MALAWI GOVERNMENT

Ministry of Energy, Mines, and NaturalResources

National BiodiversityStrategy and Action Plan

Environmental Affairs DepartmentOctober 2006

Printed by THE GOVERNMENT PRINTER, Lilongwe, Malawi

Recommended citation:Environmental Affairs Department 2006. National Biodiversity strategy and action plan.

Published byEnvironmental Affairs DepartmentPrivate Bag 394Lilongwe 3MalawiTel: (+265) -1 -771 111Fax: (+265) -1 -773 379

Printed in Malawi by THE GOVERNMENT PRINTER, Lilongwe, MalawiISBN: 99908-26-54-9

2006 Environmental Affairs Department. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publicationmay be reproduced, stored in retrieval system, or translated in any form by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permissionof the Environmental Affairs Department.This publication is product of Environmental Affairs Department and was made possiblethrough support provided by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), United NationsEnvironmental Programme (UNEP), The World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF), the AfricanCentre for Technology Studies (ACTS), the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and theNorwegian Government.

NBSAP drafting teamEditors:Augustin C. Chikuni (PhD)Eston Y. Sambo (PhD)Chapter authorsHumphrey NzimaRichard Phoya (Prof.)Moses Banda (PhD)Paul Munyenyembe (PhD)Wisdom ChangadeyaGeorge Phiri (PhD)Kenyatta K. NyirendaVincent W. Saka (Prof.)James Chuma (Deceased)Ernest MisomaliJudith KamotoYanira Ntupanyama

FOREWORDMalawi’s Biodiversity is characterised by a large number of species, diverse habitats andecosystems some of which are important sites of high endemism such as Lake Malawi, Nyikaplateau and Mulanje mountain. Lake Malawi, covering about 20% of Malawi’s total area,boasts of over 700 endemic Cichlid species and contains 15% of world's freshwater fish. It wasdeclared a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1984. On the other hand, Lake Chilwa whichbecame a Ramsar site in 1997 and also an important bird Sanctuary in Malawi is a wetland ofinternational importance. It annually supports about 153 species of resident and 30 species ofmigratory water birds.Biodiversity provides various benefits to Malawians such as food, shelter, medicine, income,cultural and spiritual. It is also source of livelihoods and engine of economic growth. Despitethese benefits the sustainability of biodiversity is threatened by several factors such as habitatloss (due to agricultural expansion); encroachment into protected areas; disruption ofimportant, fragile but unprotected ecosystems; uncontrolled bush fires; illegal exploitation offorestry and wildlife resources; over-exploitation of freshwater biodiversity and policyfailures. The greatest challenge for Malawi is to ensure conservation and sustainable use ofbiodiversity resources whilst dealing with equally pressing and important issues of rapidhuman population growth, extreme poverty, high illiteracy levels, HIV/AIDS andharmonisation of policies and legislation in the country.Despite all these problems Malawi is committed to conserve and sustainably use its biologicalresources. This is exemplified by the recent efforts to rehabilitate heavily deforested forestreserves (e.g. Ndilande Forest Reserve), putting in place regulatory framework for Access andBenefit Sharing, and developing strategies and action plans for natural resourcesmanagement, the latest being this Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Delopment of thisstrategies would not have been possible if Malawi did not put in place enabling policyframework such as the National Environmental Policy (NEP) and the EnvironmentalManagement Act (EMA) in 1996.This NBSAP outlines the status of the various biodiversity resources in Malawi and stipulatesstrategies and actions necessary to ensure the management and sustainable utilisation ofbiodiversity. It further provides strategic guidance for the implementation of Chapter IIISection (d) of Malawi's Constitution.The NBSAP recognises the importance of stakeholder participation in biodiversityconservation and the need to improve accessibility and availability of information onbiological resources. It also recognises the importance of harmonising sectoral policies andlegislation in the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and promotion of fair andequitable sharing of benefits that arise from the utilisation of biodiversity resources andtraditional knowledge. Although the Government has taken necessary steps to strengthen ourability to conserve biological resources, programmes proposed in this document willstrengthen our co-operative effort in promotion of biodiversity issues through participatoryapproach and various media.It is my sincere hope therefore that this NBSAP will increase our appreciation of the richbiological resources and that it will provide a strategic framework for reversing the trend ofenvironmental degradation in the country.

C. P. MSOSASecretary for Energy, Mines and Natural Resources(v)

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AcknowledgementsThe Environmental Affairs Department on behalf of the Ministry of Natural Mines, Resourcesand Environmental Affairs is indebted to all local biodiversity experts especially Task ForceLeaders and members of the following task forces: the Diversity of Plants in Malawi;Microorganisms; Wild and Indigenous Animals; Ecosystems; Review of ConservationLegislation; Domesticated and Introduced Species; Land Use Management and BiodiversityConservation; An Inventory of Literature on Biodiversity; for collecting, collating andpreparing task force reports that formed the basis for this document. Names all Task ForceLeaders and members that the department would like to thank most sincerely are included inAnnex One.The department is also thankful to Mr. H. Nzima, Dr. A. Chikuni, Prof. R. Phoya, Prof. V.Saka, Dr. G. Phiri, Dr. P. Munyenyembe, Mr. W. Changadeya, Mr. K. K. Nyirenda, lateMr. J. Chuma, Mr. E. Misomali, Mrs. Y. Ntupanyama and Mrs. J. Kamoto who volunteered toform the drafting team and prepared various chapters of this strategic plan. Specialappreciations are due to Dr. A. Chikuni who volunteered to take over the coordination of theNBSAP project from Dr. Z. Vokhiwa upon his retirement, and compiled and edited thedocument together with Dr. E. Sambo.The department also wishes to thank most sincerely Directors and Heads of natural resourcesectors for critical reading of this document. Further appreciations are due to Dr. DavidDuthie, UNEP Nairobi, Dr. Alan Rogers, GEF Tanzania, Prof. J. Seyani, CommonwealthScience Council UK (now with National Herbarium and Botanic Garden of Malawi) and Prof.CO Dudley, Chancellor College, Malawi for reviewing this document. Further thanks are dueto all who contributed to the NBSAP process through their participation in workshops whosenames are too many to be mentioned.Further thanks are due to the National Herbarium & Botanic Gardens of Malawi, whichthrough its role as the Chair of the Biodiversity Committee worked very closely with theNBSAP secretariat to guide preparation of this document.The department is also thankful to the Norwegian Government for providing financialsupport through the NORAD/SADC Biodiversity Support Programme to NHBG towards thefinalisation of the NBSAP document, and the financial support it received from Wildlife andEnvironmental Society of Malawi (WESM) and the Malawi Environment Endowment Trust(MEET) during the National Consultative Workshop.Finally the Government of Malawi is also indebted to the Global Environment Facility (GEF),United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), The Wild Wildlife Fund for Nature(WWF), the African Centre for Technology Studies (ACTS), the World Conservation Union(IUCN), for financial and technical support without which the First National Report to theConvention on Biological Diversity and the NBSAP would not have been possible.

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List of figuresPAGE

Figure 1. Map of Malawi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Figure 2. Biodiversity hotspots of Malawi . . . . . . . . . . 9Figure 3. Indigenous fruit juices . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Figure 4. Deforestation in Malosa Forest Reserve . . . . . . 12Figure 5. Examples of rare, threatened and endemic plants not included in list

of protected trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24Figure 6. Some reptiles of Malawi . . . . . . . . . . . . 26Figure 7. Some frogs of Malawi . . . . . . . . . . . . 26Figure 8. Some birds of Malawi . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Figure 9. Some threatened mammals of Malawi . . . . . . . . 28Figure 10 Slash and burn (shifting cultivation) in Chitipa District, Northern

Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29Figure 11. Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes a major invasive aquatic plant . . 34Figure 12. Some fish species of Lake Malawi . . . . . . . . 35Figure 13. Traditional cereals of Malawi . . . . . . . . . . 42Figure 14. Common and naturalised livestock types . . . . . . . . 45Figure 15. Summary of total fish catches in major waters of Malawi . . . . 47Figure 16. Analysis of fish catch in Lake Malombe . . . . . . 47Figure 17. Common and notorious alien invasive species recorded in Malawi 67Figure 18. Institutional structures for the implementation of the NBSAP . . 104

Table of contentsPAGE

Chapter One: IntroductionTopography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Land Tenure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Chapter Two: Malawi’s Rationale for Biodiversity Conservation in MalawiWhat is Biodiversity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Importance of biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Malawi’s response to biodiversity conservation . . . . . . 7Threats to biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Rationale for biodiversity strategy and action plan for Malawi . . 12The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Process . . . . 14

Chapter Three: Vision, Goals and Guiding Principles for Management ofBiodiversity

Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Guiding principles for biodiversity management in Malawi . . . . 19

Chapter Four: Strategies and Actions for Malawi’s BiodiversityIntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Theme One: Terrestrial biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Theme Two: Aquatic biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . 33Theme Three: Sustainable use of biological diversity . . . . . . 41Theme Four: Indigenous knowledge, access and benefit sharing . . . . 55Theme Five: Biotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Theme Six: Invasive species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66Theme Seven: Biodiversity policies and legislation . . . . . . . . 74Theme Eight: Community participation and awareness . . . . . . 80Theme Nine: Information, knowledge and capacity . . . . . . . . 85Theme Ten: Incentives measures . . . . . . . . . . . . 91Theme Eleven: Malawi’s role in global biodiversity conservation . . . . 95

Chapter Five: Strategic Priorities and Implementation ArrangementsStrategic priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99Implementation arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . 105Implementation strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109Annex 1. List of task force members for the NBSAP project . . . . 111Annex 2. Glossary of terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

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Acronyms and AbbreviationsABS Access and Benefit SharingACTS African Centre for Technology StudiesARET Agricultural Extension Research and TechnologyAU African UnionBCFP Blantyre City Fuelwood ProjectBNRML Block National Resource Management CommitteeBSAP Biodiversity Strategic Action PlanBSP Biodiversity Support ProgrammeBVCs Beach Village CommitteesCBD Convention on Biological DiversityCBNRM Community Based Natural Resources ManagementCBOs Community Based OrganisationsCCANR Cabinet Committee on Agriculture and Natural ResourcesCOJEA Coalition of Journalists for Environment and AgricultureCOMPASS Community Participation for Sustainable Resource Management in MalawiCOP Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological DiversityCURE Coordination Unit for the Rehabilitation of the EnvironmentDANIDA Danish International Development AgencyDARTS Department of Agricultural Research and Technical ServicesDDP District Development PlanDEAP District Environmental Action PlanDESC District Environment SubcommitteeDNA Deoxyribonucleic acidDNPW Department of National Parks and WildlifeDREA Department of Research and Environmental AffairsEAD Environmental Affairs DepartmentEDOs Environmental District OfficersEIAs Environmental Impact AssessmentsELISA Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent AssayEMA Environmental Management ActEMF Environmental Management FundEPA Environmental Protection AgencyESCOM Electricity Supply Commission of MalawiFCM Fisheries Conservation and Management ActFD Forestry DepartmentFECO Forum for Environmental CommunicationDoF Fisheries DepartmentFR Forest ReserveFRIM Forestry Research Institute of MalawiGDP Gross Domestic ProductGEF Global Environment FacilityGMOs Genetically Modified OrganismsGOM Government of MalawiGRBC Genetic Resources and Biotechnology CommitteeGTI Global Taxonomic InitiativeGTZ German Agency for Technical CooperationHIV/AIDS Human Immunovirus/Acquired Immunodeficiency SyndromeICDPS Integrated Conservation Development ProjectsICRAF World Agroforestry Centre (International Centre for Research in Agroforestry)

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ICTP Information and Communication Technology PolicyIFDC International Centre for Soil Fertility on Agricultural DevelopmentIGAs Income Generating ActivitiesIITA International Institute of Tropical AgricultureIKS Indigenous Knowledge SystemsIPR Intellectual Property RightsIUCN The World Conservation Union (International Union for the Conservation of

Nature)LSM Law Society of MalawiMASAF Malawi Social Action FundMBERU Molecular Biology and Ecology Research UnitMDI Malawi Dairy IndustriesMEET Malawi Environmental Endowment TrustMIRTDC Malawi Industrial Research and Technology Development CentreMMCT Mulanje Mountain Conservation TrustMoA&FS Ministry of Agriculture and Food SecurityMoE Ministry of EducationMoGC Ministry of Gender and Community ServicesMoHP Ministry of Health and PopulationMoJ Ministry of JusticeMoLGRD Ministry of Local Government and Rural DevelopmentMoLPPS Ministry of Lands, Physical Planning and SurveysMoLVT Ministry of Local and Vocational TrainingMoMNRE Ministry of Mines, Natural Resources and EnvironmentMoT&PSD Ministry of Technology and Private Sector DevelopmentMoWD Ministry of Water DevelopmentMPRSP Malawi Poverty Reduction Strategy PaperMRA Malawi Revenue AuthorityMZUNI Mzuzu UniversityNAC National Aids CommissionNBSAP National Biodiversity Strategy and Action PlanNCE National Council for the EnvironmentNEAP National Environmental Action PlanNEP National Environmental PolicyNFAP National Fisheries and Aquaculture PolicyNFP National Forestry PolicyNGOs Non-Governmental OrganisationsNHBG National Herbarium and Botanic Gardens of MalawiNORAD Norwegian Agency for International DevelopmentNPs National ParksNPGRC National Plants Genetic Resource CentreNRC Natural Resources CollegeNRCM National Research Council of MalawiNSDC National Spartial Data CentreNSO National Statistical OfficeNSSD National Strategy for Sustainable DevelopmentNTFPs Non timber forestry productsNWP National Wildlife PolicyPAP Poverty Alleviation ProgrammePCANR Parliamentary Committee on Agriculture and natural ResourcesPCR Polymerase Chain Reaction

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PFM Participatory Fisheries ManagementPPB Participatory Plant BreedingS&T Science and TechnologySABONET Southern African Botanical NetworkSABSP Southern African Biodiversity Support ProgrammeSADC Southern African Development CommunityTHs Traditional HealersTRIPS Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property RightsUNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and DevelopmentUNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat DesertificationUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural OrganisationUNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate ChangeUNIMA University of MalawiUSAID United States Agency for International DevelopmentVFAs Village Forestry AreasVNRMCs Village Natural Resources Management CommitteesWAMP Water Resources Management PolicyWEHAB Water, Energy, Health, Agriculture and BiodiversityWESM Wildlife and Environment Society of MalawiWMA Wildlife Management AreasWRMP Water Resources Management PolicyWSSD World Strategy for Sustainable DevelopmentWTO World Trade OrganizationWWF World Wildlife Fund

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Executive SummaryThis strategy was prepared in response to the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP),which identified biodiversity loss as one of the major environmental concerns requiringimmediate action. In addition this strategy demonstrates Malawi's commitment toimplementing the requirement of the International Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).It thus provides a strategic framework for action to conserve and sustainably use thebiodiversity. The strategy is arranged into five chapters as follows.Chapter OneIntroductionThis chapter provides brief background information to Malawi highlighting the topography,climate, soils, vegetation, land tenure, population and economy.Chapter twoRationale for Biodiversity Conservation in MalawiFor the ordinary Malawian, biodiversity means sources of livelihoods, God given andtherefore unlimited. Both early and current natural resource management policies follow asectoral approval and treats biodiversity under a separate sector. The official interpretation ofbiodiversity, therefore, appears to be fundamentally different, from that of the ordinaryMalawian. Taking the CBD definition as a benchmark, the clear understanding of theperception of various stakeholders is considered an important step towards sustainablebiodiversity management and conservation.Malawi's biodiversity is unique and thus contributes to the global biodiversity. It is importantto the human society, being a source of food, medicine, fodder etc. Thus this global andnational importance of biodiversity gives us the obligation to ensure its continued existence.Despite this importance, biodiversity is threatened by the dramatic loss of habitats, habitatfragmentation and isolation of the remaining communities. High population and density arealso considered the greatest causes of biodiversity degradation since more land is cleared foragriculture and settlement. Other threats to biodiversity include invasive species, geneticallymodified organisms, inadequacy of policies and market failures. For effective implementationthese threats must be understood.Chapter threeVision, Goals and Guiding Principles for Biodiversity Management in Malawi.The visionThe vision for this biodiversity strategy is to conserve, protect and manage by the year 2020all forms of life for all people with full participation of all stakeholder, and to use thebiodiversity sustainably and where benefits accrue to share them fairly and equitably.The strategy established four goals which highlight Malawi's commitment to biodiversityconservation and sustainable use at the national, regional and international levels andsummarise the outcomes that Malawi intends to achieve through the implementation of thisstrategy, as follows.Goal oneActively protect, conserve and maintain protected areas, mountains and species within them;promote restoration of degraded and vulnerable ecosystems and habitats and recovery of rareand threatened species.

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Goal TwoEnhance and improve biodiversity knowledge base through research; strengthen and buildhuman and infrastructure capacity for effective information dissemination and research.Goal ThreeEnhance agricultural production through active protection and management of agriculturalbiodiversity and support initiatives that encourage fair and equitable sharing of benefitsarising from the use of the genetic resources.Goal FourEnhance community understanding and appreciation of biodiversity, and supportcoordinated community action to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity.Eight principles are identified to guide the conservation and management of biodiversity andthe implementation of this strategy. These principles are similar to those presented inEnvironmental Management Act and National Strategy for Sustainable Development.Chapter fourStrategies and action for Malawi’s biodiversityGuided by the goals and guiding principles for biodiversity conservation and management,the strategy identified a total of 192 actions which are grouped into the following eleventhemes: terrestrial biodiversity; aquatic biodiversity; sustainable use of biological diversity;indigenous knowledge, access and benefit sharing; biotechnology; invasive species;biodiversity policies and legislation; community participation; information, knowledge andcapacity; incentive measures; and Malawi's role in global biodiversity conservation.The focus of each theme is summarised in a brief but concise scope. This is followed by adescription of desired outcomes to be achieved when the actions are implemented. Adescription of the status of the biodiversity component is provided and is followed by adescription of current biodiversity management regimes. Based on this, gaps andinadequacies in our biodiversity knowledge are identified. Strategies and actions areformulated as interventions for the gaps and inadequacies.Major issues for each theme were varied but can all be summarised into the following broadcategories.

● Inadequate public participation and awareness● Inadequate and unharmonised sectoral policies● Unsustainable use of genetic resources● Inadequate infrastructure, institutional and human capacity● Inadequate biodiversity knowledge base● Lack of sustainable financing mechanisms

Chapter FiveStrategic Priorities, Targets and Implementation ArrangementsA total of 192 actions were identified to be implemented over a period of fifteen years. Ofthese 24 were prioritised based on the extent to which they address the existing gaps inbiodiversity conservation and the extent to which they would contribute to theimplementation of Global 2010 targets. Priority actions are grouped into the following fivebroad categories:

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Infrastructure and human capacity enhancement that will contribute to substantialimprovements in our knowledge and understanding of the biodiversity.Enhancement and maintenance of partnership and relationships between governmentdepartments and communities, government and the development partners and NGOs.Promoting sustainable use of genetic resources through promoting systematic protection andcharacterisation of agrobiodiversity and protection from biopiracy, invasive species and pests.Enhancement of good governance by prioritising actions that encourage Malawi to continuetaking a leading role in coordinating and monitoring implementation of natural resourceprogrammes, and provision of funding for biodiversity programmes through the nationalbudget.Enhancing protected areas management through community participation, research,information management and policy enforcement.Implementation arrangementThis strategy and actions are directed at all stakeholders involved in the management andutilisation of biological resources and its implementation will require their activeparticipation. However, the primary responsibility for the implementation of this strategyshould continue to rest in the Environmental Affairs Department. For effectiveimplementation, this will be supported by coordinating mechanisms through a biodiversitysecretariat and a committee which shall among other things oversee and coordinate thedevelopment of a detailed workplan for the implementation of this strategy.The National Biodiversity Secretariat will require professional staff, infrastructure andcontinuous financial support. This will only be possible if the portion of the EnvironmentalFund is earmarked for biodiversity programmes and supplemented by government fundingthrough the national budget.

TopographyMalawi has a total area of 119,140 km² ofwhich 20,902 km2 (20%) is made up ofinland waters dominated by Lake Malawi.Mozambique borders it to the south, eastand west, Tanzania to the north and Zambiato the west (Figure 1).Malawi lies between latitudes 9º22' and17º03' S and longitude 33º40' and 35º55' E.The topography varies from near sea level inthe lower Shire (i.e. 50 m above sea level) toabout 3,000 m on high mountains e.g.Mulanje.ClimateThe climate is continental with two distinctseasons - the dry and wet seasons, which arecharacterised by large seasonal variations intemperature and rainfall. The rainy seasonruns from November to April and the dryseason from May to October. The averagerainfall is about 1,200 mm per annum withthe highest rainfall being recorded inNkhata Bay and Mulanje. Shire valleyreceives the lowest rainfall (below 900 mmper annum). The mean annual minimumand maximum temperatures range from12ºC to 32ºC. Temperatures are highest inthe rift valley and along the lakeshore andcould be as high as 38ºC. The highesttemperatures occur at the end of October,but thereafter the rains usher in coolweather. The lowest temperatures areexperienced in high altitude areas,particularly the Viphya and Nyika plateaux,and the Dedza, Zomba and Mulanjemountains.SoilsMalawi’s soils are dominated by three majorsoil types: the Eutric leptisols (also known aslithosols), the Chromic levisols (latosols),and the Haplic lixisols. The most

widespread of the group are the shallowstony soils associated with steep slopes.These red-yellow soils include theferruginous soils of the Lilongwe Plain andsome parts of the Southern Region and theweathered ferrallitic soils, some with a highlateritic content, which are of low fertilityand easily exhausted. The Haplic lixisolsinclude the alluvial soils of the lacustrineand riverine plains; the vertisols of theLower Shire Valley and the Phalombeplains; and the mopanosols of Liwonde andBalaka areas.VegetationAs a result of its varied topography andrainfall regimes, Malawi presents a richmosaic of different habitats. Severalattempts to classify the vegetation ofMalawi have been made, but according tothe classification by White, vegetation inMalawi is represented by three regionalcentres of endemism: the Zambezianregional centre of endemism, theAfromontane Archipelago-like regionalcentre of endemism, the Eastern (Forest)regional mosaic. This classification asmodified by Dowsett-Lemaire identifiesnine major vegetation types (Table 1). Themost extensive of these are: the miombowoodland, deciduous forests and thickets,evergreen and semievergreen forests, andAfromontane grassland.PopulationThe population, currently estimated at 11million people and growing at 2%, downfrom 3.2% in 1994, has a density of 105persons per sq. km. This decline inpopulation growth is due to the repatriationof Mozambique refugees and the impact ofHIV/AIDS related diseases. The last censusin 1998 showed that the populationdistribution by region was 46.5% (south),

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Chapter oneIntroduction

Background Information to Malawi

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41.4% centre and 12.1% (north). TheSouthern Region has the highest density of162 persons per square kilometre, followedby the Central and Northern Regions with113 and 44 persons per square kilometre,respectively. Blantyre District has thehighest density at 389/km2 while Chitipahas the lowest density at 29/km2.There has also been considerable rural torural migration of farmers from the denselypopulated southern highlands to the lessdensely populated central and the moresparsely populated northern regions. Thelevel of urbanization is very low such thatover 80% of the population lives in ruralareas. The high population densities haveresulted in a low land holding which isestimated at 0.8 ha per household.EconomyAgriculture continues to be the mainstay ofthe country’s economy. The sector accountsfor about 36% of the Gross DomesticProduct (GDP), 87% of the totalemployment, and supplies more than 65%of the manufacturing sector's raw materials.Agriculture is also the main livelihood ofthe majority of rural people.Malawi’s agriculture is characterised by adual system consisting of the smallholdersub-sector and the estate subsector. Thesmallholder sub-sector operates on 4.8million ha of customary land andcontributes 80% of Malawi's food and 10%of exports. The estate sub-sectorconcentrates on tobacco, tea and sugar,which account for 80% of all agriculturalexports.Land TenureThe Land Act recognises three land tenurecategories: customary, private and public.Customary land is land that is held,occupied or used under customary laws butexcludes public land. It constitutes about65% of the land in Malawi. Public land isthe land which is occupied, used oracquired by the government, and any otherland which reverts to government ontermination, surrender or fall-in of freehold

or leaseholds. It constitutes 21% of the landin Malawi. Private land is land owned, heldor occupied under freehold title, or acertificate of claim, or which is registered asprivate under the Land Act and itconstitutes 14% of the land in Malawi.A land policy approved and adopted by theMalawi Government in 2001 aims atensuring tenure security and equitableaccess to land. Following the adoption ofthis policy, the current Land Act is beingreviewed. The revised Act will classify landinto three categories: government, publicand private land. Government land willcomprise land owned by the governmentand put to specific national use. Public landwill be managed by the government ortraditional authority, but exclusively for thepublic whilst private land will includefreehold and customary land allocatedexclusively to families or individuals andleaseholds. Private land will be subject tocommon residual rights of the state such ascompulsory acquisition.Under the new land law, customary tenurewill be codified and granted full statutoryrecognition as free simple customary estate,registered and available for dispositionunder market conditions. Customary landwill be demarcated and district/villageregistries set up and maintained throughoutthe country.

