Pre-NEP New Economic Policy(NEP) OPP1
1960–70 1971–1990
National Development Policy (NDP) OPP2
1991–2000
National Vision Policy (NVP) OPP3
2001–2010
First Malaysia Plan
(1MP) (1966–70)
Second Malaysia Plan (2MP) (1971–5)
Third Malaysia Plan (3MP) (1976–80)
Fourth Malaysia Plan (4MP) (1981–5)
Fifth Malaysia Plan (5MP) (1986–90)
Sixth Malaysia Plan (6MP) (1991–5)
Seventh Malaysia Plan (7MP)
(1996–2000)
Eighth Malaysia Plan (8MP)
(2001–5)
Ninth Malaysia Plan (9MP)
(2006–10)
Source: Millenium Development Goals (MDG), 2006
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Vision 2020 – Hopes and Aspirations“We now take the next step, to begin the secondphase towards achieving Vision 2020. We wantour country to be developed, imbued with itsown unique characteristics. We want progressthat is holistic, encompassing all nine aspects asoutlined in Vision 2020. We want progress that is enjoyed by all, regardless of religion orethnicity. We want to build a progressive anddeveloped civilisation that glorifies Islamic andother civilisations, in line with the concept ofIslam Hadhari.”
HE Dato’ Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, 2006
(Speech on the Ninth Malaysia Plan, 2006–2010)
Malaysia is currently in the mid-stage of Vision2020 and entering its second 15-year phase.Throughout the first 15-year phase variousdevelopments have been successfully achieved.The rapid global changes today necessitate thatMalaysia becomes more progressive. TheGovernment under the leadership of PrimeMinister Dato’ Seri Abdullah Hj. Ahmad Badawiintroduced a new implementation framework:the NATIONAL MISSION that would propelMalaysia for the next 15 years towards achievinga developed nation status. The National Missionis build on Malaysia’s experiences, values,cultures and the concept of Islam Hadhari
The Role of Education in the Context ofNational Development
(Civilisational Islam) that emphasises the masteryof knowledge and the balanced development ofindividual potential.
In Malaysia, efforts to develop human capitalhave always taken a holistic approachemphasising mastery of knowledge, intellectualcapital and the development of technologicaland entrepreneurial skills. It also takes intoconsideration the inculcation ofprogressive attitudes, high ethicsand moral values as embedded inthe National Integrity Plan (NIP).The development of humancapital is enhanced further in theNational Mission which focuseson developing Malaysians witha “first class mentality”. Toensure maximum impact fromnational development, the NationalMission outlines five thrusts: ~ Thrust 1: To move the
economy up the value chain.
~ Thrust 2: To raise the capacity for knowledgeand innovation and nurture “first classmentality”.
~ Thrust 3: To address persistent socio-economic inequalities constructively andproductively.
~ Thrust 4: To improve the standard andsustainability of quality of life.
~ Thrust 5: To strengthen the institutional andimplementation capacity.
The 9MP is the first of three five-year nationaldevelopment plans under the National Mission.This Plan is vital for the nation to establish astrong foundation to successfully progress to theTenth Malaysia Plan (10MP) and EleventhMalaysia Plan (11MP). The strategic thrusts inthe National Mission clearly indicate the crucialrole education plays in ensuring the successfulimplementation of the National Mission.
The Ministry of Education (MOE) as the mainagency responsible for the provision of educationto all is prepared to support and pursue this newnational agenda particularly in responding to theSecond and Third thrusts. To undertake thisenormous challenge the MOE has put in place acomprehensive Education Development MasterPlan (EDMP) outlining the focus, key strategiesand implementation plans to guide the MOE inexecuting its role vis-a-vis the National Mission.
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O v e r v i e w o ft h e N a t i o n a l
E d u c a t i o n S y s t e m
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The education system in Malaysia has advanced inline with national development. The advancementspreads across the following five periods:a) Pre-Independence (prior to 1957), b) Post-Independence (1957–1970), c) New Economic Policy (1971–1990), d) National Development Policy (1991–2000),
and e) National Vision Policy (2001–2010).
Pre-Independence (prior to 1957)Prior to independence, the British colonialeducation system was consistent with their‘divide and rule’ policy. Ethnic groups wereencouraged to establish their own schools andused their own curricula, books and teachers;and their own languages as the medium ofinstruction. It was only in the English mediumschools that these multi-ethnic children wereengaged with each other. The ‘divide and rule’policy resulted in the disengagement betweenthe children of the multi-ethnic groups. It wasduring this period that an awareness to establisha more uniform school system grew. SeveralCommittees set-up to study the school systemrecommended changes that are documented in
these reports: a) Barnes Report (1951), b) Fenn-Wu Report (1951), c) Education Ordinance(1952), and d) Razak Report (1956).
Post-Independence (1957–1970)During the Post-Independence (1957–1970)phase efforts were focused on establishing a national education system. The EducationOrdinance 1957 was formulated based on therecommendations of the Razak Report (1956)prioritising unity as the thrust of the nationaleducation policy. The recommendations of theRazak Report were reviewed by the Rahman TalibCommittee in 1960. The recommendations of theRahman Talib Report became the basis for theformulation of the Education Act 1961 outliningthe Malay language as the main medium ofinstruction at all levels and the use of a commoncurriculum and examination.
In 1962, democratisation of education wasinitiated and provision of free education for all atprimary school level was instituted. This policywas extended to cover a period of nine yearswith the abolition of the secondary schoolentrance examination in 1964. This resulted in anincrease of Enrollment in secondary schools.
Development of the Education System
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New Economic Policy (1971–1990)During the NEP period efforts at strengtheningnational unity, poverty eradication among allraces, and the restructuring of society werefurther emphasised. Providing equal educationopportunities to all became the means toredressing social imbalances. It was duringthis phase that the education system wasconsolidated following the recommendationsof the Cabinet Committee Report (1979).Substantial changes made to the educationsystem included making Malay Language asthe main medium of instruction and English asa second language to be taught at all levels ofeducation. However, Government primaryschools and Government-aided schools whichused Chinese or Tamil as the medium ofinstruction were sustained, consistent withthe Education Act 1961. Civics was introducedas a subject to inculcate a sense of self-resilience among students. Science andtechnical education were given greateremphasis aimed at producing skilled workers.
In the 1980s, educational opportunities were
increased in tandem with the expansion ofinfrastructural facilities, particularly in the ruralareas. Educational support programmes such asthe Textbook Loan Scheme, Educational TV, fullyresidential schools, rural and day hostels,scholarships, Supplementary Food Programmeand health programmes were enhanced tobridge the gap between the rich and the poor.
Efforts to re-engineer the primary andsecondary school curriculum were carried outduring this period. The New Primary SchoolCurriculum (NPSC) was formulated andimplemented in 1983. Subsequently, in 1989 the Integrated Secondary School Curriculum(ISSC) was introduced in all secondary schools.The NPSC and ISSC were more responsive tomeeting the national development agenda ofNEP. The National Education Philosophy (1988)was also formulated during this period. It aims to strengthen the direction and goals of national education modelling on a holistic andintegrated approach that would nurture well-balanced individuals—physically, emotionally,spiritually and intellectually.
National Development Policy(1991–2000) It was during the National Development Policy(NDP) period that education legislation wasstrengthened and amended to provide for a legalframework in implementing newly-introducededucation policies. A prominent policy documenton basic education introduced during this periodwas the Education Act of 1996. The 1996 Act,which replaced the Education Act 1961 providesfor the institutionalisation of preschool education.
This period also marked Governmentinitiated drives to set up quality educationalinstitutions for capacity building. Rapid changesin response to provide quality education to allwere apparent. In making education relevant,education programmes were reviewed andseveral policy reforms were introduced –including the establishment of smart schools, theupgrading of vocational secondary schools totechnical secondary schools and increased usage of ICT in education. This period also saw teacher qualification being upgraded from certificate to diploma; the establishment of matriculation and community colleges; and
the upgrading of a teacher training college (Maktab Perguruan Sultan Idris) to a university (Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris).
Greater access to tertiary education wasaccelerated to meet the growing demands of theMalaysian economy for larger and better qualityhuman resources. Among the policy reforms andlegislations introduced at higher education levelwere:a) the Private Higher Education Institution Act
1996 (aimed to make Malaysia the centre ofeducational excellence),
b) the National Council on Higher Education Act1996 (to determine policy and coordinate thedevelopment of higher education),
c) the National Higher Education FundCorporation Act 1996 (to increase access tohigher education through the provision ofstudent loans and funding schemes),
d) the Universities and University Colleges Act(Amendment) 1996 (to provide for greaterautonomy to public universities in manage-ment and finances and in determiningprogrammes for educational excellence), and
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e) the National Accreditation Council Act (toensure high academic standards, high qualityassurance and quality control in the provisionof private higher education).
National Vision Policy (2001–2010)Today Malaysia is faced with the challenges ofglobalisation, liberalisation, internationalisationand the development of information andcommunications technology (ICT). In respondingto these challenges, the NVP period emphasiseson developing a knowledge-based economy or k-economy capable of responding to thechallenges of the 21st century. As such, the national education system providesprogrammes aimed at developing citizens whoare knowledgeable, ICT- literate, skilled andpossess good moral values. In responding to thechallenges of the 21st century, further policyimprovements were made and the educationlegislations strengthened to provide anenvironment that ensures education for all.
These are reflected in the Education Act of1996 (Amendment 2002) which includesprovision for compulsory primary educationeffective from 2003. Other keychanges made were: a) the Guidance and
Counselling Programmewas extended in 2003 toprovide one counsellor forevery 500 students;
b) the Teaching and Learningof Science and Mathe-matics in English wasimplemented in 2003;
c) the Poor Students’ TrustFund (KWAPM) was intro-duced in 2004 to providefinancial aid to primaryschool students frompoor households;
d) the Tuition Aid Scheme (SBT), introduced in2004 provides free tuition to needy primaryschool pupils (Years 4 to 6) who are weak in Malay language, English, Science andMathematics (PPSMI);
e) Vocational subjects were introduced inregular secondary schools in 2004;
f) Remedial programmes were extended withthe deployment of remedial teachers inschools (2005); and
g) the Graduate Teachers Programme wasinitiated to ensure that 50 percent of primaryand all secondary school teachers are traineduniversity graduates by 2010.
A significant development in the country’seducation history was the establishment of theMinistry of Higher Education (MOHE) in 2004.This new set up enables the MOE to focus on issues and challenges in providing qualitypreschool, primary and secondary education,matriculation and teacher education. The newlyestablished MOHE emphasises on theexpanding demands for tertiary and post-secondary education.
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R
PrimaryYear 1–6 (6+ - 11+)
National
National Type
National Type
Primary School Assessment (UPSR) Open Certificate Examination (SPM)
Malaysia Higher School Certificate (STPM) Malaysia HigherSchool Certificate for Religious Education (STAM)
Remove
EXAMINATIONS
Lower Secondary Assessment (PMR)
Academic Academic/Religious
Matriculation
Form 6
College/Polytechnic
University/College/
Employment
Sports/Arts
TechnicalVocational
Lower SecondaryForm 1–3(12+ - 14+)
Upper SecondaryForm 4 –5(15+ - 16+)
PostSecondary
Higher EducationCollege &University
R
Chart 2.1 | Education and Assessment Structure
Education StructureMost children between four and six years of agebegin their education at preschool set upthroughout the country by Government and non-government agencies and the private sector.They enter primary school at the age of six.
Primary education comprises six years ofcompulsory education, years one-six (equivalentto grades one-six). There are two types of primaryschools—the National School with NationalLanguage as the medium of instruction and theNational Type Chinese Schools and National TypeTamil Schools where the medium of instructionsis Mandarin and Tamil respectively.
At the secondary education level themedium of instruction is the National Language.Lower secondary education consists of Formsone-three (equivalent to grades 7–9). At the end
of the third year of lower secondary educationstudents sit for the lower secondary schoolpublic examination and proceed to two years ofupper secondary education consisting of Formsfour-five (equivalent to grades 10–11). At the end of upper secondary education students sit for the upper secondary school publicexamination. Not all students progress to post-secondary education.
Post-secondary education level may bepursued through a two-year Form 6 programmeor through a matriculation programme which isconsidered a preparatory year for universityentrance. Colleges and polytechnics offerdiploma level programmes and upon completion,graduates from these institutions may proceedto university or enter the job market.
The education system offers four public
Education Structure and Management
examination, namely: a) Primary School Assessment Test (UPSR) at
the end of Year 6, b) Lower Secondary Assessment (PMR), at the
end of Form 3, c) the Malaysia Certificate of Education (SPM),
equivalent to GCE O-level, at the end ofForm 5, and
d) the Malaysia Higher School CertificateExamination (STPM), equivalent to GCE A- level, or the Malaysia Higher Certificatefor Religious Education (STAM) at the end of Form 6. Chart 2.1 illustrates the educationand assessment structure.
Education ManagementThe Minister of Education, a member of theCabinet heads the MOE. The Minister isassisted by two Deputy Ministers who arealso political appointees. Administration at theministerial level is carried out by executiveofficials from the administrative and theeducation services. The administrative service is
headed by the Secretary General, and theeducation service is headed by the DirectorGeneral. Both the Secretary General andDirector General are directly responsible to theMinister. The Secretary General is primarilyresponsible for administrative affairs and isassisted by two deputies. The Director Generalis responsible for education matters and isassisted by four deputies.
Decision-making at the MOE is performedthrough a system of committees. Thesecommittees are established to facilitate inter-division and intra-division decision-making. TheEducation Planning Committee (EPC) chaired bythe Minister is the highest decision-making bodyat the federal level. Policy issues that have widerramifications are referred to the Cabinet before afinal decision is made. However, the ultimateauthority on education is the Parliament. TheEducational Planning and Research Division(EPRD) serves as the Secretariat to the EPC.
Educational administration in Malaysia iscentralised and organised into four distinct
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Minister
Deputy Minister
Secretary General
Director General
Various Departments / Divisions and 15 State Education Departments
Various Departments /Divisions
• Inspectorate of Schools• Examination Council• Translation Institute• Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka• Malaysian Book Council
Deputy Minister
Chart 2.2 | Ministry of Education
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hierarchical levels namely, federal, state, districtand school. The institutions representing thesefour levels are the Ministry of Education,the State Education Departments, the District/Division Education Offices and schools.
At the ministry, education policies areformulated and translated into programmes,projects and activities. The ministry is alsoresponsible for developing educationdevelopment plans for the sector. Curriculadesign and syllabuses, and national publicexaminations are also determined at this level.Apart from executing its function in decisionmaking and planning the ministry is alsoresponsible to coordinate and monitor theprogress and achievement of the educationpolicies and plans.
The implementation of education policiesand plans made at the federal level are carriedout at the state level through fourteen State
Education Departments (SEDs). The SEDscoordinate and monitor the implementation ofnational education programmes, projects andactivities at the state level, besides providingfeedback to the federal agencies. Theadministration of education at the state level isthe responsibility of the State Director ofEducation. District Education Offices were set upin June 1982 to serve as an effective linkbetween the school and the SEDs.
The administration of education at the schoollevel is the responsibility of the principal orheadmaster who is both the administrative andinstructional leader in the school. The principal orheadmaster is assisted by a Senior Assistant anda Head of Student Affairs. The Senior Assistantassists in administrative functions such as themanagement of school funds, accounts andresources; and planning the timetable and workscheme for teachers. The Head of Student Affairsassists in matters related to student welfare, suchas, textbooks loans, discipline, student health andnutrition. Besides this, the principal or headmasterattends to complaints and liaises with parents andthe community on matters relating to studentwell-being. For effective coordination of teachingand learning of the various subjects taught inschools, a senior teacher is appointed as the heador key resource teacher for the different subjects.Schools with two sessions have AfternoonSupervisors to assist school heads in supervisingthe administrative and instructional activities ofthe schools. All schools have a Parent-TeacherAssociation.
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EFA Coordination Mechanism
General oversight on the progress of EFA and theEFA Mid-Decade Assessment (MDA) is theresponsibility of the EFA Steering Committeecomprising representatives from the lineministries concerned with the six goals of EFA.This Committee is co-chaired by the SecretaryGeneral and Director General of Education.Senior officials from the relevant ministries, theUNICEF Malaysia, UNESCO Jakarta and NGOsare also members of the committee. The EFASteering Committee makes decisions on thedirection of the EFA MDA and is advisory to theTechnical Working Groups (TWGs). The EPRD is
the Secretariat to the EFA Steering Committeeand the National EFA Coordinator.
Implementation of EFA and EFA-Mid Decade Assessment is through six TWGscomprising ministries and agenciesimplementing programmes corresponding to the six EFA goals and a TWG responsible formanaging EFA indicators. The TWGs alsomonitor the progress of EFA within theirresponsibility and report to the EFA SteeringCommittee. The TWGs are chaired by agenciesthat have the biggest stake in EFA goals.
Steering Committee
Ministry of EducationEPUTreasuryMinistry of Higher EducationMinistry of Human ResourcesMinistry of Entrepreneur DevelopmentMinistry of Rural DevelopmentMinistry of Youth and SportsMinistry of HealthMinistry of Women, Family and Community Dev.
Ministry of DefenseMinistry of InformationDepartment of RegistrationDepartment of StatisticsDepartment of Social WelfareNational Unity Dept.Private Institutions
TWG Goal 1
TWG Goal 4 TWG Goal 5 TWG Goal 6 TWG (Data)
TWG Goal 2 TWG Goal 3
Chart 2.3 | EFA Coordination Mechanism
Malaysia recognises that national developmentpriorities and strategies are closely linked to the availability of data at all stages of thedevelopment programmes. It becomes moreimportant during the implementation andcompletion stages of development programmeswhere measuring their progress towardsachieving specific targets would indicate likelysuccess or failure. While Malaysia recognisesdata-driven decisions are now imperative in thenew globalised economy, it faces manychallenges in having a systematic data collectionstructure in all facets of its administration. Inaddition, alternative raw data must be accessed,integrated, compiled, and distilled into usefulinformation in a timely manner.
Analysis in measuring Malaysia’s progresswith respect to EFA, has included data onpopulation, economy and education. These have
provided the socio-economic background fromwhich system-wide changes in the educationsector were measured. Greater use of economic,social and education data has provided richer andmore comprehensive analyses, for measuringprogress made in the education sector towardsachieving the six EFA goals.
To this effect, Malaysia has strengthened theroles and functions of the Department ofStatistics (DOS). Being the main source ofeconomic and social sector data for public andprivate consumption, the DOS has increased itsuse of information technology, reorganised itsprogrammes and work procedures and engagedin capacity building. In addition, the adoption ofinternational statistical methodologies and qualitystandards in its data collection has added further confidence in the statistical information it provides.
Data Collection
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The concern for quality data to enableinformed decisions and formulation of beneficialand judicious policies is reflected in MOE’spolicies with regards to education statistics andits practice in the ministry. The MOE recognisesthat education statistics have been vital inmaking available key education indicators whichallow policy questions that have a more explicitlink between educational inputs and outcomes.
The EPRD is the principal agency managingthe Education Management Information System(EMIS) in data compilation, analysis, and thedissemination of education information andstatistics. In carrying out its statistical functions,standards of quality, objectivity, utility, andintegrity of information disseminated areobserved and standard international metho-dologies recommended by international worldbodies such as UNESCO Institute for Statistics(UIS) are used where possible. Data users areassured of the accuracy, timeliness, relevance,and accessibility to the statistics and information
produced by EPRD. In addition, the practice ofcomplying with international frameworks foreducation statistics has also allowed Malaysia to participate in international studies such as World Education Indicators (WEI) without much difficulty.
Having a solid foundation and ongoingcommitment to capacity building in performingits statistical functions the MOE has alsoincreased the awareness of the importance ofdata collection for all ministries and agenciesinvolved in the EFA effort to help them identifythe gaps, measure their progress, conductimpact studies and provide the direction forfuture policy formulation.
EFA Indicators The challenge for Malaysia in the EFA monitoringeffort is to collect quality data to provide strongindicators of its education performance. The MOEhas found that one of the strengths of the EFAindicators is that they provide regular assessments
School District EducationOffice (DEO)
State EducationDepartment (SED)
Ministry of Education (MOE)
EMISData Server
MOE consolidates all data.Statistics analysis and report produced fordecision making and educational planning.
SED accesses data, verifiesand consolidates all DEO data as SED data. Analysisand report produced forSED purposes.
DEO validates and verifies data from schools, consolidate as DEO data and sends to EMIS Data Server for confirmation from MOE.
Standalone ApplicationSchools enter data and verified by School Information Management Committee.
Chart 2.4 | EMIS Data Collection Flow
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alongside trend analysis of contextual elementsand the background of the entity being measured.Another important feature is that they enablecomparison of key indicators cross-sectorally aswell as cross-nationally in describing educationresources (schools, schooling materials, schoolsupport and teachers) and various structural(centralisation/decentralisation) and social (urban,rural, indigenous, special) features of schools and classrooms.
In addition, the learning process afforded bythe EFA MDA has allowed the MOE to build itsknowledge base of the best policy mix thatworks for the education system. The indicatorsfor example, offer a new framework for thinkingabout what kind of interventions might be mosteffective for particular schools or groups basedon the argument that certain kinds ofinterventions are appropriate for differentschooling situations depending on the socialbackground of the schools and students. Dataand key indicators are starting points for a morethorough analysis of the relationships betweenschooling outcomes and the inputs andprocesses that affect these outcomes. Thus, theinsights gained through the current assessmentof EFA goals had presented the MOE an opportunity to further understand whichinterventions are better than others.
As routine data collection and assessmentsprogress over time, much of the core elementsregarding performance and background ofschools, Enrollment and teachers will beconsistent across evaluation studies. The nextchallenge for the MOE is to conduct rigorousanalyses of the data collected over the years. Thedata collected opens up a lot of opportunities formore meaningful analyses and data mining. Newmeasures of school and classroom policy andpractice will have to be developed to ensure the‘right’ mix of policies for different kinds ofsituations as the MOE moves its focus fromissues of access and equity to quality in education.
New directions in measurement andevaluationGiven high rates of participation and genderparity have already been reached, it is foreseenthat the MOE would face difficulties in attaininga 100 percent achievement unless attention isgiven to the exact ‘who’ and ‘where’ theunreached are. This would necessitate newmeasurements that can help identify the exactlocation, schools and target groups which requirefurther attention. A more effective frameworkcan inform educational policy makers at thenational and local levels to address the particularneeds of the disparity or gap identified.
P r o g r e s s i n A c h i ev i n g E FA G o a l s
3
Expanding and improving comprehensive earlychildhood care and education demand actions in all aspects of a child’s development – physical, emotional, social and intellectual. TheGovernment of Malaysia’s strategies forpromoting access and improving the quality ofsupport for young children are provided by theMOE, the Ministry of Women, Family andCommunity Development (MWFCD), the Ministryof Health (MOH), the Ministry of Regional andRural Development (MRRD) through theDepartment of Regional and Rural Development
(KEMAS), and the Prime Minister’s Departmentthrough the Department of National Unity andIntegration (PERPADUAN). The private sector alsoprovides early childhood care and education,especially in urban areas. Non-governmentorganisations (NGOs) are focused on providingservices to children of migrants working inMalaysia. In addition, other Governmentstrategies to enhance living standards and qualityof life also provide important support and benefitsfor young children.
National goals and objectives for improving
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Goal 1: Expanding and improvingcomprehensive early childhood care andeducation, especially for the mostvulnerable and disadvantaged children
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the care of and education for young childrenfeature prominently in the 9MP. The 9MP iscommitted to expanding access to preschooleducation to all children aged five and six by 2010as well as to improve the quality of teaching andlearning in preschool by providing adequatenumber of teachers and teacher assistants. The9MP also calls for the introduction of public earlychildcare and preschool education for childrenaged zero to four with selected pilot projects.