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MOZAMBIQUELikoma Island

Mzuzu CityRumphi

Mzimba

Chitipa

Karonga

Songwe River

Lake

Malaw

i

Lilongwe

NtheuDedza

Mwanza

Blantyre

Chikwawa

Nkhotakota

Ntchisi

DowaSalima

Mangochi

Nsanje

TANZANIAMalawi

Figure 1. Map of Malawi

Lake MalombeShire River

Lake Chilwa

Zomba

Mulanje

M1 Road

ZAMBIA

Kasungu

MOZAMBIQUE

Bua River

4 Table1: Vegetation types of MalawiVegetation type Defining characters Malawi examples

Zambezian Woodland(Divided into miombo, mopane, and undifferentiatedwoodlands)Zambezian miombo woodland. Dominated by species of Brachystegia, alone or with Small fragments are found in ChimaliroJulbernardia and Isoberlinia and Namizimu FRs and Kasungu NP.Zambezian mopane woodland. Dominated by Colophospermum mopane. Mua Tsanya FR, Vwaza marsh, Liwonde

NP and Lower Majete WRZambezian undifferentiated woodland Defined by the absence of miombo and mopane dominants Once common in Shire Valley, Phalombe,

but often dominated by Acacia and Combretum species. Lilongwe and drier lake shore plains.Transition woodland Intermediate between forests and woodlands. Small fragments are found in Nkhata Bay,

Vinthukutu, Mulanje, Viphya and NyikaDeciduous forests and thickets Characterised by canopy species deciduous for more than Small patches of deciduous forests are found in Lengwe NP

a month and understorey species deciduous for several months and Sambani FR; Lengwe, Mwabvi, Rumphi and Karonga.Evergreen forest

(subdivided into riparian, lowland, mid altitude andAfromontane rain forests)Riparian forest Characterised by species adapted to banks of river courses or Rivers in Nyika and Viphya Plateaux,

influenced by flood Dzalanyama FR.Lowland rain forest Characterised by the presence of only 0-25% of Afromontane Foothills around Thyolo and Mulanje mountains, and in

species Nkhata Bay (Kalwe, Nkuwadzi forests).Mid altitude rain forest Defined by flora containing a mixture of lowland and Mulanje foothills, Kaning'ina FR, Chipata mountain.

Afromontane elementsAfromontane rain forest Essentially evergreen Ntchisi mountain, Misuku Hills, Nyika and Viphya plateaux;

Dedza, Zomba, Mulanje mountains.Undifferentiated Afromontane forests

They occur on high plateaux (2250-2450 m)Hagenia abyssinica forest Nyika National Park.Juniperous procera forest Nyika National Park.Widdringtonia whytei forest Mulanje mountain.

Afromontane Bamboo Dominated by Arundinaria alpina Dedza and Mulanje mountains.Afromontane evergreen bushland and thicket Defined by the dominance of Erica species Widespread and common on larger mountains (Dedza,

Mulanje, Nyika).Afromontane shrubland Characterised by stunted individuals of Nyika National Park, Mulanje mountain.

bushland and thicketAfromontane grassland Mainly, secondary, fire-maintained grassland Misuku Hills, Mulanje Mountain, Nyika and Viphyaplateaux, Dedza Mountain, Zomba-Malosa mountains.Source: Dowsett-Lemaire (2001)

The term biodiversity is defined asvariability among living organisms from allsources including inter alia terrestrial,marine and other aquatic systems andcomplexes of which they are part andincludes diversity within, or betweenspecies and ecosystems. The termbiodiversity is however relatively new toMalawi and as such is perceived differentlyby stakeholders. The NationalEnvironmental Policy (NEP) of 1996 affirmsthat Malawians are intrinsically linked tonatural resources perhaps on the premisethat natural resources are a source oflivelihoods provided by God. In addition,natural resources are believed to possessspiritual powers. This is manifest in ritualceremonies, which are often conducted inthe forests protected by traditional beliefs(e.g. Khuluvi forest in Nsanje and theNdunda forest in Makanjira, Mangochi).Such forests are often very small but veryvaluable to the surrounding people. Somespecies (e.g. Adansonia digitata,baobab/mlambe and Pseudolanchnostylismaprouneifolia, msolo) also hold traditionalvalues in the communities and aresymbolized as holy trees. The protectionaccorded to individual species may extendto other species around them, resulting inthe protection of the entire ecosystem.Although these traditional beliefs havecontributed to community participation inbiodiversity conservation, the belief that

natural resources are God-given andtherefore unlimited, has ironicallycontributed to the current rate ofbiodiversity loss.Both early and current natural resourcemanagement policies follow a sectoralapproach which appears to favour themanagement of economically importantresources (e.g. forestry, fisheries, wildlife,land and agricultural resources). Resourcesthat are perceived not to be of obviouseconomic importance such as viruses,bacteria are sometimes placed in abiodiversity sector which is not governed bya separate policy framework and a singleinstitution. By treating biodiversity under aseparate sector, Malawi appears to considerbiodiversity as fundamentally differentfrom forest, fisheries, agricultural, wildlife,water and land resources. It would thusappear that the official understanding ofbiodiversity is fundamentally different fromthat of the Convention on BiologicalDiversity (CBD), which consideredbiodiversity as the variability among livingorganisms at genetic, species andecosystems levels.Understanding the value of biodiversity asperceived by different stakeholdersincluding the local communities is thereforean important step towards multisectoraland multicultural approaches tobiodiversity management.

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Chapter TwoRationale for Biodiversity Conservation in MalawiWhat is Biodiversity?

Importance of biodiversityContribution towards global biodiversityMalawi has unique and diverse flora, faunaand ecosystems which are attributed to itsdiverse climate, soils and topography.Currently, with over 800 species of fish, 90%of which are endemic, Malawi is one of thecountries with the largest number and themost diverse communities of freshwaterfish in the world. Around 15% of the globaltotal freshwater species are found in Lake

Malawi alone. Ninety-five percent of thesespecies are haplochromine cichlids, whichare internationally recognized as anoutstanding example of rapid speciation,with a potential to provide greater insightsinto the understanding of the evolutionaryprocess. Because of their sedentary habits,most of the cichlids rarely migrate longdistances from their locality. The resultantisolation of communities has created species

endemic not only to the lake but to certainrestricted areas within the lake itself. In turnthis aspect has led to adaptive speciation offish species, which is more diverse than thefinches of the Galapagos Islands.The level of endemism in plants,invertebrates, and mammals is not wellknown. However it is estimated thatapproximately 47 species of the 172 speciesof molluscs, 12 species of reptiles and aboutseven species of amphibians, especiallyfrogs, are endemic to Malawi. There is lackof detailed knowledge of the distributionand status of endemic and/or rare plantspecies in Malawi. The 2002 IUCN Red DataList of Threatened Plants for Malawi, lists 14endangered, 89 vulnerable, and 25 criticallyendangered species. Approximately 114plant species are known from only a fewlocalities in Malawi but none of these areformally protected. Only eleven plantspecies have legal protection in Malawi.It is clear from the above that Malawi'sbiodiversity is unique and an important partof the global biodiversity. The responsibilityto conserve and manage the biodiversitytherefore does not rest in Malawi alone butalso in the international community.Value of biodiversity to MalawiHuman society is highly dependent ongenetic resources, including those from wildand semi-domesticated sources, for theproductivity of its agriculture, livestock andfisheries. Malawi's economy is entirelybased on the biological diversity andservices provided by the ecosystems. Forinstance, ecosystems perform servicesbeyond production of food, fibre, fuel andincome such as recycling of nutrients,control of local microclimates, regulation oflocal hydrological processes, regulation ofthe abundance of undesirable organisms,and detoxification of noxious chemicals.Forests or grasslands prevent soil erosion,replenish groundwater, and controlflooding by enhancing infiltration andreducing run-off and are major sinks forgreen house gases. Aquatic ecosystemsprovide sanctuary or breeding nurseries for

aquatic biodiversity such as fish, frogs andwater birds.The driving force for Malawi's agriculturalsector is the rich agrobiodiversity (which isdefined as the variability among livingorganisms associated with cultivated cropsand domesticated animals and theecological complexes of which they are apart). Agrobiodiversity is often placed intwo broad categories: domesticated plantsand animals. Domesticated plants may becategorised as cereals, legumes,commercial/industrial crops, wild foodcrops, fruits and vegetables, and roots andtubers.Tobacco is the major export earner forMalawi, contributing over 65% of theforeign exchange earnings. Other importantexport commodities include tea and sugar,which, respectively, contribute about 10%and 11%. Maize, on the other hand, is themajor staple food crop with 60% of the totalcropped land devoted to its production.Livestock contributes about 8% to GrossDomestic Product (GDP). Ruminants, suchas cattle, goats and sheep, andmonogastrics,such as pigs and chickens, constitute thelivestock enterprises, which provide forboth subsistence and commercialrequirements.The full potential of Malawi's biologicalresources in the health sector cannot beestimated with certainty due to lack of dataand research in the field of traditionalmedicine. It is envisaged, however, thatbiological resources are a source of medicineor raw material for medicine. Globally it isknown that more than half of the world'smodern drugs are derived from biologicalresources and it is estimated that some20,000 species of plants are used intraditional medicine. As biotechnologymakes new advances and new screeningtools become available, there is increasedpotential and interest in biodiversity as asource of both raw materials and chemicalinformation for developing new medicines.The fisheries sector is estimated tocontribute 4% towards the GDP. Socio

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economically the fisheries sector providesemployment opportunities to people infishing, processing and marketing. It isestimated that more than 250,000 peoplealong the major fishing areas depend on fishas a source of food and livelihood. It is alsoestimated that the fisheries sector provides60-70% of total animal protein in Malawi.In the forestry sector use of biodiversity,especially in forests adjacent to villages, isextremely important as source of fuelwood,food (vegetable, tubers, fruits, insects,mushrooms), construction material,medicines, etc. Commercial uses of theforest plantations are mainly in form oftimber and firewood. Although a fewindigenous tree species yield good timbermost are poor in commercial timber. Speciessuch as Widdringtonia cuppresoides (Mulanjecedar), Pterocarpus angolensis (mlombwa),Khaya anthotheca (mbawa) produce qualityand durable hard wood and as a result their

populations are threatened due tounsustainable harvesting.Wildlife maintained in forest reserves issource of protein to the surroundingcommunities. Hunting, for the past decades,constituted the major use of wildliferesources and is probably the oldestsubsistence and livelihood use of biologicalresources in Malawi. In areas where humanpopulation is small and game is common,nearly all animal protein consumed by thelocal population is derived from wildlife.Tourism in Malawi thrives on naturalresources and major resource attractionsinclude water bodies, parks, mountains andcultural heritage. The value of biodiversityin terms of aesthetic value has never beenquantified although it was estimated thattourism, which was dominated by visits tothe lake and game viewing contributed 4.2%and 3.2% of the GDP between 1996 and1997.

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Malawi’s response to biodiversity conservationAffairs, MoREA) in 1994 but wasrestructured three years later in 1997. TheEnvironmental Affairs Department (EAD) isnow under the Ministry of Mines, NaturalResources and Environment (MoMNRE)and currently is the CBD focal point whilstthe research component (managed by theNational Research Council of Malawi,NRCM) is under Office of the President andCabinet (OPC).Malawi has for the past decade madesignificant progress in reducing the threatsto biodiversity. For instance, through aconsultative process the government in 1994developed the National EnvironmentalAction Plan (NEAP). The NEAP spells outstrategies and actions that Malawi needs toput in place and undertake to conserve,sustainably use and manage the biologicalresources. NEAP also identified threats tobiodiversity as one of the main keyenvironmental challenges in Malawi. TheGovernment in 1996 developed a crosscutting environmental policy, the NEP and

The government as far back as the 1920s setup protected areas as a measure to conserveand protect the unique ecosystems, habitatsand species (Figure 2). The main threecategories of protected areas-national parks,wildlife and forest reserves-together coverapproximately 185,000 ha and representabout 20% of the total land area. LakeMalawi National Park forms the onlyFisheries Protected area in Malawi. Naturalresources that are not part of the protectedareas network such as fisheries, water,agriculture and land are guided by separatepolicies and legislation.Despite establishing a network of protectedareas and policy frameworks, biologicalresources have continued to decline. Thisprompted Malawi in 1991 to establish theDepartment of Research and EnvironmentalAffairs (DREA), which was mandated tocoordinate issues pertaining to research andsustainable use of the environment. Thedepartment was elevated to a full ministry(Ministry of Research and Environmental

enacted the Environmental ManagementAct (EMA) that aimed at providing a legalframework for the regulation andestablishment of sustainable environmentutilization practices. To facilitateimplementation of NEAP Malawi in 1998developed an Environmental SupportProgramme (ESP) whose objective was tointegrate environmental concerns into socio-economic development. In keeping with therequirement of the NEP and the EMA,Malawi undertook an environmental policyreform through which old legislation andpolicies pertaining to the conservation andsustainable use of biological diversity (suchas Forestry Policy, National Parks andWildlife policy, Fisheries and Aquaculturepolicy, Water and Land policies) werereviewed and harmonized.Various committees and working groupshad been established to oversee andcoordinate implementation of governmentbiodiversity initiatives. These include theNational Biodiversity Committee, whichcoordinates activities pertaining to theimplementation of the Convention onBiological Diversity; Genetic Resources andBiotechnology Committee (GRBC) whichcontrols access to genetic resources; TheNational Council for Environment (NCE)which is charged with environmentalmonitoring and thus operates like anenvironmental watchdog; and the CBNRMworking group (an ad hoc-committee of theNCE) which was established to coordinateimplementation of community basednatural resources activities. The workinggroup was also involved in the developmentof a CBNRM strategy and action plan.The Government developed the NationalEnvironmental Education andCommunication Strategy to raise awarenessof the complexity of the environment,environmental issues and methods ofsustainably managing the environment andother life support systems. Through thisstrategy community based natural resourcemanagement techniques have beendisseminated to the communities. Forexample, Wildlife and Environmental

Society of Malawi (WESM) is currentlyimplementing a community based naturalresources project in Mwanza wherecommunities are engaged in fruit juiceprocessing from Adansonia digitata(baobab/mlambe) and Tamarindus indica(bwemba) fruits, guinea fowl rearing, beekeeping, tree planting and cane furnituremaking. Community Partnerships forSustainable Resources Management inMalawi (COMPASS) empowered NaturalResource Management Clubs around NyikaNational Park on community based naturalresources management techniques.

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Figure 2: Biodiversity Hotspots of Malawi.

Kasungu NationalPark

NkhotakotaWildlifeReserve

Lake Malawi National Park

LiwondeNational Park

LengweNationalPark

Majete WildlifeReserve

National ParksWildlife ReservesLakesInternational Boundary

MwabviWildlifeReserve

Nyika National Park hasthe highest number oflarge mammals and thehighest concentration ofRoan Antelopes inAfrica. The main speciesare eland, reed back,roan antelope and zebras.It supports the world’slargest breedingpopulation of blueswallow (Hirundoatrocaerulea). Its an areaof high plant biodiversitywith about 215 Orchidspecies.

Nyika NationalPark

Vwaza MarshWildlife Reserve

Lake Malawi is a WorldHeritage Site and is home toabout 15% of globalfreshwater fish species. Ithas about 1000 fish speciesof which about 400 areendemic Cichild.

Mulanje mountain isa Man & BiosphereReserve with thehighest number of(69) endemic plantspecies includingNational Tree, theMulanje Cedar.

Lengwe National parkhas the highestpopulation of Nyalaantelope. Together withMajete Wildlife Reservethey are the northernlimit of the Nyala.

Kasungu National Parkprobably has the only wilddog (Lycaon pictus)population. In Malawi thepuku antelope anendangered species appearsto be restricted to the park

Lake

Malaw

i

Lake Chilwa isRamsar site andalso an importantbreeding site ofmigratory birds.

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Figure 3: Indigenous fruit juices: (a) Tamarindus indica (bwemba) fruit and fruit juice, (b) Adansonia digitata(baobab/mlambe) fruits and fruit juice. Photos by D. Mauambeta (WESM)

Malawi’s efforts to halt the currant rate ofbiodiversity loss can be achieved if factorsthat contribute to habitat loss, populationgrowth and poverty are also reduced. Thesefactors are perceived here as majorchallenges to biodiversity conservation inMalawi.Habitat loss and fragmentationThe greatest threat to biodiversity inMalawi is the dramatic loss of habitats,fragmentation of species and habitats andisolation of remaining communities due tounsustainable land use practices. In Malawiagriculture, urbanisation, infrastructuredevelopment and human settlements arethe major uses of land.The agriculture sector comprises small,medium and large-scale farmers.Small-scale farming is largely practiced bysmallholder farmers whose land holdingranges from 0.5 to 1.5 ha. The small-scalefarming is characterised by continuouscultivation on the same piece of land,cultivation in wetlands and riverbanks,encroachment into protected areas andcultivation on mountain slopes. Thispractice has contributed to soils degradationand has subsequently resulted in lowproductivity. The estate sector is dominatedby tobacco, tea, coffee and sugarcaneproduction. Estates are required by law toset aside 10% of their land for forests.

Despite this requirement deforestation iswidespread in forests within and outsidethe estates while enforcement of the 10% isweak.Developmental activities contribute tohabitat loss through conversion of arableland, wetlands and forests for roadconstruction, urbanization and humansettlements. In addition, damming of riversfor irrigation and water supply lead tochanges in ecosystems downstream andalso impede migration of aquatic organismsupstream and hence cut off species access tospawning areas.Invasive alien speciesInvasive alien species have either beenintentionally or accidentally introduced intoMalawi and threaten indigenousbiodiversity through consuming andpreying on them, competing withindigenous species. The major threats tobiodiversity are from invasive plants. Thereare four major invasive aquatic species inMalawi (e.g. water hyacinth, Salvinia molestaand Pistia stratiotes), which mainly threatenbiodiversity through alteration of themicroclimate and displacing the indigenousaquatic flora and fauna. Terrestrial alienspecies e.g. Eucalyptus sp., Prosopis sp.,Gmelina arborea, Lantana camara, Rubusfruticosus also affect biodiversity in similarmanner.

Threats to biodiversity

a b

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Population pressureHigh population and density are consideredthe greatest causes of biodiversitydegradation since more land is cleared forsettlement and in search of fertile areas toincrease food production. These activitieshave directly contributed to the reduction inforest cover from 45% in 1975 to 28% in theearly 2000s. Of the 28% forest cover, 21% areforest reserves, national parks and wildlifereserves, and 7% are customary land forests.Deforestation has resulted in soil erosionand reduction in species composition andabundance and has increased sedimentationand siltation of many rivers and lakes.The increased population has also broughtabout great demand for fish for domesticconsumption leading to an increase in thenumber of fishermen, localised fishing, andreduced fish catches. In recent years, fishlandings have fallen dramatically due tooverfishing and environmentaldegradation. Total catches declined from76,500 tonnes/year in 1990 to 43,000 tonnesin 1999, while per capita consumptiondeclined from 10.2 kg/year to 7.0 during thesame period. There has been a decline in thestocks of Oreochromis spp. (chambo) in bothLakes Malawi and Malombe from 8,500 to6,000 tonnes between 1984 and 2000,representing about 75% reduction in fishcatches.Lakeshore areas are also experiencingecological and environmental degradationbecause of the very dense and increasinghuman population whose livelihooddepends on the utilization of a limited anddiminishing resource base. Anadromousfish species face more serious threats fromunsustainable agricultural practices incatchment areas where there is a completedamming of rivers without provision of fishladders to enable migration of the fish intothe rivers to spawn. In addition, cultivationon riverbanks has been suggested to beresponsible for the degradation andeventual loss of spawning habitats due tosiltation, exacerbated by pesticide pollution.For instance, Labeo mesops (ntchila), which

used to be the most abundant species, hasalmost disappeared because of loss ofspawning habitats along the rivers and rivermouths.The high population and density has alsoresulted in increased demand forindigenous plant resources for food,medicine, fodder, fuelwood andconstruction material and has led to thesebecoming locally rare. This coupled withunsustainable harvesting methods of plantresources, such as uprooting, tree fellingand debarking have reduced theirpopulations to non-sustainable levels.Wildlife is equally threatened due toincreased population since deforestation forcultivation and settlements destroys naturalhabitats for large animals. Increasedpopulation also has resulted in increaseddemand for game meat. For example, inMajete Game Reserve, elephants becameextinct in 1992 due to poaching whilst inLake Chilwa over a million birds arecaptured every year primarily for food andfor sale.Land for human settlement cannot bedetermined with certainty. The southernregion is heavily populated and this hasforced the communities to encroach intoprotected areas and estates. For example in2002, communities around Thyolo ForestReserve encroached into the reserve forsettlement and cultivation. To ease pressureon land, the government has embarked on aland reform programme in which familiesfrom densely populated districts in thesouth (Thyolo and Mulanje) would beresettled in designated areas.As long as the population growth rateremains high, pressure on land forsettlements, agriculture and resource usewill remain the biggest challenge toachieving sustainable biodiversityconservation.

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Figure 4: Deforestation in Malosa Forest Reserve due to cultivation and charcoal burning. Photo by A. Chikuni

PovertyMalawi is one of the poorest countries in theworld being listed 162 out of 175 in theUnited Nations Human DevelopmentReport for the year 2003. The povertysituation in Malawi is critical consideringthat 52.40% of the population live below thepoverty line whilst 22.40% live in dire

poverty. Poverty, therefore, forces people todepend on natural resources for energy(fuelwood), food, construction material,medicine, and fodder. Thus Malawians areforced by this low income base to trade-offlong term sustainable resources for shortterm consumption of stocks since theydepend entirely on the existing natural

Malawi has an international obligation tofulfil its commitments under the CBD,which Malawi signed on 15th June 1992 andratified on 28th February 1994. Thisbiodiversity strategy and action plan isprepared in response to article 26 of theCBD and Decision II/17 of the Conferenceof the Parties (COP), which requestedParties to focus the First National Report, asfar as possible, on the measures taken toimplement Article 6 of the CBD (Box 1). Theconservation of biodiversity cannot beseparated from the conservation of uniqueecosystems and habitats (e.g. wetlands) andas such this strategy attempts to respond toresolution VII of COP4 of the RamsarConvention which notes with pleasureDecision IV/15 of the 4th meeting of theCBD, to cooperate with other biodiversity-related conventions, and endorses the JointWork Plan with the CBD, in particular thecollaboration and cooperation in the areas

of inland water ecosystems, marine andcoastal biodiversity, impact assessment andincentive measures.Malawi also has a regional obligation tocontribute to regional biodiversityconservation initiatives throughimplementation of various regionalprotocols that Malawi is party to. Throughthis strategy, therefore, Malawi would meetits obligations under the SADC Strategy onFood Security, Natural Resources andEnvironment which calls on member statesto institute policy measures andmechanisms to protect the environment andmanage natural resources utilisation with aview to achieving optimum sustainablebenefits for the present and futuregenerations.At the national level this strategy isconsidered a key strategy for sustainabledevelopment. It provides strategic guidance

Rationale for the National Biodiversity Strategy and Actions Plan

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for the implementation of Chapter III,Section 13(d) of the Malawi’s Constitutionthat calls upon the State to manage theenvironment responsibly in order toprevent the degradation of theenvironment; provide a healthy living andworking environment for the people ofMalawi; accord full recognition to the rightsof future generations by means ofenvironmental protection and sustainabledevelopment of natural resources; andconserve and enhance biological diversity ofMalawi. In addition to this the strategyprovides guidance for the implementationof the Malawi poverty reduction strategypaper (MPRSP), which was launched in2002. The PRSP aims at achieving

sustainable poverty reduction throughempowerment of the poor by promotingrapid sustainable pro-poor economicgrowth and structural transformation,enhancing human capital development,improving the quality of life of the mostvulnerable, and promoting goodgovernance, while mainstreaming keycross-cutting issues such as HIV/AIDS,gender, environment and science andtechnology.On the whole this strategy provides aframework and guidelines for theconservation of the biological resources, thesustainable use of its components and thefair and equitable sharing of benefits arisingout of its utilization.