While the 9MP does not include specifictargets for child health, a number of provisionshave been made to increase support for ensuringthe health and physical development of youngchildren. These include further expansion ofprimary healthcare with special attention to theunreached through mobile facilities in remoteregions and in urban areas where traditionalexpansion is constrained by a lack of space. ThePlan also calls for expanding current services for children with special needs and theestablishment of a specialised hospital forwomen and children.
STRATEGIES TO ACHIEVE THEGOAL 1 IN MALAYSIA
STRATEGY 1: Ensuring a standardof quality care and educationthroughout MalaysiaChi ld Health Ser v ices Pol ic iesArticle 24 of the Convention on the Rights of theChild (CRC) states that, ‘The child has a right tothe highest standard of health and medical careattainable. States shall place special emphasis onthe provision of primary and preventive healthcare, public health education and the reduction ofinfant mortality.” Since the 1950s Malaysia hasincluded a maternal and child health programmein the national health system. Upon adoption ofthe CRC in 1989, additional child health serviceswere initiated to provide adequate healthinfrastructure and programmes which areaccessible and affordable to all children. Amongthe services currently available are routine visitsand examination for children, immunisation andassessment of nutritional status including growthmonitoring. Health education for parents isprovided during child health clinic sessionswhenever necessary. Child health programmesare continuously improved according to thechanging needs of the children.
National Nutr i t ion Pol icyThe National Nutrition Policy was formulated in2003 to ensure public access to safe and qualityfood regardless of location. One of the measuresresulting from the policy was the amendment ofthe Food Regulation of 1985 in 2004 to includethe implementation of mandatory labelling offood content with relevant nutrition informationto assist consumers in making informed choiceswhen purchasing foodstuff. The Nutrition Plan ofAction inaugurated in 1986 included theimprovement of food quality and safety, breastfeeding promotion and the promotion ofappropriate diet and healthy lifestyle.
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Chi ldcare Centre Act 1984 (amended 2007)The Childcare Centre Act establishes a set ofminimum quality requirements for all childcarecentres and nurseries with regards to nutrition,healthy environment, mental development ofchildren and training for all child minders. The Actrequires all providers to obtain a basic childcarecertificate and for all child minders to attend astandard training course developed by theMWFCD. All providers of childcare/nurseryservices that charges a fee are required to register with the Department of SocialWelfare, MWFCD.
In 1982 the then Ministry of Social Welfarewith support from UNICEF conducted a study onchildcare centres in Malaysia. The studyindicated the need to enhance the quality ofchildcare among the nursery/childcare providersespecially in the areas of nutrition, healthyenvironments, mental development and trainingfor the child minders. In 1984 the Government,with support of the Bernard Van Leer Foundation,established a special unit to draft the ChildcareCentre Act. Subsequent support from the VanLeer Foundation was utilised for advocacy aboutthe new Act and dissemination of information to
childcare providers. The Childcare Centre Act was implemented in the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur in May 1985 and to the rest ofMalaysia, beginning February 1986. Additionalsupport provided by the Van Lear Foundationwas used for strengthening registration andenforcement. In 2007, the Act was amended tochange the period of validity of registration from12 to 60 months in order to promote compliance.
National Preschool Curr iculumIn the 1960s and 1970s nearly all early childhoodcare and education was provided by NGOs,religious bodies and private kindergartens. In theearly 1970s the first publicly provided preschoolswere initiated by KEMAS. By the 1980s anumber of other Government entities such asthe Federal Land Development Authority(FELDA), the Rubber Institute SmallholderDevelopment Authority (RISDA), PERPADUAN,religious bodies, and the education wing of thePolice and Armed Forces were providingpreschools while the number of privatepreschools continued to expand. To ensurestandards of quality across the preschools, theMOE drew upon experiences from the pilotprogrammes supported by the Bernard Van Leer
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Foundation and UNICEF to produce the firstformalised preschool curriculum document in1986 (Buku Panduan Prasekolah Malaysia 1986).In 1992 this document was reviewed and apackage of preschool curriculum guide bookswas produced. In 2003 a national curriculum forpreschool was formalised and circulars weresent to all public and private preschools notifyingthem that they were now required by law tofollow this National Preschool Curriculum forchildren aged five plus. The National PreschoolCurriculum ensures a uniform standard of qualityin preschools throughout the country.
National Educat ion Act 1996The National Education Act of 1996 formallyincorporates preschool education into the nationaleducation system and rests authority forregulation of the sector (public and private) withthe MOE. Complementing other Governmentpolicies on national identity and social cohesion,the Act requires that all preschools include at least2 hours per week of formal instruction in BahasaMalaysia. In acknowledging the rights of its peoplewith regards to mother tongues, preschools canbe conducted in the languages used by the people
in Malaysia, which are Malay, English, Chineseand Tamil. Programmes seeking to includeadditional content not specified in the nationalpreschool curriculum are required to seek approvalfrom the MOE.
While the National Education Act did notmake preschool education compulsory it raisedthe visibility of the sector and established aninstitutional framework for expanding statesupport to programmes for young children. TheAct marks the beginning of a significantexpansion in the provision of public preschool,especially in rural areas.
Early Chi ldhood Care andDevelopment Pol icy 2007The MWFCD has forwarded to parliament for approval an Early Childhood Care andDevelopment (ECCD) Policy and an action plan for implementing the policy. The policyadvocates holistic development and quality carefor new born to 8 year old children. The policyaims to concretise and complement otherexisting national policies on early childhood careand development. This policy will be monitoredthrough the establishment of laws, regulationsenforcement mechanism and a specialaccreditation body for childcare centres forchildren aged 0–4 years. The purpose is toensure quality in the training and in the servicesprovided for early childhood care anddevelopment.
The objective of the 2007 ECCD policy is to“prepare quality care facilities and services in aconducive environment to stimulate earlydevelopment of each child so that he or she canachieve optimum development in line withnational aspirations.” Among the activities in theaction plan are the provision of minimumstandards of childcare services in accordance tothe Child Act 2001 and Childcare Centre Act of1984 (amended in 2006) as well as the Code ofEthics for Childcare Centres based on the CRC
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and other related acts. Other elements of theaction plan include the establishment of more childcare centres and community-basedrehabilitation centres through grants andsubsidies. Also included are the expansion ofoutreach programmes to educate and raise theawareness of parents, the community, familymembers, childcare providers and operators andthe society at large and the establishment of acomprehensive monitoring system for childdevelopment.
National Chi ld Protect ion Pol icyUnder Article 19, 20, and 22 of the CRC, stateparties shall take all appropriate legislative,administrative, social and educational measuresto protect the child from all forms ofmaltreatment by parents or others responsiblefor the care of the child. The Child Act 2001 (Act611) provides that every child is entitled toprotection and assistance in all circumstancesregardless of any distinction, such as race,colour, sex, language, religion, social origin orphysical, mental or emotional disabilities.
Consistent with the objectives of the policy anumber of entities have been established. These include:
• Court for Children• Child Protection Teams• Child Activity Centres• Orphanages• Rehabilitation Centres/Schools
Reports by the public on maltreatment areto be investigated by the Department of SocialWelfare.
National Pol icy on Disabled Chi ldrenArticle 23 of the CRC recognises the rights of adisabled child to special care, education andtraining to help him or her enjoy a full life in dignityand achieve the greatest degree of self-relianceand social integration possible. The Division onPersons with Disabilities under the Department of
Social Welfare is responsible for the database ondisabled persons as well as for setting upcommunity based rehabilitation centres providingdiagnosis and rehabilitation services.
National Pol icy on Indigenous Chi ldArticle 30 of the CRC stipulates that childrenbelonging to minority groups or the indigenouschildren have the right to enjoy their ownculture, profess and practise their own religion,or to use their own language. Curricula of thenative languages such as Iban, Kadazan-Dusunand Semai have been formulated and offered assubjects in schools in the native communities.
The Aboriginal Peoples Act 1954 (Act 134)places the responsibility for the generaladministration, welfare and advancement ofOrang Asli on the Commissioner of AboriginalAffairs. Various programmes such as ‘WomanMotivator’ (Penggerak Wanita) (since 2000), andOrang Asli Preschool (since 1992) have beenimplemented.
Permata Ear ly Chi ldhood Care andEducation CentresThe Permata Early Childhood Care and EducationCentre is a model for the care and education ofchildren aged 4 years and under that is beingexplored by the Government of Malaysia. Fourcentres with a total of 94 children have been inoperation since March 2007 and an additionalcentre began operating beginning May 2007. Adecision was made on 31 Oct 2006 by theDeputy Prime Minister and Chief Ministers that,one Permata centre will be built in each statebefore the end of 2007. At the end of two yearsan evaluation report will be sent to the Cabinet todecide upon the possibility of its expansion to theentire country.
Permata centres provide integrated qualitycare and early education services based on theneeds of the local community for children below5 years of age and for their families. Permata
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centres adopt the community-based integratedapproach practised in the United Kingdom underthe Sure Start Programme. When fullyoperational these centres will also provide an out-reach programme, parenting courses,counselling, and healthcare services to help thelocal communities promote a healthy and safe life style. Services would include a communityresource centre and a library and the services ofspeech therapists and nutritionists.
STRATEGY 2: Expanding access toquality care and educationThe relevant ministries and departments haveexpanded or are expanding formal provision of careand education to young children. These include:
Ministr y of Rural and RegionalDevelopmentKEMAS was the first Government entity toprovide preschool education in Malaysia beginningin 1972 and is currently the largest Governmentprovider especially in rural areas. In 2007, KEMASprovided services for approximately 198 thousandchildren – including approximately four thousandchildren under 5 years of age.
Ministr y of Educat ionSince the incorporation of preschool educationinto the national education system, the MOE hasimplemented preschool classes for five- and six-year-olds as an annex to existing primary schoolsespecially in rural areas. By 2007, the number ofchildren benefiting from public preschoolsreached nearly 148 thousand.
Prime Minister ’s Depar tment PERPADUAN initiatives focus on urban andsuburban multi-ethnic neighbourhoods. Theprogramme applies the National PreschoolCurriculum but also includes a specificcomponent for promoting harmony, neighbour-liness, unity and nationality among the childrenfrom the different ethnic communities as well asamong the parents of the children. Theprogramme initiated in 1977 currently (2007)provides preschool education to nearly 39 thousand children in 1,496 sites.
Workplace Chi ldcare CentresResponding to the rapid economic expansion inMalaysia and increasing participation of womenin its economic activities the MWFCD is
promoting the establishment of childcare centresin the workplace. As an incentive for expandingthe number of workplace childcare centres, 112private companies and 86 state agencies wereprovided a grant for renovation and furnishing oftheir workplace childcare centres. State agenciesemployees with low income also receive amonthly subsidy for fees associated with thecentres. The Government is promoting theestablishment of workplace childcare centres inthe private sector by granting tax exemptions tocover the costs of construction, renovation andfurnishing such centres.
Community Chi ldcare CentresAccessibility and affordability are the primaryconstraints to quality childcare for lower incomeMalaysian households. The MWFCD is currentlyengaged in promoting and demonstrating amodel of Community Childcare Centres forproviding quality childcare (0 to 4 year olds) tolow income families in urban and rural areas.These Community Childcare Centres are definedas childcare centres with 10 or more children thatis managed by an organisation appointed/approved by the Government and assisted by theFederal or State Government. All centres use thecurriculum set by the MWFCD and as abenchmark to the other childcare centres. TheCommunity Childcare Centres model is based on
the active participation of the local community,parents, children, Governmental agencies as wellas private organisations. The MWFCD envisionsthat these Community Childcare Centres wouldbe managed by voluntary associations incollaboration with or as a joint venture with theprivate sector. The MWFCD plans to expand theprogramme through support of an initial grant forcapital expenditures and with subsidies providedfor children from low income households.
QUALITY ASSURANCEMONITORING AND EVALUATION Malaysia has in place a number of planning andreview processes both across and within sectorsthat facilitate periodic assessment in providingquality care and education to young children.These processes include:
National Development Planning andReviewExpanding and improving care and education foryoung children requires actions within andacross various sectors. Development planning inMalaysia results in the elaboration of successivefive-year national development plans. In thisplanning process, information about needs andpriorities is determined in a top-down and bottom-up manner with the bottom up
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component largely managed by line ministries.The process also includes the formation oftemporary Interagency Planning Groups to focuson thematic issues such as care and educationfor young children that cut across line ministryresponsibilities. A key element in the planningprocess is the formal mid-term review whereeach individual Government entity involved inthe implementation of the plan conducts its ownreview and participates with other sectors injoint reviews of the programmatic “thrusts” ofthe current Malaysia Plan.
Survei l lance of Nutr i t ional Status andChi ldhood Disease and Mor tal i tyAt regular intervals the MOH collects andanalyses weight-for-age data for children belowage 5 who visit Government health clinics, as ameans of monitoring the nutritional status of children. The MOH regularly reports prenatalmortality, infant mortality, toddler mortality andmaternal mortality. The MOH also regularlymonitors the oral health of children through theHealth Management Information System.
Tracking the Expansion of PreschoolAccess ib i l i tyThe MOE assesses Enrollment gains in ECCEthrough the Annual Schools Survey and dataprovided by the Private Education Division(MOE), KEMAS and PERPADUAN. The MOEassesses the growth in Enrollment in preschoolsand the net Enrollment ratio for the 5–6 age groups.
Ensur ing Qual i ty in Curr iculumDevelopmentTo ensure the quality of the curriculum forpreschools (and all curriculum areas), thecurriculum development process has to complywith the criteria established in the QualityManual IS0 9001 developed by the CurriculumDevelopment Centre (MOE).
Monitor ing the Qual i ty of Teachingand Learning in PreschoolsThe Inspectorate of School (MOE) leads anannual collaborative inspection of preschoolswith participation of other departments withinthe MOE, namely, the EPRD, the CurriculumDevelopment Centre, the Schools Division,Special Education Division, and the PrivateEducation Division. This inspection combinesdetailed observations of teaching and learning inclassrooms and observations of schooloperations to provide direct feedback andrecommendations to staff on the day of the visit.
To strengthen the monitoring process forchildcare centres, the Quality Improvement andAccreditation System is currently in development.A set of national indicators have been developedand field tested. It is expected that thisinstrument will be adopted in 2007 and used bythe state level Department of Social Welfare(MWFCD) during visits to childcare centres up tofour times per year.
Monitor ing from a Human RightsPer spect iveThe Inspectorate Unit in the Ministry of RuralAdvancement and Territory (MRAT) regularlygathers information on the status anddevelopment of indigenous people and theDepartment of Orang Asli receives and addressescomplaints from indigenous people. Thecommittee on the National Children Plan meetstwice a year to monitor and report on the status of children.
The human rights group SUHAKAM monitorshuman rights complaints in Malaysia and UNICEFsupports the Government’s initiatives inmonitoring and addressing child developmentissues in the country. The advocacy groups,Association for Orang Asli of Peninsular Malaysiaand the Centre for Orang Asli Concerns, monitorand highlight the concerns of indigenous peoplein Malaysia.
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POLICIES AND STRATEGIESTO REACH THE UNREACHEDGROUPSDifficult-to-reach children in Malaysia aregenerally those from very poor households, inremote areas, with special needs and from theindigenous communities. Reaching all youngchildren with quality care and educationrequires specific interventions to address theneeds of difficult-to-reach children both interms of dedicating resources to expandingaccess and to the development of customisedapproaches and programmes for children withdiverse needs.
Specific policies, programmes and inter-ventions to increase the participation of thesechildren in quality childcare and educationinclude:
STRATEGY 3: Financial assistanceto the households of poor children Established in 1946, the Department of SocialWelfare has formulated various policies andprogrammes for the social development and welfare of the people. Two types of assistance benefit poor children – ChildSupport Assistance (Bantuan Kanak-kanak) andSchooling Assistance (Bantuan Sekolah). Child
Support Assistance is given to low incomefamilies with children to support livingexpenses. Schooling Assistance is given toschool-going children from low incomefamilies for school fees, school uniform, busfare etc. In 2005, a total of USD12,841,376was provided as Child Support Assistance to atotal of 19,346 households.
STRATEGY 4: Expandingpreschool places for children withspecial needsThe national policy is to provide specialeducation in MOE institutions for children with asingle disability. Currently there are 28preschool classes in special schools and 32integration classes. Children with multipledisabilities are referred to the MWFCD. TheEDMP 2006 – 2010 calls for the establishmentof an additional 100 preschool classrooms forthe integration of children aged 5 and 6 withsingle disability (usually learning disabled). Thisexpansion includes preparing the necessarypreschools teachers and teacher assistants. Theprovision to amend the Special EducationRegulations Act of 1997 to accept students withtwo disabilities is also included in the EDMP.
STRATEGY 5: Expanding access topreschool for children residing inrural and remote areasA total of 3,143 preschool classes will beprovided in the 2006–2010 period of the 9MP.Of these, 80 percent or 2,436 classes will be inrural areas. The Government also plans to raisethe per capita grant for preschools. Children inthe rural areas of Sabah and Sarawak areserved by preschools provided by KEMAS, theMOE, and PERPADUAN. With the expansion ofpreschool classes under the MOE, the numberof indigenous children enrolled in MOEpreschools has increased more than three-foldfrom 6,922 in 2000 to 24,817 in 2006.
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STRATEGY 6: Expanding publicsupport for early childhood care and education to indigenouscommunitiesBoth the Department of Orang Asli Affairs(JHEOA) and KEMAS have expanded publicsupported care and education for young children(0–4 years old) in indigenous communities. TheWomen Motivator initiative of JHEOA trains andsupports women motivators to promoteawareness to mothers in the indigenouscommunities of the importance of education.The women motivators also conductprogrammes that bring children and parentstogether in learning activities. The initiative hasincreased from six sites and 80 children in 2000when it was launched in 28 sites and 529participating children in 2006. KEMAS alsobegan to provide support for programmes forchildren under 5 in indigenous communities in2005 with 226 children. In 2006 the KEMASchildcare programme provided support to 317children in the indigenous communities inpeninsular Malaysia.
Since 1992, KEMAS has been providingpreschools (5–6 years old) for the indigenouscommunities of Peninsular Malaysia. Participationhas increased from about 3,800 children in 2000to more than 4,900 in 2006.
NGOs have also made important contri-butions in expanding access to quality ECCE for children from indigenous communities,particularly in difficult-to-reach areas. Many of these NGOs provide support to ECCE as a component of a more comprehensivecommunity-based support programme. One ofthe largest providers of ECCE in indigenouscommunities is the PACOS Trust. PACOSsupports community organisations in 12 districtsinvolving 25 geographical areas in Sabah.Currently it has 17 ECCE centres in the interiorof Sabah involving 2020 children and 71teachers and caregivers. Working with the
Association of Kindergartens of Sabah PACOSprovides basic training to their preschoolteachers on a yearly basis. PACOS preschoolsare mostly built through sponsorship frominternational bodies and companies such asRALLY and NESTLE in joint efforts with the local communities. The programme has alsoresulted in increased awareness among parentsand local communities on the importance ofcommunity health, child care and education.Other NGOs also provide ECCE to indigenouschildren in Sabah.
STRATEGY 7: Customisingapproaches to better incorporateunreached childrenReaching difficult-to-reach children often requiresalternative approaches in addition to expandedcapacity. The MOE has adapted the NationalPreschool Curriculum for the visually impaired,the hearing impaired and learning disabled. Amodified curriculum for indigenous children isunder development. The Women Motivatorinitiative also represents an approach specificallydeveloped for the conditions and culture ofindigenous communities.
PROGRESS IN ACHIEVING EFAGOAL 1Figure 3.1 presents the number of children 4 to6 years of age registered in public or privatepreschool programmes. The number hasincreased from approximately 340 thousand in2000 to nearly 630 thousand children in 2005.As indicated in the graph the majority of thisnew enrollment has been the result ofincreased public provision of ECCE. Theenrollment of 4 to 6 year olds in ECCEincreased from 40 percent in year 2000 to 67percent in 2005.
It is important to note that some 4 to 6 yearolds are enrolled in private centres and “Mind
Sources: EMIS, EPRD, MOE (2005)
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Figure 3.2 | GER for ECCE 4–6 years old, by State, 2005
GER
GER (4-6) ECCE
35.0%
Terengganu
Negeri Sembilan
Johore
Pahang
Perlis
Perak
Selangor
Pulau Pinang
Melaka
Kedah
Sabah
Sarawak
Kelantan
Labuan
Kuala Lumpur
45.0% 55.0% 65.0% 75.0% 85.0% 95.0%
2001 2002 2003 2004 20050%0
100,000
200,000
300,000
400,000
Child
ren Public
ECCE
PrivateECCE
ECCE (4-6)GER
500,000
600,000
700,000
800,000
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
Figure 3.1 | GER and Enrollment for ECCE 4–6 years old, 2001–2005
Sources: EMIS, EPRD, MOE (2001–2005)
Sources: EMIS, EPRD, MOE (2000 & 2005)
Figure 3.3 | Children 4–6 years old not Enrolled in ECCE, by State, 2000 & 2005
Children 4–6 Not Enrolled
0
Terengganu
N.Sembilan
Johore
Pahang
Perlis
Perak
Selangor
Pulau Pinang
Melaka
Kedah
Sabah
Sarawak
Kelantan
Labuan
Kuala Lumpur
20,000 60,00040,000 80,000 100,000 120,000 140,000 160,000
2000 2005
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Development Centres” that do not report ECCEenrollment because they are not registered aseducation centres. A study conducted by theCurriculum Development Centre (MOE) in 2007reported that about 94 percent of year oneentrants in public schools have attended somekind of preschool.
Figure 3.2 presents the estimated ECCEGER for 4 to 6 year olds by state. The estimatedGER varies considerably by state ranging from 37 percent in Labuan to about 83 percent inTerengganu. Since state populations differsignificantly the similar GERs can have drasticallydifferent consequences in terms of the numberof children still not accessing ECCE
Figure 3.3 presents the estimated number ofchildren 4 to 6 years of age not participating inECCE by state. The figure shows the states ofSabah, Kelantan and Sarawak having relatively
larger numbers of children 4 to 6 years of age notparticipating in ECCE. Current policies of prioritisingrural areas with new ECCE initiatives areconsistent with eliminating these persisting ruralurban differences.
Surprisingly, the estimate of children notaccessing ECCE is highest for the larger moreurbanised state of Selangor. This observation hasseveral possible explanations. The estimates arebased on reported public and private ECCEEnrollment and the use of live births to estimatethe size of the 4 to 6 year population. Onepossible explanation is that a significant numberof children in Selangor do not have legal status toenrol in schools in Malaysia. Another possibleexplanation is that a large number of children inSelangor attend ECCE in private centres that arenot registered and do not report or not required toreport their enrollment to the MOE since they
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are not considered as education centres. Thepossibility that some segments of the Selangorpopulation still face barriers to participation inECCE cannot be ruled out without additionalresearch into this issue.
The trend in participation in ECCE (4 to 6 yearolds) for indigenous children is illustrated inFigure 3.4. The number of indigenous childrenparticipating in ECCE has increased nearly threefold between 2000 and 2005. Most of the growthin enrollment since 2000 has been the result ofGovernment’s efforts to prioritise investments inECCE for rural communities.
Children with special needs are alsoprioritised in Government investments in ECCE.Figure 3.5 presents the trend in participation ofchildren with special needs in ECCE between2000 and 2005. The growth has been significant– especially for children with learning disabilities.Significant investments are made under the 9MP
in furthering efforts required across differentministries to address the needs of young childrenwith special needs.
SUCCESSES ANDRECOMMENDATIONS INIMPLEMENTING EFA GOAL 1A new policy and legislative framework for thecare and education of young children has beenevolving in Malaysia. In 2007, Malaysiaimplemented a number of policy and legislativechanges to make the law and practicesconsistent with the CRC. In addition, thepromotion of a national preschool curriculum andstandards of service for private ECCE providersencourage a high standard of care and educationfor young children.
The 9MP continues with investments inaddressing socio-economic disparities and
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Child
ren
0
10,000
15,000
10,725
29,723
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
5,000
Sarawak
Sabah
Peninsular Malaysia
Figure 3.4 | Indigenous Children 4–6 years old Enrolled in ECCE, 2000–2006
Sources: EMIS, EPRD, MOE: DOS (2000–2006)
Sources: EMIS, EPRD, MOE (2000–2006)
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Figure 3.5 | Special Needs Children 4–6 years old in ECCE, 2000–2006
Child
ren
Learning Disabled
Visually Impaired
Hearing Impaired
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
access to social support due to rural-urbandifferences. A number of these investments –most notably the prioritisation of investments inECCE in rural areas have promoted the well-being of young children. Special ECCEprogrammes have been implemented thatcapitalize on indigenous cultural practices for theholistic development of indigenous children.
Since 2003, ECCE for 4 to 6 year olds hasbeen officially recognised as a component of thenational education system. The incorporation ofECCE into the national system has resulted in a standard curriculum, and the systematic andspecific training of teachers and child minders,and the setting of standards for private providers.This has been accompanied by initiatives speciallyoriented towards difficult-to-reach childrenespecially those in remote areas, from indigenouscommunities and children with special needs.The 9MP commits the Government to begin theprovision of care and education for children 0 to 4years and a pilot programme (Permata) iscurrently being implemented. New mechanismsare being applied to encourage workplace and
community initiatives in the provision of servicesfor children 0 to 4 year olds.
An area where progress has not beensatisfactory is the inclusion of special needschildren in ECCE. One difficulty in makingprovisions for children with special needs is therelative lack of information about the number ofchildren with special needs, the kinds ofdisabling conditions that afflict them, theirlocation and the barriers they experience to fullparticipation in ECCE. The MWFCD collectssome information on people with disabilities asthey register for disability grants but theinformation is not readily available by age andtype of handicap. Many stakeholders consultedduring the EFA MDA reporting process indicateda need for a database of special needs children.This valuable information source could bedeveloped by augmenting the informationcollected and facilitating access to informationfrom the current grant registration system or asone of the components of the child monitoringsystem proposed in the action plan of the EarlyChildhood Care and Development Policy.
The current MOE policy of accepting onlychildren with a single disability limits access to ECCE for children with special needs.Identification of the process and the criteria foroffering publicly subsidised ECCE must be reevaluated to meet the needs of more childrenfor inclusive or specialised ECCE.
Improving identification and implementing amore inclusive selection criterion requires new capacity in the area of assessment andprogramme planning. The new capacity requiredis in the form of additional professionals withadvanced training in assessment and programmedevelopment as well as suitable environmentsfor comprehensive evaluations of children withspecial needs like “one stop” centres wherehealth, cognitive, physical/motor and behaviouralcharacteristics can be evaluated. Improvingaccess for children with special needs to areasonable level will also require the training ofsufficient teachers and modifying support levels
(per capita grants) to reflect the greater costs ofproviding the small class sizes that are requiredwhen special needs students are included.
Many of the elements of a comprehensiveapproach to provide care and education for youngchildren are available in Malaysia. Perhaps one ofthe biggest challenges in maximising the impactof the systems and resources is that ofcoordinating actions across the social, health andeducation sectors – including the private providersof ECCE. While the formal development planningprocess incorporates cross-sectoral planning,operational planning and implementation tends tobe done in isolation within the various lineministries. The establishment of a coordinationmechanism for delivering comprehensive care andeducation—including the full registration of privateproviders—would help ensure the efficient use of resources and better provision of services for allyoung children.
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Cikgu Aminah teaches preschool class in SKTanahAbang, Mersing. She hails from thewest coast of peninsular Malaysia. Theschool is approximately 100 km from thesmall town of Mersing at the South-east ofpeninsular Malaysia. She has beenteaching in this school for 3 years. Herstudents are 100% orang asli and stays inthe orang asli villages around. Thegovernment has helped set up these villagesequipped with water and electricity supplyas well as roads.
Though some of the parents works inthe plantation, many still depends on thejungle for their livelihood, a life style passdown from generations which they find itdifficult to give up. The parents are mainlyilliterate. However more of them realise theimportance of education for their kids nowcompare to 10 years ago. Cikgu Aminahlooks forward to seeing her students everyday, they are an enthusiastic lot and takesgreat delight in things in the nature. CikguAminah’s class attendance is good, most ofher students come to school daily, but the
other classes in this school are not so lucky,many do not come to school regularly, somechildren would follow their parents to thejungle for 2 to 3 months in search of rattanand food.
Generally orang asli do not like formalkind of teaching and learning, the preschoolcurriculum attracts them due to the thematicapproach and non-formal atmosphere wherestudents have more freedom to move aboutin the classroom. In order to attract them toschool the Ministry of Education hasformulated an adjusted curriculum andmodules for the lower primary orang aslischool. The curriculum taps on the metho-dology used in preschools where modulesare used and parents are invited to school toparticipate. Food is provided during thisactivities and food such as flour and breadare distributed to these children and parentsafter the activities. This is important sinceone day without work means one daywithout food supply. With the imple-mentation of these modules more orang aslichildren are attending schools regularly.
BOX 1 Goal 1: Pre-school
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Goal 2: Ensuring that by 2015 all children,particularly girls, children in difficultcircumstances and those belonging toethnic minorities, have access to andcomplete free and compulsory primaryeducation of good quality
Malaysia has made great progress sinceindependence in providing access to quality basiceducation with total Enrollment in primary andsecondary education growing from about 3.5million in 1985 to over 5.3 million in 2005. Politicalcommitment for education has been consistentand accompanied by resources required to fullyachieve the goal of every child completing qualitybasic education by 2015. This level of successwould be possible because of the sizeableexpansion in the number of classrooms andteachers, an ambitious system of material andacademic support for students and innovation incurriculum and delivery methods.
The percentage of children of primary school
age who remain outside the education system isrelatively small. However, the fact that thesechildren have not been reached despite theexpansion in school places and support forstudents suggests that to successfully incor-porate them into the education system is achallenge that will require more resources,greater innovation and more targeted approach.
The central framework guiding actions toreach these remaining children is the 9MPand the EDMP. The 9MP maintains thecountry’s commitment to continuously addresssocio–economic inequalities by ensuring that allcitizens receive fair and equal educationalopportunities regardless of location, race, ability
43
or ethnic background. The EDMP outlines theMinistry’s actions for realising the goal ofeliminating these imbalances by ensuring that allstudents master reading, writing and arithmeticskills and that no student drops out of the systemdue to poverty or location. More specifically, theMOE sets the objectives of achieving a GER of100 percent and eliminating attrition at theprimary and secondary level.
Qual ity assurance and monitor ingOutcomes at the primary and secondary level aremeasured by centralised national tests. ThePrimary School Assessment Test or UjianPenilaian Sekolah Rendah (UPSR) tests studentachievement in literacy, numeracy and scientificskills at the end of primary education. Thisexamination is conducted in the medium ofinstruction (Malay, Chinese and Tamil) used andthis depends on the type of school. Since 2003,the Mathematics and Science examinationquestions have been provided in two languages– in the instructional language of the school and in English. There is also a centralisedexamination at the end of lower secondary, theLower Secondary Assessment or PenilaianMenengah Rendah (PMR). The centralised examat the end of senior secondary school, theMalaysian Certificate of Education or SijilPelajaran Malaysia (SPM) serves as an entrancequalification to post-secondary education and thejob market. Students are assessed on a set of six core subjects and a selection of electivesubjects. Open certification since 2001 enablesstudents to be certified in particular subjectsrather than the aggregate of all subjects. School-based assessment is carried out for a number ofsubjects at the primary and secondary level.
The MOE regularly reports on outcome andquality indicators. These include GERs, survivalrates, student-class ratios and student-teacherratios. These indicators are also analyseddisaggregated by state and gender.
STRATEGIES TO ACHIEVE EFAGOAL 2 IN MALAYSIA
STRATEGY 1: Make basic educationfree and compulsoryEnsuring that all children in Malaysia complete aquality basic education begins with thecommitment to ensure that basic education isfree. The legal framework for education inMalaysia, the Education Act of 1996 and itssubsequent amendments, make primary andsecondary education free in Malaysia. The actfurther strengthens the ability of the Governmentto promote full participation by making primaryeducation compulsory since 2003.
The system of free and compulsory primaryeducation also recognises the opportunities andthe challenges presented by Malaysia’s culturaldiversity. Free and compulsory education extendsto National Schools, where Malay is the languageof instruction and to the National Type Schoolswhere the language of instruction can be eitherChinese or Tamil.
STRATEGY 2: Continue to expandopportunities for a quality basiceducationBy 2007, MOE will provide basic infrastructure toschools that still lack 24 hour electricity and cleanwater supply. More than 23,900 classooms areto be built or replaced in the 2006–2010 period.This will increase single-session primary schoolsfrom 86 percent to 90 percent and reduce classsize from 31 to 30 students per classroom.Single-session secondary schools will increasefrom 65 to 70 percent and class size will bereduced from 32 to 30 students per classroom.To address rural-urban differences, 68 percent ofprimary classrooms and 57 percent of secondaryclassrooms to be constructed in the 2006–2010period will be in rural areas. The MOE is alsofocused on reducing the urban-rural digital gap.The challenge for the MOE is to ensure that
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3adequate infrastructure, hardware, software and training are given to schools in rural andremote areas that are less exposed to ICT.
To ensure that all children have access toquality education, the national curriculum is usedin all public and private primary and secondaryschools. The MOE aims to improve teacherqualification so that all secondary teachers and50 percent of primary teachers are universitygraduates by 2010. To this end, teachers areprovided financial support including tuition feesand stipend and funds are provided to replaceteachers on study leaves with contractedsubstitutes.
STRATEGY 3: Reduce the impact of poverty and location on schoolattendance and performance byproviding support to vulnerablestudentsRecognising that access to school may not besufficient to guarantee that children from poorhouseholds enrol and regularly attend school, the Government of Malaysia has in place, acomprehensive set of education supportmeasures. These include the Textbook LoanScheme that furnishes textbooks on loan for poor
children, the Supplementary Food Programmethat provided breakfast for nearly 707 thousandchildren in 2006, the School Milk Programme thatprovided milk in school to nearly 570 thousandstudents in 2006, scholarships that support 230thousand students at the secondary level, and thePoor Students’ Trust Fund that providedassistance valued at 29.4 million USD to 857,319primary and secondary students in 2005.
STRATEGY 4: Ensure that allchildren regardless of their back-ground have opportunities forsuccess in schoolNot all children come to school prepared forsuccess. The rapid expansion of publicpreschools will increase the number of childrenwho are more prepared for formal schooling.While preschool education is not compulsory, inthe 9MP the Government of Malaysia hascommitted to ensure that all children aged five tosix years have access to preschool.
Initial difficulties in learning to read and writecan condemn a child to failure in school andpossible early abandonment of education. TheEarly Intervention Reading and Writing Class(KIA2M) is a programme that identifies childrenwith reading and writing difficulties in the firstyear of primary school and provides them withadditional intensive tutoring by teachers withtraining in special education. The programmewas introduced in 2006 and extends to all publicprimary schools in Malaysia.
The Tuition Aid Scheme ensures that poorstudents having difficulties in school obtain theextra support they require. The scheme providesfunds for extra tuition in Mathematics, Science,National Language and English for students in Year 4, 5 and 6 who demonstrate lowachievement and come from households that fallbelow the poverty line. In 2006, about 480thousand primary students received aids totallingnearly 52 million USD.
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POLICIES AND STRATEGIES TOREACH THE UNREACHEDGROUPSPolicy and programme initiatives for targetingunreached children in Malaysia focus on childrenin isolated rural areas, in indigenous communitiesand children with special needs.
STRATEGY 5: Continue to addressrural urban differences in access andquality of educationEducation development spending under the 9MPcontinues to prioritise the building and upgradingof infrastructure in rural areas; especially in Sabahand Sarawak. Because of rural/urban incomedisparities, resources for education support alsotend to favour rural children. More than 40 percentof the students in Sabah and Sarawak receivesupport from the Poor Students’ Trust Fund, whilethe percentage overall for the country is about 28 percent. This pattern is also observable in theSupplementary Food Programme where nearly 50 percent of the students in Sabah benefit fromthe programme while the overall country-wideaverage is 22 percent. In the more urban areas likeSelangor and Kuala Lumpur, the rates ofbeneficiaries are about seven and three percentrespectively.
To ensure acculturation of ICT in rural andremote schools, the MOE has establishedbroadband Internet access with the cooperation of
the Ministry of Energy, Water and Communication.The ICT infrastructure and hardware are linked vialocal network or wireless technology. Teachers aretrained to enhance competency in integrating ICTin the teaching and learning process. At the sametime school administrators are trained in the use ofICT in management.
STRATEGY 6: Develop andimplement approaches tailored tothe needs of children fromindigenous communities and isolatedrural areasThe education support programmes focusing onrural areas – especially in Sabah and Sarawak,also address the needs of children in indigenouscommunities. In Peninsular Malaysia, the MOEprovides a year of remedial schooling betweenyears 2 and 3 for Orang Asli children who needadditional tutoring to improve their chances ofcompleting primary school. The MOE is currentlydeveloping a more flexible curriculum with aminimal but adequate syllabus based on the New Primary School Curriculum for children from these indigenous communities.
Material support for Orang Asli students is alsoprovided by the JHOEA. In 2005, USD3,296,070was provided to Orang Asli students for schooluniforms, transportation, school activities, food,allowances and scholarships.
STRATEGY 7: Increase the capacityof schools to address the needs ofchildren with special needsStudents with special needs are providededucation opportunities in special schools and inintegration programmes in regular schools. As of2005, there were 28 special education nationalschools (SENS), two special education secondaryschools, two special education vocationalsecondary schools and 973 schools under theSpecial Integrated Education Programme tomake schools more disabled friendly.
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Only children with a single disability arecurrently registered into MOE schools. Theprovision to amend the Special EducationRegulations Act of 1997 to accept students withtwo disabilities is included in the EDMP.Providing transportation for students with specialneeds through cooperation between theministries (MOE, MOH, MHR, and MWFCD) isalso included in the plan.
PROGRESS IN ACHIEVING EFAGOAL 2 Since 2000, between 95 and 98 percent ofchildren aged 6 have enrolled in school – most of them after having completed preschooleducation. In 2005, it was estimated that more than 96 percent of primary aged children wereenrolled in school. In the same year, more than90 percent of primary and secondary school agechildren were enrolled in school. The retention
rate for children who entered school in the period2000–2005 was between 95 and 98 percent.
The GER for 2000 to 2005 was estimatedusing reported public and private school enrollmentat the primary level and an age 6 to 12 cohortestimate based on live birth data in Malaysia. Usingthis method, the primary GER varies year to yearbetween 94.5 and 96.1 percent, as illustrated inFigure 3.6. This is comparable to the estimate of96.5 percent in 1985.
At this high level of coverage, very smalldifferences in the estimated size of the agecohort can create the impression that GER isdeclining when in fact it is being maintained orimproved. Slight changes in the number ofchildren who attend private or religious schoolsthat may not be reporting Enrollment to the MOEcould also create a false impression of the trendsin primary GER. As the GER estimate using theconventional methodology approaches 100percent, it will become increasingly sensitive to
Sources: EMIS, EPRD, MOE: DOS (2000–2005)
Figure 3.6 | GER for Primary and Combined Primary and Secondary, 2000–2005
Out of School Secondary
Out of School Primary
Primary/Secondary Combined
Primary GER
Num
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utofSchool,A
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2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
GER
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80%
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86%
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90%
92%
94%
96%
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small measurement errors and imprecision in theestimate of cohort size. These built-in limits tothe precision of conventionally measured GERmeans that new strategies for promoting anddocumenting full participation (100 percent) willneed to be developed and implemented.
Even at Malaysia’s very high levels ofprimary school participation, the smallpercentage of out of school children is not aninsignificant number. The average estimate ofchildren aged 6 to 12 not participating in primaryschool varied from about 125 thousand to 150thousand each year between 2000 and 2005.Since these children did represent such a smallpercentage of children of primary school age,identifying and addressing the issues that keptthem from full participation despite theexpansion of the system and the substantialmaterial support provided, will be an importantchallenge for the sector.
As Malaysia has reported a high primaryGER since the 1980s, a combined primary and
secondary GER was estimated for 1985 andfor the years 2000 to 2005. This expandedGER better reflects both Malaysia’s progressand the human resource demands of a globalised world. The combined GER,improved from just over 85 percent in 1985 toover 91 percent in 2005. About 180 thousandfewer children and young persons between 6and 18 years of age were out of school in 2005than in 1985 despite the large increase inpopulation during that period.
The percentage of 6-year-old childrenentering primary school (Gross Intake Rate) wasdetermined using year one public and privateenrollment and an age cohort estimate of livebirth data. Between 2000 and 2005, theestimated GIR varied from 95 to 97 percent. Thesame cautions mentioned in interpreting trendsin gross enrollment rate (GER) apply to the GIRfigures presented in Figure 3.7. (Apparentvariation may be due to imprecision in estimatingthe age 6 cohort).
Figure 3.7 | GIR for Primary and Number of Children Not Enrolling in Year 1,2000–2005
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
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95.0%
95.5%
96.0%
96.5%
97.0%
97.5%
GIR
ChildrenN
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Year2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Children Not Enrolled
GIR Primary
Sources: EMIS, EPRD, MOE: DOS (2000–2005)
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Surv
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20001989 2001 2002 2003 2004
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Figure 3.8 | Survival Rates to Year 6 and Primary School Dropouts, 1989–2004
Sources: EMIS, EPRD, MOE (1989–2004)
In Malaysia as many as 15 thousand childrendo not enter primary school. Finding thesechildren and developing appropriate supportmechanisms so that they can fully participate ineducation will be challenging precisely becausethey represent such a small percentage ofchildren aged 6 in the country.
The percentage of children who enter yearone and successfully reach the year six had improved from 96.7 percent in 1989 to 98.1 percent in 2005. This is illustrated in Figure 3.8. This improvement in retaining childrenis relatively small as a percentage but with theexpanding number of students incorporated intothe system, the 98.1 percent represents areduction in the number of children who drop outof primary school before year 6 i.e of about 7,100 children and compares favourably with thenumbers recorded in 1989.
As a first step in identifying the children still notparticipating in primary schooling in Malaysia, thenumber of children out of school in each state wasestimated by subtracting the number of childrenenrolled in public and private primary schools from
the age 6 to 12 cohort estimated using live birthdata. This method reveals that the largest numberof children not participating in schooling were fromthe states of Sabah and Kelantan (Figure 3.9). While
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Sources: EMIS, EPRD, MOE: DOS (2000–2005)
Figure 3.9 | Number of Out of School Children in Primary School, by State, 2000–2005
-20,000
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this is not an unexpected result, it is important tokeep in mind that the live birth data captures allchildren born in Malaysia – including children whomay not have proper documentation to attendschool in the country. The profile would also beaffected by the migration of children across stateboundaries between birth and entering school at6 years of age.
Figure 3.10 indicates the estimated numberof children who drop out of school before yearfive. In 2004 and 2005, the overwhelmingmajority of these children were located in Sabah.Again it is important to mention that theseapparent dropouts could have shifted to a privateschool or migrated to another state. All of thestates that showed a negative number ofdropouts were states where year six Enrollmentwas greater than year one enrollment five yearsearlier. These states have a net in-migration ofchildren during their primary school years.
Figure 3.11 indicates that between 2002 and2005, the number of children with special needsattending an integration class in a regular primary
school had increased by about 2,400. Without abetter estimate of the number of children withspecial needs, it is difficult to assess thepercentage of such children who have beensuccessfully incorporated into regular basiceducation environments. Some children withspecial needs who have not been formallyassessed are also currently included in primaryschool classes where they may not be receivingappropriate support. Generally accepted world-wide estimates are that two to three percent ofschool age children are moderately or severelydisabled. In an OECD report in 1990, it wasestimated that 15 to 20 percent of students willhave special education needs at some point intheir schooling. The high enrollment rates forbasic education in Malaysia and the fact thatintegration class enrollment is much less thanone percent of total primary enrollment raisesquestions about the status of special needschildren that must be addressed. As mentionedin the review of Goal 1, a first step in bettermeeting the needs of children with special needs
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Sources: EMIS, EPRD, MOE (1995–2005)
Figure 3.10 | Number of Children Who Enter School and Abandoned Before Year 6,by State, 1995–2000 and 2000–2005 Cohorts
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2000–2005
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Drop
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Figure 3.11 | Number of Special Needs Students in Inclusive Programmes in RegularSchools, 2002–2005
12,0002002 2003 2004 2005 Year
12,500
13,000
13,500
Num
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Number ofStudents
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14,500
15,000
15,500
16,000
Sources: EMIS, EPRD, MOE (2002–2005)
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is the development of reliable estimates of thenumber of children requiring support.
Figure 3.12 indicates that the recipients of theSupplementary Food Programme increased fromjust over 500 thousand in 2000 to nearly 700thousand in 2005. The number of recipients of theSchool Milk Programme remained relatively stableat around 525 thousand during the same period.The Tuition Aid Scheme became operational in2004 and provided funds for extra tuition to about480 thousand poor children in 2004 and in 2005. In2005, the Poor Students’ Trust Fund providedgrants for more than 857 thousand students. Notincluded in the Figure is the Textbook LoanScheme which provided textbooks on loan tomore than 80 percent of primary and secondarystudents per year between 2000 and 2007.Beginning 2008, all students would be eligible forthe textbook loan scheme.
Education support programmes represent asizeable investment on the part of theGovernment of Malaysia in ensuring thateconomic circumstances and location do notcreate barriers to participation and success
in schooling. As illustrated in Figure 3.13 total spending on the Supplementary FoodProgramme, School Milk Programme, TextbookLoan Scheme, Tuition Aid Scheme, Poor Student
Figure 3.12 | Number of Children in Education Support Programme, 2000–2005
Part
icip
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1,000,000
900,000
800,000
700,000
600,000
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
02000 2001
Supplementary Food Programme
School Milk Programme
Tuition Vouchers
Poor Student’s Trust Fund
2002 2003 2004 2005
Sources: EMIS, EPRD, School Division, Scholarship Divisions, MOE (2000–2005)
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Figure 3.13 | Annual Spending on Education Support, 2001–2005
Supplementary Food ProgrammeSchoolMilk Programme
Textbook Loan Scheme
Tuition Vouchers
Material Support Orang Asli
Poor Student’s Trust Fund
$0
$10
$20
$30
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$50
$60
$70
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$100
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USD
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Sources: Scholarship Division, School Division,Textbook Division, MOE (2000–2005)
Trust Fund, Scholarships, and Special Support forOrang Asli children totalled a little more than USD182.5 million or roughly USD34 for every student in Government primary and secondary schools.
SUCCESSES ANDRECOMMENDATIONS INIMPLEMENTING EFA GOAL 2Most Malaysian parents are committed tosending their children to school. The political andfinancial commitments of the Government ofMalaysia have complemented the efforts of households by reducing the barriers toschooling caused by differences in economiccircumstances and the location of households.These investments support the thrusts of theNational Mission which is to reduce socio-economic differences, enhance knowledge andinnovation capacity, and nurture a first classmentality.
Over 96 percent of children born in Malaysia
enter primary school – the majority with someamount of preschool. Of those that enrol, over 98 percent complete the final year (year six) ofprimary school. A large majority of those whoenter primary school continue on to secondaryschool and the combined percentage of primaryand secondary school age children enrolled inschool in 2005 was a little over 91 percent asillustrated earlier in Figure 3.6.