Box 1. The Convention on Biological DiversityArticle 1. ObjectivesThe objectives of this Convention, to be pursued in accordance with its relevant provisions,are the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and thefair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources,including by appropriate access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevanttechnologies, taking into account all rights over those resources and to technologies, and byappropriate funding.Article 6. General Measures for Conservation and Sustainable UseEach Contracting Party shall, in accordance with its particular conditions and capabilities:

(a) Develop national strategies, plans or programmes for the conservation andsustainable use of biological diversity or adapt for this purpose existing strategies,plans or programmes which shall reflect, inter alia, the measures set out in thisConvention relevant to the Contracting Party concerned; and

(b) Integrate, as far as possible and as appropriate, the conservation and sustainableuse of biological diversity into relevant sectoral or cross-sectoral plans,programmes and policies.

Article 26. ReportsEach Contracting Party shall, at intervals to be determined by the Conference of the Parties,present to the Conference of the Parties, reports on measures which it has taken for theimplementation of the provisions of this Convention and their effectiveness in meeting theobjectives of this Convention.

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The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan ProcessThis NBSAP has been prepared through abroad-based interactive participatoryprocess comprising eight task forces butcoordinated by the Environmental AffairsDepartment. The task forces comprisedexperts drawn from governmentdepartments, non-governmentalorganizations and parastatal organizations(Annex One).The task forces collected and collatedinformation to document and assessbiological resources covering plants,microorganisms, wild and domesticatedanimals, ecosystems, domesticated andintroduced species, land use issues, socio-economic aspects, and legislation, in orderto identify gaps and inadequacies inMalawi's biodiversity knowledge base andmanagement. Issues of biosafety althoughaddressed under a separate initiative wereconsidered an important aspect of NBSAPconsidering Malawi's obligation toimplementing the Biosafety Protocol. TaskForces were guided by a set of objectives forthe NBSAP process (Box 2). The objectiveswere developed on the basis that theNBSAP is the beginning of a continuousprocess and as such their achievement willbe guided by the timeframe of this strategy.

In order to ensure public participation in thepreparation of this plan, two nationalworkshops and three regional workshopswere organised. Political input was soughtthrough a national consultative workshopand direct contact with senior governmentofficials. Both national and internationalexperts in the field of biodiversity alsoreviewed the document.Malawi’s biodiversity strategic planningwas funded by the Global EnvironmentFacility (GEF) and facilitated by the UnitedNations Environmental Programme(UNEP). UNEP provided technical expertiseto implement the project. Other partnersincluded the World Wildlife Fund (WWF),the African Centre for Technology Studies(ACTS) and the World Conservation Union(IUCN). Supplementary funding wasobtained from the SADC BiodiversitySupport Programme (SADC BSP) and theNorwegian Government through theBiodiversity Support Programme in orderto ensure that the strategic planningincluded all emerging issues such asBiosafety, the ecosystems approach,regional issues and the Clearing HouseMechanism (CHM).

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Box 2. The Objectives of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan ProcessThe objectives of the NBSAP process were stated at the beginning of the project, as follows:● To review documentation of the biological diversity of Malawi covering plants,

animals, micro-organisms, genetic material and ecosystems;● To identify gaps in the knowledge-base and existing efforts to conserve and

sustainably use biodiversity resources, and to ensure fair and equitable sharing ofbenefits arising from such use;

● To assess our knowledge of the various components of biological diversity;● To assess and identify biological resources requiring immediate statutory protection;● To assess and evaluate current indigenous knowledge systems pertaining to the

conservation, sustainable use and the fair and equitable sharing of its benefits;● To determine the social-economic value of biological diversity and the benefits

arising from conservation and sustainable use thereof;● To assess the capacity of institutions and personnel in meeting the demands

imposed by the requirement to conserve, sustainably use, and fairly and equitablyshare the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources of the country's biologicaldiversity;

● To initiate creation of a database for use in raising public awareness for protectionand sustainable use of biodiversity resources in Malawi;

● To promote the integration of biological diversity conservation, sustainable use andthe fair and equitable sharing of its benefits into sectoral and cross-sectoral policies,plans and programmes in the country;

● To foster collaboration between neighbouring countries in the conservation andsustainable use of biological diversity, and the fair and equitable sharing of benefitsarising from such use.

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Chapter ThreeVision, Goals and Guiding Principles for BiodiversityManagement in MalawiThe VisionThe vision for this biodiversity strategy is toconserve, protect and manage by the year2020 all forms of life for all people with fullparticipation of all stakeholder, and to usethe biodiversity sustainably and wherebenefits accrue to share them fairly andequitably.The vision has been selected to closelyparallel that shown in the NationalConstitution, which requires thegovernment and the people of Malawi,among other things, to strive to preventdegradation of the environment andenhance conservation of biologicaldiversity. This vision thus attempts todescribe the overall desired outcome for thisstrategic plan and also the overall approachto achieving the outcome.The year 2020 was chosen to coincide withthe timeframe for Malawi Vision 2020,which is the overall policy framework formedium term socio economic development.In addition this timeframe is considered

long enough to permit effectiveimplementation of complex strategies andalso to allow for revision of this biodiversitystrategy plan. The timeframe is alsocompatible with the Malawi NationalStrategy for Sustainable Development(NSSD, to the year 2015) formulatedfollowing the landmark World Summit onSustainable Development (WSSD) held inJohannesburg, South Africa, in 2002 as afollow-up to the United Nations Conferenceon Environment and Development(UNCED) of 1992. The timeframe is alsoadequate to enable Malawi contribute to the2010 targets of reducing biodiversity loss by50% as agreed by the global community,and achieve, by 2015, the MillenniumDevelopment Goals which were drawnfrom the actions and targets contained inthe Millennium Declaration adopted at theUN Millennium Summit in September 2000,in particular Goal 7 “Ensure environmentalsustainability”.

GoalsThe goals attempt to highlight Malawi’scommitment for biodiversity conservation,sustainable use and equitable sharing ofbenefits arising from the use of biologicaldiversity at the national, regional andinternational levels and summarise theoutcomes that Malawi intends to achievethrough the implementation of this strategy.Goal oneActively protect, conserve and maintainprotected areas, mountains and specieswithin them; promote restoration ofdegraded and vulnerable ecosystems andhabitats and recovery of rare and threatenedspecies.

Under the CBDMalawi has sovereign rightsto conserve its biological resources and hasa responsibility to ensure sustainable use ofits biological diversity. Goal one providesfor an enabling environment to reduce thecurrent rate of biodiversity decline. Thisgoal also recognises that most habitats andecosystems are degraded and fragmentedand species within them are threatened.Thus in keeping with CBD's emphasis onconserving species in nature (in situconservation) and ex situ, this goal providesfor habitat restoration and species recoveryprogrammes.Most ecosystems and biological resourcesare represented in protected areas,

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mountains, private and customary land. Inrecognition of this, goal one provides forimproved management and conservation ofprotected areas and mountains, increasingthe number of protected areas andinvolvement of the private sector inbiodiversity management.For this goal to be achieved, however,Malawi must establish its targets in terms ofspecific species and ecosystems to beconserved.Goal TwoEnhance sustainable use of biologicaldiversity including agricultural productionthrough active protection and managementof biological resources and supportinitiatives that encourage fair and equitablesharing of benefits arising from the use ofthe genetic resources.This goal recognises the emphasis Malawiplaces on agriculture as the engine ofeconomic development and food security.This goal also recognises that the currentagricultural practices appear to contributeto genetic erosion since they favourimproved introduced species. In order toensure that genetic resources continue tosteer the economy of Malawi, goal three hasprovisions for protecting agrobiodiversityagainst invasive species, geneticallymodified organisms and biopiracy.Goal ThreeEnhance and improve biodiversityknowledge base through research;strengthen and build human andinfrastructure capacity for effectiveinformation dissemination and research.The CBD calls on parties to makeinventories of their biological resources.This information is crucial in decisionmaking regarding what to conserve andhow much to conserve. The goal, therefore,is a prerequisite for effectiveimplementation of in situ and ex situconservation of biodiversity elements inrelation to sustainable use of geneticresources.Goal three recognises that currentbiodiversity information is scattered and is

in the format not accessible by stakeholders.Furthermore, most biodiversity informationand data relevant to Malawi is held inforeign institutions. In order to facilitateaccess to biodiversity information and data,goal three reflects on the focus of CBD increating a Clearing House Mechanism andon protecting Malawi's indigenousknowledge and access to Malawi'sbiodiversity data and information.The biggest challenge for Malawi to achievethis goal is inadequate human andinfrastructure capacity. In line with CBDdecisions pertaining to technical andscientific cooperation, access to and transferof technologies, Malawi plans to achievethis goal through institutional collaborationat national, regional and the internationallevels, and through establishing regulatoryframeworks on Intellectual Property Rights(IPR) and Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS).Goal FourEnhance community understanding andappreciation of biodiversity, and supportcoordinated community action andincentives to conserve and sustainably usebiodiversity.Goal four recognises that early managementplans that focused exclusively onenforcement contributed to the currentbiodiversity loss. It also recognises thatevery Malawian contributed either directlyor indirectly to the present situation andthus calls on every Malawian to contributeto conservation and management ofbiodiversity.The goal recognises that communities,individuals and organisations can activelyparticipate in biodiversity conservation ifthey are informed about the importance andvalues of biodiversity. People are likely toparticipate more in biodiversityconservation if opportunities andconstraints that influence their behaviourtowards biodiversity are provided. Thusapart from emphasising on mechanisms forbetter understanding, information exchangeand support, goal four seeks to provide forincentives for biodiversity conservation andcommunity participation.

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Guiding principles for biodiversity managementThese guiding principles were adoptedfrom the NEP and from the list of unmetneeds for biodiversity conservation thatwere identified during the consultationperiod.(a) Conservation of biological diversity

is a form of natural resourcemanagement whose primary goal isthe maintenance of biologicalresources to meet the needs andaspirations of both present andfuture generations.

(b) Biodiversity has an intrinsic valueand is vital for agricultural,medicinal, scientific, research,tourism and other socio-economicdevelopments.

(c) As custodians and users ofbiological diversity, localcommunities have accumulatedknowledge, skills and informationrelating to conservation andmanagement of biodiversity, whichcan be utilized to promotesustainable management ofbiodiversity.

(d) Indigenous knowledge systemsprovide important knowledge in theagricultural, medical andpharmaceutical industries that hasprovided a significant proportion ofmodern technologies and products.

(e) The conservation of biodiversityboth within and outside protectedareas including mountains is bestdone following the ecosystemsapproach and ex situ conservation isonly important to supportconservation of rare and threatenedspecies.

(f) The government is responsible forproviding direction and leadershipespecially in integrating biodiversity

issues in sectoral policies, and in thecoordinated implementation ofexisting and new policies andresearch.

(g) The conservation of biodiversityshould be supported byopportunities and constraints that asmuch as possible influence thebehaviour of individuals andorganisations and facilitateconservation and sustainable use ofbiodiversity.

(h) Sound decision making onconservation and sustainable use ispossible when individuals andpolicy makers have a betterunderstanding and appreciation ofbiodiversity.

Chapter FourStrategies and Actions for Malawi’s Biodiversity

Introduction

Box 3 Relationships between thematic areas and CBD articlesGoals Thematic Areas Target CBD Article

These strategies and actions are based onthe information gathered by the eight taskforces on the following issues:microorganisms, wild and domesticatedanimals, ecosystems, land use, socio-economics, domesticated and introducedspecies, information and legislation. Theinformation has been organised to addressarticles or thematic areas of the CBD.Guided by the goals and guiding principlesfor biodiversity conservation, the strategiesand actions are grouped in eleven themes.The relationship between the thematicareas, the goals and the CBD articles isshown in Box 3.

The themes are structured in such a waythat each follows the same format. Eachtheme has the following successive parts:scope; desired outcome by the year 2020; abrief review of the current state; currentmanagement regimes; and a summary ofissues which highlight major gaps andproblems, thus forming the basis for choiceof strategies and actions. This layout waspreferred because it ensures that each themeis complete and also focussed onresponding to specific issues. The strategyoutlines the overall objective for eachtheme, strategies and actions to beundertaken to implement the strategies.Most of the thematic areas address morethan one CBD article.

● Terrestrial biodiversity�● Aquatic biodiversity�● Invasive species�● Biodiversity policies and

legislation�● Malawi’s role in global

biodiversity conservation

● Sustainable use of biologicalresources�

● Invasive species�● Biotechnology�● Indigenous knowledge,

access and benefit sharing

● Information, knowledge andcapacity�

● Terrestrial biodiversity�● Aquatic biodiversity

● Community participationand awareness

Identification and monitoring (7)In situ conservation (8)Ex situ conservation (9)Relationship with otherinternational conventions (22)

Impact assessment and minimisingadverse effects (14)

Research and training (12)Sustainable use of components ofbiological diversity (10)

Incentive measures (11)Handling of biotechnology anddistribution of its benefits (19)In situ conservation (8)

Access to genetic resources (15)Exchange information (17)Technical and scientificcooperation (18)

Access and transfer of technology(16)

Public education and awareness(13)Incentive measures (11)

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Protect, conserve,maintain and restorehabitats and species

Conservation andsustainable use ofbiological resources

Improve knowledgebase, infrastructureand human capacity

Enhance communityparticipation andappreciation

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Theme One: Terrestrial BiodiversityScopeTerrestrial ecosystems (including natural and modified habitats within and outsideprotected areas) and the indigenous species inhabiting these areas understood andconservation mechanisms put in place.

Desired outcome by 2020(a) Significant progress made in the conservation of species, habitats and ecosystems

important for terrestrial biodiversity leading to increase in area under protection(such as forests and grasslands) and restoration of degraded areas.

(b) Significant number of private landowners are managing and protecting species andhabitats leading to a reduction in number of species requiring in situ and ex situconservation.

(c) A significant increase in the number of protected areas will lead to increasedprotection of a representative range of ecosystems and species and provision of legalstatus to some important ecosystems that are currently under customary and privateland tenure systems.

(d) Programmes andmechanisms to prevent establishment of pests including preventionof introductions, control and eradication of alien invasive species identified andimplemented, resulting in less frequencies of pests and reduced impact of invasivespecies on terrestrial ecosystems.

(e) A clear understanding of threats to biodiversity and ecosystems has been achievedand avoided or mitigated. Malawi's Red Data Lists have been revised and contributeto better decision-making on species recovery programmes and ex situ conservation.

(f) Clear government guidelines and strategies on the conservation of mountainbiodiversity and ecosystems facilitate community participation leading to gazettingmore mountains as protected areas.

(g) An understanding of the extent of Malawi's terrestrial biodiversity throughinventories and systematic research has been achieved.

State of terrestrial biodiversityTerrestrial ecosystemsSeveral different methods of describingecosystem-level biodiversity have beenapplied to Africa e.g. White's vegetationmap of Africa of 1983 and Eco-FloristicZones of Sharma of 1988. These methods arebased on the major vegetation type foundgrowing in a particular area. These areperceived to provide an importantperspective on large-scale biodiversity inMalawi.According to White’s classification,vegetation in Malawi is represented bythree regional centres of endemism. First,the country lies entirely within the

Zambezian regional centre of endemismcharacterized by different forms ofwoodland and thicket, within the altitudinalrange of 500-2050 m. Secondly, most of the“forest" category is in the uplands andAfromontane elements are the mostnumerous constituents of the forestvegetation overall, forming theAfromontane Archipelago-like regionalcenter of endemism. The proportion ofAfromontane endemic or near-endemicspecies increases with altitude within therange 500-2450 m. Local factors of mountainsize and exposure play a role in determiningaltitudinal limits of various species. Theevergreen bushland/thicket and evergreenshrubland lie within the Afromontane

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region, mainly above 1500-1600 m, whilegrassland is most extensive on some of thehigh plateaux or in dambos at the lowerlevels. Thirdly, there are enclaves oflowland rain forest with an importantproportion of the “Eastern” elements,forming the Eastern (Forest) regionalmosaic, altitudinal range 500-1300 m. Thisclassification as modified by Dowsett-Lemaire (2001) is adopted here, recognizenine major vegetation types, which aresummarised in Chapter One, Table 1.In 1975 about 47% of Malawi was classed asforest but this was reported to have reducedto 28% in 2000. With the ever-increasingpopulation and deforestation rate of 2.8%per annum, Malawi's forest cover is likely toreduce further. There has been extensivedeforestation of Miombo woodlandsoutside protected areas for various reasonse.g. fuelwood for domestic purposes andcuring of tobacco, charcoal production forsupplying urban areas and clearing forgardens/shifting cultivation (e.g.Chitemene in Chitipa).Most of the evergreen forests occur inprotected areas, such as Forest Reserves,National Parks and Wildlife Reserves.However, those close to the urban areaswith valuable timber such as Mulanje cedar(Widdringtonia whytei) are prone toextensive exploitation. In areas with highhuman population some evergreen forests(e.g. Thyolo Mountain) have been clearfelled because of encroachment foragricultural activities. Similarly mostmontane grasslands are under protection inForest Reserves and National Parks, butwetlands, especially dambos outsideprotected areas, are subjected to cultivationor overgrazing.Malawi's topography is dominated bymountains, mountain ranges, plateaux andhills. The highest mountain (Mulanjemountain), Zomba and Malosa mountainscomprise the largest highland area east ofthe rift valley. In the northern region, Nyikaand Viphya plateaux cover large areas.Notable mountains in the central region

include Dedza, Ntchisi and Dzalanyamaranges. Mountains of Malawi are importantsources of rivers and this was one of thereasons for establishing protected areassuch as Mulanje Mountain Forest Reserve,Nyika National Park, Dzalanyama ForestReserve, etc. Currently, most of theremaining biodiversity is on mountains andsome of these, such as Nyika and Mulanje,are biodiversity hot spots in Malawi.However, due to population pressure andagricultural expansion there is extensiveencroachment into mountains and some ofthese have been completely deforested.Diversity of terrestrial speciesThe high diversity of terrestrial habitats andecosystems, ranging from dry miombo toAfromontane peaks coupled with diversesoils and climate support a wide range ofplants and animals. A substantial amount ofMalawi's indigenous terrestrial species hasbeen documented although many taxaremain poorly documented/known and thetotal number of species is undoubtedlymuch higher than the currently recordednumbers. From the available information itis possible to make general statements onspecies diversity and current status for thefollowing major groups of organisms.MicroorganismsThe term microorganisms oftenencompasses viruses, bacteria and protists.About 600 species of microorganisms haveso far been documented comprising 89species of viruses, 60 species of bacteria and23 species of protozoa. Almost all virusspecies recorded in Malawi are associatedwith agricultural crops (42 species) andlivestock (30 species). This also applies tobacteria most of which e.g. Agrobacterium,Eiwinia, Pseudomonas, Xanthomonas areknownplant pathogens.FungiDespite their well-known role indecomposition of organic matter andnutrient recycling, fungi are the leastappreciated. Only 500 species have beendocumented most of which are associated

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with major economic crops such as maize,rice, cassava, and cotton as pathogens. Inaddition to contributing to ecosystemstabilisation fungi are also a source of foodand income to many rural Malawiansconsidering that over 53 species are ediblemushrooms.PlantsThe total number of terrestrial plant speciesin Malawi is not known but availablerecords indicate that there areapproximately 6000 plant species.Lower PlantsBryophytes (mosses and liverworts) andalgae: A total of 168 bryophytes have beendescribed in Malawi. Only 66 algal species,mostly belonging to Chlorophyta, have beendocumented. Our knowledge of algal

diversity, despite being primary producersin food webs of all water bodies and a majorsource of food for fish productivity, isscanty.Vascular PlantsPteridophytes (ferns and allies) andangiosperms: A total of 200 species ofPteridophytes belonging to 32 families havebeen recorded. About 5,500 species offlowering plants have been described inMalawi of which about 4,000 aredicotyledons and about 1,500 aremonocotyledons.Of the total number only 261 species areconsidered threatened, vulnerable, rare orendangered. Despite the high number ofthreatened species only eleven plant specieshave legal protection (Table 2).

Figure 5: Examples of rare, threatened and endemic plants not included in list of protected trees; (a) Erythrinaabyssica, Photo by A. Chikuni, (b) Aloe sp. Source: Lake Chilwa wetland Project, (c) Widdringtonia whytei,Mulanje cedar, Photo by Carl Bruessow (MMCT).

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Scientific Name Common Name Vernacular NamesBreonadia microcephala Redwood Mwenya; Chonya; Mgwenya;

Mung'ona; Mwina; MungwinaAfzelia quanzensis Mahogany Bean MsambamfumuBorassus aethiopum Deleb Palm, Mvumo

Palmyra PalmBridelia micrantha Coast Goldleaf MpasaBurkea africana Ash Mkalati; KalingutiColophospermum mopane Butterfly Tsanya; Sanya; Mopani

Tree/TurpentineCordyla africana Sunbird Tree, Mtondo

Wild MangoHyphaene crinata Doum Palm MgwalangwaKhaya anthotheca Mahogany MbawaPterocarpus angolensis African Taek MlombwaTerminalia sericea Yellow Wood Napini; Mpini

Source: National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP, 1994)

Table 2. Plant species that are protected by law in Malawi.

InvertebratesThe precise number of invertebrate speciesin Malawi is not known with any degree ofcertainty although it is estimated that thereare over 8,000 species, including more than7,000 insect species. Amongst the better-studied taxa, the molluscs contain 47endemic species from a total of 172 species.Eight species are listed by IUCN as eithervulnerable e.g. Bulinus nyassanus(Planorbidae), or Endangered e.g. Lanistesnasutus (Ampullaridae). Beyond thosespecies of agricultural or forestry interest,very little is known of the populationbiology of any species.NematodesApproximately 173 species of nematodeshave been described in Malawi. Seventynematode species are plant parasitesbelonging to such genera as Meloidogyne,Radophous. However, species of free-livinghelminthes and those that parasitise fishand insects are still unknown.InsectsAn inventory of insects of Malawi isunavailable and as such the total number ofinsects cannot be estimated with any degree

of certainty. However, a total of 7,805species have been collected. Coleoptera andLepidoptera are the best known whilePlecoptera and Slvesiptera are the leastknown. The list of endemic species isunknown.VertebratesReptilesThere are 140 species of reptiles recorded inMalawi, represented in 22 families but verylittle is known of their conservation status.Twelve species (Lygodactylus bonsi -Gekkonidae; L. chobiensis; Ramphholeonplatyceps; R. chapmani; Trioceros gotzei nyikae;Proscelotes mlanjensis; Melanoseps ater ater;Mabuya maculilabris maculilabris; Panaspiswahlbergii; Eumeces anchitae johnstonii;Chaemaesaura macrolepsis miopropus;Platysaurus mitchelli) are thought to beendemic to Malawi. Distribution of theseendemic species is poorly known and henceshould be treated as under conservationthreat.In addition to the endemic reptiles, thefollowing species/sub-species areconsidered to be rare in Malawi:Rhampholeon brachyurus, Sepsina tetradactyla,Geochelone pardulis babcocki.

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Figure 6: Some reptiles of Malawi; (a) Mozambique spiting cobra, Naja mossambica Photo by Carl Bruessow(MMCT), (b) monitor lizard, Source: Lake Malawi Biodiversity Project, (c) crocodile, Crocodylus niloticusPhoto by S. G. Thorisson.

AmphibiansFrogs (Rana spp.) and toads (Bufa spp.) are byfar the largest group of amphibians (3,500species) worldwide in distribution andoccupy a great range of habitats. There are74 species of amphibians recorded inMalawi, comprising two species of Apoda(caecilians) and 72 species of Anura (toadsand frogs). There are no recorded species ofClaudata (salamanders and newts). Fewstudies have been carried out onamphibians and the current known speciesrichness is probably underestimated.

Amphibians are threatened with habitatdestruction. As land is cleared or drainedfor agriculture their breeding sitesdisappear, those which are left are oftenpolluted by industrial effluent, and evensites far away from development may beaffected e.g. by atmospheric pollution. Theremoval of insects from the food chainaffects amphibians. Regrettably,amphibians do not provide the sameresponse as some other types of threatenedanimals and very few are protected per se.