The Government of Malaysia recognises thatsimply providing schools and teachers do notensure full access to, and participation in qualityeducation. Significant financial resources areinvested in support programmes for studentssuch as the Textbook Loan Scheme, theSupplementary Food Programme, the Tuition AidScheme, and the Poor Students’ Trust Fund.These reduce the barriers to access andparticipation in education by children from poorhouseholds. Significant resources are alsoexpanded to provide other specific kinds of support for difficult-to-reach children including those from indigenous communities.
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Infrastructure investments in the current five-year development plan are heavily orientedtowards rural areas in an effort to eliminate theremaining rural urban gap in education.
Investments in promoting higher standardsof quality education are made on an on-goingbasis. These investments include the upgradingof teacher qualifications and physical conditionsin schools, a formalised set of remedialinterventions designed to address learningdifficulties at an early age in all schools andspecific study programmes that are tailored to theneeds of children with special needs, childrenfrom rural and isolated areas and children fromindigenous communities.
The high level of participation in education inMalaysia is an achievement the country is proudof. At the same time, these very successes posea set of challenges for reaching the unreached. Itis estimated that about 125 thousand primaryschool age children and about 380 thousandchildren of secondary school age were notenrolled in school in 2005. These groups ofchildren and youth have not been successfullyintegrated into the education system despite thelarge investments in expanding schoolinfrastructure to all parts of the country andproviding support programmes to students. Theconventional method of tracking participation —GER — is no longer sufficiently sensitive toprovide guidance for policies and programmes toreach the remaining groups of children andyouth. The high reported GERs do not provideinformation about the specific barriers that keepthese children from schooling. It cannot answerquestions like: Are they non-citizens?; Are theyextremely poor?; Are they disabled in somemanner?; Do they come from single-parenthouseholds?; and other such questions vital toelaborating an effective response.
The use of GER also does not providesufficient information about where these childrenand youth are located. In the state by state
estimation of out-of-school children, it was clearthat Sabah had the highest number of childrenand youth not enrolled in school. However, aneffective plan for promoting participation wouldrequire more detailed information about location.Even disaggregating to the District level may notprovide relevant insights into location, especiallysince district of birth data used to estimate theschool age population and the district that the child or young person actually lives andwould attend school may be different.
The effective implementation of Malaysia’sstrategy of using human capital investment asone of the primary engines for promotingeconomic and social development rests oncontinually upgrading the country’s humancapital. With the high levels of participation ineducation, improvements in human capital willno longer be possible by simply expanding theeducation system. Human capital developmentwill become more dependent on evaluating,refining and modifying programmes and policiesto be more effective. For example, it is notenough to merely increase the enrollment ofindigenous children in primary school. Theyshould progress and succeed in school.Anecdotal accounts report that absenteeism isquite high and academic achievement is lowamong these children. Without well definedmonitoring and evaluation of such programmes,it will be impossible to make the refinementsnecessary to produce optimal results. Thequestions that would need answering include:whether the number of schools (rather than thenumber of classrooms) for indigenous childrenare sufficient and whether they are located inplaces that facilitate attendance, the kinds ofoutreach to parents and communities that havebeen effective or ineffective in promoting schoolattendance, and whether teachers haveunreasonably low expectations of these children.
Since independence, progress towardsimproving access and quality in basic education
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in Malaysia has been rapid and comprehensivedriven by political will and financial commitment.While successes in the education system havebeen made through dramatic increases in schoolplaces, teachers and support for students, thefinal realisation of the goal of providing a qualitybasic education for every child will require morerefined and informed decisions regarding thetypes of investments and the targeting of thoseinvestments. This assessment echoes thefindings of the World Bank’s evaluation of itsown programme of support for basic educationglobally – investments in access cannot betranslated into improving learning outcomeswithout a significant emphasis on strengtheningmanagement. An increased emphasis onmanaging for results will place new demands onthe MOE’s systems and capacity to generate andappropriately analyse and evaluate informationabout student outcomes rather than systeminputs. These improved systems and capacity
will enable the MOE to better identifyinvestments to fully realise Malaysia’s nationalpriorities and aspirations.
Enhanced systems and more resources foranalysing, monitoring and evaluating educationwill not produce the outcomes required byMalaysia’s national aspirations unless they arecomplemented with changes in practice at thedistrict and school level. Moving from thecurrent level of success to even higher levels ofperformance is dependent on higher levels ofskills and achievement for greater numbers ofchildren and youth. This can only be promotedby providing resources and, more importantly, acarefully constructed set of incentives andexpectations that encourage all schools anddistricts — even those that are currently seen assuccessful — to take new steps to reach out tothose students who may not be in school or arenot currently successful in school.
This more refined policy oriented monitoring
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and evaluation is also critical for meetingMalaysia’s goals of ensuring equality ofopportunity. For example, school dropout ratesare regularly estimated and typically presented atthe national and state level. This kind of reportingprovides an indicator of the system’sperformance but it does not provide informationrelevant for potential policies or actions thatwould improve retention of students in schools –to know that the dropout rate is two percent isquite different from knowing how to reduce itfurther. One step would be to analyse dropoutson a school-by-school basis to determinewhether the incidence of abandoning school isconcentrated in particular schools or types ofschools. This analysis could be followed up witha more detailed analysis at the student level toidentify the factors and differences betweenstudents who drop out and those thatsuccessfully complete their schooling.
Given Malaysia’s existing high levels of qualityin education, further improvements are likely to bequite costly. This necessitates that investmentsbe well targeted and that programme and policycosts be more routinely a component of policy-oriented research and evaluation. The currentsystems for financial analysis and reporting tendto be oriented toward projections for planning andfor accountability rather than policy-orientedanalysis and evaluation.
Expenditure for the various programmes arecarefully collected and regularly reported. Butother possible questions and assessment that
will inform investment policy could also beconsidered. For example, the less frequentlypracticed policy-oriented assessment thatinclude a financial component such as theanalysis of relative cost-effectiveness of thevarious education support programmes or anexamination of the relative rates of return in thevarious vocational specialisations can also beconsidered. Incorporating more investment-oriented policy analysis would require greateraccess to disaggregated financial data andimproved capacity for this kind of analysis in the MOE.
Some policy-oriented analyses do take placein the MOE. Capacity with respect to highlytrained professionals also exists within theministry. What may need to be strengthened isthe link between existing research andevaluation efforts and policy analysis/refinementso that the research and evaluation agenda isroutinely part of the policy process. It may alsobe the case that the effort to improve on alreadyrelatively high levels of quality will require amechanism to establish and coordinate a policy-oriented research agenda that ensures clearpriorities are established across the educationsector rather than be driven by agendas inparticular sub-sectors or programmes. Thisprioritised sector-wide policy research andevaluation agenda would also facilitate theincorporation of other valuable resources intoefforts to improve the quality of education.
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PKMOA has been approved throughEducation Development Committee meetingin 1997. This programme is aimed forindigenous pupil who hasn’t acquired basicreading 3M skills (reading, writing, andcounting). Those whose marks are 30%below in mathematics and Bahasa Melayuwill be selected to be in this programme.
PKMOA was first launched with a pilotgroup consisting of 39 Indigenous schools inJohor, Kelantan, Pahang, Perak andTerengganu in 1999. And the number ofschools involved were increased to 55schools. Curriculum development centre(CDC) is responsible for the curriculummaterials whereas Teachers EducationDepartment is responsible to train theteachers. But in the latter implementation,
CDC will be responsible for the materials andtraining of teachers.
According to the Education Act 1996(Act 55), Section 29, the school structure forPKMOA is different from ordinary school.The duration of schooling is 6 years forordinary school and for schools with PKMOAprogramme the duration of schooling is 7years, where one year is added aftercompleting year 2, for those selected andthey will proceed to year 3 after undergoingthe PKMOA programme.
This programme has showed success inupgrading the achievement of pupils especiallyin Bahasa Melayu and Mathematics. Findingsalso showed that their attendance to schoolhas increased and consistent.
BOX 2 Goal 2: Indigenous Pupils Special Programme (PKMOA)
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Goal 3: Ensure that the learning needs of all young people and adults are metthrough equitable access to learning andlife skills programmes
Education for All Goal 3 requires all membercountries to take further steps to ensure that thelearning needs of all young people and adults aremet through equitable access to appropriatelearning and life skills programmes. For thepurpose of this report, the definition of young people is “those between the ages of 15–24 years who are not enrolled in highereducation” while life skills refer to: • Basic skills, which comprise literacy,
numeracy and the ability to use informationand communication technology;
• Psycho-social skills, which encompassreflective, personal and interpersonal skillsincluding problem solving, critical thinking,and communication;
• Practical or contextual skills, which,consist of technical or vocational skills,income generation, health, gender, family,environment, and civics; and
• Living skills orientation and mobility,manipulative skills, behaviour management,self management, self-care, home livingand leisure.
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Malaysia’s OPP3 emphasises the developmentof knowledge workers in an effort to achieve thestatus of “developed nation” by the year 2020.The ability of the country to achieve the goals of these long-term plan depends on thedevelopment of trained and motivated humanresources infused with values and life skills thatcontribute to individual development and thedevelopment of the country.
KEY STRATEGIES ANDPROGRAMMES
STRATEGY 1: Provide a qualityholistic educationBasic education in Malaysia is free at theprimary and secondary level. It is compulsoryat the primary level. Early intensiveintervention programmes are available in allschools for children having difficulties withliteracy and numeracy. Additional academicsupport is provided for children from indigenouscommunities (see Goal 2 strategies). TheGovernment of Malaysia also provides
comprehensive support to poor studentsto remove barriers to school participation.
The concept of educational quality imple-mented in Malaysian schools combines anemphasis on developing literacy and numeracyskills with a more holistic view of human capital development. The MOE supports theimplementation of co-curricular activities with percapita grants as a means of developing thesenon-academic outcomes for students.
In Malaysia the promotion of nationalcohesion and unity must be considered as partof this wider concept of quality. At the primarylevel, Malaysia has piloted the “Vision School”that places National and National Type (Chineseand/or Tamil) schools in a school complex thatallows the sharing of a common canteen, playfield and other facilities as a means ofpromoting tolerance, respect and understandingamong children of different ethnic groups. Inaddition, the Students Integration Plan For Unity(RIMUP) enables primary and secondarystudents from various ethnic groups toparticipate in co-curricular activities amongschools.
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STRATEGY 2: Provide multipleopportunities to improve specificlivelihood skills at the secondary and post secondary level Ministr y of Educat ionAt the secondary school level there are 90 MOEtechnical secondary schools. These schoolsprovide three types of programmes namely atechnical programme that combines a secondaryschool certificate with training in specifictechnical areas to prepare students for entering a post secondary technical programme,a vocational programme that combines asecondary school certificate with vocationaltraining that enables students to enterPolytechnics, Community Colleges and aprogramme for vocational certification.
Demands for Technical and VocationalEducation and Training (TVET) in the countryremain high. Due to the MOE’s promotionefforts, and provision of boarding facilities forgirls, an increase in female participation intechnical education is evident. Prior to 2000, theratio of male to female students in technicaleducation was 70:30 but the ratio has improvedto the current 60:40. There are schools wherethe ratio has reached about 50:50.
Ministr y of Higher Educat ionThere are currently 23 Polytechnics and 35community colleges throughout Malaysia underthe MOHE. Polytechnics accept only those whocomplete secondary school while communitycolleges provide diploma and certificate levelcourses as well as short-term courses to meetthe needs of the community (refer to Goal 4 –for a more complete report).
Polytechnics and community collegesprovide broad-based technical education andtraining to secondary school leavers equippingthem with skills and knowledge to becomecompetent technicians and technical assistantsin various fields of engineering and
communications technology as well as junior andmiddle level executives for commerce andservice industries. These institutions also providestudents with relevant technological andentrepreneurial education and training toenhance their basic skills. They also engage incollaborative programmes with the private andpublic sectors in areas of training, research anddevelopment, and consultancy.
In an effort to ensure polytechnic andcommunity college graduates are employable intheir fields of study, the curricula are broad-basedand developed based on input from industries.The structure of the curricula, regardless ofinstitutions and levels of study, consists of threemain components: general, core and electives for which modules are offered. Modules aredesigned with the theory-practical mix set at50:50 for polytechnics and 25:75 for communitycolleges. In addition, “soft skills modules” areembedded across all subjects. These are the“non-technical skills” – abilities, and traits that arepromoted to improve chances for success infuture employment. Some examples of soft skillsare problem solving, oral communication skills,and teamwork skills.
Ministr y of Human ResourcesThe Ministry of Human Resources (MOHR) is thelead public agency in the development andmanagement of the Malaysian workforce. TheDepartment of Skills Development under theMOHR is responsible for developing NationalOccupational Skills Standards (NOSS) and forimplementing programmes under the MalaysianSkills Certification System. NOSS have beendeveloped for about 800 jobs encompassinga wide-range of industry sectors includingthe automotive, woodworking, electrical andelectronics, ICT, metal machining, welding andmetal fabrication, foundry, textile, plastics,tourism and travel, hospitality, cosmetology aswell as agricultural fields. The NOSS ensures that
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skills training programmes match the actualrequirements of the Malaysian industry. To date,1,171 accredited centres have been approvedand offer 6,768 training programmes leading tothe Malaysian Skills Certificate (Level 1, 2 or 3),the Malaysian Skills Diploma, or the MalaysianSkills Advanced Diploma. In 2006, 804 privatesector training institutions provided 3,935training programmes accredited by theDepartment of Skills Development.
The National Skills Development Act cameinto effect in September 2006. It aims topromote through skills training, the developmentand improvement of the competencies andcapabilities of Malaysians in seeking betterlivelihoods. The MOHR has also been entrustedto implement the National Dual Training System(NDTS) starting with 500 apprentices in 2005.The NDTS is targeted to produce 31,500 skilledpersons by the year 2010. Within the NDTS,training takes place in two learning environments— practical training in the workplace of aparticipating company, and mastery of theory inthe training institution. The main objectives ofthis new training initiative is to produce a newgeneration of skilled workers who are betterprepared to meet the fast-changing demands oftoday’s workplace. This is in line with Malaysia’seconomic development goals and developmentalneeds as well as to improve the competitivenessof the workforce.
The MOHR, through the ManpowerDepartment also provides training programmesincluding 21 Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs)that offer training courses for skilled workers upto technician level. The ITIs offer certificate levelqualifications for those under 26 years of age. Thecourses are provided free of charge. The durationof the courses is between 6 and 36 months.The Centre for Instructor and Advanced SkillTraining (CIAST) provides training for vocational instructors for both the public and private traininginstitutions. The Centre also conducts skills
upgrading courses. The duration of programmesfor instructor training is 24 to 36 months. TheJapan-Malaysia Technical Institute (JMTi)started from a cooperative project between theGovernments of Japan and Malaysia and it offers advanced technology courses in manu-facturing technology, electronics, computer andmechatronics. In addition, four AdvancedTechnology Training Centres (ADTEC) provideopportunities for pre- and post- employmenttraining in the area of advanced technologies.Upon completion, participants are awarded adiploma level qualification (Malaysian SkillsDiploma) and there are plans to upgrade thetraining to the Malaysian Skills Advanced Diplomaqualification. The ADTEC programmes are 24 to36 months in length and are fee-based.
Ministr y of Youth and Spor tsThe Ministry of Youth and Sports (MYS) isanother important provider of skills training toyouth aged 17 to 25. The Ministry’s efforts tomould and produce competent individuals invarious skills areas/fields are in line withthe National Youth Development Policy andcontribute to the national industrial sector.Through its Skills Department, the MYS providestraining to youths in various fields and throughvarious approaches, such as short and long-termtraining as well as institutionalised and non-institutionalised training.
The MYS also provides institutionalisedtraining through part-time skills coursesconducted at the National Youth Skills TrainingInstitutes (IKBN) located throughout the country.Various skills areas are offered, such asmechanical, automotive, electric, electronic, civilengineering, hospitality, textile and apparel andpersonnel services. The Skills Department alsooffers non-institutionalised short-term modulartraining. This is of various durations andconducted in various types of premises. TheNational Youth Apprenticeship Scheme is
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another form of training provided by the MYS. The apprenticeships involve cooperationbetween the private and public sectors. Throughthis scheme, the employer sponsors apprenticesand provides on-the-job training while theGovernment provides advisory services andincentives. Participants must be between 16 and26 years of age. The participants receive a smallmonthly stipend during the six to twelve monthapprenticeship period.
Ministr y of Entrepreneur ship andCooperat ive DevelopmentThe Ministry of Entrepreneurship and CooperativeDevelopment’s (MECD) provides continuoustraining and guidance to create entrepreneurs withthe characteristics to face local and globalchallenges in the business world. Through theNational Entrepreneurial Institute, the MECDprovides training in basic business developmentfor school-aged children and young adults invarious programmes like the Young EntrepreneurProgramme, the Undergraduate EntrepreneurProgramme, the Basic Business Programme, theBusiness Promotion Training Scheme, theEntrepreneurship Creation Training, and theGraduates Entrepreneur Scheme.
The MECD also provides vocational and
technical skills through a number of advancedtraining institutes: the German–MalaysiaInstitute, the British–Malaysian Institute, theMalaysia– France Institute, the Malaysia–SpanishInstitute and the Malaysia Institute of AviationTechnology. These institutes offer diplomacourses for skills training graduates andsecondary school leavers.
The Cooperative College of Malaysia underthe MECD provides training in management ofcooperative enterprises to members of thecooperative.
Ministr y of Agr iculture and Agro-Based Industr yThe Agricultural Institutes of the Ministry ofAgriculture and Agro-Based Industry offer theCertificate in Agriculture to secondary schoolleavers in fields which include: vegetable andfruits cultivation, landscaping, livestock rearing,fisheries, aquaculture, food processing andmarketing. This qualification is recognised and isequivalent to a certificate from the Polytechnics.This programme is accredited under the NationalSkills Development Act. Those who haveobtained the Certificate in Agriculture can furthertheir studies at diploma level at Universiti Putra Malaysia.
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Ministr y of DefenceIn addition to supporting military personnel inpursuit of formal higher education, the Ministryof Defence runs an Army Apprentice TradeSchool as well as Regional Learning Centreswhere military personnel can study for theirsecondary school certificate.
STRATEGY 3: Ensure that childrenand young people with special needsor living in remote areas haveopportunities to continue to developlife skills and to improve theirlivelihoodsChildren have the right to receive the besteducation possible regardless of their back-ground, religious orientation, race and location. Inpart, this requires that quality teachers beavailable. More than 29 thousand TVE teachers oradministrators throughout Malaysia received newskills through participation in training programmesbetween 2000 and 2005.
Life skills in special education have beenintroduced as early as in preschool and carriedthrough the secondary school programme.Vocational skills among students with specialneeds have also been emphasised in the 9MPand the EDMP. Students with special needs havealso been admitted to secondary level TVETprogrammes and Polytechnics.
There are 90 secondary technical schoolsthroughout the country to ensure rural youthshave access to skills and life skills programmes.
STRATEGY 4: Support the holisticdevelopment of children and youthwith opportunities to improvelife skillsMinistr y of HealthThe Ministry of Health provides a number ofhealth promotion activities for children andyouth. The Young Doctor Programme initiated in1989 was further improved in 1991 with theobjective of promoting healthy lifestyles amongstudents through involvement of young doctorsin health related activities in schools.
In 1991, the Healthy Lifestyle Campaign waslaunched to raise awareness and knowledge ofhealth care and healthy lifestyle choices in effortsto encourage Malaysians to adopt a healthylifestyle. The Campaign is organised aroundthemes and by 2003 it had focused on themes likehealthy eating habits, physical activity, say ‘no’ tosmoking and stress management. Modules andhealth education materials were developed fordifferent target groups including children andyouth. The dissemination of materials is throughvarious channels such as forums, exhibitions,health talks, quizzes and competitions and takesplace in a variety of settings, including schools.
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In May 2006, the MOE, recognising thepopularity and importance of the programme inpromoting healthy lifestyles among studentsincluded it as a co-curriculum activity in allGovernment primary schools. In 2006, childrenfrom 585 primary schools benefited from theprogramme.
PROSTAR, formerly known as HealthyWithout AIDS Programme initiated in 1996, wasrenamed Health Programme for Youth in 2007.The revised programme focuses not only on HIVand AIDS but on a wider set of health care andhealthy lifestyle issues among youth. PROSTARis a peer education programme that encouragesyouth to educate other youth to practise healthylifestyles. Since its inception in 2006, 81,956peer educators were trained to conduct variousactivities for other youth and over 800,000 youthhave participated in the programme. PROSTARclubs have also been established in 104communities and 1,395 schools.
Ministr y of DefenceThe Malaysian National Service was firstimplemented in 2003. Originally, it was conceivedfor all youth at a particular age but the logisticaland financial implications of the programmenecessitated it be scaled down to a three-monthprogramme for a random selection of Malaysianyouth. The purpose of the programme is to fosternational identify and harmony among the racialgroups of the country. The programme has fourcomponents: Physical Module (survival training,hand-to-hand combat, camping, orienteering,etc.), Nation Building Module (classroom trainingin history, Malaysian and international affairs,Citizenship, etc.), Character-Building Module(classroom based programme intended to instilvalues, self confidence, leadership, etc.) andCommunity Service Module (activities likerestoring public amenities, reforestation,environmental protection, etc.). In 2003, the firstyear of implementation, about 85 thousand
randomly selected youths participated in theprogramme. In 2007, the programme wasexpanded to 100 thousand participants chosen at random from youth born in 1989.
National Youth Development Act ionPlanThe National Youth Development Plan waslaunched in 2004. The action plan emphasised oneleven core elements in youth developmentincluding the economic and social well being ofyouths, capacity building, leadership qualities,and participation in the Young Friend (RakanMuda) programme, social integration and politicalawareness. By 2005, more than 400 thousandyouths had participated in leadership trainingprogrammes focusing on communication skills,negotiation skills, social interaction techniquesand other character building activities.
PROGRESS IN ACHIEVING EFAGOAL 3 IN MALAYSIA Figure 3.14 shows that since 2000 the number ofsecondary TVE students and secondary schoolleavers pursuing additional skills training hasincreased from about 160 thousand to more than360 thousand. This total includes secondaryschool leavers who are enrolled in the MECDtraining programmes, the MOHR providedtraining programmes and private sector trainingparticipants who register for the Malaysia SkillsCertificate as well as students in secondary TVE schools.
SUCCESSES ANDRECOMMENDATIONS INIMPLEMENTING EFA GOAL 3The future of Malaysia as a prosperous nationdepends greatly on its education and trainingsystems. These systems develop and preparechildren and young people with appropriate life
skills and knowledge that would enable them toparticipate fully in a productive and competitiveeconomy. To ensure that the life skills and skills-training programmes conducted by the variousministries and agencies are of acceptable quality,Malaysia has in place the National OccupationalSkills Standards (NOSS) that regulates skillstraining programmes and qualifications.
The Government has invested heavily on thedevelopment of this budding human capitalthrough numerous programmes conducted byvarious ministries and agencies. A database onthese life skills and skills training programmesexists within the designated ministries andagencies. As such there is a need to establish amechanism that could integrate the existingdatabases on life skills and skills trainingprogrammes. A more structured mechanismwould be better able to recognise the strengthsand weaknesses of the programmes offered. Itwould also be able to inform decision makerson enhancing and improving the quality ofthe programmes delivered or terminatingprogrammes that can no longer respond to
the current job market requirements. Themechanism would also be able to respond to thedemands for life skills and skills trainingprogrammes from all sections of the community.
In order for the country to progress furthertowards achieving a developed nation status by2020 more technical and skilled humanresources are required. At present, policies andstrategies to expand life skills and skills trainingopportunities for young people, especially thosewith low academic achievement, are already inplace. However, there is a small section of thecommunity that perceives skill trainingqualification as incapable of ensuring stableeconomic returns. These perceptions existbecause of a lack of awareness of the benefits ofthe training programme. As such, anotherchallenge for Malaysia is to create awarenessamong the communities and youths with lowacademic achievement, awareness of thebenefits of acquiring skills training qualificationsand promoting aggressively, skills trainingprogrammes at all the training institutes.
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Figure 3.14 | Further Skills Training for Secondary School Students and SecondaryCompleters, 2000–2005
140,000
120,000
100,000
80,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
02000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Community Colleges
Ministry of Human Resources
VTE Secondary
Polytechnics
Ministry ofEntreprenuer andCooperative Development
Sources: Ministry of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resources, Ministry of Entrepreneur and Cooperative Development, MOE (2000–2005)
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Goal 4: Achieving a 50 percentimprovement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, andequitable access to basic and continuingeducation for all adults
Adult literacy rate is defined as the percentageof the population aged 15 years and above whocan read and write with understanding a shortsimple statement related to everyday life(UNESCO, 1978). The definition of literacyadopted by Malaysia in the 2000 Census wasbased on the percentage of population aged 10years and above who were attending or hadattended school (DOS, 2002). As a result of thesignificant expansion of opportunities for basiceducation since independence, the percentageof the population considered illiterate by thisMalaysian definition has fallen from about 42 percent in 1970 to just nine percent at thetime of the census in 2000.
More recent measures of literacy sub-sequent to the last census rely on the samplefrom the Malaysia Labour Force Survey (MLFS)and use the 2000 census definition of literacy –“having attended or currently attending school”.The MLFS indicates that the number of personsaged 15 and above who were consideredilliterate had fallen to about eight percent by2005. Policies of free basic education andcompulsory primary education have resulted in aliteracy rate of more than 98 percent for persons15–24 years of age. With these policies in place,basic illiteracy will continue to decline as newcohorts move through the education system.
A 2006 study of first-year secondary schoolstudents in Government schools in Malaysiafound that students had generally high levels ofbasic literacy defined as “the ability to read andwrite in Bahasa Melayu” (95.2 percent) but
exhibited lower levels (71.2 percent) of criticalliteracy defined as“ the level of skills needed toenter tertiary education or to perform tasks withthe level of complexity common to white collarjobs”. Differences in literacy and critical literacyskills were found to be associated with location(lower levels in rural schools) and the socio-economic status of students’ households(disadvantaged students exhibiting lowerliteracy skills).
Given the generally high participation(enrollment and retention) in basic education,literacy initiatives in Malaysia focus on anexpanded functional or critical literacy that
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corresponds to the thrusts or goals set out in the9MP. These are: • To move the economy up the value chain;• To raise capacity for knowledge and
innovation and nurture a ‘first class mentality;• To address persistent socio-economic
inequalities constructively and productively;• To improve the standard and sustainability of
the quality of life; and• To strengthen institutional and imple-
mentation capacities.While skills and knowledge for all Malaysiansregardless of their level of educational attain-ment are important components for achievingany of these goals, initiatives to improve theskills and knowledge of persons outside theregular formal academic education system aremost relevant to the goals of raising the capacityfor knowledge and innovation and addressingsocio–economic inequalities.
The EDMP hence defines these expandedliteracy goals for the education sector as:• Offering greater opportunities and access to
quality education, training and lifelonglearning;
• Strengthening national unity and developinga society that is progressive and possessingexemplary value systems;
• Increasing incomes for the lowest 40 percentof households by improving productivitythrough human capital development; and
• Bridging the rural – urban divide amongstates and territories through sustainableincome generation and improved access tobasic needs including education.
STRATEGIES TO ACHIEVE EFAGOAL 4 IN MALAYSIAWith the high rates of Enrollment and completionof primary education in Malaysia, generally, mostgovernment-supported initiatives prioritiseremote rural areas, especially in the states of
Sabah and Sarawak, and the indigenouscommunities of Peninsular Malaysia. The 2000census found more than 91 percent of thepopulation of Malaysia literate. However, thefigures for the rural areas of Sabah and Sarawakwere significantly lower, at 79 percent and 72percent respectively. Government efforts forliteracy are consistent with this profile as theallocation of resources and the numbers ofpublicly provided alternatives in the area ofliteracy are concentrated on the states of Sabahand Sarawak.
Another population group exhibiting lowerliteracy levels consists of indigenouscommunities of Peninsular Malaysia. The ActionPlan for Educational Development for IndigenousPeople 2001–2010 (Cabinet Paper 2/2001) setsthe objective of increasing the literacy rateamong indigenous communities from the 51percent measured in 2001 to 70 percent by 2010.Both the JHEOA and KEMAS are involved inproviding opportunities to poor rural communitiesand to indigenous communities.
STRATEGY 1: Make Basic EducationFree and Compulsory and AchievingLiteracy a PriorityHigh levels of adult literacy are best achieved byensuring that all children have access to aquality basic education. The Government ofMalaysia policies for free public education at theprimary and secondary level as well as thepolicy of compulsory primary schooling provideguaranteed access to schooling. These policiesare combined with significant investments inpromoting educational quality and equity toensure maximum opportunity for all childrento become literate.
At the school level, children having difficultywith reading in Year 1 in any Malaysian publicschool are provided with extra tutoring throughthe KIA2M programme. For children fromindigenous communities who may experience
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added difficulties in becoming literate in theNational Language, the PKMOA programmeoffers the option of an additional year of studyfocusing on language and literacy between Year 2and 3. Students who complete study in a primaryschool where the language of instruction is notthe National Language have access to a transitionyear programme to strengthen their literacy skillsbefore beginning their lower secondary schoolprogramme. In addition to specific literacyinterventions at the school level, the MOE hasdeveloped a new primary school syllabus forindigenous children. The purpose of the newsyllabus is to incorporate indigenous culture intothe syllabus to better prepare children fromindigenous communities for success in primaryschool. All schools participate in the “ReadingHabit is the Key to Knowledge” programmeintroduced in 1998. The programme encouragesstudents to read through a system of reporting onbooks read and through competitions.
The MOE also carries out research onliteracy and is developing a research agenda onliteracy in order to better target literacy initiativesand establish appropriate benchmarks formeasuring progress. This framework and agendawill also facilitate international comparisons and
exchange of information and practices with othercountries and across sectors in Malaysia.
STRATEGY 2: Provide opportunitiesfor improving literacy skills linked to acquiring opportunities forgenerating incomeThe Ministry of Rural and Regional Development,the Ministry of Entrepreneurship and CorporativeDevelopment and other relevant ministriesprovide:• Basic literacy programmes;• Skill-based programmes;• Income-based programmes; and• Formal settings and learning facilities for the
training programmes.The community development agency underKEMAS operates 4,847 training facilitiesthroughout the country. These facilities provideskill and functional literacy training programmessuch as: Education for Family Well-Being,Functional Literacy Education, Computer LiteracyEducation, Education for the Acquisition of Skillsand Community Resources Centres. Among theincome-generating and skill-based programmesare Business and Entrepreneurship Training, and Rural Information and Information Techno-logy Management. The objective of theseprogrammes is to encourage participation andincrease the competitive advantage of groupslike the poor, the indigenous people and women- particularly single mothers. The Government isalso committed in enhancing ICT skills amongthe people in rural areas. Seventeen trainingcentres for ICT (Medan Info Desa) have beenbuilt throughout the country in order to close thedigital divide between the rural and urbancommunities (Ministry of Rural and RegionalDevelopment Annual Report, 2004).
Young people who leave school beforecompleting secondary school also have access toskills training centres (Pusat Giat Mara) under theMECD. These centres offer training to young
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people aged 15 and above that ranges from basicskills like sewing to special skills in areas such asbuilding-construction, electronics, electricalengineering, automotive, business and others.Students who complete Pusat Giat Mara trainingprogrammes can gain entrance to MECD SkillsTraining Institutes around the country and pursuea diploma level technical qualification. In additionto the Pusat Giat Mara, the MECD also providesshort-term skills training under its entrepre-neurship programme. These one- and two-weekcourses in areas such as basic business skills,contracting, and ICT, are offered to individuals 18 years of age and older.
A new type of educational institution hasrecently been added to the education system.These MOHE Community Colleges provide thelocal community with training and skills andprovide secondary school leavers the opportunityto improve their prospects before entering thejob market or continuing their education attertiary level in the fields of technology, businessand industrial services. Community Colleges areseen as the ‘catalyst’ for lifelong learning andprovide short-term courses for upskilling andreskilling in addition to the diploma and certificatecourses. To further encourage participation in the short-term courses, the fees charged areminimal and the courses are provided in a flexiblemanner. As of 2007, 37 Community Collegeswere operational and 60 colleges are planned tobe operational by 2010.
Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) alsoplay an active role in promoting functional literacyfor disadvantaged groups. The Amanah IkhtiarMalaysia (AIM or the ‘Malaysian Effort Trust’) is apublic-private partnership which combines micro-credit with training and skills development for poorhouseholds to transform them into entrepreneurs.AIM has established 2,397 centres covering 2,803villages and has registered 60,650 membersthroughout the country.
Yayasan Basmi Kemiskinan (YBK) or the
Foundation for the Eradication of Poverty is aNGO established in the states of Perak, Kelantan,Pahang and Selangor. One of the pilot projectsundertaken by YBK Selangor, “Desa Kasih”(Caring Village), was created through thedevelopment of 20 acres of land specifically for110 poor families. Each family is given a housewith basic utilities and is supported by skillstraining through a Community Learning Centre.
STRATEGY 3: Provide literacytraining linked to the specific needsof the communityThe “Women Motivator” initiative by JHOEA forindigenous communities provides skills toparents of young children through activities thatinvolve both parent and child. The programmeaddresses literacy by raising awareness and theskills of parents in encouraging reading in theirchildren and increases knowledge about healthpractices and community development.
The KEMAS Functional Literacy programmefor rural and indigenous communities providesspecific types of support to indigenous groups.For example, the economic component ofthe functional literacy programme providesskills relevant to particular regions likesewing, crafts and agricultural skills appropriateto the agricultural potential of that region.The programmes are provided free to thecommunities. Facilities are provided andthe salaries of teachers, paid by the Government.Teachers receive training in pedagogical skills,sewing and culinary skills. Programme durationsranged from six to twelve months and eachcentre is governed by a committee.
The Government of Malaysia has providedincreased opportunities for functional literacytraining as part of its national effort to reducerural-urban disparities. Over 85 percent of the1,977 new literacy centres provided since 2000have been established in the states of Sabah and Sarawak.
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PROGRESS IN ACHIEVING EFAGOAL 4 IN MALAYSIA Figure 3.15 indicates that the overall literacy ratefor persons 15 years and older in Malaysia hasimproved about one percent since 2000 and the
estimate of the absolute number of illiterates inMalaysia has fallen by about 200 thousandpersons. The high enrollment and survival ratesin primary school have resulted in more than98 percent of the 15 to 24 year olds meeting the
Figure 3.15 | Literacy Rates and Number of Illiterates, 2000–2006
1,600
1,550
1,500
1,450
(000)
%1,400
1,350
1,300
1,2502000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
84.0%
86.0%
88.0%
90.0%
92.0%
94.0%
96.0%
98.0%
100.0%
Number ofilliterates
Literacy Rate 15 to 24
Literacy Rate15 and above
Sources: DOS (2000–2006)
Sources: DOS (2000)
Figure 3.16 | Urban and Rural Literacy Rates, by State, 2000
%
40
Joho
r
Keda
h
Kela
ntan
Mel
aka
Neg
eri
Sem
bila
n
Paha
ng
Perli
s
Pera
k
Pula
uPi
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Saba
h
Sara
wak
Sela
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Tere
ngga
nu
W.P
erse
kutu
an
W.P
.Lab
uan
Rural Literacy Rates
50
60
70
80
90
100
Urban Literacy Rates
Sources: Ministry of Rural and Regional Development (KEMAS), Ministry of Rural and Regional Development (Department of Orang Asli), Ministry ofEntrepreneur and Cooperative Development, (2001–2005)
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Figure 3.17 | Participants in Literacy Programmes and Non-Formal Education,2001–2005
160,000
180,000
140,000
120,000
100,000
80,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
0
Orang Asli LiteracyProgramme
Part
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Pusat Giat MaraProgramme
KEMAS Non-Formal Education
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Malaysian definition of “literate” (currentlyattending or having attended school).
Figure 3.16 indicates that low literacy levelsare concentrated in specific communities –namely the rural populations of Sabah andSarawak. Since 2000, the largest share of publicresources for literacy training has been dedicatedto these two states. Reliable, more dis-aggregated measures of literacy are not yetavailable. Improving literacy rates from therelatively high current level will require a meansto identify the characteristics of those failing toachieve literacy in order to better targetappropriate responses.
Figure 3.17 summarises trends in partici-pation in literacy or skills courses that areavailable to Malaysians without formal schoolqualifications. Many of these courses reflect the Government of Malaysia’s efforts topromote functional literacy that also includesbasic livelihood skills. Typically, between 130thousand and 150 thousand people haveparticipated in these programmes each year
between 2001 and 2005 with the largestnumber represented by participants in thevarious types of KEMAS literacy programmes.Not included in the figure are the more than 70thousand participants in short-term coursesprovided by the MOHE community colleges.
SUCCESSES ANDRECOMMENDATIONS INIMPLEMENTING EFA GOAL 4The high participation rates in formal schooling atthe primary and lower secondary level suggestthat literacy rates – defined as “having attendedschool” or “being able to read and write” – willcontinue to rise in Malaysia. Significantresources for programmes like KIA2M, PKMOAand the optional transition year between primaryschool and lower secondary school ensure ample support for mastering basic literacy andnumeracy skills at the primary school and lowersecondary level.
Despite this positive trend, two challenges
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persist. One challenge is to be able to betteridentify children and youth who are not fullyparticipating in the formal primary and lowersecondary systems and are at risk of failing tobecome literate. As mentioned in the discussionfor Goal 2, the high participation rates in Malaysiameans that typical methods for measuring thenumber of children out of school will not providea sufficiently sensitive measure and moreinnovative and creative means of identifyingthese children and youth will need to becomepart of the regular MOE supported exercises. As discussed in Goal 2, these more creativeinitiatives involve supporting schools to be “childseeking” institutions.
The second challenge is to provide improvedlife chances for those children and youth who, forone reason or another, leave the formal academicstream and ensure that they have what isneeded to effectively contribute to thedevelopment of a progressive and cohesivesociety. The evolution of the Malaysian andglobal economy requires a functional or criticalliteracy that exceeds the simple standard ofbeing able to read and write; effectiveparticipation in public life in a complex multi-ethnic, rapidly-developing society places everincreasing demands on the critical thinking skillsof all Malaysians. The goals of the 9MP to movethe economy up the value chain, to raise thecapacity for knowledge and innovation, toaddress persistent socio–economic inequalities,to improve the standard and sustainability ofquality of life and to strengthen the institutionaland implementation capacity cannot be achievedunless even those who do not complete formalsecondary school have the knowledge, skills and attitudes to contribute to the nationaldevelopment process.
This wider concept of functional literacyfocuses attention on Malaysian youths andyoung adults. For struggling adolescent learners
in schools, the objectives of any literacyimprovement strategy must be centred onaccelerating students’ reading and academiclearning in subject matter areas and finding waysto make use of their out-of-school interests incomputers and the media to foster their in-schoolsubject matter learning. On the other hand,literacy improvement strategies for schooldropouts and young adults with low levels ofliteracy must emphasise the developmentof literacy skills that will help them gainemployment and access to community servicessuch as medical facilities, skills training andcontinuing education.
These kinds of knowledge and skills requiremuch more than a primary level education – orjust being able to read and write. Even standardsecondary education will be insufficient withoutadditional opportunities either within the standardsecondary school or in alternative settings. Whileenrollment in and graduation from functionalliteracy programmes and related initiatives areregularly reported, there is a lack of rigorousongoing assessment of the impact of theseprogrammes on the lives of participants and theiroverall contribution to the social and economicdevelopment of the country. This lack of criticalassessment seriously limits the ability to prioritiseinvestments that are successful and to respondto the regularly changing needs of a dynamicsociety and economy.
Perhaps the major obstacle to ongoingassessment and effective planning of functionalliteracy initiatives is the lack of a commondefinition of functional literacy and a nationalframework for literacy advocacy andprogramming for all of the importantGovernment, non-government and privatesector stakeholders. Without this frameworkthere is no common understanding of thecriteria for assessing the success of currentinitiatives or for identifying modifications of
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Local leaders and the community at any ageare given hands on ICT training at MedanInfoDesa centers (MID). MID centers areprovided by the government to impart ICT skillsamong the communities of the rural andremote areas in reducing the digital gap amongthe society. Training programme packages
include computer literacy, Internet browsingand computer hardware maintenance. Otheraims of the government are to create anetworking society among the community andupdating the community data by the localleaders. Acquiring ICT skills will 104 enable thecommunity to engage it in conducting businessor becoming an ICT entrepreneur.
Research done by the Ministry of Ruraland Regional Development has shown apositive inclination towards the ICTprogrammes. Almost two thirds of theparticipants (64.5%) wanted to be seriouslyinvolved in the MID activities. Thus there isan indication that the government shouldcontinuously support the MID to enhanceits contribution to ICT development in therural areas.
BOX 3 Goal 4: Infodesa Programe by Ministry of Rural and Regional Development
current initiatives and areas where new effortsare required. This national framework shouldprovide concrete definitions for literacy –including new literacies arising from the evolvingtechnologies of global communications as wellas illustrate how literacy is manifested in a multi-ethnic society. This common definition andframework would facilitate the coherent cross-sectoral planning necessary for functionalliteracy efforts that improve the life chances ofparticipants and the cohesiveness and resilienceof the Malaysian economy and society. Anational framework would also serve to orientprivate sector literacy and skills initiatives towell-defined national goals and priorities as well
as to reshape individual teachers’ thinking,awareness and practices with respect to literacyfor children and young adults.
The elaboration of a common definition offunctional literacy and a national frameworkshould be informed by a cross-sectoral researchagenda on literacy that assesses the social impactof current initiatives and policies. Additionalresearch and evaluation capacity necessary toimplement the research agenda must also bedeveloped. Once established, this improvedcross-sectoral research capacity can ensure thatthe definition, national literacy framework andongoing assessment evolve to meet Malaysia’ssocial and economic needs and aspirations.
73
Goal 5: Eliminating gender disparities inprimary and secondary education by 2005,and achieving gender equality in educationby 2015 with a focus ensuring girls’ full andequal access to and achievement in basiceducation of good quality
The assessment of the “Gender Goal” onlybecomes meaningful when there is a clearunderstanding of what is meant by “gender” and“gender equality”. According to the UNESCOGender Toolkit, gender refers to “the roles andresponsibilities of men and women that arecreated in our families, our societies and ourcultures. The concept of gender also includes theexpectations held about characteristics,aptitudes and likely behaviours of both women
and men”. It is clearly distinguished from sex,which describes the biological differencesbetween men and women. “Gender equality” —means “women and men have equal conditions— for realising their full human rights and forcontributing to, and benefiting from, economic,social, cultural, and political development”. It istherefore the equal valuing by society, of thesimilarities and the differences and the rolesthey play.
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3Gender as a development focus was first
mentioned in the Third Malaysia Plan (1976–80),which encouraged the active participation ofwomen in development and their contribution tothe economy. Later five-year development planshave given greater prominence to gender issuesand since the 6MP, a full chapter has beendevoted to policies and programmes that promotewomen in development. The National Policy forWomen (NPW), a major initiative affecting genderequality and women’s empowerment in Malaysiawas formulated in 1989. Its contents wereincorporated into the Sixth Malaysia Plan and haveformed the basis for many of the subsequentpolicies relating to women in development. TheNPW’s primary objectives are: to ensure equitablesharing in the acquisition of resources andinformation as well as opportunities and benefitsof development for men and women; and tointegrate women in all sectors of nationaldevelopment in accordance with their capabilitiesand needs in order to eradicate poverty, ignoranceand illiteracy, and to ensure a peaceful,harmonious, and prosperous nation.
In Malaysia, male and female children haveequal access to education. There is nodiscrimination against female students in termsof legislation, policy, mechanisms, structures orallocation of resources. Each child receiveseducation as an individual and not according togender. They are all taught the same curriculumand sit for the same public examinations. Allcurriculum, textbooks and teaching materials arecarefully evaluated to ensure that the contents donot stereotype females as inferior to males, orfemales are incapable of receiving highereducation, or incapable of holding important postseither in the private or public sectors. This isimportant in nurturing positive values in children.
Education is one of the key factors inachieving the national mission and teachers playan important role in ensuring this success.Teachers need to understand and possess a high
degree of commitment in implementing educationinitiatives and new approaches for improving thequality of education. Therefore, those recruitedinto the teaching profession must be highlycommitted and with the right qualification andattitude. Teacher training institutes managed bythe MOE admit both men and women. However,the trend shows that more women than men areinterested in applying into the teacher educationinstitutes. The drop in the number of maleteachers in both primary and secondary schoolsover the past years has intensified MOE’s effortsto encourage males into the teaching profession.The media has been capitalised to encouragemales to apply for training, but it appears that therecruitment of more males continue to be achallenge to the MOE.
STRATEGIES TO ACHIEVE EFAGOAL 5 IN MALAYSIAThe Malaysian National Education Systemprovides primary, secondary and tertiary educationwith the aim of creating a united, disciplined andskilled society. The provision of primary andsecondary education, democratisation ofeducational opportunities, special assistance forthe disadvantaged groups, enhanced technicaleducation, and diversification of educationalopportunities, especially in the sciences andtechnical fields are strategies employed to achievethe aims. These strategies apply equally to malesand females. However, there are interventionsthat address gender issues.
STRATEGY 1: Encourage FemaleStudents to Opt For Technical andEngineering Based Courses Under the National Curriculum, students insecondary schools are allowed to choosetechnical/commercial subjects and courses basedon their interests and potentials. For the LivingSkills Subject, a student has the option to choose
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one of the four elective components namely,Additional Manipulative Skills, Home Economics,Agriculture and Commerce and EntrepreneurshipSkills. Based on the trend in the high number offemale students opting for Home Economics ascompared to Additional Manipulative Skills, it isapparent that gender stratification exists in thechoices of courses the girls made. The largenumber of girls pursuing courses offeringtraditionally female oriented or entrepreneurshipskills as opposed to courses offering technicalskills is probably due to deeply ingrained socialand cultural values. The MOE is stepping upefforts to encourage female students to opt forAdditional Manipulative Skills as an elective.
STRATEGY 2: Raise Awareness onIssues Such As Gender Discri-mination and Stereotypes in Careerand VocationCareer and vocational guidance are provided inschools and students are free to choose theircareer regardless of their gender. Information oncareer opportunities and higher education isavailable in schools through schools resourcecentres. The School Division of the Ministry ofEducation has produced six volumes of books oncareers to assist school counsellors in advisingstudents on career choices. The books also raise awareness on issues such as genderdiscrimination and stereotypes.
STRATEGY 3: Encourage FemaleStudents into Technical andVocational Secondary SchoolsTechnical and vocational schools offer educationat the upper secondary level. At present, thereare 90 technical schools. The technical schoolsprovide basic knowledge and skills in technicaland vocational fields which are essential to thetrade and industrial sector. The courses offeredare: civil engineering, electrical engineering,mechanical engineering, agriculture, commerce,home economics and technology. Femalestudents are also encouraged to enter thesetechnical and vocational schools.