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Figure 7: Some frogs of Malawi (a) Chiromantis Xerampelina (tree frog) (b) Hyperolius Sp (reed frog). Source: LakeMalawi Biodiversity Project.

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BirdsAbout 648 species from 78 families,comprising 456 residents, 94intra-African migrants of regularoccurrence, most of which probably breedin Malawi, plus 77 regular and 12 vagrantPalaearctic species have been documentedin Malawi. Over a third of all bird species inMalawi are considered to be uncommon orrare and of long-term conservation concern.Ninety-four birds in Malawi are restricted-range species,

found in only one or a few biomes. Thereare no true national endemic bird species,but the thrush, Alethe choloensis, is foundonly in south-east Malawi and adjacentnorthern Mozambique, whilst three otherspecies, the Black-lured Cisticola (Cisticolanigriloris), Churring Cisticola (C. njombe)and Mountain Marsh Whydah (Euplectespsammocromius), are found only in south-western Tanzania and northern Malawi.

Figure 8: Some birds of Malawi: (a) Fish Eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer), Source: www.biorsearch.org.uk/gallery/image-14.htm. (b) Sehalow's Turaco (Tauraco sehalwi). Photo by S. G. Thorisson, (c) White faced-duck(Dendrocygna viduata), Photo by S. G. Thorisson, (d) Masked weaver sp. Photos by S. G. Thorisson.

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MammalsAbout 188 species of mammal species from37 families have been recorded in Malawi.Of these seven: Lycaon pictus (African WildDog), Acinonyx jubatus (Cheetah), Pantheraleo (Lion), Loxodonta africana (AfricanElephant), Diceros bicornis (BlackRhinoceros), Paraxerus palliates,

Rhynchocyon cirnei (Chequered Elephant-shrew) are listed in the 1996 IUCN Red DataList of Threatened Animals. Most of theseanimals are found in protected areas andtheir long-term survival outside protectedareas could be problematic due to humanactivities.

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Figure 9. Some threatened mammals of Malawi; (a) Rhino Diceros bicornis, locally extinct but reintroduced inLiwonde National Park, Source: www.wildlife-pictures-online.com, (b) Loxodonta africana (AfricanElephant), Photo by Craig Dockrill, (c) Kundu (ngoma) Tragegelaphus strepsiceros, Photo by Craig Dockrill;(d) Hartebeest, Alcelaphus lichtensiteini, Photo by Craig Dockrill.

Management of terrestrial biodiversity isunder a number of sectoral policies and acts.These policies are grouped into three broadcategories: those related to utilization ofbiological resources (e.g. forestry, fisheriesand wildlife), those related to soil and waterconservation, and those that influencebiodiversity utilization, e.g. land tenure andliberalization of agricultural productionlinked to biodiversity and ecosystemmanagement are described in Theme 7(Biodiversity policies and legislation). Mostof these policies were revised in line withthe requirements of the NEP that wasadopted in 1996 to promote sustainablesocial and economic development throughsound management of the environment inthe country.Terrestrial plants are under themanagement of the National Forestry Policyof 1996, the National Parks and WildlifePolicy of 2004, and the National LandResources Management Policy and Strategyof 2000. These policies attempt to protectbiodiversity and ecosystems through:

● Identifying and protecting rare andthreatened species;

● Identifying and restoring degradedecosystems; and

● Protecting indigenous species andhabitats from alien invasivespecies.

The terrestrial ecosystems under thecustomary land tenure system, mostlyunder subsistence agriculture, are prone toextensive deforestation for various reasons,e.g. fuelwood for domestic purposes andcuring of tobacco, charcoal production forsupplying urban areas and clearing forgardens/shifting cultivation (e.g.Chitemene in Chitipa). These activities haveresulted in fragmentation of forests andmisrepresentation of species in protectedareas.

Current Management

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Figure 10: Slash and burn (shifting cultivation) in Chitipa District, Northern Region. Photo by Captain SteveKasomphe.

Summary of issuesProtecting ecosystems, habitats andmountainsMalawi’s ecosystems and habitats includingmountains, some of which are unique, areunder threat and are vulnerable to furtherloss from such threats as deforestationunhamornised policies etc.To prevent further loss there is need forharmonisation of sectoral policies andlegislation dealing with biodiversity.Deforestation has caused a considerablelevel of soil erosion resulting into siltation ofmany of the water bodies, local extinction ofindigenous species, and reduction inmountain biodiversity to unsustainablelevelsUncontrolled grazing and in many casesovergrazing has seen the disappearance ofmany shrub and grass species exaggeratingwater runoffs and soil erosion.There is a need to identify and protectsignificant remnants of natural habitats,ecosystems and mountains throughcoordinated research and prioritisation of

ecosystems and habitats on private andcustomary lands.The current knowledge of terrestrialbiodiversity in terms of taxonomy,conservation status, and socio-economicvalue is inadequate, resulting in poordecision making in biodiversityconservation. In addition the level ofunderstanding of the general populous ofthe term biodiversity is insufficient, makingit difficult for the policy maker tocommunicate effectively the meaning ofbiodiversity conservation and the values orgains in biodiversity conservation.Private land owners, e.g. on tobacco estates,manage remnants of ecosystems andhabitats based on existing regulations andout of interest. For sustainable conservationof biodiversity on private land, privatelandowners need incentives and recognitionfrom government in order to increase theirinterest and willingness in biodiversityconservation.Mountains and mountain ranges arehotspots for biodiversity and needparticular attention.

Habitat fragmentationThere has been extensive deforestation ofthe forests within and outside protectedareas for various reasons e.g. fuelwood fordomestic purposes and curing of tobacco,charcoal production for urban areas andshifting cultivation. This has producedmany isolated remnants that are importantfor diversity but vulnerable to continuingdegradation. Evergreen forests andmontane grasslands, though fragmented arerepresented in protected areas. However,those close to the urban areas with valuabletimber such as Mulanje cedar (Widdringtoniawhytei) are prone to extensive exploitation.In areas with high human population someevergreen forests (e.g. Thyolo Mountain)have been clear-felled because ofencroachment for agricultural activities. Inthis regard there is need for greaterrecognition and action to restore fragmentedand degraded habitats.Threatened speciesThe number of indigenous species on landknown to be at risk from insufficient ordegraded habitat, plant and animal pests, orthe adverse effects of human activities is notknown. Many populations of threatenedspecies continue to decline as attention andfunds are focused on a small number ofhighly threatened, and often most visuallyappealing indigenous species such aselephants and rhinos.There is no coherent management ofthreatened species existing in the country.

The little that exists is not well integratedwith habitat protection and management ofpublic land. There is growing interest inharvesting indigenous species on land forcultural and commercial purposes, butpolicy and mechanisms to effectivelymanage their use on a sustainable basis arelacking.Biodiversity knowledge baseResearch and information about indigenousterrestrial biodiversity in terms oftaxonomy, distribution, and patterns ofgenetic flow, ecosystem function andmanaging threats is still rudimentary. Thishas implications on decision-making, andfor interactive learning between researchproviders and biodiversity managers. As aresult the diversity, uniqueness andvulnerability of Malawi’s terrestrialhabitats, ecosystems and species, and theprocess that threatens them, are not wellappreciated by the general public. Prioritysetting for biodiversity management cannotbe achieved in the absence of such scientificinformation.Coordinated transboundarymanagementMalawi shares her protected terrestrial areaswith neighbouring countries, inthe same way that she shares herwater bodies with these countries.This requires that there areappropriate collaborative transboundarymanagement agreements put in place.

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Objective 1.1 Protecting terrestrial species,habitats and ecosystemsStrategy 1.1.1 Enhance the existing networkof protected areas and initiate programmesto protect the remnants of importanthabitats and ecosystems on private andcustomary lands.Actions(a) Initiate and undertake biodiversity

survey and assessment to identifyhabitats and ecostystems of high speciesdiversity and of particular importancefor indigenous biodiversity.

(b) Formulating a policy framework thatwould promote conservation ofhabitants and ecosystems important butnot represented within the existingprotected area wetworks or that are atsignificant risk of irreversible loss ordecline.

(c) Harmonise sectoral policies andlegislation related to biodiversityconservation and provide guidelines todistrict assemblies on the implementionof provisions contained in existingpolicies.

Action Plan

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(d) Develop and implement programmesfor sustainable conservation ofecosystems of biodiversity importanceincluding miombo ecosystems,mountain ecosystems, wetlands andbiosphere reserves.

(e) Promote and support sustainableutilisation of genetic resources asincome generating activities.

(f) Encourage and support a grazingculture (or land carrying capacity) thatwould promote the improvement ofshrub and grass species therebyreducing threats to indigenousbiodiversity.

Key players: NHBG, Museum of Malawi,MZUNI, UNIMA, FRIM, MoJ, EAD, FD,DNPW, MoA&FS WESM, MoLGDAObjective 1.2 Terrestrial habitats andspecies restorationStrategy 1.2.1 Restore areas of degradedhabitats and ecosystems and supportinitiatives and programmes that havepriority in species restoration, conservationand sustainable use of biodiversity.Actions(a) Develop and manage effectively

habitat and ecosystem restorationprogrammes and initiatives to restorehabitats to a healthy functioning state.

(b) Develop and implement national andlocally based restoration strategiesidentifying priority areas for restoringbiodiversity and develop opportunitiesfor collaboration at the local, nationaland regional levels.

(c) Encourage and support the protection,maintenance and restoration of areas ofparticular importance for theconservation of selected indigenousspecies.

Key Players: EAD, FD, DNPW, MoLG&RD,MoA&FS NHBG, WESM, NGO's andPrivate Sector.

Objective 1.3 Threatened terrestrialspecies managementStrategy 1.3.1 Increase the population anddistribution ranges of rare and threatenedspecies and prevent additional ones frombecoming threatened.Actions(a) Review and strengthen all acts relating

to natural resource management interms of their effectiveness inprotecting threatened species andecosystems.

(b) Promote and monitor sustainable useof threatened species throughprovision of licenses.

(c) Undertake surveys and assessments toidentify and document threatenedspecies and revise the Red Data List forMalawi and Malawi's list of protectedplants.

(d) Increase research into, anddevelopment of, new technologiestechniques and programmes to combatexisting and emergent threats tobiological diversity and promoteincrease in population and distributionrange of threatened species.

(e) Conduct and produce inventories ofpriority species and ecosystemsrequiring immediate protection andconservation.

Key players: MoA&FS, EAD, Gene Bank,DNPW, Museum of Malawi, NHBG, MoJ,FRIM, WESM, UNIMA, MZUNI, DNPW.Objective 1.4 Biodiversity knowledgebaseStrategy 1.4.1 Enhance the knowledge baseof Malawians on the extent of biodiversityand promote sound decision making inbiodiversity conservation.Actions(a) Develop appropriate methods for

collecting, documenting, identifying,classifiying biological resources andpromote production of inventories andchecklists.

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(b) Develop human, institutional andnational capacities to identify, monitorand manage biodiversity andecosystems through training in suchcourses as taxonomy, natural resourcesmanagement, biodiversity assessmentand ethnobotany.

(c) Conduct needs assessment inbiodiversity research, prioritisenational research needs and undertakeresearch in priority areas.

(d) Develop and strengthen existingcentres of biodiversity conservationand information management.

Key Players: Museums of Malawi, NHBG,UNIMA, MZUNI, FRIM, EAD

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Aquatic ecosystemsAquatic ecosystems cover about 26% of thetotal surface area of Malawi (118,900 km2).Four major types of aquatic ecosystems arerecognised: lakes, small water bodies,rivers, marsh and swamp systems. Thelakes are the largest constituents of thewater systems and most of these comprisethe areas occupied by the four major lakes(Lakes Malawi, Malombe, Chilwa andChiuta). Lake Malawi is the largest waterbody covering about 20% of Malawi's totalarea and the most significant water body interms of fish production and diversity. Themain threats to lakes in Malawi aresediment loads, nutrient inputs, pollutantsand contaminants, all generated fromanthropogenic activities.Recent water quality studies on LakeMalawi indicate that sediment depositsfrom rivers that feed into the lake is on theincrease and these reduce the habitat of thedemersal fish especially the ornamental fishspecies that utilize the rocky littoral zones.

Theme Two: Aquatic BiodiversityScopeAquatic ecosystems such as lakes, small water bodies, rivers, marsh and swamp systems, and thespecieswithin themunderstood and conservation mechanisms put in place.

Desired outcome by 2020(a) Inventories of all aquatic ecosystems and species available, guidelines to promote

research especially in the areas of ecology and taxonomy, and threats to biodiversitydeveloped.

(b) Increased public knowledge about the importance of aquatic ecosystems and theircurrent threats has been achieved through public awareness and educationcampaigns.

(c) Policies and legislation related to aquatic biodiversity and ecosystems areharmonised and strengthened and are supporting conservation and management ofaquatic biodiversity.

(d) Management plans for various types of aquatic ecosystems based on holistic andintegrated approach put in place and instituted in a co-management arrangement.This will lead to an increase in number of aquatic protected areas and increase inprotection of a representative range of aquatic ecosystems and species.

Sediments also affect the productivity ofwater by reducing light penetration, thusaffecting photosynthetic rates. A high inputof certain nutrients such as nitrogen,phosphorous and silicon in the lake is on theincrease. This is a symptom of nutrientenrichment derived from agriculturalactivities in the catchment. If such highconcentrations remain unchecked, theremay be an increase in the occurrence ofnoxious algae which may produce toxinsharmful to both fish and humans.Contaminants and pollutants arising fromurban and rural sources are mostly chemicalin origin and enter the lakes via theirinflowing rivers and from the atmosphere.Although these do not currently constitutean immediate threat to the lakesenvironment especially Lake Malawi, theyneed to be addressed.The exact number of small water bodies thatinclude lagoons, manmade dams and pondsis not yet known. The largest however, isthe Chia lagoon situated in the centralregion and is the fifth largest water body in

State of aquatic biodiversity

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the country. The lagoon is important for fishproduction since it harbours more than 24fish species. Artificial water bodies such asmanmade dams and ponds are managed fora variety of reasons including irrigation,water supply, and generation of electricityand fish production.Malawi has six major river systems, theSongwe, South Rukuru, North Rukuru,Dwangwa, Bua, Linthipe and the Shire. Allexcept the Shire River are major riverinflows into Lake Malawi. Rivers such asRuo, Mwanza are major tributaries of theShire River. Most rivers, for part of theirlength, flow through farmland and urbanareas but for a few rivers some parts of theriver systems flow through the protectedareas. No river has any form of protectionand many rivers are ecologically degradedby invasive species, sedimentation,cultivation and deforestation.

There are numerous marsh/swamp systemsrecorded in the country and these areassociated with lakeshore basins, inlandbasins, river floodplains and inland valleys.Marshes are important habitats for a widediversity of plants and animals. Marshes ofthe northern region (e.g. marshes of ChitipaHills) are important habitats for waterfowland large mammals. Most of the marshlandhas been lost due to cultivation and invasivespecies. The loss is very pronounced in thecentral region where over 60% of themarshes and dambos have been lost towinter cultivation. Apart from the loss ofswamps and marshes due to anthropogenicactivities, invasive species such as waterhyacinth are major threats to aquaticbiodiversity.

Figure 11. Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes a major invasive aquatic plant. Photos by A. Chikuni

Aquatic biodiversityAquatic life is diverse but the speciesrichness is poorly known mainly due toinadequate research and ineffectiveinformation dissemination. However, it isreasonable to make general statements onthe biodiversity of such groups as fish,amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals,invertebrates and aquatic plants.

VertebratesFishesFish is the most studied group. The totalnumber of species is estimated at 1,000species in 14 families and 81 genera, thusrepresenting approximately 15% of theglobal total of freshwater species andapproximately 4% of the world's fishes.Over 800 fish species are found in Lake

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Figure 12: Some fish species of Lake Malawi; (a) Tilapia rendalli, (b) Opsaridium microlepis, mpasa, photo by G. F.Turner (c) Anguilla bengalensis labiata - eel (d) Marcusenium nyasensis, (e) Maylandia zebra syn:Pseudatropheus zebra, (f) Aethiomastacembelus shiranus - spiny eel. Source: www.malawicichlids.com, andwww.hull.ac.uk/cichhds/fish-nonrich-gallery.html,

Malawi alone although less than 250 speciesare described. Ninety-five per cent of thesespecies are endemic. The haplochrominecichlids are the most common fish group inLake Malawi. With over 800 species the lakehas the largest number and the most diversecommunities of freshwater fish species inthe world. The fishes of Lake Malawi aretherefore the most remarkably diverse andabundant faunal groups in the world.

Reptiles and AmphibiansSeventy-four species of amphibians havebeen recorded in Malawi of which 72 arefrogs and toads. There are 140 species ofreptiles represented in 22 families. Of thesereptiles, monitoring lizard, terrapin, turtlesand some snakes such as pythons areassociated with the aquatic environment.

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MammalsOf the 188 mammal species recorded inMalawi Hippopotamus, rodents and Ottersare the common mammals that have a trueaffinity for aquatic habitats. Hippopotamusare on the decline due to conflicts with manfor habitats and if the present trendcontinues they may be completelydecimated.BirdsThe bird fauna comprises 648 species ofwhich a high proportion has strongaffinities for aquatic habitats. Fish eagles,grey-headed gulls, pelicans, open-billedstork, white-breasted cormorant and piedkingfisher are some of the birds found inthis country that show strong affinities foraquatic habitats. These birds are valuableecological components and are attractive toornithologists and tourists. For instance, thewhite-breasted cormorants are one of theimportant predators on Lake Malawi andfeeding studies estimated that the 10,000cormorants consume about 950 tons of fishper year.Some Lake Malawi islands, such asBoadzulu and Mumbo in the pastsupported large colonies of white-breastedcormorants, but populations have declinedpossibly due to deforestation or hunting.The largest density of fish eagles in theworld was supported by the Lake MalawiNational Park, but currently the populationseems to be declining. Monitoring surveysfor the populations are needed to track thetrends.

InvertebratesThe aquatic invertebrates, broadly dividedinto insect and non-insect groups, arepoorly studied and as a result their speciesrichness is uncertain. Recent studies on non-insect aquatic invertebrates indicate thatthis group comprises 280 species (93lacustrine and 187 associated with water).These non-insect aquatic invertebratesinclude Molluscs, Nematodes, Crustaceans(Copepod, Cladoceran, Crabs, Ostracods,Isopods, small prawns etc), Rotifers,Annelids, Acarins and many others.Chironomids, water mites and nymphs ofvarious insects are the most commonamongst the insect group. Although thediversity of molluscs is low, there areendemic species like Neothauma ecclesi andBulinus nyassanus.VegetationAquatic vegetation comprises the vascularmacrophytic species, filamentous attachedalgae, phytoplankton and unicellulardemersal algae. The aquatic vascular plantsare the true macrophytic components of thesystem and are categorised in terms of theirlife-forms as rooted emergent macrophytes(e.g. reeds, bulrush, papyrus, hippograss),rooted macrophytes with floating leaves(e.g. water lily, water hyacinth), rootedsubmerged with floating leaves (Vallisneraspp. and Potamogeton spp.) and free-floatingmacrophytes (e.g. Azolla nilotica). Thefilamentous algae comprise at least 50species, but its taxonomy is poorlyunderstood. Phytoplankton and unicellulardemersal algae comprise more than 60species and more species are beingdiscovered.

Current managementAquatic biodiversity and ecosystems aremanaged by complex and often conflictingpolicies and legislations. Water resourcesare currently managed by the 1994 WaterResources Management Policy (WRMP),which places much emphasis on provisionof portable water. The policy fails to addressissues pertaining to water resourcemonitoring, assessment andimplementation of strategic plans. The

deficiencies are addressed in the draftWater Resources Management Policy of2004.Most aquatic ecosystems are not protectedexcept the southern part of Lake Malawi,Lake Chilwa, Vwaza Marsh, part of themiddle Shire River and part of ElephantMarsh. Lake Malawi National Park is theonly truly lacustrine park and was

established in 1984 as part of theGovernment Policy to conserve part of thelake biome, with particular reference torocky shore habitats and its specialised fishcommunities. The park was declared aUNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984. LakeChilwa is a Ramsar site and was designatedas a wetland of international importance forwaterfowl habitat in 1997.Some aquatic ecosystems, principally riversand marshes, are partially protected wheresome portions fall within or pass throughthe protected area but Malawi lacks awetlands policy framework to guidemanagement and conservation of wetlandresources.Fisheries management is under the FisheriesConservation and Management Act (FCM)of 1997, which seeks to strengtheninstitutional capacity by involving variousother stakeholders in the management offisheries, including the private sector, localcommunities and NGOs. The FCM isimplemented by the fisheries andaquaculture policy, which among otherthings encourages conventionalmanagement regulations. These regulationshave previously been administered through

the top-down approach, with the centralgovernment agencies deciding the issuesand needs of the fishing industry.Compliance with management regulations,however, is low due to inadequateenforcement of fisheries regulations causedby financial and human resourcesconstraints, and the open entry nature of thefisheries, in particular the small scalefisheries.In view of the above unsatisfactorymanagement regime, alternative fisheriesmanagement arrangements have beeninitiated especially in Lakes Malombe,Chilwa and Chiuta. The new initiativesinvolve the formulation of managementplans which are being implemented througha more consultative and participatoryapproach referred to as ParticipatoryFisheries Management (PFM) approach.Long-term management objectivestranslated into management actions are thebasis for the formulation of the managementplans. So far three management plans havebeen developed under the new initiative: forLake Malombe fisheries, for Lake Chilwaand for the Chambo fishery. All the threestrategies have different objectives and areimplemented through PFM approach.

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Summary of issuesConflicting policies and legislationAquatic biodiversity and ecosystems aremanaged by complex and often conflictingpolicies and legislations, which arecompounded by the existing weakinstitutional arrangements. This calls fordevelopment of a comprehensive aquaticbiodiversity policy.Integrated watershed managementThe threats to aquatic biodiversity arediverse and pervasive and are linked togrowing anthropogenic activities of whichpoverty and population growth are the rootcauses. Many land use practices adverselyaffect the aquatic biodiversity through theireffects on the habitats and ecosystem types.Other threats to the aquatic ecosystems areexploitation and pollution. In order to

achieve sustainable integrated managementof the aquatic biodiversity the followingissues need to be considered:● Encourage integrated watershed

management and minimize thecurrent deforestation, biomassburning and winter cultivation that iswide spread in wetlands andriverbanks; these activities are asource of excessive nutrientenrichment, sedimentation depositsand contaminants which affectecological health of aquatic habitats.Consequently breeding sites for fishare destroyed, rivers evolve frombeing perennial to seasonal, andexcessive flooding occurs in the lowercourse.

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Sedimentation also results in lowproductivity of water by reducinglight penetration.

● Minimize activities (such as grazing,drainage) that continue to reduce anddegrade aquatic habitats andecosystems. For instance marshes ofLilongwe plain and Bua River areimportant breeding sites forendangered fish species (mpasa),habitats for waterfowl and largemammals but most of thesemarshlands have been lost due towinter cultivation, grazing andintroduced invasive species.

● Reduce flow of contaminants andpollutants (mostly chemical in nature)arising from urban and rural sources.

Protecting aquatic ecosystems and habitatsMalawi is rich in parks and reserves yetmost aquatic ecosystems are not protectedfully. The designation of some aquaticecosystems as protected areas under theNational Parks and Wildlife Act will ensurethat many distinctive natural habitats withunique species that are threatened will beprotected from continuing degradation.This will also increase our knowledge of thedistribution and taxonomy of aquaticspecies and will facilitate sustainable use ofbiodiversity and identification of threatenedspecies.Our knowledge of aquatic biodiversityOur current knowledge of aquaticbiodiversity and the ecological functions ofthe aquatic ecosystems are still rudimentarymainly due to the fact that many of aquatictaxa remain undescribed. Furthermore,threats to aquatic ecosystems are not well

understood. This low knowledge baseaffects sound decision making onconservation of aquatic biodiversity.Habitat fragmentationDue to population growth, new farmlandsare opened up for cultivation andsettlements. This has created islands ofremnants of aquatic ecosystems, mainlydambos. Intensification of riverbankcultivation has resulted in rivers beingunprotected and becoming seasonal. Theseislands of aquatic habitats require well-designed restoration programmes in orderto restore them to their original ecologicalhealth.Coordinated managementManagement of aquatic systems presentsspecial challenges because of the need tointegrate land, water, forestry, fisheries andanimals and to coordinate the use of a rangeof policy and management tools. Currently,the shared responsibilities are not properlyarticulated and this calls for mechanisms toensure coordination of these activities.Malawi also shares her water bodies withneighbouring countries, in the same waythat she shares protected terrestrial areaswith these countries. This requires thatthere are appropriate collaborativetransboundary management agreementsput in place.Open accessAquatic ecosystems are open access whereproperty rights are virtually absent. Thismakes management of the aquaticecosystems difficult. Currently, it isgovernment responsibility to manage theseaquatic ecosystems.

Action PlanObjective 2.1 Protecting aquatic species,habitats and ecosystemsStrategy 2.1.1 Promote protection of theexisting network of aquatic protected areasand initiate programmes to provide legalprotection to other aquatic habitats.Actions

(a) Review existing policies andlegislation and create enabling policyframework and harmonise existingpolicies to promote conservation ofaquatic habitats and ecosystems notrepresented within the existingprotected area networks.

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(b) Create and support alternative incomegenerating activities that can takeaway pressure from the unstable areassuch as wetlands and dambos and byso doing preserve the ecosystem.

(c) Develop guidelines and programmesto promote integrated watershedmanagement and communityparticipation in conservation andsustainable use of aquatic biodiversity.

(d) Establish a permanent office to beresponsible for the collection, collation,storage and dissemination of aquaticbiodiversity conservation information.

Key Players:Museums of Malawi, UNIMA,MZUNI, FRIM, MoJ, EAD, FD, DNPW,MoA&FS, DoF, NRCM.Objective 2.2 quatic habitat restorationStrategy 2.2.1 Restore degraded aquatichabitats and ecosystems and supportinitiatives and programmes that havepriority in sustainable use of aquaticbiodiversity.Actions(a) Develop and manage effectively

aquatic habitats and ecosystemsrestoration programmes andinitiatives to restore aquaticecosystems to a healthy functioningstate.

(b) Develop and implement nationaland locally based aquatic restorationstrategies identifying priority areasfor restoring biodiversity anddevelop opportunities forcollaboration at the local, nationaland regional levels.

(c) Develop guidelines andprogrammes for the compilation,inventory and prioritisation ofdegraded habitats and aquaticecosystems that require prioritymanagement and restoration.

Key players: EAD, MoA&FS, NPGRC, FD,DNPW, DoF,MoLGRD, MoLPPS.

Objective 2.3 Threatened aquatic speciesmanagementStrategy 2.3.1 Increase the population anddistribution ranges of rare and threatenedaquatic species and prevent additional onesfrom becoming threatened.Actions(a) Undertake surveys and assessments to

identify and document aquaticthreatened species and revise the RedData List for Malawi.

(b) Increase research into, anddevelopment of, new technologies andtechniques to combat existing andemergent threats from plant andanimal pests to indigenousbiodiversity.

(c) Develop guidelines and programmes forin situ and ex situ conservation of rareand threatened aquatic species.

(d) Promote private sector andcommunity participation in fishfarming programmes.

Key players:MoA&FS, EAD, MoJ, UNIMA,MZUNI, DoF, MOLPPS.Objective 2.4 Improve aquatic biodiversityknowledgeStrategy 2.4.1 Enhance the knowledge baseon the extent of aquatic biodiversity anddevelop enough human, institutional andnational capacity to monitor, identify andmanage aquatic biodiversity.Actions(a) Develop appropriate methods for

collection, documentation andcuration of aquatic biodiversity.

(b) Develop human, institutional andnational capacities to identify,monitor and manage aquaticbiodiversity and ecosystemsthrough training in such courses astaxonomy, conservation andsustainable use.

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(c) Develop and or strengthen existingcentres of activity in biodiversityconservation and informationmanagement.

(d) Enhance research on biodiversityconservation, sustainable use andequitable sharing of the benefitsarising from the use of thebiodiversity.

Key Players: EAD, FD, DNPW, DoF,UNIMA, MZUNI, NHBG.

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Desired outcome by 2020(a) Guidelines and procedures for conservation and sustainable use of forest, fish,

and wildlife biological diversity are in place and are resulting in theimprovement in ecological functioning of forests and aquatic ecosystems.

(b) Mechanisms for stakeholder participation in collection, characterisation,research and storage of biological resources, including programmes for publicawareness and education on the role and importance of pollinators, soil floraand fauna in maintaining the agricultural diversity are contributingsubstantially to maintenance of domesticated and indigenous speciesimportant for agricultural production and food security.

(c) Integrated policy and institutional framework are encouraging andfacilitating a coordinated approach to conservation and sustainable use ofbiological diversity.

(d) Guidelines and procedures to enhance, protect and encourage customary useof biological resources in keeping with traditional practices that arecompatible with sustainable use of biological resources are in place.

(e) Mechanisms and guidelines to enhance research, human and institutionalcapacities are promoting investigations into the relationships betweensustainable use and conservation of biological resources, and subsequentlyleading to realisation of the full potential of Malawi’s biological diversity insocio economic development.

(f) Guidelines and mechanisms to promote and facilitate on-farm management,utilisation and conservation of biological diversity are developed and areencouraging conservation of biodiversity on customary land.

Theme Three: Sustainable Use of Biological DiversityScopeSustainable use of Malawi’s biodiversity components is supported by a strong andenabling national policy; and strong indigenous and local community participation.

State of sustainable use of biological diversityBiodiversity components that are directlyrelevant to sustainable use can be groupedinto five categories; agriculturalbiodiversity, forestry, fisheries, wildlife andnon woody forestry products.Agricultural biodiversityThe driving force of Malawi’s agriculturalsector is the rich agrobiodiversity (which isdefined as the variability among livingorganisms associated with cultivated cropsand domesticated animals and theecological complexes of which they are apart). Agrobiodiversity is often placed intwo broad categories: domesticated plantsand animals. Domesticated plants may be

categorised as cereals, legumes,commercial/industrial crops, fruits andvegetables, and roots and tubers.CerealsMaize, sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), rice,millet (Pennissetum spp. and Eleusinecoracana) are major cereal crops of Malawi.Originally Malawi was a country ofsorghum and millet but these have beenmarginalized with the introduction of maize(Zea mays). Very few sorghum and milletmaterials are currently being held ex situbecause inadequate storage facilities do notallow long-term storage of genetic material.

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Figure 13: Traditional cereals of Malawi; (a) figure millet, mawere, (b) germinated figure millet grain chimela(Eleusine coracana), (c) pearl millet, mchewere (Pennissetum glaucum), (c) Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor,mapila). Photos by A. Chikuni

a b

c d

LegumesMajor leguminous crops grown in Malawiinclude common beans, cowpeas, bambarrabeans, peas, groundnuts and pigeon peas.The common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) havethe greatest diversity in morphological andagronomic characteristics. The northern andcentral regions have the greatest diversitybut their diversity in the south is erodeddue to market forces that demanded redkidney classes. Other species of beans suchas Phaseolus lunatus and Phaseolus coccineousare also grown.The diversity of groundnuts (Arachishypogaea) is not as extensive but over fivevarieties are commonly grown. There is

only one released variety of cowpea (Vignaunguiculata), possibly an introduction calledSudan 1. Cowpeas are grown in most placesthat are warmer and more suitable than forthe common beans. Most of the cowpeamaterials are prostrate landraces. Newermaterials from IITA that are upright areavailable and are being tested. Similarly,there is only one pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan)released variety called ICP 9145 while thereare many local types, similar in growthhabit to ICP 9145 that are grown.Malawi has a little over a hundred differenttypes of bambarra groundnut (Vignasubterranea, formerly Voandzeia subterranea).This is referred to as a ‘crop of ourancestors’ and up to now it is associated

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with some taboos. It is more nutritious thanthe groundnut and it also contributes morebiologically fixed nitrogen than thegroundnuts. But it is not widely grown inthe country and its production is inlocalised communities.Soya beans (Glycine max) is a fairly newlegume. There are about ten releasedvarieties but all of them have therequirement for inoculation withRhizobium. Peas (Pisum sativum) are grownoff-season along the river valleys. The bulkof the crop is probably that which is grownin Zomba, Chiradzulu, Thyolo, Ntcheu(Tsangano) and Mwanza districts. Thevelvet bean (Mucuna pruriens), locallyknown as kalongonda, is grown in thesouthern and central regions but is notwidely consumed and as a result nosystematic collections are available.Commercial cropsThere are 8 major industrial crops namely,sunflower, tobacco, sesame, cashew nut,macadamia, coffee, tea and sugar cane.Burley and flue cured tobacco (Nicotianatabacum) are commonly grown in Malawi,but there is lack of genetic biodiversity forall tobacco types. Tobacco is the mostimportant foreign exchange earner. Mosttobacco germplasm is maintained at theAgricultural Research and Extension Trust(ARET), on estates and smallholder farms.There are many clones of tea (Camelliasinensis) produced, grown and maintainedat the privately owned Tea ResearchFoundation. The genetic material of coffeevarieties (Coffea arabica) however aremaintained at Lunyangwa Research Station.Most of the coffee grown in Malawioriginated from Ethiopia, Brazil andPortugal.Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) is a crop thathas been grown in the country over manyrecent years by smallholder farmers. Thematerials grown are mostly tall traditionaltypes. The traditional types were oncecollected but the germplasm was lost instorage due to poor storage facilities.

Several varieties of sugarcanes (Saccharumofficinarum) are grown in Malawi. The sugarestates grow improved varieties whilst localfarmers cultivate local varieties, which arequite diverse, but very little characterisationhas been done.Domesticated fruits and vegetablesThe introduced fruits like the pineapple(Ananas sativus), pawpaw (Carica papaya),Chimwela (Citrullus lanatus), oranges,lemons (Citrus spp), mangoes (Mangiferaindica), apples (Malus domestica), banana(Musa paradisiaca), Magalagadea, (Passifloraedulis), apricot (Prunus armeniaca), peach(Prunus persica), guava (Psidium guajava),and others are playing a major role in thenutrition of Malawians. Similarlyintroduced vegetables such as tomato(Lycopersicon esculentum), tanaposi or mpiru(Brassica chinensis), cabbages (Brassicaoleracea), lettuce (Lactuca sativa), spinach(Spinacia oleracea) also contribute to thenutrition of Malawians. The geneticresources are often maintained by varioushorticultural organisations anddepartments.Roots and tubersCassava (Manihot esculenta), sweet potatoes(Ipomoea batatus) and irish potatoes (Solanumtuberosum) are among the widely cultivatedroot and tuber crops. There are manyvarieties of sweet potato most of which areimproved. Most of the local varieties aremaintained on farm. The 24 varieties of Irishpotatoes, which are mostly grown in highaltitude areas, are a source of cash and foodto most rural communities especially inareas such as Tsangano, Neno, Dedza, Shirehighlands, Viphya Plateau, Ntchisi, Phokaand Misuku hills. All the varieties ofpotatoes grown in Malawi are introduced.Many varieties of cassava are cultivated inMalawi most of which are improvedvarieties. Cassava is a stable food for about30% of the population especially along theLakeshore areas.In addition to these there are also manywild edible tubers and the most popular

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ones include buye (Plectranthus esculentus)and terrestrial orchids. Orchid tubers areoften processed into a meat substitute calledchikande. The habitat for most of theindigenous tubers is severely restricted andas such most of them have become rare.Lack of collection and managementprogrammes means that most of theindigenous tubers will become locallyextinct.The diversity of domesticated animalsAnimal genetic resources compriseruminant livestock, mammalianmonogastrics and avian monogastrics,which come in many breeds and varieties.Ninety percent of these are of theindigenous type, with pure exotics andcrossbreeds making up the remainder.Livestock production contributes about 36%to agricultural production and is dominatedby cattle and poultry production. Cattlepopulation in Malawi is dominated byMalawi Zebu type, which is mainly a beefanimal. Indiscriminate crossbreeding withexotic types e.g. Brahman, Sussex,Africander and Charolais has seriouslydiluted the genetic diversity of the MalawiZebu.There are four main genotypes of goats(Capra hircus) in Malawi: the indigenous(local types), which is typically a meatbreed, the Boer goat an introduced dual-purpose goat from South Africa, the Boercrosses (which are kept for meat), and theSaanen goat.The sheep (Ovis aries) is present in threegenotypes, the long-tailed (natulised) andmainly kept for mutton - the Dorper, anintroduced breed from South Africa, andthe Dorper crosses that are also kept formutton. The Kasikidzi Sheep ImprovementCentre in Kasungu, under the MalawiGermany Livestock DevelopmentProgramme used to keep Merinos (woolbreed) and Van Rooy (Mutton breed) butthese are no longer found.There are five breeds of rabbits (Oryxtolaguncuniculus), the New Zealand white and New

Zealand Red, the Flemish Giant and theCalifornia. All breeds are used for meat.Local pigs (black types) are maintained onfarms and a few are maintained at researchstations and commercial farms. Theindigenous black pig is basically ascavanger and its meat is often shunned andas a result it has received limitedcharacterisation. Only large white andlandraces are bred for porkers.There are five breed types of domesticatedand introduced birds (Gallus domesticus): theIndian River and Cobb-Cobb for meat, Hy-line for eggs, Black Australorp for both eggsand meat, Black Australorp and localcrosses for egg and meat production and thelocal for egg and meat production. Broilertypes are less abundant than the BlackAustralorp and its crosses that are moreabundant. The local variety is diverse andincludes dwarf, frizzle, the naked neck, thespotted, the helmeted and long-leggedtypes. Among the local types the frizzle andlong-legged types are extremely rare andare feared locally extinct.Pigeons or doves (Columna livia) of all typesof plumage are highly abundant in Malawi.They are a neglected species that hasattracted very little or no attention fromresearchers. The common duck (Anasplatyhynchos) is a local mostly kept for thetable.

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Figure 14: Common and naturalised livestock types; (a) Cattle, (b) pigs, (c) goats (Capra hircus), (d) sheep(Ovis aries). Photos by A. Chikuni.

Forest biological diversityApproximately 38% of total land area ofMalawi is under forest cover. Of these about11% is under national parks and wildlife,10% are gazetted forest reserves and theremaining 17% is natural woodlands oncustomary land. Currently there are about87 gazetted forest reserves andapproximately 80 are under considerationto be gazetted. Forests are important as theycontribute towards environmentalprotection, soil and water conservation.They mitigate against climate change sincethey are a major sink for greenhouse gases,in particular carbon dioxide, and contributetowards reduction of pollution. Forests alsoplay a major role in nutrient recycling andin maintaining microclimate for otherorganisms. Over half of Malawi’s terrestrialspecies diversity including threatenedspecies are associated with forests (bothprotected and unprotected), thus forests area refuge for a wide range of biologicalresources ranging from vertebrates,invertebrates, mushrooms and plants.

Utilisation of biological resources,especially in forests adjacent to villages, isextremely important to local communitiessince the forests are sources of livelihood.For example, grass and papyrus are usedextensively for thatching, especially in ruralareas. Wood fuel (firewood and charcoal)remains the dominant source of energy,accounting for approximately 90% of thehousehold and industrial energyrequirement. At the household level woodis also used for construction, timber, farmimplements such as axe and hoe handles.Local communities also harvest differentfruits, mushrooms, roots and tubers forhousehold consumption and for sale. Forestresources therefore contribute substantiallyto food security and poverty reduction.Wildlife resourcesMalawi has five National Parks and fourWildlife reserves. Like forests, nationalparks and wildlife reserves contribute toenvironmental protection. They are the onlyhabitats where Malawi’s endangered large

a b

c d

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mammals receive full protection, withoutwhich species such as elephants, lions,crocodiles, zebras, buffalos, hippopotamus,antelopes, kudus, and common duikerwould have been locally extinct. This hasalso encouraged reintroduction of species,which were once extinct such as the blackrhino. The actual and potential benefits ofwildlife resources are many but includeeconomic, aesthetic, scientific and cultural.At present the contribution of wildlife to thesocio-economic development is very smalllargely because the potential for tourism hasnot been fully exploited.Wildlife maintained in forest reserves issource of protein to the surroundingcommunities. Hunting, for the past decades,constituted the major use of wildliferesources and is probably the oldestsubsistence and livelihood use of biologicalresources in Malawi. In areas where humanpopulation is small and game is common,nearly all animal protein consumed by thelocal population is derived from wildlife.Fisheries resourcesApproximately 50,000 tons of fish arecaught annually fromMalawi’s lakes (LakesMalawi, Malombe, Chilwa and Chiuta) andriver systems (e.g. Shire River) of which 60%are caught by commercial fisheries inSalima and Mangochi. It is estimated that250,000 people along the major fishing areasdepend on fish as a source of food andlivelihood. It is also estimated that thefisheries sector provides 60-70% of totalanimal protein in Malawi.Fisheries in Malawi have experiencedconsiderable decline in the 1990s after arelative stability in the preceding years. Thecatches have declined from an average of60,000 metric tons in the period of 1976-1990to 49,000 metric tons in 1991-2001. Thisdecline is mainly caused by decliningfisheries in the smaller water bodies such asLakes Malombe, Chilwa and Chiuta (Fig.13). For instance, Oreochromis species (e.g.Oreochromis karongae, locally known aschambo), a highly valuable, famous andpopular fish, supported an important

fishery in the southern part of the lake in the1980's, but it is presently overexploited. Thechambo landings for both Lakes Malawiand Malombe averaged 11,000 metric tonsduring the period 1976-90 and declined toan annual average of 3,400 metric tonsduring the period 1991 to the present. Thedecline of the chambo stocks is mostpronounced in Lakes Malombe and Malawiand the trend is also observed in othernatural water bodies such as Lake Chilwa(Fig. 16).There is also a growing ornamental fishtrade that utilises the Lake Malawi cichlids,particularly targeting the export market tosatisfy the demand for aquarium fish. Theamount of ornamental fish being exportedhas not been established nor itscontributions to the economic growth.Non-woody forestry productsThe potential value of such biologicalresources as fungi, algae, microorganisms,and invertebrates is not well known. Therole invertebrates play as pollinatorsappears not to be appreciated since nodeliberate policy or mechanisms are in placeto protect them. This also applies to soilmicroorganisms that play a crucial role innutrient recycling and soil fertility. This lackof knowledge in terms of their economicpotential, distribution and diversity leads toundervaluation of less known biologicalresources and has often times facilitated freeaccess by foreign investors to biologicalresources (e.g. medicinal plants) andunsustainable exploitation of the sameresources.Numerous indigenous edible fruits havebeen recorded but the commonly used onesinclude baobab, (Adansonia digitata) masuku(Uapaca kirkiana), bwemba, (Tamarindusindica); masawu (Ziziphus mucrunata). Someof the indigenous fruits such as masuku (U.kirkiana, Marula (Sclerocarya birrea) etc arebeing characterised through variousagroforestry programmes fordomestication. Through a community basednatural resources management project,communities in Mwanza are producing

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Figure 15: Summary of total fish catches in major waters of Malawi; Source: Fisheries Research Unit.

Figure 16: Analysis of fish catch in Lake Malombe; Source: Fisheries Research Unit.

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juice from Tamarindus indica and Adansoniadigitata.Malawi has many edible indigenousvegetables. Some of the popular indigenousvegetables include denje (Corchorustriocularis), limanda (Hibiscus acetosella),

Bonongwe (Amaranthus spp.), luni or catwhiskers (Gynandropsis gynandra).Programmes to collect and characteriseindigenous vegetables are under way atBunda College of Agriculture.

Current managementMalawi’s active participation in theconservation of biological diversity startedas early as 1912 when the first forest reservewas established. To date Malawi has anetwork of protected areas comprising 87forest reserves, five national parks and fourwildlife reserves. The bulk of theindigenous genetic diversity is conserved insitu in the network of forest reserves andnational parks. A substantial amount ofbiodiversity is conserved in situ and ex situon customary and private land.Collections of indigenous and introducedgenetic material (both plants and animals),is the responsibility of both private andpublic research stations, botanic gardens,the universities and private estates. TheNational Plant Genetic Resources Centrecollects, characterises and maintainsindigenous crop plants and wild relatives ofcultivated plants. Forest trees, on the otherhand, are collected and characterised byForestry Department especially theNational Tree Seed Centre at the ForestryResearch Institute of Malawi (FRIM). The

botanic gardens have a living collection ofintroduced and indigenous species.In line with the requirements of the EMAand NEP, sectoral legislation and policies onenvironment and natural resources wererevised to incorporate provisions forcommunity participation in naturalresource management. This has resulted invarious co-management arrangements offorest resources through Village ForestryAreas (VFAs), fisheries resources throughthe Beach Village Committees (BVCs) andwildlife resources through the WildlifeManagement Areas.Many government departments andorganisations e.g. the National Herbariumand Botanic Gardens, wildlife reserves,Gene Banks and the Universities participatein global conservation and recoveryprogrammes of threatened and rare speciesonly. Such programmes are often part ofgovernment obligations to implementinternational and regional conventionswhich Malawi is party to.

Major issues that Malawi should take intoconsideration in its effort to achievesustainable use of biological diversityinclude the following:Conservation of biological resources inprotected areasProtected areas were primarily created toconserve soil and water since most of themare catchments for major water bodies.Conservation of other forms of biodiversityappears to be secondary since no effortswere made to ensure moderate

representation of species diversity in forestreserves.Conservation of Malawi's agriculturalbiological diversityErosion of genetic diversity withindomesticated, cultivated and wild andharvested species is widespread and islargely due to a number of factors some ofwhich include preference to improvedvarieties. For example over-emphasis onmaize has contributed to themarginalisation of sorghum (Sorghum

Summary of issues

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bicolor) pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum)and figure millet (Eleusine coracana) whichwere once staples in some parts of Malawi.Similarly, the heterotic benefits thatcrossbreeding offers have not been realisedsince most of the indigenous crops and localbreeds of animals have lately beenneglected, leading to genetic erosion of thelocal plants and animals. In order to reversethe current trend the remaining varietiesand breeds/strains should be characterised,protected and multiplied in a way that bestutilises them in the short term andmaintained for the long term.The agricultural diversity is dependantupon a number of other related biologicalresources such as pollinators and soil floraand fauna without which loss of the geneticresources would be inevitable. In thisregard conservation of agrobiodiversityshould as much as possible integrateprogrammes that enhance conservation andidentification of pollinators and soilorganisms.Commercialisation and bioprospectingof indigenous biological resourcesOver 90% of Malawi’s population rely onnatural resources as a source of livelihood(for food and income). Mushrooms, wildvegetables and fruits, caterpillars, medicinalplants are collected for food and as a sourceof income. Currently a significant amount ofthe biological resources especiallymedicinal plants is exported to the outsidemarket, but this is currently unregulated.There appears to be potential forbioprospecting especially from medicinalplants, judging from requests institutionsand individuals continuously receive frombig pharmaceutical companies to supplysamples of medicinal plants. If welldeveloped, bioprospecting can lead todevelopment of commercially viableproducts and thus contribute to povertyreduction. If unregulated, however,bioprospecting can encourageunsustainable use of biological resourcesand can lead to biopiracy.

Inadequate policies, laws, regulations andinstitutional frameworkProgress towards sustainable use ofbiological resources requires political will tocreate an enabling environment. Despite theexistence of a number of multisectoralpolicies, laws and regulations that in oneway or another deal with sustainable use ofbiological resources, lack of a streamlinedpolicy and legislative framework thatclearly articulates strategies on howbiological resources can be used sustainablyis to some extent contributing tounsustainable use of biological resources.The existing policies and legislation oftenconflict and are often not harmonised andsynergised with international and regionalframeworks.Operationalisation of sustainable useprogrammes requires an enablinginstitutional and administrative structure atall levels. Currently frontline workers indifferent sectors dealing with sustainableuse of biological resources infrequentlycollaborate on the ground in their effort toconserve biological resources. With eachsector working independently, duplicationof efforts is common. The currentinstitutional framework, therefore, requiressignificant funding in order to build criticalhuman capacity required to effectivelyimplement programmes.Inadequate research and informationResearch on the relationship betweenconservation and sustainable use ofbiological resources including valuation ofbiological resources is rudimentary. This isconstrained by inadequate human andinfrastructure capacity. This inadequateresearch capacity means that information iseither unavailable, inadequate or isscattered around and is not in the formateasily accessible by the users. Thisunavailability of information may affectsound decisions on sustainable use ofbiological diversity.

Objective 3.1 Sustainable use ofagrobiodiversityStrategy 3.1.1 Design, develop andimplement in situ and ex situ agriculturaldiversity conservation programmes withfull participation and involvement of localcommunities.Actions(a) Conduct public and political

awareness campaigns on the role ofagrobiodiversity in povertyreduction and economicdevelopment and the role ofcommunities through active farmersclubs in agrobiodiversityconservation.