STRATEGY 4: Encourage FemaleStudents to Participate in Sportsand Physical EducationFemale students are encouraged and given thesame opportunities as male students toparticipate in sports and physical education.There are no regulations or prohibitions to hinderthe participation of females in sports and physicalactivities. Male and female students have equalaccess to sports and physical facilities. Forexample, the involvement of female athletes invarious high performance games during theMalaysian Schools Sports Council (MSSM)meets for the past five years was almost equal tothat of their male counterparts. This is inaccordance with the National Sport Policy that
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“all students should be encouraged to strive forexcellence in sports”.
STRATEGY 5: Raise Awareness inGender Issues Through School Text Book Textbooks play a vital role in eradicatingdiscrimination and stereotyping of women bypromoting positive portrayals of women. TheMOE has drawn up guidelines to writers andpublishers, emphasising, the need to avoidissues related to the discrimination of women.The guidelines ensure that the content,presentation of materials and graphics intextbooks are not gender biased. The panel ofevaluators are selected among teachers with aminimum of five years teaching experience.
The materials in textbooks such as texts,passages and activities take into considerationthe interests of both genders and present equalportrayals of both sexes. In terms of illustrationsand graphic presentations, which play afunctional role in clarifying the content of thetextbook, women are depicted in active anddynamic roles such as doctors, engineers,lawyers and scientists instead of the stereotyperole of a housewife, teacher or nurse. Theindiscrimination of women portrayed in thetextbooks would uplift the morale of women inthe new millennium and eliminate any form ofdiscrimination against them.
STRATEGY 6: Introduce VocationalSubjects in Regular SecondarySchools to Encourage Boys to StayLonger in Schools To meet the demands of students who areinclined towards vocational skills, vocationalsubjects were introduced in Regular SecondarySchools (RSS) in 2002. In 2006, there were a totalof 556 schools (746 workshops) which offered 22vocational subjects in the field of manufacturing,construction, home economics, agro-technology
and computer applications. In addition, vocationalsubjects are also offered to students with specialneeds under the Integrated Special EducationProgramme. In 2008, two vocational subjects,namely, catering and agriculture for hearingimpaired students will be piloted in Sabah.
PROGRESS IN ACHIEVING EFAGOAL 5 Figure 3.18 shows that girls and boys participatein ECCE in roughly equal numbers. The GER forpreschool aged children (4 to 6 years old) is 66 percent for boys and 68 percent for girls. Thegender parity index at the preschool level is 1.03.
While boys enrollment is greater than girlsenrollment at the primary level, it is a functionof relatively higher numbers of boys in theprimary school age cohort. Figure 3.19 showsthat the GER for girls is routinely about one percent greater than that for boys each year2000–2005. The gender parity index for primarylevel in 2005 is 1.01.
The percentage of secondary school agegirls enrolled in secondary school is greater thanthat for boys. This is especially true at the seniorsecondary level. The gender parity index for secondary level is 1.07 as illustrated inFigure 3.20.
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Figure 3.18 | GER and Enrollment for ECCE 4–6 years old by Gender, 2000–2005
20012000 2002 2003 2004
GPI 2005 = 1.03
20050%
ECCE
Enro
llmen
t
GER
ECCE Male Male GER Female GERECCE Female
0
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
250,000
300,000
350,000
400,000
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
Sources: EMIS, EPRD, MOE: DOS (2000–2005)
The number of children not enrolled inprimary or secondary education has remainedstable in the 2000 to 2005 period – although thenumber is about 2000 less than it was in 1985.As highlighted in Figure 3.21 girls represent only
about 35 percent of the out of school children of primary and secondary school age cohorts.
Table 3.1 presents students achievement bygender at primary, lower secondary and seniorsecondary level, a higher percentage of girls
Figure 3.19 | GER and Enrollment for Primary Education by Gender, 2000–2005
20012000 2002 2003 2004 2005
GER
Prim
ary
Enro
llmen
t
1,300,000
1,350,000
1,400,000
1,450,000
1,500,000
1,550,000
1,600,000
92%
93%
93%
94%
94%
95%
96%
95%
97%
96%
98%
97%
GPI 2005 = 1.01Primary Male Male GER Female GERPrimary Female
Sources: EMIS, EPRD, MOE: DOS (2000–2005)
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achieve minimum standard mastery in MalayLanguage, English and Mathematics than boyswho sit for the same national examinationsin 2003.
Figure 3.22 shows the enrollment figuresaccording to gender at Teacher EducationInstitutes (TEI) from 2000 to 2005. Femaleenrollment is higher than male in every year as
indicated in the table. The decreasing enrollmentof male in the teacher education institutes from38.7 percent in 2000 to 29.8 percent in 2005 is agrowing concern of the MOE and less qualifiedmales are applying into the teacher educationinstitutes and becomes great challenge for theMOE to attract better qualified males into theteaching profession.
Sources: EMIS, EPRD, MOE: DOS (2000–2005)
Figure 3.20 | GER and Enrollment for Secondary by Gender (public and private),2000–2005
GPI 2005 = 1.07
20012000 2002 2003 2004 2005
Secondary Male
Male GER
Female GER
Secondary Female
Seco
ndar
yEn
rolm
ent
980,000
1,000,000
1,020,000
1,040,000
1,060,000
1,080,000
1,100,000
1,120,000
1,140,000
78%
GER
80%
82%
84%
86%
88%
90%
92%
Table 3.1 | Student Achievement by Gender, 2003
Percent Passing withA, B or C
Male Female Male Female Male Female
Primary Achievement Test
Percent Passing withA, B, C or D
Lower Secondary Achievement
Percent Passing withA, B or C
Malaysia Senior Certificate Examination
Mathematics
English
Malay Language
81.0%
58.7%
81.2%
89.3%
74.9%
89.8%
88.8%
60.5%
92.4%
94.0%
75.7%
97.5%
65.3%
57.7%
83.7%
76.3%
74.0%
92.0%
Sources: Examination Syndicate, MOE (2003)
The low enrollment of male in the teachereducation institutes has resulted in a smallpercentage of male teachers in schools. Betweenthe 2000 to 2005 period, male teachers at primaryand secondary schools comprise only about 30 percent to 37 percent as shown in Figure 3.23.
Figure 3.24 also shows the total number oflecturers in the TEI and polytechnics. In theseinstitutes, the number of male lecturers is higherthan female lecturers during the 2000 to2005 period. The number of female lecturersincreased from 36.1 percent in 2000 to
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Sources: EMIS, EPRD, MOE: DOS (2000–2005)
Figure 3.21 | Number of Primary and Secondary Age Children Out of School by Gender,2000–2005
20012000 2002 2003 2004 2005
Out of SchoolFemale
Out of SchoolMale
Child
ren
0
100,000
200,000
300,000
400,000
500,000
600,000
Sources:Teacher Education Division, MOE
Figure 3.22 | Enrollment in Teacher Education Institutes by Gender, 2000–2005
Year
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Num
bero
fStu
der
25,000 72
70
68
66
64
62
60
58
56
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
Perc
enta
ge
Male
Female
% F
40.9 percent in 2005. However, the trend is notthe same in the polytechnics. In the poly-technics, the female lecturers have outnumberedthe male lectures in recent years. Figure 3.24
shows the higher percentage of female lecturers in polytechnics as compared to their male counterparts.
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Figure 3.23 | Number of Teachers in Primary and Secondary School by Gender,2000–2005
Year
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Num
bero
fTe
ache
rs
140,000 68
67
66
65
64
63
62
6160
59
120,000
100,000
80,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
0
Perc
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Female- Primary
Female- Secondary
% Female- Secondary
% Female- Secondary
Source:Teacher Education Division, MOE, Polytechnics (2000–2005)
Figure 3.24 | Number of Lecturers in Teacher Education Institutes and Polytechnics byGender, 2000–2005
Year
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Num
bero
fLec
ture
rs
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Perc
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Female- TEI
Female- Polytechnics
% Female- TEI
% Female- Polytechnics
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SUCCESSES ANDRECOMMENDATIONS INIMPLEMENTING EFA GOAL 5In Malaysia there is no particular gender bias insending children to schools. Malaysia hasgenerally achieved gender parity in education in2005. This is evident by the high participationrate of over 96 percent Malaysian children in public and private primary schools and 88 percent in secondary schools. The dropoutoccurrences during the primary level althoughminimal in percentages, in absolute number itrepresents about 10,000 primary school childrenper year. Malaysia’s participation rate atsecondary level of over 88 percent in 2005 mustbe improved. Especially alarming is the fact thatthere is a growing trend that boys are at adisadvantaged in terms of participation comparedto girls. A higher enrollment of female to that ofmale at this level indicates education at this levelfavours females over males. This trend placesMalaysia in a unique situation as compared tomany other developing countries that recordedhigher male participation. Should this trendpersists, Malaysia’s achievement in meeting theMDGs and Education for All (EFA) goals by 2015would be affected.
Conventional measures of gender parity ineducation in Malaysia indicate that participationand educational outcomes in the system are as good as or better for girls. The only area of which female participation rate is dis-proportionately low is in the technical andengineering field. Choices by girls and womenas to their career paths are individual decisionsmade within the context of a larger culturalsetting. Efforts are being made to address this issue and the Ministry of Education is
considering ways to encourage female studentsin schools to choose elective subjects such asAdditional Manipulative Skills at the lowersecondary school level, which will hopefully leadthem to choose technical and engineeringrelated subjects or courses later on.
The imbalance in the ratio of male to femaleteachers in Malaysia is brought about by arelatively lower number of males interested to take up teaching as a career. This trendapparently exists in most countries around theworld. To address the issue of imbalance in theratio of male to female teachers in Malaysia, theMOE is increasing its efforts to make theteaching profession more attractive.
Women in Malaysia, have made remarkableachievement in education and continue toprogress in most fields of studies. However,women are decidedly under-represented amongtop decision makers in both the private andpublic sector. Choices by girls and women as totheir career paths are individual decisions madewithin the context of a larger cultural setting.These decisions do have an effect on the largersociety when, for example, women feel theydon’t have support to relocate when they arerequired to take progressively more responsiblepositions. In this case it is the entire society thatpays the price of the loss of these talents – notjust the women themselves. While a wholesaleadoption of patterns from other countries is notdesirable it would be wise to examine whatcontribution the education sector can make(along with other stakeholders) for enabling thecountry to take full advantage of the talents ofMalaysian women consistent with a consensusview of Malaysian cultural values.
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Goal 6: Improving all aspects of the qualityof education and ensuring excellence of allso that recognised and measurable learningoutcomes are achieved by all, especially inliteracy, numeracy and essential life skills.
“Quality has become a dynamic concept that hasto constantly adapt to a world whose societiesare undergoing profound social and economictransformation. Encouragement for future-oriented thinking and anticipation is gainingimportance. Old notions of quality are no longerenough… despite the different contexts thereare many common elements in the pursuit of aquality education, which should equip all people,women and men, to be fully participatingmembers of their own communities and alsocitizens of the world” (Ministerial Round Table onQuality Education, UNESCO, 2003, p.1). Qualityin education is central to Malaysia’s march
towards developed nation status. The 9MPcommits the education sector “to raise thecapacity for knowledge and innovation andnurture first class mentality”. The NationalEducation System rests on the foundations of theNational Philosophy of Education and it executesits mission through actions described in theEducation Development Plan (2001–2010).
National Phi losophy of Educat ion(NPE)Education in Malaysia is a continuous effort todevelop the potential of individuals in a holisticand integrated manner. The system aspires to
produce individuals who are intellectually,spiritually, emotionally and physically balancedand harmonious, based on a firm belief in anddevotion to God. These characteristics prepareindividuals to assume the full role of Malaysiancitizens who are knowledgeable and competent,who possess high moral standards, and who areresponsible and capable of achieving a high levelof personal well-being as well as being able tocontribute to the harmony and betterment of thefamily, society and the nation at large. The NPE isrealised through promoting a learning culture;encouraging creativity and innovation amongstudents; inculcating a research culture in scienceand technology; promoting lifelong learning;providing an efficient and world-class educationsystem; establishing Malaysia as a centreof educational excellence; and raising theprofessionalism of the teaching profession to alevel consistent with international norms.
The Educat ion Development Plan2001–2010The EDP describes the education sector’sstrategies for furthering the National Vision ofbuilding a resilient nation and just society that hasglobally competitive human resources and aknowledge economy capable of sustainableeconomic growth and maintaining sustainableenvironmental development.
The implementation of the EDP is intendedto ensure that all citizens regardless of socio–economic circumstances, ethnicity and locationhave the opportunity to complete eleven years ofquality education. The plan also emphasisesstrengthening the capacity of tertiary educationto produce the knowledgeable and skilledworkforce described in the NPE. The plancomplements the strategies of the OPP3 and the9MP to increase the nation’s economic growth insupport of efforts to build a united, just andequitable society as well as meeting thechallenges of globalisation and to creating a
developed nation with its own unique Malaysiancharacteristics.
The EDMP unveiled in January 2006 is a mid-term realignment of the EDP. The EDMP focusesthe sector’s energies in the remaining five yearsto support the National Mission through theprioritisation of the six thrusts of the blueprint foreducation. The six thrusts are: • Nation Building;• Developing Human Capital;• Strengthening National Schools;• Bridging the Education Gap;• Elevating the Teaching Profession; and• Accelerating Excellence in Educational
Institutions.
STRATEGIES TO ACHIEVE EFAGOAL 6 IN MALAYSIA
STRATEGY 1: Continue to improvephysical conditions in schools –especially in regards to eliminatingrural-urban differencesThe 9MP commits the Government toconstructing more than 13,000 classrooms by2010. These classrooms will lower primarystudent classroom ratios from 31 students perclassroom to 30 students per classroom at theprimary level and from 32 to 30 students perclassroom at the secondary level. Theadditional classrooms will also permit anincrease in the percentage of single sessionprimary schools from 86 percent to 90 percentand from 65 percent to 70 percent forsecondary schools. Additional investments arebeing made to rehabilitate schools to ensurethat all remaining primary and secondaryschools have 24 hour electricity and cleanwater and sanitation by 2010. The largest shareof the investment in school infrastructure isdirected to rural areas to address the remainingrural urban differences.
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STRATEGY 2: Support a holisticconcept of quality with appropriateschool level inputs and diverseprogrammes for different types of learners in schoolsThe Government of Malaysia is committed todeveloping children and youth in a holisticmanner with emphasis on both the acquisition ofskills and the promotion of a strong spiritual,emotional and physical foundation for life. The characteristics and preparation of humanresources (teachers and counsellors) and theadequacy of physical inputs at the school level aswell as the variety of programmes on offer in aschool are key elements in overall educationalquality in this holistic framework.
Well trained, knowledgeable and committedteachers are clearly key elements contributing toquality at the school level. In addition to regularpre-service and in-service programmes, the MOEis currently investing in tuition support and livingstipends to allow non-graduate teachers tocomplete first degrees. The goal is to increasethe percentage of primary teachers who are firstdegree graduates from 10.5 percent in 2006 to50 percent by 2010. Similar support is beingprovided to secondary teachers with the goal of
ensuring that all secondary teachers are firstdegree graduates by 2010. The ability of schoolsto provide attention to students in a holisticmanner is being further enhanced through thecreation of full time counselling posts at both theprimary and secondary levels. The target is toprovide one counsellor for every five hundredstudents in the system.
In addition to improving teacherqualifications, the number of teachers in publicprimary schools has also been increased by morethan 35 thousand between 2000 and 2005. Thisincrease in teachers lowers student-teacherratios from 19 students per teacher to 16.4students per teacher. Student-teacher ratioshave also been lowered at the secondary levelduring the same period from 17.7 to 16.2.
Early and intensive intervention and supportfor primary school students having difficulties inreading is provided in all Malaysian schools inyear one through the KIA2M programme. Forchildren from indigenous communities anoptional additional year of primary schooling isavailable for children having difficulties betweenyears two and three of primary school (PKMOA)as well as an optional “transition” year betweenprimary school and lower secondary school.
To ensure that Malaysian students have the
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best possible access to global developments inscience and technology, the use of English as thelanguage of instruction for Science andMathematics was implemented beginning in2003. This policy is supported by significantinvestments in training to improve the Englishproficiency of teachers as well as through theprovision of instructional in materials such ascourseware, textbooks, activity books, and ICTfacilities including computer laboratories,notebooks, and LCD projectors. The process hasalso been supported by more than 13,000 schoolvisits by the Inspectorate of Schools since theinception of the policy to monitor results andprovide feedback and guidance.
The Government of Malaysia has madesignificant investment in harnessing ICT forsupporting the delivery of the curriculum.Significant investment has also been made inutilising ICT as a means of expanding thehorizons of students beyond the academicofferings of the school and to foster thedevelopment of skills in using electronic mediafor gathering information. The MOE “AccessCentre” programme provides hardware,software and connectivity to rural schools for theestablishment of cyber café style internet accesswhere students can pursue individual interestsand maintain contacts with other young people inMalaysia and beyond.
The MOE has recently further diversified theschool programme at the secondary level byoffering a limited number of vocational/technicalcourses in regular secondary schools. Thesecourses are intended to provide skills forstudents who do not plan to continue theirstudies and to motivate non-academicallyoriented students to remain in senior secondaryschool and complete their secondary education.
The MOE has recognised the importance ofcombining high levels of academic skills withpositive values, morals and self-discipline as partof a more comprehensive view of human capital.
An important component in developing these“soft skills” is co-curricular activities. Currentlythe MOE officially recognises and sanctionsmore than 300 types of co-curricular activitiesthat include clubs, sports, cultural activities,debate competitions and many more. Therecognition of the importance of these activitiesas critical components of a quality education isdemonstrated by the increase in per capitagrants to schools for these activities in 2006 andby the formal inclusion of co-curricular activitiesas a component of the admission criteria tohigher education. Traditional school and studentaward programmes also now include awards forexemplary performance in co-curricular activities.
In a multi-ethnic society such as Malaysiapromotion of national cohesion and respect forthe national ethnicities must be considered aspart of this wider concept of quality. At theprimary level Malaysia has instituted a pilotprogramme – the “Vision School” that linksadjacent National and National Type (Chineseand/or Tamil) schools allowing the sharing ofcommon canteens, play fields and other facilitiesthereby creating an environment for promotingunderstanding among ethnic groups. In addition,a formal programme that links school participationin co-curricular activities across ethnicity is alsopart of the Malaysian school programme at boththe primary and secondary levels.
STRATEGY 3: Expand the variety ofprogrammes and institutions in thesystem to reach more children and youthIn addition to promoting a holistic education byexpanding what is provided in mainstreamschools, the MOE has also expanded othertypes of institutions and programmes. Theseadditional programmes or institutions arespecifically designed to reach children who mayexperience barriers to full participation in theregular academic programme of primary and
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secondary schools. One such group constituteschildren with special needs. Special educationservices are provided to students who havevisual or hearing impairment or learningdisabilities. Special education is implementedthrough special schools for visual and hearingimpairment or learning disabilities. For studentswho can function in a regular school theIntegrated Special Education Programme is
made available in mainstream primary andsecondary schools as well as intechnical/vocational secondary schools, whichadopt inclusive teaching and learningapproaches. A special programme has beenimplemented in secondary vocational andtechnical schools to extend educationalopportunities for students with special needs.Through these programmes, students follow the
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Ms Zainab Hasan was appointed as a schoolprincipal in 2005 in SK Bellamy. Studentsperformance in the school is consideredmoderate and as a new school principal, MsHasan would like to improve the situation butfind the task rather challenging.
Prior to her appointment, Ms Hasanworked as a school inspectorate at the IOSWilayah Persekutuan. Ms Hasan understandshow the Standard for Quality Education inMalaysia (SQEM) can help school to improveas she had the experience of using theinstrument to evaluate schools that shevisited when she was at the IOS. Among herfirst task as a school principle was to form aspecial committee that would oversee theimplementation of the SQEM. The committee– consists of senior administrators, resourceteacher, data teacher and counselor - providesa forum for the school administrator to reviewthe performance of the school.
According to Ms Hasan, SQEM helps herto scan the school environment as it alsoserves as a check list in managing her school.The instrument enables her to make objectiveevaluation of her school and determines the
gaps that exist. With the instrument, Ms Hasan was able to plan programmesproperly rather than being reactive.
Although, it is still too early to see markedimprovement in student achievement in MsHasan's school, at least the schoolinformation system is now in place and wellorganised. A major setback to SQEM,according to Ms Hasan, is that it requiresenormous amount of efforts to collect theneeded data at the initial stage of itsimplementation. Only school heads whobelief in the role and the value that SQEM willbenefit from it. Others who implement theSQEM for the sake of just submitting therequired information to IOS will not gain much from it.
Ms Hasan suggested that continuousmonitoring of and support for the utilization ofSQEM in schools should be carried by IOSand State Education Department (SED). The SED should adopt the SQEM as aninstrument of choice for school evaluation.The SQEM should be further improved tomake it less taxing for new users.
BOX 4 Goal 6: SQEM (Standard for Quality Education in Malaysia)
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inclusive or consolidated programme offered bythe National Vocational Training Board.
The Education Act of 1996 formalisedpreschool as part of the National EducationSystem. While it is not considered compulsory,its provision for all five and six year olds inMalaysia has been included in the 9MP. To realisethis goal, all primary schools will include apreschool class by 2010. These additionalopportunities will supplement existing KEMAS,PERPADUAN and MOE classes as well as thoseprovided by private providers. The quality ofpublic and private preschool programmes forchildren between the ages of 4 and 6 is ensuredthrough the provision of a National PreschoolCurriculum prescribed by the MOE. However,KEMAS has the responsibility of ensuring thequality of programmes for younger childrenbelow the age of four.
In collaboration with MOE’s efforts topromote school attendance among childrenfrom indigenous communities, the JHEOAprovides school transport, uniforms and othermaterial support to these communities. TheMOE is currently developing an adaptation ofthe Integrated Primary School Curriculum thatwill utilise indigenous cultural content topromote learning.
The MOHE community colleges have beenadded to the public education systemsince 2000. These colleges provide newopportunities for young persons to furtherdevelop basic knowledge and technical skills. By2010 the number of community colleges willhave increased from about 35 in 2007 to 222.These colleges provide full time certificate anddiploma programmes with a technical orientationfor secondary school graduates, and short-termcourses intended to improve the livelihoods ofthose who do not successfully completesecondary education. The number of schools forthe performing arts and sports are also beingincreased for those inclined to these disciplines.
STRATEGY 4: Monitor Results andStrengthen Management Systemsand CapacityBoth public and private schools at the primary andsecondary levels offer curricula prescribed by theMOE. All students are required to sit for a set offormal nation-wide examination based on thesecurricula at the end of primary, lower secondaryand at the end of upper secondary school.Analysis of results is by country, state and school.
The upper secondary examination,since 2000, has been implemented as an “opencertification examination”. Open certificationpermits students to be evaluated on the basis ofperformance in individual subjects rather thanacross all subjects. Open certification alsoencourages students to choose subjects ofrelevance and interest and higher educationinstitutions in Malaysia now take specific subjectperformance into consideration for admission.
In addition to the formal testing system, theMOE has developed school-based assessmentinstruments as well as the capacity forassessment at the school level. These schoolbased measures allow schools to more closelytrack the performance of students before theformal examination results. The vocationalsubjects taught in regular secondary schools arealso assessed at the school level throughcompetency based assessments at the end ofeach module or set of modules.
A primary concern of the MOE is to improvethe effectiveness and efficiency of the educationaldelivery system through the development ofpersonnel in education leadership andmanagement at all levels. The Aminuddin BakiInstitute (IAB) is the training institute for educationleadership and management for the MOE.Between 2000 and 2005, 3,256 head teachers andprincipals participated in the institute’s trainingprogrammes.