(b) Collect all agrobiodiversity,including their wild relatives,threatened and/or endangeredspecies, with full participation ofcommunities and preserve them onfarm, in field gene banks, seed banksand botanic gardens.

(c) Document indigenous knowledgeon the utilisation and conservationof agrobiodiversity of Malawithrough ethnobiological surveys.

(d) Strengthen and build the capacity ofnational centres for the collection,characterisation and maintenance ofagrobiodiversity using clearguidelines and procedures.

Key Players: NHBG, UNIMA, EAD, FD,DoF, DNPW, WESM, MoA&FS, NPGRC,MZUNI.Strategy 3.1.2 Enhance human and researchcapacity on conservation and sustainableuse of agrobiodiversity.Actions(a) Develop and implement research

guidelines and programmes forsustainable use of agriculturaldiversity, paying particular attentionto gender and HIV/AIDS

mainstreaming, and issues that havedirect impact on agriculturalbiodiversity such as pollinators andsoil organisms.

(b) Conduct research and promotedomestication of wild plants andanimals with emphasis onestimating genetic variation of targetspecies using modern molecularbiological techniques andparticipatory plant breeding.

(c) Train staff and farmers on collection,characterisation, conservation andstorage of agrobiodiversity.

(d) Develop mechanisms and facilitiesto improve storage of germplasm ingene banks, seed banks, botanicgardens and agricultural researchstations.

Key Players: UNIMA, EAD, FD, DoF,DNPW, WESM, MoA&FS, NPGRC, NHBG,NGOs.Objective 3.2 Promote sustainable use offorest biological diversityStrategy 3.2.1 Develop appropriateguidelines, methodologies and proceduresand technologies that fully utilise theconcepts of ecosystems approach andenhance sustainable use of forest biologicaldiversity.Actions(a) Develop and implement guidelines

and/or technologies for applyingecosystems approach in forestecosystems.

(b) Promote mechanisms for theparticipation of all stakeholders inthe conservation of forestbiodiversity.

(c) Promote activities that minimise theimpact of fragmentation of forestbiological diversity such asagroforestry and forest restoration.

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Action Plan

Key Players: FD, EAD, MoLG, MoLPPS,NGOs.Strategy 3.2.2 Develop and implementmechanisms to prevent and mitigate theadverse effects of forest fires on biologicaldiversity.Actions(a) Strengthen the existing measures

and mechanisms on forest firemanagement, including developingguidelines that promote communityparticipation in fire preventionactivities.

(b) Strengthen policies and institutionalinfrastructure that address fireprevention and ensure that suchpolicies are integrated into othersectoral policies.

(c) Promote participatory research onforest fire management.

Key Players: FD, CBOs, MoLGRD, DNPW,MMCT, WESM, CURE.Strategy 3.2.3 Enhance conservation offorest biological diversity throughpromotion of sustainable use of resources.Actions(a) Develop guidelines and

programmes to document andevaluate the economic importance offorest biodiversity especially insustaining the livelihoods of localcommunities.

(b) Develop, support and promoteprogrammes and initiatives thataddress the sustainable use of timberand non timber products.

(c) Strengthen the capacity of localcommunities to develop andimplement community basedprogrammes on conservation andsustainable use of forest biologicaldiversity.

Key Players: FD, FRIM, MoLGRD, NGOs,NHBG, WESM, DNPW.

Objective 3.3 Promote sustainable use offish biological diversityStrategy 3.3.1 Promote sustainableharvesting and management of Malawi’sfish resources especially chambo, andheavily exploited and under exploited fishspecies through implementation of relevantstrategies and action plans.Actions(a) Develop a national wetlands policy

to guide and ensure the protectionand sustainable use of fishbiodiversity.

(b) Undertake ex situ and in situconservation of threatened orendangered fish species and otheraquatic organisms.

(c) Promote and support fish farmingand develop enabling regulatoryframework for private sectorinvestiment in commercial fishfarming.

(d) Establish a permanent committeethat will regularly meet and discussmatters pertaining to conservation ofaquatic biodiversity including fishfarming.

(e) Review and implement fisheriesmanagement strategies and plans forchambo in Lakes Malawi, Chilwaand Malombe.

Key Players: EAD, FD, DNPW, DoF,UNIMA, MoIWD, MoLGRD, NHBG, NGOs.Objective 3.4 Public awareness andcommunity participationStrategy 3.4.1 Raise the awareness of theimportance of promoting conservation andsustainable use of biological resources assources of livelihood to poor Malawians.Actions(a) Document and promote knowledge,

innovations and practices of localcommunities relevant to

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conservation and sustainable use ofbiological resources.

(b) Provide a spectrum of alternativelivelihood opportunities and includethem in national strategies andCBNRM programmes.

(c) Develop incentives for local leveland private sector participation inbiodiversity conservation andsustainable use.

(d) Study and understand factorsaffecting sustainable use ofbiological resources and provideeffective mechanisms for mitigatingagainst the problems.

(e) Introduce the concept of sustainableuse of biological resources in bothformal and informal educationsystems.

(f) Develop methodologies andguidelines for economic valuationstudies of the environmentalservices of biological resources.

(g) Promote the involvement of localcommunities through variousCBNRM institutions such asVNRMCs, VNRCs, BVCs andWildlife Clubs.

Key Players: NHBG, UNIMA, EAD, FD,DoF, DNPW, WESM, MoA&FS, NPGRC,MoEObjective 3.5 Promote and regulatebioprospectingStrategy 3.5.1 Develop guidelines andstrengthen existing procedures, policies andlaws to promote and regulatebioprospecting and international trade onendangered species.Actions(a) Conduct surveys to identify and

prioritise biological resourcesrequiring commercialisation andbioprospecting.

(b) Strengthen institutional capacity tocollect and maintain genetic

resources in gene banks, botanicgardens, national parks, herbaria,museums and zoos to facilitatedecision making aboutbioprospecting.

(c) Develop or strengthen existingregulations and institutionalframework on conservation andsustainable use of rare andendangered taxa includinginternational trade on endangeredspecies.

(d) Promote reintroduction ofendangered biological resources ofeconomic potential through ex situand in situ programmes.

Key Players:NHBG, UNIMA, EAD, NRCM,Museums of Malawi, FD, DoF, DNPW,WESM, CURE, MMCTObjective 3.6 Strengthen policies, law andinstitutional frameworksStrategy 3.6.1 Study sectoral policies andlegislation and as far as possible integrateconsiderations of sustainable use intosectoral policies and if necessary develop anenabling and comprehensive policy onsustainable use of biological diversityActions(a) Review relevant sectoral policies and

legislation and develop anintegrated policy on sustainable useof biological diversity that takes intoconsideration issues of commonproperty rights.

(b) Develop and implement effectivemonitoring systems to ensure thatthe concept of sustainable use isapplicable to all sectors.

(c) Harmonise national laws andregulations with international andregional instruments payingparticular attention to removingprovisions that have negativeimpacts on sustainable use.

(d) Integrate local customs andtraditions including customary law,

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by laws into existing policies andregulations.

(e) Build the human capacity throughtraining and recruitment of relevantstaff to implement and enforce laws,policies and regulations.

Key players: MoJ, EAD, FD, DoF, UNIMA,NGOsObjective 3.7 Promote research andinformation managementStrategy 3.7.1 Promote and supportinterdisciplinary research on all aspects ofsustainable use of biological resources andmake the information available tobiodiversity users.Actions(a) Develop research guidelines on the

management of biologicalcomponents that promote theirsustainable use.

(b) Develop cooperation betweenresearchers and biodiversity users(private and local communities)especially involving localcommunities as research partners.

(c) Make research results available in aform which decision makers can useand other stakeholders can apply.

(d) Strengthen and develop sustainableinfrastructure on sustainable useresearch.

Objective 3.8 Promote indigenousknowledge systemsStrategy 3.8.1 Promote indigenousknowledge systems (IKS) for sustainablemanagement and use of biodiversity.Actions(a) Study and document indigenous

knowledge systems and traditionalpractices for biodiversityconservation and integrate them intomainstream biodiversitymanagement activities.

(b) Promote recognition of the value oflocal indigenous knowledge aboutconservation of biodiversity by:

● Empowering local people to controllocal biodiversity resources;

● Sensitising local communities ontheir intellectual property rights;

● Compensating local people forindigenous knowledge onconservation of biodiversity; and

● Promoting formation of indigenousknowledge systems groups.

Key players: MoMNRE, NHBG, MoH,MoA&FS, UNIMA, MZUNI, MMCT, VDCs,Museums of Malawi, EAD, FD, DoF, CURE,WESM.

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(a) Access and Benefit SharingFormal access and benefit sharingmechanisms are recent in Malawi andappear to be restricted to co-managementarrangements in forestry, fisheries andwildlife sectors. In the forestry resources,through co-management arrangementscommunities are allowed some access tolocal forestry resources and are also entitledto 20% to 60%of forest revenues. For examplethrough a World Bank Project communitiesaround Chimaliro Forest Reserve in theNorthern region were entitled to 40% of the

revenue from exploitation of forest reservesand 60% revenue from exploitation of thesurrounding customary land forests. InMwanza, forest By Laws allow communitygroups in liaison with forest officials toconfiscate charcoal. When the confiscatedcharcoal is sold, community groups areentitled to 25% of the sales.As is the case with Forestry Department, theFisheries Department has mechanisms forentering into co-management agreementswith local communities, including the dutiesand responsibilities of the management

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Theme Four: Traditional knowledge, access andbenefit sharing

Desired outcome by 2020(a) Guidelines for the enhancement of preservation and maintenance of indigenous

knowledge and the innovations and practices of indigenous and local communitiesare promoting sustainable use of biological resources and equitable sharing ofbenefits arising for the use of biological resources.

(b) Policy guidelines and legislation that have provisions to facilitate the implementationof Article 15 of the CBD and integrate the Bonn Guidelines on access to geneticresources and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use ofgenetic resources are promoting access to genetic resources, utilisation andbioprospecting in accordance with international conventions and nationalregulations.

(c) Guidelines and procedures on public awareness on access and benefit sharing and onutilisation of indigenous knowledge are empowering local communities and areenabling them to have bargaining power to negotiate fair and equitable terms ofaccess and benefit sharing both at national and international levels.

(d) Biological resources, products and processes other than plants and animals areprotected by patents and plant varieties are protected by some form of IPRs.

(e) Guidelines and procedures to ensure equitable and fair distribution of benefits toMalawi stakeholders are in place.

ScopeTraditional knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous or localcommunities are governed by enabling policies, laws and institutional frameworksthat are facilitating and promoting regulated access.

State of traditional knowledge, access and benefit sharing

authorities, where communities are allowedaccess to and utilization of fisheriesresources. Beach Village Committees (BVCs)have been established following theseregulations and are being constituted aslegal entities through which the activitiesand interests of BVCs can be articulated andrepresented. Through this agreement theDepartment of Fisheries seeks to transfer tothe fisheries management authorities (theassociations) specific rights of use andmanagement of the aquatic environmentand other aquatic resources for the durationof the agreement. This would seem to createexclusive user rights in favour of theassociation and would therefore curtailrights of communities outside themembership of the association. The reasonfor creating exclusive rights and duties infavour of community institutions is toimprove fisheries management and notnecessarily to exclude others from access.The Department of National Parks andWildlife also has mechanisms forcollaborative management of wildlifebetween the local communities and theprivate sector. Through this provision thedepartment has entered into agreementswith Wildlife Management Authorities(WMAs), which are defined as any localcommunity or private organizationestablished to promote local communityparticipation in wildlife conservation andmanagement. In Nyika/Vwaza, Lengwe,Liwonde and Kasungu national parks,WMAs have been established and they havefacilitated sustainable use of park resourceswhere local communities are allowed toharvest certain wildlife products such asmushrooms, thatch grass, caterpillars,medicinal plants, reeds, and other productsmainly for domestic use. Government hasagreed to share 50-50 with the communitiesbut this arrangement is yet to beimplemented. Privately owned WildlifeReserves Kuti Wildlife Reserve in Salimapromotes community participation inconservation programmes. In returncommunities are entitled to 70% of therevenue through project activities.

WESM, one of the NGOs activelyinvolved in the implementation of NRMprogrammes, with support from GTZ isimplementing a programme to promotesustainable management of indigenousforest resources in Kamwamba, MwanzaDistrict. A number of CBNRM activitiessuch as production of indigenous fruitjuices, honey and cane furniture are beingimplemented as income generatingactivities. The programme gives back to thecommunities 20% of the income throughemployment and 40% through projectactivities. The programme has sincedeveloped into a community ownedcompany, Village Hands Ltd and therevenues shall continue to be shared withcommunities either through support tocommunity project or through employment.(b) Traditional knowledge, innovationsand practicesTraditional access and benefit sharingsystems have existed in most communitiesfrom time immemorial. In agriculturegenetic resources has been distributedwithin and between geographical regionsthrough exchange of seeds and knowledgeon use and propagation methods. Farmershave also exchanged animals with desirabletraits to improve productivity of theirlivestock through cross breeding. Despiteplaying a role in the conservation ofagrobiodiversity traditional knowledgesystems in agriculture have not beenadequately documented.Collection and maintenance ofagrobiodiversity is the responsibility of theMinistry of Agriculture and Food Security.Through the National Genetic ResourcesCentre, MoA&FS in collaboration with theSADC Genetic Resource Centre in Zambiacollects and maintains plant geneticresources. Recognising the weak legislativeframework on sharing of benefits that mayarise when a new plant variety is developedbased on resources collected from farmers,MoA&FS is in the process of developing thePlant Breeders Bill which will regulateaccess.

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Traditional knowledge systems related totraditional healing appear to be the moststudied systems in Malawi. Most ruralcommunities benefit from traditionalhealing through treatment of variousdiseases for a small fee either in kind orcash. Despite traditional medicinecomplementing the national health careservices, traditional healing is not regulatedby any kind of legislation and is notofficially recognised by the Ministry ofHealth. In order to promote a harmoniousworking relationship between conventionalmedical practice and traditional healers, acode of ethics for traditional healthpractitioners, traditional medicine policyand a draft Traditional Health PractitionersBill have been prepared, all in consultationwith and collaboration between theTraditional Healers’ Associations andMinistry of Health. In particular, the Policyseeks to promote research into traditional

medicine and increase capacity in the area ofmedicine including industrial developmentand production of traditional medicine forlocal and export market. It provides forconservation of biodiversity andpreservation of indigenous knowledge. Italso seeks to protect IPRs of individuals andinstitutions involved in research anddevelopment and promote bilateral andmultilateral agreements between traditionalhealth practitioners and users of theirproducts for equitable sharing of benefits.The draft traditional medicine policy doesnot provide for issues of regulating access totraditional medicine and knowledge byresearchers or mechanisms for sharingbenefits from technological exploitation ofsamples of genetic resources or knowledgeobtained from traditional healthpractitioners. Further the draft does notprovide for protection of IndigenousKnowledge Systems.

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Current management

Summary of issues

Access to genetic resources in Malawi ispartially provided for in EnvironmentalManagement Act. Sectoral laws and policieswere revised in keeping with EMA and as aresult they all have provisions forcommunity participation in management ofnatural resources. Access to geneticresources by researchers and other users iscurrently guided by Procedures andGuidelines for Access and Collection of

Genetic Resources in Malawi (2002) andProcedures and Guidelines for the Conductof Research in Malawi (2002). Realising thatthese guidelines are inadequate becausethey do not indicate type of benefits to beshared and have not been promulgated intorules or regulations under the existinglegislation, Malawi has drafted access andbenefit legislation.

Traditional Healers are among the mostorganised systems of indigenousknowledge in Malawi. They haveassociations through which they articulatetheir interests. In addition policies and draftlegislation on traditional healing have beenprepared including a code of conduct. Theseneed to be improved since they appear notto provide clear direction on access andbenefit sharing mechanisms. If enacted,adopted or implemented in the current formgenetic resources will continue to beexported or collected by other users without

adequate safeguards.Authority responsible for administration ofaccess and benefit sharing arrangementsrests in sectors such as the fisheries,forestry, agriculture and national parks. TheNational Research Council of Malawiprovides the coordination mechanisms byproviding permits in consultation withresponsible sector agencies. The GRBC ofthe NRCM provides technical expertise andmakes the recommendations for permits tobe granted. The GRBC has no statutory

mandate; hence if granting of a permit isrefused based on its recommendations, sucha decision could easily be challenged forlack of mandate.A condition for granting the permit is thatthe researcher should be affiliated to arecognised institution. In this way theinstitution would monitor compliance withthe conditions of the permit including thecollections made. However, mostinstitutions are unable to provide wellqualified assistants due to constraints inhuman resources and as such, compliancemonitoring can hardly be satisfactory. Thisclearly shows that capacity to implementand monitor compliance with theprocedures and guidelines for access togenetic resources and the general regulatoryregime is inadequate since there is nomechanism for monitoring use of geneticresources once approval has been grantedfor research or collection of samples. Thismakes determination of benefits to beobtained from use of genetic resourcescollected from Malawi difficult. Secondly,despite the existence of the procedures andguidelines, these regulations are not alwaysfollowed.An important aspect with regards to accessand benefit sharing mechanisms is the use ofintellectual property rights. The relevantIPR legislation in Malawi is the Patents Act,which principally deals with industrialinventions and was not designed to cater forissues such as community, farmers andbreeders rights or indeed with specific

attention to biological resources. The IPRframework is designed in such a way thatindigenous knowledge systems commonlyperceived to be in the public domain wouldnot be protected on the ground that it maynot be a new invention or capable ofindustrial application. According to the Act,an application for a patent must be inrelation to an invention and by the inventor,his legal representative or assignee. Ascurrently defined most of the indigenoustechnologies which passed from generationto generation may not be considered ‘new’.Nevertheless when the same knowledge isutilized in manufacturing in theconventional sense it will pass under the Actbecause the ‘mechanization’ will be ‘new’and not obvious. The Patent Act is alsoproblematic because most indigenousknowledge systems with legalrepresentative cannot enforce rights underthe common law. This calls for a new regimefor recognition and protection of suchknowledge and to ensure that those whoclaim benefits from indigenous knowledgecan be protected just as those who do sounder the common law. Malawi thereforeneeds to develop sui generis. In additionregional instruments such as the AfricanModel Legislation for the Protection of theRights of Local Communities, Farmers andBreeders, and for the Regulation of Accessto Biological Resources (the ModelLegislation) should be integrated into thePlant Variety Bill being drafted by theMinistry of Agriculture and Food Security.

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Action PlanObjective 4.1 Mainstream indigenousknowledge systems into biodiversityconservation.Strategy 4.1.1 Identify relevant working IKpractices, raise their value, and integratethem into conservation activities.Actions(a) Conduct a survey and produce an

inventory of new and existing IK

practices in Malawi.(b) Identify relevant working IK

practices and raise their value,through the development of anatural resource based enterprise.

(c) Raise awareness among thecommunities on the value of IK andbuild their capacities to recognise,document and mainstream the IK

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into natural resource managementpractices.

(d) Build human and institutionalcapacity for IK research anddevelopment.

Key Players: UNIMA, NHBG, THAs,MoMNRE, MoIWD, MoLGRD, MoA&FS,NRCM, NGOs.Objective 4.2 Strengthen legal and policyframework for access and benefit sharingStrategy 4.2.1 Develop binding frameworkto regulate access to genetic resources andthe sharing of the benefits by integrating theprocedures and guidelines for access to andcollection of genetic resources into EMA.Actions(a) Develop and implement regulations

for access to and equitable sharing ofbenefit arising from the use ofgenetic resources.

(b) Review and enhance the existinginstitutional framework andimprove coordination between theregulatory agency for approval ofpermits for access to geneticresources and sector agencies thatgrant permits to researchers andcollectors.

(c) Prepare guidelines and proceduresfor prior informed consent, mutuallyagreed terms and conditions foraccess to and benefit sharingmechanisms.

(d) Clarify the roles and responsibilitiesof traditional leaders with regard toaccess to and benefit sharing ofgenetic resources from customaryland including the governancesystems for IKS and traditionalmedicine.

Key Players: UNIMA, EAD, FD, DNPW,WESM, MoA&FS, NRCM, MoJ, NPGRCObjective 4.3 Raise awareness of theimportance of access and benefit sharing

Strategy 4.3.1 Promote communityparticipation, public awareness andcapacity building of state actors and theprivate sector on access and benefit sharing.Actions(a) Conduct awareness campaigns for

all stakeholders emphasizing onduties and responsibilities oftraditional leaders, traditionalhealers and the local communities,especially those adjacent tobiodiversity hotspots, and on accessand benefit sharing and theimportance of their participation inABS programmes.

(b) Conduct studies to determine valuesfor most sought after geneticresources and develop guidelinesfor sustainable harvest and equitablesharing of benefit accruing fromtheir use.

(c) Develop training programmes onprinciples of access and benefitsharing and on intellectual propertyrights for the community, theprivate sector and the informaleducation sector.

(d) Develop well-defined propertyrights regimes.

Key Players: UNIMA, EAD, FD, DNPW,WESM, MoA&FS NPGRC, NRCM, MoJ,LSM, NHBG.Objective 4.4 Regulating access to geneticresources and benefit sharingStrategy 4.4.1 Promote and regulate accessto biodiversity and equitable sharing ofbenefits arising from the use of biodiversitythrough provision of Intellectual PropertyRights regimes.Actions(a) Enact sui generis policy and

legislation to regulate access to andbenefit sharing of genetic resourceswith special emphasis on protectingfarmers’ rights.

(b) Clarify property rights and accessregimes for various stakeholders andfor different types of utilizationunder sector legislation such asfisheries, forestry, national parksand wildlife and agriculture.

(c) Review existing controls andlegislation at the national andregional levels regulatingbioprospecting of indigenousgenetic resources and develop amore integrated framework formanaging bioprospecting anddistributing its benefits.

(d) Revise and develop a national policyframework for traditional medicineand medicinal plant research anduse.

(e) Undertake collaborative researchinto institutional systems that tendto influence the way biodiversityresources are managed, allocatedand used.

Key Players: NHBG, UNIMA, EAD, FD,DNPW, WESM, MoA&FS, NPGRC, NRCM,MZUNI.

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Biotechnology is a collection of techniquesthat utilise biological systems or derivativesthereof to create, improve or modify plants,animals and microorganisms for specificuse. Biotechnology has traditionally beenused for many centuries in agriculture andmanufacturing industry to produce food,chemicals, medicines and many otherproducts that have been of benefit in manyareas including nutrition, human andanimal health. In Malawi both modern andtraditional biotechnologies are available.Traditional biotechnology has been in use inthis country for many centuries. Some oftraditional technologies available in Malawiinclude:● Fermentation: This uses bacterial

fermentations on dairy industries andyeast fermentations in breweries (e.g.Chibuku);

● Plant and Animal breeding;● Biofertilizer production; and

● Biological control in pest management.These traditional biotechnologies havesucceeded in producing a wide variety ofuseful plants and animals. For example,farmers have been altering the genetic makeup of crops and animals through selectionfor features such as faster growth andhigher yields.Modern biotechnologies are used bygovernment research institutions, the healthand agricultural sectors for variouspurposes. For example, the DNALaboratory at Chancellor College, in theMolecular Biology and Ecology ResearchUnit (MBERU), has equipment forcharacterization of species at DNA level andso far Malawi Zebu cattle, selected breeds ofdairy cattle and species of fish have beenstudied. The Central Veterinary Laboratoryunder the department of Animal Health andIndustry uses ELISA techniques to conductanimal disease diagnosis. The laboratoryalso produces a tick borne disease vaccine

ScopeDevelop enabling mechanisms to enhance the wise use of biotechnologies withoutoverlooking their potential adverse effects on conservation and sustainable use of biologicaldiversity, human health and socio-economic issues.

Desired outcome by 2020(a) A definitive biotechnology policy governing the development and handling of

biotechnology in Malawi is developed and implemented.(b) The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and the Biosafety Act of 2002 are enforced fully

for the creation of an enabling environment for the environmentally soundapplication of biotechnology.

(c) Guidelines are available to guide public awareness programmes on biotechnologyand its products and biosafety issues surrounding the technology.

(d) Human and infrastructure capacity is developed in the field of biotechnology.

State of biotechnology in Malawi

Theme Five: Biotechnology

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for the SADC region. In addition BundaCollege of Agriculture, Bvumbwe andLunyangwa Agriculture Research Stationsare involved in micro-propagation using

tissue culture techniques. In the healthsector PCR based techniques and otherdiagnostic kits are used for diseasediagnosis including malaria.

Current ManagementBiotechnology programmes are currentlyregulated by the Biosafety Act, which wasdeveloped and enacted in 2002 in responseto the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety of theCBD. The Biosafety Act provides forformulation of regulations and guidelines togovern the development, importation, andutilisation of GMOs. Regulations andguidelines for management of GMOs havebeen drafted and these will be supported bysectoral regulations and guidelines in suchsectors like agriculture, health,environment, trade and commerce.The Biosafety Act provides for the existenceof National Biosafety Advisory

Committee, National Biosafety RegulatoryCommittee, Biosafety Desk Officer,Inspectors and Reviewers. Individualsserving in these positions will need to betrained in biotechnology and theirrespective responsibilities. The BiosafetyAct therefore provisions for regulations fordevelopment, importation and utilisation ofGMOs. However the Biosafety Act incurrently not supported by a single policy.In recognition of this Malawi is in theprocess of developing a comprehensivebiotechnology policy which will guideimplementation of all issues ofbiotechnology including GMOs.

Summary of issuesGenetic modification might contributetoward socio-economic developmentthrough improved crop production andmedicine. However concerns have beenraised on the effects of the transgenic plantsto the environment. For example, concernshave been expressed that GM crops willhybridize with related species and result inthe merging of the GM crops with theirweedy relatives. This means that GM cropsmay transfer that trait to the weedy relativesto make them “superweeds”. Anotherconcern is that widespread use of GM crops,being 'unnatural', may lead to secondary orindirect ecological effects with undesirableconsequences.The release and widespread cultivation ofGM crops with pest or disease resistancehas raised concerns that this will imposeintense selection pressure on pest andpathogen populations to adapt to theresistance mechanism, resulting in thedevelopment of super pests and superdiseases that would be difficult or of GM

impossible to control. In addition to this usecrops may result in the conventionalnon-GM crops receiving transgenes fromGM crops, resulting in situations that areeither undesirable or unlawful. Thepotential inadvertent mixing of GM andnon-GM crops through pollen dispersal andseed is a particular concern for the organicfarming industry. GM crops can also havean influence on biodiversity because theycould threaten the centres of crop diversityor outgrow a local flora to the detriment ofthe native species.Issues of biotechnology especially GMOsare complex and as such parties areencouraged to apply the precautionaryprinciple (Articles 10.6 & 11.7 of theCartagena Protocol) and methodology forbiotechnology risk assessment andmanagement. Such methodologies areoutlined in several documents including theUNEP International technical Guidelines forSafety in Biotechnology and the CartagenaProtocol. Each of these documents includes

the following steps that, together, identifypotential impacts and assess the risks:● Identify potential adverse effects on

human health and/or theenvironment;

● Estimate the likelihood of theseadverse effects being realised;

● Evaluate the consequences shouldthe identified effects be realised (therisk);

● Consider appropriate riskmanagement strategies;

● Estimate the overall potentialenvironmental impact, including aconsideration of potential impactsthat may be beneficial to humanhealth and environment.

However, application of the precautionaryprinciple and risk assessment andmanagement methodologies would bepossible if the following have been put inplace:Enabling biotechnology policyThe importance of an enabling policyframework in biotechnology wasappreciated in 2002 when Malawi and itssouthern Africa counterparts received foodaid from USAID in form of maizeconsignment, which was said to containgenetically modified maize (GM maize).When the GMmaize consignment arrived inMalawi, concerns were raised as to the effectof the maize on local varieties if planted byrecipients. The issue centred on the transferof ‘foreign genes’ from the GM maizethrough cross pollination to local maizevarieties. Realising this, the Ministry ofAgriculture decided to reduce the risks bydistributing the maize in flour form. Thegovernment, however, distributed wholegrain especially after the planting season. Itis likely, though, that some farmers plantedthe maize out of ignorance despite the hugecampaign. Thus there are chances of the

'foreign' genes escaping into the indigenousgene pool of maize. Effects of such genes tobiodiversity are yet to be seen. Malawi,however, has limited human andinfrastructure capacity to monitor andidentify the foreign gene.Human and infrastructure capacity inbiotechnology and biosafety issuesWhile recognising a few individuals whohave capacity in biotechnology andbiosafety issues, the general trend is thathuman capacity in biotechnology andbiosafety is limited. This also applies toinfrastructure capacity although there are afew laboratories, have basic equipment,which can be used in biotechnology andbiosafety related research.Public awareness campaigns onbiotechnology and biosafety issuesThere is little or no awareness ofbiotechnology and biosafety among therural masses and a small proportion ofurban population know very little aboutbiotechnology and biosafety. Modernbiotechnology is a new field in Malawi andit has not yet been fully incorporated intoprimary and secondary school curriculathough a few techniques that fall undertraditional biotechnology are taught inschools. The education system in Malawi,therefore, generally produces people thathave not been introduced to biotechnology.Enhance research and training in the fieldof biotechnologyAlthough tertiary education curricula inMalawi has recently introduced someelements of both traditional and modernbiotechnology in its biological sciencescourses, biotechnology does not have thesame recognition as other disciplines thatfall under biology such as biochemistry.There are also few research institutions thatconduct research in biotechnology relatedfields.

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Objective 5.1 Strengthen policy and legalframeworkStrategy 5.1.1 Strengthen legal andinstitutional structures on biotechnologies.Actions(a) Develop and implement a broad

based biotechnology policy.(b) Implement and enforce the Biosafety

Act at institutional and nationallevels.

(c) Develop harmonised sectorallegislation and policy frameworksand procedures for identification,monitoring and risk assessment andmanagement of biotechnologies.

(d) Develop guidelines to control thetransboundary movement of GMOs.

(e) Develop guidelines to facilitate thesharing of benefits arising from theuse of Malawi's biodiversity in thedevelopment of biotechnologyproducts.

(f) Formulate regulatory biosafetysafeguards to address biodiversityconservation.

Key Players: EAD, NRCM, MoA&FS,MoT&PSD, MRA, MoH, FD, DNPW,NHBG, MoH, DoHRMD, MZUNI, UNIMA,NGOs, MoLGRG.Objective 5.2 Strengthen human andinstitutional capacitiesStrategy 5.2.1 Enhance development ofhuman and institutional capacity foridentification, monitoring and riskassessment and management ofbiotechnologies and research.Actions(a) Strengthen existing scientific

institutions in terms of human and

infrastructure development tomonitor, identify GMOs andundertake risk assessments and trainstaff on precautionary principle andgene transformation.

(b) Train border control systempersonnel to minimize introductionand illegal exportation ofundesirable biotechnologies.

(c) Clarify responsibilities of differentinstitutions involved inbiotechnology management inMalawi.

Key Players: EAD, FD, MoA&FS, DNPW,NHBG, UNIMA, MZUNI, MoE, NRCM,DoHRMD, DoF, MoJ, MoT&PSD, MoH,MoIT&C, NGOs, MoLG.Objective 5.3 Research and InformationManagement SystemsStrategy 5.3.1 Promote research anddisseminate user friendly information onrelevant biotechnologies, emphasising onrisk assessment, identification of GMOs,and socio economic impact.Actions(a) Assess national research needs and

conduct research in the field ofbiotechnology and biosafety.

(b) Develop guidelines to promote theparticipation of the private sectorand communities in biotechnologyand biosafety research.

(c) Develop procedures and guidelinesto enhance cooperation betweenagencies and encourage informationsharing on biotechnology anddevelop Biosafety Clearing HouseMechanism.

(d) Develop research guidelines andmethodologies and conduct researchand surveys on socio- economicimpact of biotechnologies.

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Action Plan

Key Players: EAD, FD, MoA&FS, DNPW,NHBG, UNIMA, DoF, NRCM, MoT&PSD,DoHRMD, MoH, MZUNI, MRA, MoE,NGOs, MoJ, MoMNRE, MoLGRD.Objective 5.4 Community participationand Public awarenessStrategy 5.4.1 Enhance public awarenessand community participation inidentification, assessment, management andinformation dissemination onbiotechnology and biosafety.Actions(a) Develop guidelines to enhance and

strengthen public awarenesscampaigns and communityparticipation in biotechnology andbiosafety issues.

(b) Integrate biotechnology issues intoprimary, secondary and tertiaryschool curricula.

Key Players: NRCM, EAD, FD, DNPW,NHBG, MoIT&C, UNIMA, MZUNI,MoT&PSD, MoA&FS, MoE, MoH, NGOs,DoHRMD, MoLGRD.

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A range of invasive plant and animal speciesexist in Malawi, some indigenous but mostof them exotic or alien. Table 3 presents asummary of the key invasive species thathave been recorded in Malawi most ofwhich are alien having been introducedaccidentally or deliberately for variouspurposes. Some of the alien species includemultipurpose trees, ornamental and foodspecies which were brought in to provideeconomic and recreational gains.

Unfortunately, the benefits come at theexpense of costs often catastrophic to nativespecies and ecosystems. This is becausesome of these invasive species degradebiodiversity by replacing indigenous speciesand bringing significant habitattransformation that leads to reduction ofecosystems services, changes inmicroclimate, changes in fire regime ofvegetation which in turn increases the costof biodiversity conservation. In Malawi,

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ScopeMalawi's efforts to prevent introductions, control or eradicate alien invasive species isguided by a strong policy that is backed by appropriate legal and institutional frameworkand effective invasive species management plans that are linked strongly to sectoralactivities.

Desired outcome by 2020(a) Education, training and public awareness programmes have been developed and are

operational and have made the Malawi public more aware about the biology, impacts(economic, social and environmental) and ecology of invasive species including risksposed by them.

(b) Standardised procedures and guidelines for identification, risk assessment, socio-economic impact assessment, reporting systems, prevention, control and eradicationmethodologies of invasive species are in place and are contributing to the reductionin number of invasive species and or establishment of new alien invasive species aswell as minimizing the spatial distribution and frequency of introductions of invasivespecies.

(c) Significant progress is made in the development of mechanisms for transboundarycooperation, multilateral cooperation and coordination of national programmesincluding establishment or strengthening of a coordinating unit to coordinateinvasive species programmes.

(d) In line with CBD guiding principles for the prevention, introduction and mitigationof impacts of alien species, enabling policies and legislation including institutions aredeveloped and are guiding national management and surveillance of invasivespecies programmes and research; invasive species considerations are integrated intosectoral policies and programs.

(e) Research guidelines are in place and are promoting coordinated research andcommunity participation in invasive species research.

State of invasive species

Theme Six: Invasive Species

invasive species are regarded as the secondlargest threat to conservation of biodiversityafter direct habitat destruction.Malawi is particularly prone to alieninvasive species due to its geographicalposition, pantropical climate andagriculturally based economy and also thecountry relies heavily on importedproducts. For example, the (Xanthiumpungens) has been introduced into Malawiaccidentally through maize consignmentsthat were purchased to feed Mozambicanrefugees and to feed communities that wereaffected by the famine of 2001/2002. Anumber of invasive species have beenintroduced by tourists, smugglers, cargoand sometimes researchers.While there is currently limited publishedand consolidated information on invasivespecies in Malawi, the invasion of importantecosystems such as mountains and aquaticecosystems has been well documented. Forexample, Mulanje Mountain, a major centreof diversity is endangered or threatened bythe invasion of alien Himalayan yellowraspberry (Rubus ellipticus) and the Mexicanpine (Pinus patula). The Central Americanmesquite (Prosopis juliflora) present atSwang'oma, on the plains of Lake Chilwa inPhalombe District and in the Lower ShireValley is a threat, particularly to thebiodiversity of the wetlands. Its strongtendency for allelopathic-inducedmonocultural growth and its prolific seedproduction efficiently spread by browsinganimals are the major factors that haveenabled this species to take over large areasof the habitats that it has invaded.Malawi’s inland freshwater bodies that arehome to endemic and unique aquatic floraand fauna are also threatened by invasion ofalien species. For instance, Lake Malawiwhich is known for its high endemism (over700 endemic cichlid species) and the LakeChilwa wetland, a Ramsar site, whichsupports important populations of 153species of resident and 30 species ofpalearctic (migratory) water birds arethreatened by the water hyacinth (Eichhorniacrassipes), giant salvinia (Salvinia molesta),

water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes), and red waterfern (Azolla filiculoides). The precise impactof these alien aquatic invasive species on theaffected aquatic ecosystems and otherspecies dependent on them is not yet fullyunderstood, although the massive mats ofinterlocked plants that they form are boundto change the water chemistry, impede thepenetration of light and decimateindigenous flora, and negatively affect fishand invertebrate biodiversity, and overallaquatic ecosystem integrity.Major alien invasive invertebrate specieshave largely been agricultural and forestrypests. For instance, the accidental invasionof the alien cassava mealybug (Phenacoccusmanihoti) in the Malawian cassavaagroecosystem in the mid 1980s led to therecruitment of a diverse range of parasitoidsand predators, and even pathogens whoseimpact on indigenous arthropodbiodiversity remains to be studied. A similarsituation was observed with the advent ofthe neotropical cassava green mite(Mononychellus tanajoa) that also attracted adiverse range of predatory mites most ofwhich were indigenous and probablyfeeding on other indigenous arthropods.Also, the introduction of the larger grainborer (Prostephanus truncatus) occurredthrough the importation of unfumigatedrelief maize during the 1991/92 majordrought that hit southern Africa. In theforestry ecosystem, there have recently beenan accidental introduction of four coniferaphid pest species; the cypress aphid (Cinaracupressivora) in1986, the pine woolly aphid(Pineus boerneri) in 1984, the pine needleaphid (Eulachnus rileyi) in 1984 and thegiant pine aphid (Cinara pinivora) in 2001which have caused various levels of damageand economic losses to conifer trees,including the valuable and nationallyprestigious Mulanje cedar (Widringtoniacuppressoides).The introduction of aquaculture hasincreased the distribution of fisheries inMalawi and this has also led to thedeliberate introduction of alien fish speciesthat are unfortunately potentially invasive.During the initial stages of aquaculture for

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example, the common carp (Cyprinus carpio)was the choice species. This species is,however, known to reduce water quality byincreasing turbidity, a situation that cancause the extinction of native species. In the1940s, the invasive black bass (Micropterussalmoides) was deliberately introduced indams and ponds in Malawi. Other alien fishspecies such as rainbow trout (Salmogairdnerri) have also been introduced inponds in and around Zomba and Mulanjemountains. It is, however, not knownwhether these potentially invasive fishspecies are presently still confined to the fociof their introduction or if they have invadedother natural water bodies.

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There are no recorded invasive geneticallymodified organisms in Malawi. There ishowever a possibility that genetic materialof the genetically modified maize that wasdonated to Malawi during the 2001/2002famine escaped into the local gene poolsince some of this maize was planted.Although genetically modified organismsare considered to have economic value theyalso have the potential to alter the localgenetic resources through interbreedingand thus can transfer the traits to weedyspecies, which may become invasive. TheGenetically modified organisms themselvesmay adapt better to the environment thanthe native species and become potentialinvasive species.

Figure 17: Common and notorious alien invasive species recorded in Malawi; (a) Cinara cuppressivora. Source:FRIM, (b) Lantana camara, photo by A. chikuni, (c) Cyprinus carpio (Common carp). Source: JicaAquaculture Project, National Aquaculture Centre, Domasi, (d) Prostephanus truncatus (larger grainborer), photo by A. Chikuni.

a b

c d

Cinara cuppressivora

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Table 3: An inventory of key alien invasive species recorded in MalawiSuspected/knownName of Invasive species Reason for introduction Origin

(a) Invasive invertebrates of forestryor agricultural ecosystemsPhenoccoccus manihoti Accidental on cassava cuttings Americas(cassava mealy bug)Name of Mononychellus Accidental Americastanajoa (cassava green mite)Prostephanus truncatus Accidental on maize grain Americas(larger grain borer)Chilo partellus (spotted stalk Accidental India/Pakistanborer)Cinara cuppressivora (cypress Accidental (conifer tree pest) North Americaaphid)Cinnara pinivora (giant pine Accidental (conifer tree pest) North Americaaphid)Eulachnus rileyi (pine needle Accidental (conifer tree pest) Europeaphid)Heteropsylla cubana Accidental on Leucaena plants Tropical America(Leucaena psyllid)Pineus boerneri (Pine Accidental (conifer tree pest) North Americawoolly aphid) and Europe

(b) Invasive plants of freshwater ecosystemEichhornia crassipes (water Ornamental South Americahyacinth)Salvinia molesta (Kariba weed) Ornamental South AmericaPistia stratiotes (Water lettuce) Ornamental South AmericaAzolla filiculoides (red water fern) Ornamental South America

(c) Invasive plants of terrestrialecosystemMimosa pigra Ornamental Mexico, CubaTithonia diversifolia (Mexican Ornamental Mexicosunflower)Pinus patula (Mexican pine) Aforestation for timber and as Central Americanursery crop for Mulanje cedar.Prosopis juliflora (Mexican Fodder/agroforestry, live fencing South Americamesquite)Eucalyptus terreticornis Aforestation for timber Australia(Blue gum)Leucana leucocephala Agroforestry (mostly fodder) Tropical America(Leucaena)Lantana camara Ornamental, hedging Central andSouth AmericaCaesalpinia decapitala Ornamental, security hedging Asia(Mauritius thorn)Acacia mearnsii (Black Wattle) Aforestation, agroforestry Australia andTasmaniaBauhinia variegata (Orchid Tree) Ornamental AsiaRubus ellipticus (Himalayan Ornamental, horticultural Asiaraspberry) (edible fruits)Pteridium aquilanium (Bracken fern) Accidental

(d) Potential invasive fishCyprinus carpio (common carp) Aquaculture (fish) EuropeMicropterus salmoides (black bass) Aquaculture (fish) North AmericaSalmo gairdnerri (rainbow trout) Aquaculture (fish) North America

There is no single policy and legislation onthe management of invasive species inMalawi although issues of invasive speciesare covered in sectoral policies andlegislation dealing with biodiversity. ThePlant Protection Act, 1970 (Cap. 64:01) andthe Noxious Weed Act, 1970 (Cap. 64:02)aim to prevent the introduction of alienweeds, invertebrate and microbial pests andprovide for the eradication of pests, diseasesand weeds that are destructive to plants andother habitats. These Acts further preventthe importation, culturing, distribution,selling and exportation of any plant formsand growth media such as rooting compostand soil without an official permit issued bythe National Plant Protection Services.Unfortunately, the Acts are seriouslyoutdated, considering that there exist awider range of alien invasive species todaythan what was recognised when the Actswere published. The enforcement of theActs is also very weak to the extent thatmany invasive species are currently beingimported and distributed in Malawi oftenwithout the knowledge of the PlantProtection Services. The fisheries policy hasprovisions for prohibiting the introductionof exotic species and also has the mandate tomonitor and control the spread of aquaticweeds specially water hyacinth usingbiological and other control measures incollaboration with communities and theprivate sector. Similarly the wildlife policymandates the wildlife sector to maintain theecological and aesthetic quality of protectedareas by preventing and controlling amongother things introduction of exotic plantsand animals. The Ministry of Agricultureand Food Security is perceived to the beresponsible body to coordinate invasivespecies programme but the coordination has

not been effective and as a resultimplementation of invasive speciesprogramme continue to be fragmentedalong the sector.In response to Article 8 (h) of the CBD,which calls on parties to prevent theintroduction of, control or eradicate, thosealien species which threaten ecosystems,habitats, or species, Malawi started variousnational initiatives and programmes whichhave largely based on the concepts ofclassical biological control that seek torecreate an ecological balance in the newenvironment between an alien invasivespecies and its natural enemies. Examples ofsuch initiatives are the control of (i)Aleurothrixus plocosis (in citrus fruit trees),(ii) Monoinchelus tanagoe (in cassava) iii)Prostephanis truncatus (which attacks storedgrain), (iv) Tetramychis evancea (whichattacks tomatoes and potatoes) (v) Cinaracupressi, Eulachnus rileyi and Pineus boerneri(conifer aphids which attack Mulanje cedarand other conifer trees, (vi) Chilo partellus(the spotted stem borer).Private sector participation in prevention,control and eradication of invasive species isminimal and often triggered by economiclosses the invasive species pose on theirbusinesses. For example, the ElectricitySupply Commission of Malawi (ESCOM)has recently intensified manual removal ofwater weeds along upper shire river as oneway of protecting the hydropower stations.Further programmes havemainly beenproject oriented. Both the Blantyre andLilongwe city assemblies are also involvedin manual removal of the Kariba weedSalvinia molesta that is threatening theirwater reservoirs.

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Current Management

Summary of issuesInvasive alien species pose serious threats toecosystem functioning and the survival ofindigenous species in many natural areas.Problems of invasive species are pervasive

and widespread, and in many cases theinvasive species are increasing in bothnumber and distribution. The cost of theircontrol is high, and insufficient resources

currently limit control efforts. Theseproblems may be due to the fact that there isscientific uncertainty about theenvironmental, social and economic riskposed by a potentially invasive alienspecies. This coupled with the lack ofcertainty about the long-term implication ofan invasion are the reason why eradication,containment or control measures against theintroduction of potentially invasive alienspecies are often delayed or postponed.Current programmes are uncoordinated,none cost effective and do not give priorityto prevention of introductions. This is madeworse by current weak border control andquarantine measures and inadequatehuman and infrastructure capacity toeffectively implement and coordinateprogrammes.Institutional framework and policies thatwould have facilitated control and spread ofpotentially invasive species within Malawiand between its neighbours are not in place.This is compounded by unavailability ofguidelines and procedures for riskassessment, economic and social impactassessment that are required as part of theevaluation process before a decision is madeon whether or not to authorize a proposedintroduction. Unavailability of a designatedorganisation to coordinate invasive speciesprogrammes means that sectoral activities,such as fisheries, agriculture, forestry,

horticulture, construction projects,landscaping, ornamental aquaculture andtourism which are potential sources ofunintentional introductions of alien invasivespecies are very often not subjected torigorous study and assessments.Although recognizing that research andmonitoring are key to early detection of newalien species, Malawi’s capacity toundertake such research which among otherthings should concentrate on documentingthe history of invasions (origin, pathwaysand time-period), characteristics of the alieninvasive species, ecology of the invasion,and the associated ecological and economicimpacts and how they change over time isrudimentary. As a result of this, informationon invasive species is often scattered aboutand incomplete and does not contribute todecision making regarding actions to betaken in the context of any prevention,introduction and mitigation activities onalien species that have potential to threatenecosystems, habitats or species.Education and public awarenessprogrammes of the risks associated with theintroduction of alien species, includingmitigation measures, are not in place. Thuslocal communities and appropriate sectorgroups are not aware of the impact of theinvasive species. This may have contributedto the lack of public participation in currentinvasive species programmes.

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Action PlanObjective 6.1 Eradication, prevention andcontrol of invasive speciesStrategy 6.1.1 Develop a balanced andobjective nation-wide invasive speciesmanagement plan to facilitate coordinationand cooperation among agencies butmindful of the fact that there are manyfrequently competing public and privateinterests.Actions(a) Produce a comprehensive inventory

of invasive species and evaluatetheir economic, social andenvironmental impacts.

(b) Develop invasive speciesmanagement plans that place muchemphasis on prevention ofintroductions, control anderadication of invasive species.

(c) Develop systems and tools foreffective monitoring and evaluationof invasive species.

(d) Develop and create mechanisms tocoordinate and manage invasivespecies programmes which focusoninvasive species prevention,eradication, research andenforcement.

Key players: FD, DoF, MoA&FS, UNIMA,MZUNI, FRIM, DNPW. EAD, NHBG,MoIWD, ESCOM, WESM, MMCT, NGOs.Strategy 6.1.2 Develop mechanisms toprevent the introduction and establishmentof new invasive species and identify currentand potential conditions that promoteintroduction of new invasive species.Actions(a) Strengthen and introduce border

control and quarantine measures toensure that intentional introductionsare subject to appropriateauthorisation.

(b) Produce and develop trainingprogrammes for border controlofficers including focusing on acomprehensive list of invasivespecies in Malawi and surroundingcountries.

(c) Develop programmes, procedures andguidelines for risk assessment andmanagement for first timeintroduced species.

(d) Develop and implement rapidresponse procedures appropriate forthe prevention of new and potentialinvasive species.

Key Players: FD, DoF, MoA&FS, UNIMA,MZUNI, FRIM, DNPW. EAD, NHBG,WESM, MMCT.Strategy 6.1.3 Develop cost effectiveinvasive species management programmes.Actions(a) Conduct needs assessment studies

and develop effective managementprogrammes on prioritized areas.