To ensure quality education is delivered inschools, regular inspection of educational
institutions is essential. This responsibility isentrusted to the Inspectorate of Schools – anindependent entity within the MOE. In 2000, theinstrument for Standards for Quality Educationfor Malaysian Schools (SQEMS) was developedto assess the total quality management and theperformance standards of schools and otherinstitutions of learning within the purview of theMOE. The SQEMS assesses schools across fourdimensions: Leadership Direction, OrganisationalManagement, Educational Programme Manage-ment and Pupil Accomplishment. SQEMS is alsoused by educational institutions for self-appraisalto assess their performance. In 2006, 6,091 outof 9,641 schools provided the MOE their selfassessment results, with about 21 percent of theschools reporting rating themselves as excellentor outstanding, 46 percent as promising and 33 percent as mediocre or weak.
Emphasis on results is also encouragedthrough a system of awards for schools andteachers. Annual school awards, such asPromising School Award and the Minister ofEducation’s Quality School Award, are based onthe SQEMS standards. Teachers can also apply to be evaluated for nomination as “masterteachers”. Successful candidates providesupport to other teachers and have more rapidprogression through the teacher career path.
The MOE also sponsors primary andsecondary school teachers in Malaysia to conductaction research. The programme stimulatesprofessionalism among teachers and encouragesinnovation in teaching methodologies, therebyenhancing school achievement.
In the drive to realise the EDMP goal ofmaking the country an educational center, it isvital for the MOE to monitor the quality and the standards of private schools. The QualityStandard for Private Education Institutions(SKIPS), an instrument to evaluate the quality andstandards of private schools, was introduced in2006. SKIPS was formulated with reference to
the Education Act 1996 and the SQEMS. Toensure that private education institutions deliverquality education, they are required to obtainapproval from the MOE on the curriculum to beused. Privately-run schools are permitted toteach subjects from the National Curriculumand/or subjects from the curriculum inInternational Schools, and prepare their studentsfor examinations under the respective curricula.The quality of private schools is assessedevery two years by the Private EducationDivision, MOE.
To better monitor the implementation of theEDMP the Minister of Education required that a“report card” for periodic assessment ofimplementation of the plan be developed andthat progress be measured twice yearly. The firstassessment using the report card was presentedto the Minister and to the country through thepress in June 2007. As a means of monitoringthe progress and outcomes of the systemagainst international benchmarks, Malaysiaparticipates in several international surveys suchas the Trends in International Mathematics andScience Study (TIMMS) and World EducationIndicator (WEI). Malaysia is also participating inthe OECD’s Teaching and Learning InternationalSurvey (TALIS). This effort is intended toestablish research-based indicators of qualityteaching and school leadership practice.
STRATEGY 5: Support EducationGoals with Adequate FinancialResourcesOperational and development priorities in theMalaysian education system have beensupported by substantial financial resources fortheir realisation. One important component ofthe overall public support for education has beenthe provision of significant levels of materialsupport to children and their families to enableeven the poorest students to participate ineducation. As described earlier (Figure 3.13) the
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sum of material support for students was morethan USD182 million in 2005.
Total annual education expenditureexpressed in Malaysian Ringgit in the 2000 to2005 period averages about 100 percent greaterthan total annual education expenditure in themid-1990s (1995). On a per student basis andconverted into USD at the prevailing exchangerate, the 1995 expenditure was USD847 perstudent while the average in the 2002-2004period was approximately USD1,180 per student– a nearly 40 percent increase in USD equivalentexpenditure per student over the 10 year period.As a percentage of GNP, total educationexpenditure ranges from just under 5 percent in1995 and 2000 to between 5.3 and 7.4 percent in the period between 2001 and 2005. Thesefigures place total expenditure on education as apercentage of GNP one percentage point ormore above the worldwide average for countriesreporting in the UNESCO database. Thesefigures are also roughly equal to the averages of18 European countries including the UnitedKingdom, and the United States of America.
Per student recurrent expenditure as apercentage of per capita GNP was 10.4 percent atthe primary level and 14.8 percent at thesecondary level in 2005. Per student recurrentexpenditure in the period between 2000 and 2005averaged about USD394 at the primary level andabout USD532 at the secondary level.
PROGRESS IN ACHIEVING EFAGOAL 6 IN MALAYSIAFigures 3.25 and 3.26 present student achievementin the primary and lower secondary nationalexaminations. In both cases the percentage ofchildren reaching at least the minimum standardincreased in the period 2000 to 2005.
While financial resources do not guaranteeeducational quality, expenditure and quality areoften closely related. Figure 3.27 presentstotal education expenditure (recurrent anddevelopment) for the year 1995 and for theperiod 2000 to 2005. Total expenditure oneducation was greater in the years between2000 and 2005 than in 1995. In general, total
Sources: Examination Syndicate, MOE (2001–2005)
Figure 3.25 | Primary School Achievement Test, 2001–2005
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Number of All A’s
Number of Candidates
Minimum Competency
Number ofCandidates Minimum Competency
Students
0
100,000
200,000
300,000
400,000
500,000
600,000
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Figure 3.27 | Total Federal Spending,Total Education Spending and Education Spending asPrecentage of GNP, 1995–2005
1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Education Spending as % of GNP
Total Education Spending
Total Federal Spending
RM0
RM20
RM40
RM60
RM80
RM100
RM120
RM140
4.8%4.8%
5.7% 6.3%
7.4%
1.0%
0%
2.0%
3.0%
4.0%
5.0%
6.0%
7.0%
8.0%
6.3%5.3%
(bill
ions
)
Sources: Finance Division, MOE (1995–2005)
Sources: Examination Syndicate, MOE (2003–2005)
Figure 3.26 | Lower Secondary Assessment, 2003–2005
2003 2004 2005
Number of Candidates
Students
% Minimum Competency
Number ofCandidates Min Competency
0
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
250,000
300,000
350,000
400,000
450,000
59%
Min
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Com
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60%
61%
62%
63%
64%
65%
66%
education expenditure was at or above fivepercent of GNP in all years.
Figure 3.28 presents recurrent spending perstudent at the primary and secondary levelexpressed as a percentage of per capita GNP. Perstudent recurrent spending in the 2000 to 2005period averaged about USD394 at the primarylevel and about 532 at the secondary level.
The percentage of teachers that are certifiedis nearly 100 percent as shown in Figure 3.29. Therecent decline in the percentage of certifiedteachers is due to the large number of teachersgoing on study leave to complete their firstdegrees. Even with this increase in slightly lessqualified substitutes, over 90 percent of teachersare certified and 100 percent of teachers meet the
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Figure 3.28 | Recurrent Spending Per Student as a Percentage of Per Capita GNP,2000–2005
20012000 2002 2003 2004 2005
Primary
Secondary
PerC
apita
GN
P
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
16%
Sources: Finance Division, MOE (2000–2005)
minimum standards as defined by Malaysian law.Figure 3.30 shows the teacher-student in
ratio in primary and secondary schools in Malaysiaalso improved during the 2000 to 2005 period.
Student classroom ratios have improvedslightly from already favourable levels. This is
shown in Figure 3.31. More importantly, markeddifferences in student classroom ratios acrossstates largely disappeared during the 2000 to2005 period. The highest student classroomratios in 2005 were in the comparatively moreurban states.
Figure 3.29 | Number and Percentage of Certified Teachers in Public Primary Schools,2000–2005
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Percent Certified
Certified Teachers
Teachers
All Teachers
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
140,000
160,000
180,000
200,00097.85%
97.46%
91%
90%
92%
93%
94%
95%
96%
97%
99%
98%
94.91%
91.92%91.05%
91.89%
Sources: EMIS, EPRD, MOE (2000–2005)
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Figure 3.30 | Pupil Teacher Ratios in Public Primary and Secondary Schools,2000–2005
20012000 2002 2003 2004 2005
Primary PTR
Secondary PTR
14.5
15.0
15.5
16.5
16.0
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.5
19.0
Sources: EMIS, EPRD, MOE (2000–2005)
SUCCESSES ANDRECOMMENDATIONS INIMPLEMENTING EFA GOAL 6The successes in the Education System withrespect to EFA Goal 6 are many and complementthe successes with respect to the otherEFA goals. Since independence, Malaysia hasrecognised the key role of education in nationaldevelopment and significant political and financialcommitment have been marshalled in support ofeducation. The system today provides a higherquality of education to more students thanever before. Participation rates in primary andsecondary education are high and academicachievement as measured by internationalbenchmarks is commendable.
The MOE has upgraded and continues toimprove the quality of inputs at the schoollevel. The overwhelming majority of teachershave proper certification and new investmentsare being made in ensuring that teachersexceed the standards of certification byproviding scholarships and stipends to in-service teachers to allow those withoutuniversity degrees to complete a first
degree. The policy of teaching science andmathematics in English has been accompaniedby a significant investment in ensuring thatteachers of those subjects acquire anappropriate command of the language and haveadequate teaching and learning materials.
Development expenditures on infrastructureand ICT have greatly reduced urban ruraldifferences with respect to education infras-tructure and narrowing the digital gap that existsamong these areas. Approximately 80 percent ofplanned infrastructure investment and 70 percentof planned ICT investment for 2006 to 2010 isspecifically intended for rural areas to continuethe process of eradicating these remaining gaps.
Malaysia has implemented a programme thatequates quality with the holistic development ofthe individual. While investments in developingacademic programmes, materials and improvingskills of teachers are significant, the system alsovalues the acquisition of positive values,behaviours and self expression throughprogrammes like co-curricular activities and thosepriorities are also supported by significant publicresources. An emphasis on school level results is
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Sources: EMIS, EPRD, MOE (2000–2005)
Figure 3.31 | Student Classroom Ratio in Public Primary Schools, by State, 2000–2005
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Mal
aysi
a
Stud
ents
perC
lass
room
Joho
re
Keda
h
Kela
ntan
Mel
aka
N. S
embi
lan
Paha
ng
Pera
k
Perli
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P.Pi
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Saba
h
Sara
wak
Sela
ngor
Tere
ngga
nuKu
ala
Lum
pur
Labu
an
200020012002200320042005
encouraged by formal recognition in the form ofawards for both schools and teachers.
As a means of promoting accountability andperformance measurement in service deliverythe Government of Malaysia has implemented a “report card” system of results reportingacross all ministries. The MOE recentlypresented its first biannual report card to thepeople of Malaysia.
As was the case with regards to thesignificant successes in promoting access toeducation, the achievements in educationalquality in Malaysia pose a new set of challengesand demands. Human capital is critical to theGovernment of Malaysia’s efforts to integrate itseconomy into the global system on favourableterms and to strengthen national cohesion byfostering new and better opportunities for allMalaysians. The importance placed on thedevelopment of human capital demands thatimprovements in education quality be continuous– even accelerated – despite the significantlevels of quality already achieved.
This demand to continually improve qualitygenerally and to ensure equality of opportunityfor students from different economic
backgrounds and geographical locations requiresa systematic ongoing analysis of results closelylinked to refining policies and actions. MOEreporting systems are well established andprovide transparency and accountability for theuse of public resources and tracking of outcomesagainst policy goals. However, these systemsoften do not provide the type of refined,disaggregated analysis required as inputs for therefinement of policies and actions.
For example, documenting that a highpercentage of participants completed a particularTVE course of study demonstrates that thedelivery of the programme was efficient and thatefforts to ensure that students had thenecessary material and technical support tocomplete the programme were successful.However, that the programme was efficientlydelivered does not necessarily mean that thisparticular course of study should continue to beprovided or whether another programme wouldproduce better results for the student and forMalaysia. This type of policy-oriented analysiswould require capturing and analysing labourmarket information regarding the impact of theprogramme on the likelihood of finding
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employment as well as whether the programmewas associated with a wage premium compared to other forms of training (alternative programmes).
For academic subjects, primary andsecondary exam results are reported at variouslevels of the system (nationally, by state, bydistricts and by school) but the results are notroutinely assessed from the perspective ofrefining policy or practice. A more thoroughexamination of results combined with collection of complementary information could indicate the relationships between school practices/management and achievement, between teacherpreparation and achievement, between socio-economic status and achievement or other detailsrelevant to improving policies and practice.
This more refined policy-oriented monitoringand evaluation is also critical for meetingMalaysia’s goals of ensuring equality ofopportunity. For example, school dropout rates areregularly estimated and typically presented at thenational and state level. This kind of reportingprovides an indicator of the system’s performancebut it does not provide information relevant topotential policies or actions that would improveretention of students in schools. To know that thedropout rate is two percent is quite different fromknowing how to reduce it further. One step wouldbe to analyse dropouts on a school-by-school basis to determine whether the incidence ofabandoning school was concentrated in particularschools or types of schools. This analysis could befollowed up with a more detailed analysis at thestudent level to identify the relevant differencesbetween students who drop out and those thatsuccessfully complete their schooling.
With Malaysia’s existing high levels of qualityin education, further improvements are likely tobe quite costly. This necessitates thatinvestments be well-targeted and thatprogramme and policy costs be more routinely a
component of policy-oriented research andevaluation. The current systems for financialanalysis and reporting tend to be oriented towardprojections for planning and for accountability.While the reporting and accountability functionsare important, financial information is not typicallyapplied to policy-oriented analysis and evaluation.
Expenditures for the various programmesare carefully collected and regularly reported.Examples of less frequently practiced policy-oriented assessments that include a financialcomponent would be an analysis of the relativecost – effectiveness of the various educationsupport programmes or an examination of therelative rate of return to the various vocationalspecialisations, among many other possiblepolicy investment questions. Incorporating moreinvestment-oriented policy analysis wouldrequire more access to disaggregated financialdata and improved capacity for this kind ofanalysis in the MOE.
Some policy-oriented analysis clearly doestake place in the MOE. A great deal of capacitywith respect to highly trained professionals alsoexists within the Ministry. What may need to bestrengthened is the link between existingresearch and evaluation efforts and policyanalysis/refinement so that the research andevaluation agenda is routinely part of the policyprocess. It may also be the case that the effort toimprove on already relatively high levels ofquality will require a mechanism to establish andcoordinate a policy-oriented research agenda thatensures clear priorities are established acrossthe education sector rather than be driven by agendas in particular sub-sectors orprogrammes. This prioritised sector wide policyresearch and evaluation agenda would alsofacilitate the incorporation of other valuableresources into the efforts to improve the qualityof education.
C o n c l u s i o n a n d Po l i c y
R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s
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By 2000, Malaysia had already achieved highlevels of participation in primary and secondaryschooling and relative parity of participation andoutcomes between girls and boys. A series offive-year national development plans were alsorapidly increasing access to school in thecountry’s more remote regions and for childrenfrom indigenous communities. With high levels ofenrollment and completion and a well-establishednational planning process the Government ofMalaysia opted to pursue the achievement of theEFA goals through its existing mechanisms ratherthan through a separate stand alone EFA plan.Efforts in achieving the goals of EFA are well-featured in the 8MP, EDP (2001–2010), 9MP andthe EDMP (2006–2010).
Malaysia’s national mid-decade assessmentof progress toward EFA goals shows continuedimprovement. Participation as measured by acombined primary/secondary GER has improved
about six percent since 1985 and over 91 percentof the children born in Malaysia of primary or secondary school age were enrolled in schoolin 2005. The total number of children of primaryand secondary school age not enrolled in schoolin 2005 was 150 thousand to 200 thousand lessthan in 1985 and 98 percent of all children whoentered year one in 2000 were still in school atyear six in 2005.
The number of children under six years ofage attending preschools and childcare centreshas expanded by about 200 thousand just since2000 and the 9MP is committed to providingpreschool opportunities to all 5 and 6-year-oldsthroughout the country by 2010. New models ofattention for children four and under are alsobeing tested. Special attention for the expansionof preschool and childcare centres has beengiven to rural areas through public spendingpriorities, and special programmes for children
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from indigenous communities have beenimplemented and still others are in thedevelopment process.
The Government of Malaysia recognised earlyon that simply providing schools and teachers didnot ensure full access and participation in a qualityeducation. Significant financial resources areinvested in material support for students such asthe Textbook On Loan Scheme, the SchoolSupplementary Food Programme, and the PoorStudents’ Trust Fund. These support measuresreduce the barriers to access and full participationfor children who come from poorer households.Significant resources are also expended to provideother specific kinds of support for hard to reach children such as those from Malaysia’sindigenous communities. Infrastructure invest-ments in the current five-year nationaldevelopment plan are heavily oriented towardrural areas in an effort to eliminate remaining rural-urban differences in access and quality of education.
Expanded opportunities at all levels of thesystem in terms of infrastructure, teachers and programmes have been combined withacademic support to ensure that all childrenregardless of their location or economiccircumstances have the maximum opportunityfor success in school. An early interventionprogramme for children with reading difficultiesin year one is available in all schools in thecountry. Children from indigenous communitieshave access to additional academic support inthe form of an optional additional year of primaryschooling between year two and three and anoptional transition year between primary andlower secondary school. Low income studentswith academic difficulties have access tosubsidies for extra tuition.
Academic outcomes as measured byinternational comparisons, such as TIMMS have been commendable The MOE alsodemonstrates a serious commitment to a holisticconcept of educational quality by providing
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resources for more than 300types of officially recognised co-curricular activities. Participationin co-curricular activities isincluded in the selectionprocess for student placementin higher education institutionsand official school and individualstudent awards programmesalso include consideration ofperformance in co-curricularactivities.
These investments haveallowed Malaysia to raise itsyouth (15–24 years old) literacyrate to 98 percent. High levelsof youth literacy have over time,improved adult literacy rates to over 92 percent.Between 2000 and 2005, approximately 130thousand to 150 thousand persons participatedeach year in functional literacy classes, skillsclasses or income generation programmesavailable for those without a complete secondaryeducation. These include functional literacyprogrammes provided by KEMAS, specificliteracy programmes for indigenous communitiesprovided by JHOEA and the short-duration skills classes provided through MECD (Pusat Giat Mara). In addition, the expanding MOHECommunity College system also provides short-term skills classes for persons withoutsecondary school certificates. In 2006, over 70 thousand young people attended shortcourses provided by the 34 (at that time)community colleges. The number of communitycolleges will expand to over 200 by 2010.
Young persons in secondary school or thosewho have completed secondary education havea variety of options available for continuing theireducation or for building livelihood skills. In 2005,more than 70 thousand students were enrolled inTechnical secondary schools and a similarnumber were pursuing certificates or diplomas in
vocational/technical studies in the Polytechnics.Also in 2005 about 100 thousand young personsparticipated in one of the various skills and/or entrepreneur programmes provided by theMECD and nearly 10 thousand attended adiploma or certificate level programme of studyin the newly established MOHE CommunityColleges. The MOHR also provided training tonearly 12 thousand participants and providedskills certification exams to over 100 thousandpersons. More than 130 thousand students wereenrolled in certificate level courses at public andprivate higher education institutions.
These achievements have been madepossible by combining political will and publicresources in equal measure. Investment ineducation has been one of the pillars ofMalaysia’s pragmatic development policy andremains critical to the Government of Malaysia’sefforts to integrate its economy into the globalsystem on favourable terms and to strengthennational cohesion through fostering new andbetter opportunities for all Malaysians. Totaleducation expenditure has consistently been ator above five percent of GNP since the 1980s.Education investment in Malaysia also includes a
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comprehensive system of material support forstudents to ensure that location and economiccircumstances are not barriers to full participationin a quality education system. In 2005, thiseducation support spending amounted toUSD182.5 million. The investments in educationhave been managed by the public entities with ahigh degree of efficiency, transparency andaccountability. As a means of further promotingaccountability and performance measurement in service delivery the Government hasimplemented a “report card” system across allfront line ministries with the MOE presenting thefirst of its twice yearly report cards to the publicin June of 2007. The prudent management ofthese educational investments is one reasonwhy public support for education spending hasremained strong.
In remarks at a public gathering celebratingMalaysia’s approaching 50th year of nationhood,the Prime Minister Dato’ Seri Abdullah AhmadBadawi cited the country’s “non-ideological”development policy as one of the foundations of Malaysia’s rapid development. Since 1957,Malaysia has chosen to avoid committing to oneside or another of the “state versus marketdebate” and has adopted a mix of public andprivate sector-led initiatives to move the county
towards developed country levels of well-beingfor its people. In education the state has played a key role in leading the development of the economy and society by producing an ever more skilled workforce and educatedcitizenry. Large developmental (capital) budgetshave generally been executed on time andoperations (recurrent) resources have steadilyincreased coverage, improved quality andreduced disparities.
As suggested throughout the report, thedevelopment model in the education sector andthe management systems linked to that modelhave produced significant and undeniablesuccess. However, these successes create newset of challenges and demands for the sector –demands that will require Malaysia to exercise itsabilities to modify its approach to meet thesenew challenges.
The coverage of the education system asmeasured by GER is admirable. However, theestimated small percentage of children notparticipating in education represents about 125thousand primary school-aged children. Whenprimary and secondary school-aged children areconsidered together, this figure rises to about 500thousand. Malaysia recognises that conventionalmeasures of access like GER provide little if anyinformation that would be required to develop anappropriate response for integrating these
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remaining children into the education system.These conventional measures do not provideinformation as to what particular barriers toschooling still remain, how those barriersmanifest themselves for different kinds ofchildren, where these children are located, oreven to what degree measurement error in thepopulation estimates or issues related to thedocumentation status of children misrepresentthe true rate of coverage or to what degree thesechildren are children with special needs who havenot been identified.
Conventional measures of gender parity ineducation in Malaysia indicate that participationand educational outcomes in the system are as good as or better for girls than for boys. However, women are decidedly under-represented among top decision-makers in boththe private and public sector. Choices by girls andwomen as to their career paths are individualdecisions made within the context of a largercultural setting. These decisions do have aneffect on the larger society when, for example,women feel they do not have support to relocatewhen that is required to take progressively moreresponsible positions. In this case it is the entiresociety that pays the price for the loss of thesetalents – not just the women themselves. While
a wholesale adoption of patterns from othercountries is not desirable it would be wise toexamine what contribution the education sectorcan make (along with other stakeholders) forenabling the country to take full advantage of thetalents of Malaysian women consistent with aconsensus view of Malaysian cultural values.
In the areas of literacy and lifelong learning,evaluating student outcomes or the effective-ness of policies and programmes is especiallydifficult. Numerous programmes are provided inskills training, basic literacy and other types ofactivities to enhance livelihoods by variousGovernment entities. Large numbers of youngpeople participate in these kinds of programmesand Government spending on those pro-grammes is substantial. However, without anoperational framework that more clearly defineswhat constitutes an acceptable type of literacy inMalaysia or identifies clear priorities with respectto the kinds of outcomes that are priorities in lifelong learning, it is impossible to compare therelative merits of any of the programmes andidentify clear directions for investing thecountry’s resources.
Programme analysis clearly does take placein the MOE and within many of the operationalunits. A great deal of capacity with respect to
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highly-trained professionals also exists within theMinistry. What may need to be strengthenedis the link between existing research andevaluation efforts and policy analysis/refinementso that the research and evaluation agenda isroutinely part of the policy process–especiallyresearch on outcomes for students. One meansof strengthening this link is the development of asector — wide evaluation plan or strategy on anannual or bi-annual basis. Having a formalisedsector — wide evaluation plan would assist in thegathering of necessary information that may besourced across different sections of the ministry,across different levels of the system (national,state, district, school) or in other entities such asthe Department of Statistics and the Departmentof Human Resources. A formalised plan alsoprovides a framework for identifying morecompletely the relevant policy questions frommultiple perspectives as well as linking particularanalytical tasks to the professionals within theMOE with the appropriate specialised knowledgeand/or contracting private firms or highereducation institutions to undertake parts of thesector research agenda.
While policy development based on soundresearch and evaluation can improve the
performance of the education system, theimprovements will be limited unless theincentives faced by front line managers at thestate, district and school level also support higherstandards of performance. For example, amanager asked to report on enrollment will makechoices about where to invest resources andenergy to maintain or increase enrollment. If thatmanager is asked to report on attendance,completion or achievement, the actions takenmay well be different. Adding classrooms to anexisting school might be the most cost–effectivemeans of increasing enrollment but the morecostly option of building a new school to decreasedistances for children may result in a lower costwhen measured in terms of the total cost foreach child that completes primary school.
A set of incentives that are more consistentwith producing the required results will only beeffective if new actions that require additionalresources are supported by the MOE. If, forexample, schools, and districts were to beassessed on attendance rather than enrollmentor on their efforts to identify and incorporate out-of-school children, they may need additionalfinancial resources, new training, or new ideasfrom the central level.
Finally, Malaysia’s ability to provide a stableand prosperous environment for its people isinextricably linked to the conditions of its closestneighbours in the region. South East Asia haslarge flows of people across national borders —both official and unofficial — pursuing what theyperceive as better life chances. Sometimes adultscrossing national borders bring children withthem and other times children are born during a stay in the non-resident country. Furthercomplicating matters these children can also bethe result of unions between citizens and non-citizens or between two non-citizens fromdifferent resident countries. Whatever theirparticular origins these children present adilemma to education authorities – denying those
children education runs counter to commitmentsto child rights but providing such services has thepotential to create additional incentives forirregular uncontrolled migration and threatenstability in local communities.
While it is possible that some significantportion of out-of-school children in Malaysia donot have regular documents, ad-hoc reportingsuggests that some children without properdocumentation do attend schools in Malaysiaand even benefit from education supportinitiatives like the textbook on loan scheme andsupplementary school feeding programme whileother children without documents are excludedfrom education. There are also some NGOinitiatives in areas of the country, where thepopulation of children without regular documentsis concentrated, that provide alternativeeducation opportunities for those children.
This complex issue cannot be resolved by an
individual state. Malaysia and its neighbours havedeveloped some bilateral responses andmultilateral efforts for promoting a morecomprehensive regional effort are beginning totake shape. In 2006, an agreement with theGovernment of Indonesia resulted in theprovision of 109 Indonesian teachers for HumanaLearning Centres located in an area where manyIndonesian migrants are working on palm oil plantations. Enhancing cooperation in theeducation sector is currently being explored bythe Government of Malaysia and Thailand.ASEAN has also initiated a process fordeveloping a regional human rights mechanismthat would provide a framework for inter-nationalising a protective environment forchildren across the region. Continuing to developproductive collaboration among the states in theregion with respect to children’s issues willfurther enable each state to fully achieve EFA.
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Advisor~ Y. Bhg. Dato’ Dr. Ahamad b. Sipon
Director General of Education, (Till 15th July 2007)Ministry of Education
~ Y. Bhg. Dato’ Haji Alimuddin b. Haji Mohd. DomDirector General of Education,
Ministry of Education
~ Y. Bhg. Dato’ Dr. Salleh b. Hassan Director, Educational Planning and Research Division, (Till 20th February 2007)Ministry of Education
~ Dr. Amir b. Salleh@ Mohd SallehDirector, Educational Planning and Research Division,
Ministry of Education
Board of Editors~ Dr. Zahri b. Aziz
Deputy Director, Educational Planning and Research Division,
Ministry of Education
~ Dr. Faridah bt. Abu Hassan Deputy Director, Educational Planning and Research Division,
Ministry of Education
~ Haji Mohd. Subri b. Mohd. Isa Principal Assistant Director, Educational Planning and Research Division,
Ministry of Education
~ Ms. Sahara bt. Ahmad National EFA Coordinator, Educational Planning and Research Division,
Ministry of Education
Editors~ Dr. Choong Kam Foong
Director, English Language Training Centre, Ministry of Education
Education For ALL (EFA) Mid-DecadeAssessment (MDA) Task Force
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~ Dr. Habibah bt. Abdul RahimSenior Assistant Director, Educational Planning and Research Division,
Ministry of Education
~ Dr. Rosma bt. OsmanAssistant Director, Educational Technology Division,
Ministry of Education
~ Dr. Ranjit SinghSenior Lecturer, English Language Training Centre, Ministry of Education
~ Mr. Supramaniam KaruppiahSenior Lecturer, English Language Training Centre, Ministry of Education
~ Ms. Norliah Abdul AzizAssistant Director, Educational Planning and Research Division,
Ministry of Education
EFA MDA Secretariat/Editorial Staff~ Ms. Sahara bt. Ahmad
National EFA Coordinator, Educational Planning and Research Division,
Ministry of Education
~ Ms. Zaleha bt. Abdul HamidAssistant Director, Educational Planning and Research Division,
Ministry of Education
~ Dr. Zaini bt. AhmadAssistant Director, Educational Planning and Research Division,
Ministry of Education
~ Dr. Mohd. Suhaimi b. Mohd. AliSenior Assistant Director, Educational Planning and Research Division,
Ministry of Education
~ Ms. Faridah bt. LaniAssistant Director, Educational Planning and Research Division,
Ministry of Education
~ Mr. Zainuddin b. SelamatAssistant to the Assistant Director, Educational Planning and Research Division,
Ministry of Education
~ Mr. Bahari b. HasanuddinAssistant to the Assistant Director, Educational Planning and Research Division,
Ministry of Education
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EFA MDA ConsultantDr. Anthony Dewees
EFA MDA Steering Committee~ Y. Bhg. Tan Sri Dr. Zulkurnain b. Haji Awang Chairman
Secretary General, Ministry of Education
~ Y. Bhg. Dato’ Dr. Ahamad b. Sipon Chairman
Director General of Education, Ministry of Education (Till 15 July 2007)
~ Y. Bhg. Dato’ Haji Alimuddin b. Haji Mohd. Dom Chairman
Director General of Education, Ministry of Education
~ Y. Bhg. Dato’ Dr. Salleh b.Hassan EFA MDA SC Secretary
Director, Educational Planning and Research Division, (Till 20th February 2007)
Ministry of Education
~ Dr. Amir b. Salleh @ Mohd Salleh EFA MDA SC Secretary
Director, Educational Planning and Research Division
Ministry of Education
~ Dr. Haili b. Dolhan Chairman TWG Goal 1
Director, Curriculum Development Centre
Ministry of Education
~ Y.Bhg. Dato’ Hjh. Noor Rezan bt. Bapoo Chairman TWG Goal 2
Director, Schools Division, Ministry of Education (Till 15th July 2007)
~ Hj. Mustapar b. Muhamad Chairman TWG Goal 3
Deputy Director General, Technical Education (Till 15th May 2007)
Department, Ministry of Education
~ Y. Bhg. Dato’ Yusoff b. Harun Chairman TWG Goal 3
Deputy Director General, Technical Education Department,
Ministry of Education
~ Dr. Khair b. Mohamad Yusof Chairman TWG Goal 4
Director, Institut Aminudin Baki, Ministry of Education
~ Y. Bhg. Dato’ Hají Alimuddin b. Hají Mohd. Dom Chairman TWG Goal 6
Federal Inspectorate of Schools, (Till 15 July 2007)
Ministry of Education
~ Haji Abdul Adziz b. Abas Chairman TWG Goal 6
Federal Inspectorate of Schools,
Ministry of Education
~ Ms. Siti Sapor bt. Borhan EFA MDA Finance Advisor
Under Secretary, Finance Division, Ministry of Education
~ Mr. Kenneth J. Luis UNESCO NATCOM
Under Secretary, International Relations Division, (Till 29th March 2007)
Ministry of Education
~ Mr. Khalid b. Abu Bakar UNESCO NATCOM
Under Secretary, International Relations Division,
Ministry of Education
~ Dr. Nor Shirin bt. Md Mokhtar Member
UNICEF Malaysia
~ Dr. Alisher Umarov Member
UNESCO Jakarta
~ Dr. Abdul Latif b. Kasim Member
Ministry of Higher Education
~ Mr. Ibrahim b. Wahab Member
Ministry of Higher Education
~ Mr. Ahmad b. Osman Member
Ministry of Higher Education
~ Mr. Mohd Halimi b. Ibrahim Member
Ministry of Youth and Sports
~ Ms. Mahzum bt. Ariffin Member
Ministry of Defense
~ Lt. Col Zulkefli b. Haji Abdullah Member
Ministry of Defense
~ Ms. Tan Hee Looi Member
Ministry of Information
~ Dr. Saidatul Norbaya bt. Buang Member
Ministry of Health
~ Ms. Nazaria bt. Baharudin Member
Department of Statistic
~ Ms. Zarinah bt. Mahari Member
Department of Statistic
~ Ms. Eisah bt. Husin Member
Department of Statistic
~ Mr. Noor Faidz b. Tawail Member
Department of Statistic
~ Ms. Nur Layali bt. Mohd Ali Member
Department of Statistic
~ Ms. Norhayati bt. Yahya Member
Department of Statistic
~ Mr. Mohd Sufian b. Mohd Saifuddin Member
Ministry of Rural and Regional Development
~ Haji Adnan b. Haji Mohammad Member
Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development
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~ Mr. Shamsuddin b. Ismail Member
Ministry of Entrepreneur and Community Development
~ Tn. Syed Azmi b. Syed Hamid Member
Treasury
~ Mr. Pang Chau Leong Member
Ministry of Human Resource
EFA MDA Technical Working Group Goal 1~ Dr. Haili b. Dolhan Chairman
Director, Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education
~ Dr. Sharifah Bee bt. Aboo Bakar Curriculum Development Centre, MOE
~ Dr. Ng Soo Boon Curriculum Development Centre, MOE
~ Mr. Kamarul Azman b. Abd Salam Curriculum Development Centre, MOE
~ Ms. Zaitoon bt. Zakaria Curriculum Development Centre, MOE
~ Ms. Rohani bt. Abdul Curriculum Development Centre, MOE
~ Ms. Hjh. Sallehah bt. Mohamad Institute of Aminuddin Baki, MOE
~ Mr. Shaharudin b. Saad Private Education Division, MOE
~ Ms. Noor Filza bt. Kamaruddin Inspectorate of Schools, MOE
~ Ms. Makheran bt. Asaron Education Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Mr. Zulkernai b. Fauzi School Division, MOE
~ Ms. Jamila K.A. Mohamed Kutty Department of Special Education, MOE
~ Mr. Baharuddin b. Ab Latif Teacher Training Division, MOE
~ Ms. Nazura bt. Mohamad Education Technology Division, MOE
~ Dr. Nor Shirin bt. Md Mokhtar UNICEF Malaysia
~ Dr. Alias b. Abd Aziz Ministry of Health
~ Dr. Aida Harlina b. Abd Razak Ministry of Health
~ Mr. Abdul Halim b. Hassan Department of National Unity and Integration,
Prime Minister’s Department
~ Ms. Umi Hani bt. Awang Department of Social Welfare, Ministry of
Woman, Family and Community Development
~ Mr. Hairil Fadzly b. Md Akir Board of Citizen and Family Development,
Ministry of Woman, Family and Community Development
~ Ms. Nore’in bt. Mohd Shukor Department of Community Development,
Ministry of Rural and Regional Development
~ Dr. Abdul Aziz b. Shukor Teaching University of Sultan Idris Malaysia
~ Mr. Mohd Zahidi b. Jaffar Department of Orang Asli
~ Ms. Jayawathi bt. Perera Association of Kindergarten Malaysia
~ Ms. Lina Yeoh Association of Kindergarten Malaysia
~ Ms. Judith Low National Association of Early Childhood Care
and Education
~ Ms. Norsheila bt. Abdullah Association of Registered Childcare Operators Malaysia
~ Dr. Chiam Heng Keng The Commission of Human Rights Malaysia
~ Ms. Suzaila bt. Shaharudin The Commission of Human Rights Malaysia
~ Ms. Aziah bt. Ahmad Ministry of Internal Security
~ Ms. Sabariah bt. Ghazali Ministry of Energy, Water and Telecommunication
~ Ms. Ngani bt. Anuar Ministry of Information
EFA MDA Technical Working Group Goal 2~ Y.Bhg. Dato’ Hjh. Noorizan bt. Bapoo Chairman
Director, Schools Division, Ministry of Education (Till 15th July 2007)
~ Dr. Roseamnah bt. Rauf Schools Division, MOE
~ Dr. Roziah bt. Abdullah Schools Division, MOE
~ Mr. Suratno b. Parmin Schools Division, MOE
~ Ms. Normala bt. Ibrahim Education Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Ms. Faridah Hanim bt. Ariffin Private Education Department, MOE
EFA MDA Technical Working Group Goal 3~ Haji Mustapar b. Muhamad Chairman
Deputy Director General, (Till June 2007)
Technical Education Department, Ministry of Education
~ Y.Bhg. Dato’ Haji Yusoff b. Harun Chairman
Deputy Director General
Technical Education Department, Ministry of Education
~ Haji Zulkifli b. Md. Salleh Technical Educational Department, MOE
~ Ms. Hamisah bt. H. Hafni Technical Educational Department, MOE
~ Mr. Azman b. Hashim Technical Educational Department, MOE
~ Mr. Zainurin b. Suparman Technical Educational Department, MOE
~ Mr. Che Nordin b. Che Wan Technical Educational Department, MOE
~ Mr. Rusli b. Sarkom Technical Educational Department, MOE
~ Mr. Abdul Aziz b. Hj. Abd Laiff Technical Educational Department, MOE
~ Mr. Khairi b. Zakaria Technical Educational Department, MOE
~ Dr. Soon Seng Thah Education Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Ms. Haniza bt. Mahmood Education Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Mr. Mohd Ali b. Sidek Curriculum Development Centre, MOE
~ Ms. Masreen Wirda bt. Mohammad Ali Curriculum Development Centre, MOE
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~ Mr. Mokelas b. Ahmad Curriculum Development Centre, MOE
~ Mr. Anuar b. Mohd Zain Curriculum Development Centre, MOE
~ Mr. Mohamed Nor Zaini b. Jaafar Curriculum Development Centre, MOE
~ YM Tunku Ireneza Marina bt. Tunku Mazlan Curriculum Development Centre, MOE
~ Haji Zainal Aalam b. Hassan Teacher Education Division, MOE
~ Ms. Nor Azeema bt. Omar Human Resources Division, MOE
~ Mr. Hasnan b. Hussin Human Resources Division, MOE
~ Mr. Megat Azlee b. Megat Ramli Human Resources Division, MOE
~ Ms. Nordina bt. Nayan Special Education Department, MOE
~ Mr. Ishak b. Hj. Ismail Special Education Department, MOE
~ Mr. Abdul Jalil b. Ahmad Islamic and Moral Education Department, MOE
~ Ms. Siti Salwa bt. Jamaluddin Islamic and Moral Education Department, MOE
~ Ms. Norfiza bt. Md Nor Islamic and Moral Education Department, MOE
~ Ms. Nor Haliza bt. Abd Rahman Matriculation Division, MOE
~ Ms. Rebiah bt. Mohamed Matriculation Division, MOE
~ Ms. Khamsiah bt. Ismail Matriculation Division, MOE
~ Ms. Zainab bt. Abd Rahman Matriculation Division, MOE
~ Ms. Rosinah bt. Mahmood Specialists Teachers Training Institute, MOE
~ Ms. Azlina bt. Abd Aziz Specialists Teachers Training Institute, MOE
~ Dr. Abd Latif b. Kassim Ministry of Higher Education
~ Dr. Hjh. Mahrusah bt. Jamaludin Ministry of Health
~ Ms. Mastura bt.Rosni Ministry of Human Resources
~ Mr. Khazlan b. Wellun Ministry of Human Resources
~ Ms. Norazian bt. Kamarudin Ministry of Human Resources
~ Ms. Mek Aishah bt, Awang Skill Development Fund
~ Mr. Mohd Rizal b. Ramly Manpower Department
~ Mr. Shamsuddin b. Ismail Ministry of Entrepreneur and Cooperative Development
~ Ms. Roslina bt. Ramli Ministry of Entrepreneur and Cooperative Development
~ Mr. Saiful Bahri b. Omar Cooperative Development Division
~ Ms. Alina bt. A. Rahman Skills Development Division
~ Ms. Junita bt. Mohamed Ali Skills Development Division
~ Dr. Jamilah bt. Din Cooperative College of Malaysia
~ Hjh. Nurizah bt. Noordin Cooperative College of Malaysia
~ Ms. Zakian bt. Mohamad Women Development Division
~ Ms. Emee bt. Khairi Social Welfare Department
~ Mr. K. Selvakumar National Population and Family Development Board
EFA MDA Technical Working Group Goal 4~ Hjh. Ramlah bt. Mahmood Chairman
Director, Institute of Aminuddin Baki (Till 29th June 2007)
Ministry of Education
~ Dr. Khair b. Mohamad Yusof Chairman
Director, Institute of Aminuddin Baki
Ministry of Education
~ Dr. Rusmini bt. Ku Ahmad Institute of Aminuddin Baki, MOE
~ Haji Ghani b. Ishak Institute of Aminuddin Baki, MOE
~ Mr. Mohamed Idris b. Mohamed Institute of Aminuddin Baki, MOE
~ Haji Asmee b. Tajuddin Institute of Aminuddin Baki, MOE
~ Ms. Noorihan bt. Azizan Institute of Aminuddin Baki, MOE
~ Dr. Abang Hut b. Abang Engkeh Institute of Aminuddin Baki, MOE
~ Dr. Sazali b. Yusuf Institute of Aminuddin Baki, MOE
~ Ms. Nor Foniza bt. Maidin Education Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Dr. Noor Zaila bt. Wahab Education Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Ms. Nazaria bt. Baharuddin Department of Statistics, Prime Minister’s Department
~ Ms. Norlayali bt. Mohd Ali Khan Department of Statistics, Prime Minister’s Department
~ Ms. Rafliza bt. Ramli Department of Statistics, Prime Minister’s Department
~ Ms. Anisah bt. Yusof National Library
~ Ms. Ima Eryanty bt. Abdul Manaf National Library
~ Haji Zakaria b. Jaafar Ministry of Entrepreneur and Cooperative Development
~ Mr. Yazman b. Yahya Ministry of Entrepreneur and Cooperative Development
~ Ms. Darnawati bt. Dahlan Ministry of Rural and Regional Development (KEMAS)
~ Mr. Mohd Zahidi b. Jaffar Ministry of Rural and Regional Development
(Department of Orang Asli)
~ Ms. Ainul Mardziah bt. Mustafa Ministry of Rural and Regional Development (Infra)
~ Ir Aishah bt. Abdul Rahman Community College, Ministry of Higher Education
~ Mr. Abu Bakar b. Hashim Community College, Ministry of Higher Education
~ Ms. Norsalina bt. Salim Ministry of Woman, Family and Community Development
~ Mr. Danil Taridi b. Ghazali Ministry of Woman, Family and Community Development
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EFA MDA Technical Working Group Goal 5~ Y. Bhg. Dato’ Dr. Salleh b. Hassan Chairman
Director, Educational Planning and Research Division, (Till 20th February 2007)
Ministry of Education
~ Dr. Amir b. Salleh @ Mohd Saleh Chairman
Director, Educational Planning and Research Division,
Ministry of Education~ Dr. Zahri b. Aziz Educational Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Dr. Faridah bt. Abu Hassan Educational Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Haji Mohd Subri b. Mohd Isa Educational Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Ms. Sahara bt. Ahmad Educational Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Dr. Zaini bt. Ahmad Educational Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Ms. Zaleha bt. Abdul Hamid Educational Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Ms. Nor Foniza bt. Maidin Educational Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Dr. Noor Zaila bt. Wahab Educational Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Mr. Krishnan s/o Ponnusamy Textbook Division, MOE
~ Ms. Faridah Hanim bt. Ariffin Private Education Department, MOE
~ Dr. Abdul Latif b. Kassim Ministry of Higher Education
~ Ms. Wan Chik Nurida bt. Ismail Ministry of Higher Education
~ Mr. Mazalan b. Ariffin Ministry of Higher Education
~ Mr. Pang Chau Leong Ministry of Human Resources
~ Mr. Abdul Aziz b. Ashaari Ministry of Entreprenuer and Cooperative
Development
~ Ms. Norsalina bt. Salim Ministry of Woman, Family and Community
Development
~ Mr. Azmi b. Abd Hamid Council of Trust For The Indigenous People (MARA)
~ Mr. Faisal b. Long Council of Trust For The Indigenous People (MARA)
~ Ms. Asmah bt. Mohd Yusoff Council of Trust For The Indigenous People (MARA)
~ Ms. Ruzina bt. Husain Council of Trust For The Indigenous People (MARA)
~ Mr. Abdul Halim b. Mamat Council of Trust For The Indigenous People (MARA)
~ Mr. Hasnim b. Hashim Council of Trust For The Indigenous People (MARA)
~ Mr. Ahmad b. Sulaiman Ministry of Rural and Regional Development
~ Mr. Mohd Halimi b. Ibrahim Ministry of Youth and Sports
~ Dr. Rosliza bt. Abd Manaf Ministry of Health
~ Ms. Darnawati bt. Dahlan Welfare Department, Prime Minister’s Department
~ Mr. Awang Asri b. Abd Rahman Welfare Department, Prime Minister’s Department
~ Mr. Azrul Nizam b. Hashim Department of Statistics, Prime Minister’s Department
EFA MDA Technical Working Group Goal 6~ Y. Bhg. Dato’ Hj. Alimuddin b. Hj. Mohd Dom Chairman
Federal Inspectorate of Schools, Ministry of Education
~ Hj. Abdul Adziz b. Abas Chairman
Federal Inspectorate of Schools, Ministry of Education
~ Y.Bhg. Datin Dr. Siti Zaleha bt. Abdullah Sani Inspectorate of Schools, MOE
~ Mr. Mazlan b. Hj. Samsuddin Inspectorate of Schools, MOE
~ Ms. Faridah bt. Yang Razali Inspectorate of Schools, MOE
~ Ms. Noora bt. Sidek Inspectorate of Schools, MOE
~ Ms. Noor Filzah bt. Kamaruddin Inspectorate of Schools, MOE
~ Ms. Baynum bt. Hassan Inspectorate of Schools, MOE
~ Ms. Raja Hamizah bt. Raja Harun Inspectorate of Schools, MOE
~ Ms. Ho Boon Leng Inspectorate of Schools, MOE
~ Ms. Rohana bt. Ismail Inspectorate of Schools, MOE
~ Ms. Yuhana bt. Yaacob Inspectorate of Schools, MOE
~ Ms. Fadillah bt. Omar Inspectorate of Schools, MOE
~ Ms. Mawarni bt. Hassan Examination Syndicate, MOE
~ Mr. Zainal Aalam b. Hassan Teacher Training Division, MOE
~ Ms. Faridah Hanim b. Ariffin Private Education Department, MOE
EFA MDA Technical Working Group Data and Indicator~ Y. Bhg. Dato’ Dr. Salleh b. Hassan Chairman
Director, Educational Planning and Research Division, (Till 20th February 2007)
Ministry of Education
~ Dr. Amir b. Salleh @ Mohd Saleh Chairman
Director, Educational Planning and Research Division,
Ministry of Education
~ Hj. Rosland b. Hussien Educational Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Ms. Khalijah bt. Mohamad Educational Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Dr. Azwan b. Abdul Aziz Educational Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Ms. Nor Foniza bt. Maidin Educational Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Dr. Noor Zaila bt. Wahab Educational Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Ms. Norliza bt. Shoib Educational Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Ms. Zaleha bt. Abdul Hamid Educational Planning and Research Division, MOE
~ Ms. Nazaria bt. Baharuddin Department of Statistics
~ Ms. Zarinah bt. Mahari Department of Statistics
~ Ms. Eisah bt. Husin Department of Statistics
~ Mr. Noor Faidz b. Tawail Department of Statistics
~ Ms. Nur Layali bt. Mohd Ali Department of Statistics
~ Ms. Norhayati bt. Yahya Department of Statistics
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SSAABBAAHH MMAAJJUU JJAAYYAA
Ministry of EducationLevel 1-4, Block E8, Government Complex Parcel E,Federal Government Administrative Centre,62604 Putrajaya, Malaysia. www.moe.gov.my