(b) Identify invasive species problemsand recommend managementactions to private landowners,NGOs and governmentdepartments.

(c) Develop methodologies to monitor,prevent and arrest the spread ofinvasive species in shared

ecosystems, including earlydetection and coordinatedmanagement efforts at thecommunity, national and regionallevels.

Key Players: FD, DoF, MoA&FS, UNIMA,MZUNI, FRIM, MRA, DNPW, EAD, NHBG,NGOs, MoLGRD.Objective 6.2 Public awareness andcommunity participationStrategy 6.2.1 Promote awareness of thethreat to biological diversity and relatedecosystem goods and services posed byinvasive species.Actions(a) Develop guidelines and implement a

coordinated public awarenesscampaign programme about theimpact of invasive species.

(b) Develop and compile nationaldatabase of invasive species,identification guides and makeavailable the information to thestakeholders.

(c) Strengthen the capacity of and provideappropriate support to mediaorganisations to participate ininformation dissemination in closecollaboration with local communitiesand private sector about the impact ofinvasive species.

(d) Provide support to educationinstitutions to incorporate into theircurricula issues of invasive species,emphasizing identification,prevention and eradication.

(e) Support the involvement of allstakeholders especially the privatesector, local communities as well asgovernment departments and policymakers in alien invasive speciesmanagement programmes.

Key Players: FD, DoF, MoA&FS, UNIMA,MZUNI, FRIM, MRA, DNPW. EAD, NHBG,NGOs, MoLGRD.

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Objective 6.3 Improved human andinfrastructure capacityStrategy 6.3.1 Enhance and facilitatecoordinated research and monitoring ofinvasive alien species.Actions(a) Assess the degree of success and

movement of invasive species byusing quantitative assessmentmethods and develop maps ofdistribution of the most importantinvasive species.

(b) Conduct research on characterization ofinvasive species; vulnerability ofecosystems and habitats; environmental,social and economic implications;prevention, control and eradicationmethodologies; and use the results toproduce research guidelines.

(c) Review research needs on invasivespecies and formulate and implementa prioritized research agenda.

(d) Review human, institutional andnational capacity to facilitate results-oriented research on invasive species.

(e) Promote community-based researchespecially promoting the use oftraditional knowledge in thedevelopment and implementation ofmeasures to address invasive speciesproblems.

(f) Strengthen and broaden existinggoverning agencies and authoritiesand train staff to effectivelyimplement and coordinate nationalinvasive species programmes.

Key Players: FD, DoF, MoA&FS, UNIMA,MZUNI, FRIM, DNPW. EAD, NHBG,NRCM, MMCT.Objective 6.4 Strengthen policies, legaland institutional frameworkStrategy 6.4.1 Review relevant policies,legislation and institutions and asappropriate adjust or develop enablingpolicies, legislation and institutions.

Actions(a) Harmonise sectoral rules and

regulations relevant to invasivespecies and use the information toformulate policy and legislation forthe control of introductions,movement and management of alieninvasive species.

(b) Establish an institution or strengthenan existing one to coordinate andimplement the policy frameworkespecially to coordinate research,management and eradication of alieninvasive species.

Key Players: EAD, FD, DoF, MoA&FS, MoJ,MZUNI, UNIMA, MoWD, WESM, NHBG,CBOs, NGOs.

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Malawi has no comprehensive structuraland legal framework for the conservation ofbiodiversity but rather follows a sectoralapproach focus. Most of the sectoral policiesand legislation have been reviewed to beconsistent with NEP and EMA. The mainfeatures of the National EnvironmentalPolicy and sectoral policies and acts aredescribed below.The National Environmental Policy (NEP)The NEP was adopted in 1996 in order topromote sustainable social and economicdevelopment through sound managementof the environment. It provides an overallframework against which relevant sectoralenvironmental policies can be developedand revised to ensure that these areconsistent with the principle of sustainabledevelopment. However, as a result of policygaps, conflicts and duplication, which haveadversely affected effective implementation

of the policy, the 1996 NEP has been revised.The revision was necessary to ensure thatthe NEP remains current and responsive tonew challenges and incorporates lessonslearned. The revised NEP contains a sectionon the conservation of biological diversity,which is general in nature. It seeks tomanage, conserve and utilise biologicaldiversity (ecosystems, genetic resources andspecies) for the preservation of nationalheritage. It also contains sections, whichdeal specifically with fisheries, and parksand wildlife among other things and thesecontain strategies on conservation of specificspecies. However, the NEP does not includea section which deals specifically withconservation of species.The NEP is backed by the EnvironmentManagement Act (EMA), which wasenacted in 1996 in order to remove the lackof an overarching statute providing generalenvironmental protection. Sectoral policies

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Theme Seven: Biodiversity Policies and LegislationScopeGovernment continues to facilitate broad based policy direction and national guidance forconservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.

Desired outcome by 2020(a) Roles of government, NGOs and the private sector in biodiversity conservation and

sustainable use have been identified, defined and prioritised.(b) Biodiversity objectives as defined in the NEP and relevant sections of international

conventions and treaties have been reviewed and incorporated into all sectoralpolicies and legislation.

(c) Government has mandated a technical department under an independentEnvironmental Protection Authority to implement and enforce biodiversity policiesand legislation.

(d) Significant political will has been created leading to a significant improvedgovernment leadership in fulfilling international conventions and treaties.

(e) Increased public awareness of various biodiversity-related policies and legislation.(f) Significant progress is made to identify and harmonise conflicting and

non-complementing sectoral policies.

State of biodiversity policy and legislation

therefore (e.g. policies on land, water,fisheries, waste, forestry) are required to beconsistent with the National EnvironmentalPolicy. The EMA makes provisions forpreparation of NEAP, conducting of EIAs,control of pollution and discharge of waste,and also has provision for the establishmentof environmental protection areas andconservation of biological diversity, accessto genetic resources, waste managementand protection of the ozone layer. The Act,however, lacks provision for the protectionof endangered species. In view of this, thereis need to include in the Act issues ofendangered species such as list ofendangered species, designated criticalhabitats, regulations for access andutilisation of endangered species andpenalties.The Forestry ActThe principal legislation that governsforestry matters is the Forestry Act[No. 11 of 1997], which provides forparticipatory forestry, forest management,forestry research, forestry education,forestry industries, protection andrehabilitation of environmentally fragileareas and international cooperation inforestry. The Act has provisions relating toco-management of forest areas such thatlocal communities can assist in theimplementation of a mutually acceptablemanagement plan.One major weakness of the Act is that it wasdeveloped without extensive consultationand without specific reference to EMA. Itmay be necessary to harmonize the twoActs, particularly with regard to provisionsrelating to declaration and revocation offorest reserves and environmental impactassessment. There is also need to harmonizethe Forestry Act with Land Act, theElectricity Act (Cap. 73:01], the LocalGovernment Act and the National Parks andWildlife Act [No. 11 of 1992] since theirprovisions affect, directly or otherwise,forestry issues. For example, the LocalGovernment Act gives powers to localauthorities to carry out reafforestation

programmes and manage forests in theirareas of jurisdiction. It appears that thesepowers may be exercised independent ofand exclusive from the Department ofForestry. Such uncoordinated cross-sectoralresponsibilities cannot be properly executedand possibly account for the fact that thesestatutory provisions have largely remainedunenforced.The National Forestry Policy (NFP) wasadopted in 1996 in order to address problemareas contained in the Forestry Act such asnon recognition of individuals orcommunities to own, manage and utiliseforest resources and inadequate frameworkto encourage private sector involvement inforest conservation for the benefit of thenation by:● Allowing all citizens to have

regulated and monitored access tosome forest products;

● Contributing towards improving thequality of life in the ruralcommunities and providing stableeconomy; and

● Establishing appropriate incentivesthat will promote community-basedconservation and sustainable use offorest resource as a means of povertyreduction.

The National Fisheries and AquaculturePolicy (NFAP)The fisheries and aquaculture policy wasadopted in 2001 in order to improve theefficiency of all aspects of the nationalfisheries industry, the production andsupply of existing fisheries products, as wellas development of new products to satisfylocal demands and potential export markets.The policy thus aims at controlling andmonitoring fishing activities to enhancequality of life for fishing communities.The principal statute governing fisheries isthe Fisheries Conservation andManagement Act, 1997, which seeks tostrengthen institutional capacity byinvolving various other stakeholders in

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the management of fisheries, includingthe private sector, local communities andnon-governmental organizations. The Actpromotes community participation in theprotection of fish and provides for theestablishment and operation of aquaculture.The establishment of aquaculture is animportant step in order to reduce pressureon natural fisheries. It is noteworthy,however, that the Act does not provide forany incentives to aquaculture farmers toencourage them to engage in fish farming.The National Wildlife Policy (NWP)The policy was adopted in 2000 with a goalto ensure proper conservation andmanagement of wildlife resources in orderto provide for sustainable utilization andequitable access to the resources and fairsharing of the benefits from the resourcesfor both present and future generations ofMalawi. To achieve this goal the policyseeks to:● Adequately protect representative

ecosystems and their biologicaldiversity through adoptingsustainable land managementpractices;

● Raise public awareness andappreciation of the importance ofwildlife conservation andmanagement;

● Provide enabling legal framework tocontrol poaching;

● Encourage wildlife-basedenterprises; and

● Develop a cost-effective legal,administrative and institutionalframework for managing wildliferesources.

The principal legislation dealing withmanagement of wildlife resources is theNational Parks and Wildlife Act [No. 11 of1992], which repealed the Game Act, theCrocodile Act, the Wild Birds Protection Actand the National Parks Act. The Actprovides for wildlife management,including identification of species which

should be designated for protection. It alsohas provisions in section 28 to declare anyarea of land or water within Malawi as anational park or wildlife reserve.The national parks and wildlife amendmentbill, now before parliament, is a legalexpression of the wildlife policy adopted in2000. In particular, the amendment bill seeksto:● Promote community and private

sector participation in themanagement of wildlife resources;

● Provide for stiffer penalties;● Promote international cooperation;● Promote equitable sharing of

benefits; and● Promote general stakeholder

participation.Water Resources PolicyThe 1994 Water Resources ManagementPolicy (WRMP) placed much emphasis onprovision of portable water but failed toaddress issues pertaining to waterresource monitoring, assessment andimplementation of strategic plans. Thesedeficiencies are addressed in the draftWater Resources Management Policy of2004. The draft policy, however, does notprovide policy guidelines for theconservation and sustainable use of aquaticbiodiversity.The management of water resources has tocontend with two distinct though relatedissues: provision of wholesome supply andthe removal and disposal of contaminatedliquid wastes and in that regard has abearing on waste management. The WaterResources Act, 1969 is the major statutedealing with management of waterresources. The Act is intended to makeprovision for the control, conservation,apportionment and use of water resourcesof Malawi.National Land Resources Management Policyand Strategy

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The policy was approved in 2000 in order topromote the efficient, diversified andsustainable use of land-based resources bothfor agriculture and other uses. In addition,the policy was put in place in order to avoidsectoral land use conflicts and enhancesustainable socio-economic growth for theconservation of biodiversity in objectivesdealing with technology development inland management. The objectives includethe development of technologies that areeconomically viable, ecologically sound andsocio-culturally acceptable, especially inenvironmentall fragile areas such as steepslopes, stream banks, watershed areas,swamps anddambos; and the promotion ofthe management, conservation andutilization of natural resources in order toensure sustainable land and ecosystemproductivity. The National Land ResourcesManagement Policy, however, is verybroad, does not offer a radically newapproach to solve land use problems and assuch is considered unremarkable.Land in Malawi is administered and

regulated under a set of sectoral Actspresented in Box 4.The National Herbarium and BotanicGardens ActThe Act was established in 1987 andprovides for the development andmanagement of herbarium and botanicgardens as national heritage for Malawi and

the establishment of the NationalHerbarium & Botanic Gardens of Malawi.Among other things the NHBG wasestablished to:● Establish herbaria and botanic

gardens as a centre for assemblage,growth, curation and classificationof plants of Malawi;

● Conduct investigations and researchinto the science of plants and relatedsubjects and disseminate the results;

● Provide advice, instructions andeducation in relation to thoseaspects of the science of plants; and

● Keep the collections as nationalreference collections and ensure thatcollections are available to interestedpersons for the purposes of study.

Other policies and LegislationAlthough Malawi has sector policies andlegislation dealing with endemic andendangered species, including those relatingto forestry, fisheries and wildlife, there is

need, however, to provide forharmonization of these toensure that they achievesimilar objectives and there iscross sector coordination.Further, Malawi has no policyor legislation specificallydealing with community,farmers and breeders rightsfor plant and animal geneticresources as they relate to foodand agriculture. A draft plantvariety bill is underconsideration in the Ministryof Agriculture and FoodSecurity. It is necessary thatthis policy framework bedeveloped, includingregulation of intellectualproperty rights.

Malawi is also party to a number ofinternational and regional treaties andconventions some of which are highlightedin Theme Eleven (Malawi's Role in GlobalBiodiversity Conservation). Efforts havebeen made to integrate provisions from

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Box 4 Legislation associated with land management andbiodiversity1. Land Act [Cap. 57:01]2. Registered Land Act [Cap. 58:01]3. Land Acquisition Act [Cap 58:04]4. Land Surveys Act [Cap. 59:03]5. Customary Land (Development) Act [Cap. 59:02]6. Adjudication of Title Act [No. 18 of 1971]7. Town and Country Planning Act [Cap. 23:01]8. Local Government Act (No. 42 of 1998]9. Mines and Mineral Act [No. 18 of 1971]10. Petroleum (Exploration and Production) Act [Cap. 61:02]11. Public Health Act [Cap. 43:01]12. Tobacco Act [Cap. 65:02]13. Plant Protection Act [Cap. 64:01]14. Public Roads Act [Cap 69:02]15. Control of Goods Act

international and regional conventions intothe national laws and policies.Objective 7.1 Strengthen policies andlegislationStrategy 7.1.1 Develop biodiversity policyand actActions(a) Provide strategic direction and

guidance to review and harmoniserelevant policies and legislation anddevelop a broad based Biodiversitypolicy.

(b) Study and assess the existing policiesand revise them accordingly, paying

particular attention to incorporatingemerging international and regionalconventions and obligations.

(c) Evaluate and strengthen of existinglaws and policies to address issues ofendemic biodiversity, access andbenefit sharing, indigenousknowledge and intellectual propertyrights.

(d) Develop appropriate mechanismsfor co-existence of the customaryand statute laws given the difficultyto combine the implementation ofthe two types of laws especially inrelation to property rights.

(e) Review and harmonise existing

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Current ManagementEnforcement and implementation ofpolicies and legislation dealing withbiodiversity conservation is fragmentedalong the Energy and Natural Resourcesdepartments (agriculture, lands, forestry,water, fisheries, national parks and wildlifeetc). These sectors are responsible to ensurethat their sectoral policies, plans, strategiesand programmes are in line with EMA and

NEP. The Ministry of Mines, NaturalResources and Environment through theEAD is responsible for the coordination ofthe cross-sectoral environment and naturalresources programmes through a networkof stakeholders and a number ofcoordinating committees such as theNational Council for Environment andNational Biodiversity Committee.

Summary of issuesBy engaging in an environmental policyreview and reform process Malawi isresponding to her obligations under theConvention on Biological Diversity, theCartagena Protocol on Biosafety, the WorldTrade Organization Trade Related aspectsof Intellectual Property Rights(WTO/TRIPS) and the International Treatyon Plant Genetic Resources for Food andAgriculture. In this respect the AU ModelLegislation on Community, Farmers andBreeders Rights provides useful guidelinesfor domesticating these internationalinstruments in the context of the peculiarneeds of developing countries in generaland the African countries in particular. Inaddition this policy process is indicative of

Malawi’s overall commitment to provideguided direction for conservation andsustainable use of biodiversity. However,for effective monitoring andimplementation of environmental policiesthere is need to strengthen the capacity ofinstitutions in terms of infrastructure andhuman capacity and develop an effectivemechanism with such institutions tomonitor and implement policies andregulations related to biodiversityconservation and sustainable use.Furthermore there is also need to develop acomprehensive policy framework for thebiodiversity sector. This will promote amore coordinated implementation ofconservation activities.

Action Plan

policies and legislation and integrateinternational conventions andtreaties and customary laws intonational laws and policies.

Key Players: EAD, NRCM, MoMNRE, MoJ,MoLGRD, MoLPPS, NHBG, MoA&FS.Objective 7.2 Strengthen Institutionalcapacities of biodiversity sectorsStrategy 7.2.1 Provide mechanisms tostrengthen institutional infrastructure andhuman capacity to monitor and implementenvironmental policies and legislation.Actions(a) Strengthen environmental education

especially in the areas ofenvironmental law, economics andscience.

(b) Undertake training and communityawareness campaigns on access andbenefit sharing and biodiversityrelated intellectual property rights.

(c) Establish alternative enforcementmechanisms, which will minimiseresource expenditure and encourageclose collaboration between sectors.

(d) Enhance enforcement of biodiversitysector agencies including the police,judiciary, immigration and customsand excise authorities.

(e) Provide policy guidelines forcreation and strengthening offinancing mechanisms forbiodiversity programmes throughthe national budget.

(f) Promote enforcement andcompliance to policy, legislation andinternational conventions throughthe creation and empowerment of anindependent Environmental

Protection Agency.Key Players: MoE, EAD, MoMNEA, MoJ,NRCM, NHBG, MoA&FS.

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The Malawi government recognises thatenvironmental education is the major andremedial and preventative measure of thecurrent environmental. This is confirmed bythe NEP of 1996 revised in 2004, which seeksto promote sustainable social and economicdevelopment through, among other things,enhanced public and political awarenessand understanding of the need forsustainable environmental protection,conservation and management. Followingthe publication of the Environmental Policy,sectoral policies affecting biodiversity suchas the Forestry; Fisheries and Aquaculture;and the National Parks and Wildlifepolicies, were amended to includeprovisions that encourage communityparticipation and provision of appropriateincentives that will promote communitybased natural resources management.

To enhance public awareness andcompliance, the government of Malawi in1996 put in place a national environmentaleducation and communication strategywhose main objective is to raise publicconsciousness to the complexity of naturalresources management at all levels. Guidedby environmental strategic planning, a widerange of environmental education activities(from formal to informal) are beingundertaken by different organizations.Informal environmental education isundertaken by the civil society, such as theWESM, COMPASS, and CURE. Through itswide network of clubs whose membershipmostly comprise the youth, WESM isassisting the government instil theenvironmental culture in the youth ofMalawi, through distribution of leaflets,CBNRM activities, etc. Government

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Theme Eight: Community Participation and AwarenessScopeThe involvement and participation of the private and public sectors, communitiesand NGOs in the conservation sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefit ofbiological diversity appreciated and understood.

Desired outcome by 2020(a) Communities participate in planning, management and implementation of

biodiversity programmes and law enforcement through natural resourcescommunity associations.

(b) Primary, secondary and tertiary curricula revised and strengthened toincorporate issues of biodiversity conservation and sustainable use.

(c) The public, especially the children, are more aware of the value of biodiversitythrough schools and community programmes.

(d) Local stakeholders including researchers, professionals and private resourcemanagers have adequate information about biodiversity in their areas andthat indigenous knowledge is incorporated into biodiversity managementprogrammes.

(e) The private sector actively participates in biodiversity conservation andsustainable use through provision of adequate financial resources at the localcommunity level.

(f) Guidelines and programmes for gender and HIV/AIDs mainstreaming inBiodiversity conservation are promoting participatory and appropriateresearch.

State of community participation and awareness

departments such as the EnvironmentalAffairs Department, Fisheries Department,and Forestry Department reach out tovarious stakeholders through radio andtelevision programmes, sensitisation andtraining sessions of focus groups such asjournalists, artists, club patrons, politiciansand local leaders, or through CBNRMactivities. Sensitisation of journalistsresulted in the establishment of Forum forEnvironmental Communicators (FECO) in1999 and Coalition of Journalists forEnvironment and Agriculture (COJEA) in2003. These forums have improved thecapacity of the print and electronic media toincreasingly disseminate environmentalinformation to the public and thereforecontribute to informed decision makingabout the wise use and management ofbiodiversity and other natural resources.Formal education institutions (e.g.Chancellor College, Bunda College, thePolytechnic, Mzuzu University) haveintroduced new courses in environmentwhich are offered at bachelors and

Implementation of environmental educationand community participation programmesare the responsibility of government sectorsdealing with environmental managementsuch as Agriculture, Water, Forestry,National Parks and Wild Life. In line withthe requirements of NEP most sectoralpolicies and legislation were revised andnow have provisions for communityparticipation. The existing nationalinstitutional framework for environmentaleducation and community participation iscoordinated by the Ministry of Mines,Natural Resources and Environmentthrough the EAD. Within the EADenvironmental education is coordinatedthrough Education and Outreach section.In line with the decentralisation programmevarious mechanisms have been establishedto promote community participation at thelocal level. At the Assembly level naturalresources management is facilitated through

the District Executive Committee, especiallythe District Environment Sub-Committee(DESC) a technical sub-committee toprovide advice to DEC. At the local level thethere are Area Development Committeesthat facilitate community led planning andimplementation of projects and alsopromotescommunity participation in natural resourcesmanagement. The decentralisationprogramme therefore has provisions forempowerment of local communities toactively participate in environmentalmanagement and the institutions createdunder it, providing viable mechanism forthe integration of environmental concernsidentified at local levels into district plansthen into national plans.The Department of Local Government is thekey institution to the implementation ofdecentralisation programme and as such hasestablished Environmental Unit, whichassists and advises all Local Authorities on

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masters levels. The secondary and primaryschool curricula, incorporate elements ofenvironmental education in the syllabi.However, teaching and learning materialsare very limited, teacher training courseshave not yet been reviewed to integrateenvironmental issues and the teachers in thefield are not oriented to enable themeffectively teach environmental educationin the carrier subjects.The legal requirement of stakeholder andpublic consultations in the preparationprocess of environmental impactassessment (EIA) for prescribed projects iscontributing to the raising of environmentalawareness. For instance, through publichearing on proposed development projectssupported by either government, NGOs aswell as the Malawi Social Action Fund(MASAF), communities are made aware ofenvironmental issues affecting them and theimportance of their effective participation inaddressing environmental problems.

Current Management

By putting in place various environmentalprogrammes, Malawi is moving toward theright direction to implement Article 13 ofthe Convention on Biological Diversity onPublic education and awareness. Thesuccessful implementation of thisprogramme, however, will depend on theactive involvement of the people and theircommitments to biodiversity conservation.Major issues relating to communityparticipation and awareness include:● Much indigenous knowledge about

Malawi’s biodiversity among the localcommunities remains untapped withthe exception of a few loose linkageswith a limited number of herbalists.Most of this indigenous knowledge ispassed on orally from generation togeneration and unless there is adeliberate attempt to document thissome of it is likely to be lost.

● There exists in Malawi a wide rangeof cultural beliefs and practices thathave over the years contributedtowards conservation of certaincomponents of biodiversity.However, these are not wellunderstood, not adequatelydocumented and not incorporatedinto the current environmentalmanagement programmes.

● Despite all the available policies andlegislation dealing with biodiversityconservation, Malawi still experiencesenvironmental degradation, which islinked to unsustainable use of naturalresources. This is due in part to thelack of general understanding andappreciation by the communities ofthe importance of biodiversity insustaining life. This is alsocompounded by low literacy rate and

use of English as the official languagefor documenting policies, legislation,plans and reports that limitcommunity participation especially inplanning, monitoring, andimplementation of environmentalprogrammes and enforcement ofenvironmental laws.

● Government departments (e.g.Forestry, Fisheries, Lands,Agriculture, National Parks andWildlife) and NGOs such as WESMare involved in a number of formaland informal environmentaleducation initiatives, but theprogrammes are not well coordinatedand integrated, therefore, not mosteffective, resulting in duplication ofeffort and fragmentary informationdistribution. There is, therefore, needto mainstream biodiversity conceptsinto broader environmental educationprogrammes and to makebiodiversity information morerelevant to the people's local needs.Existing environmental educationcurricula need to be reviewed andwhere necessary develop new ones totarget the youth.

● There is limited involvement ofthe private sector in environmentalmanagement in general andbiodiversity conservationprogrammes in particular, which iscompounded in part by limited accessto biodiversity information, lack ofappreciation of the relevance ofbiodiversity to their business and theimpact of their activities on the localbiodiversity.

● Although National EnvironmentalPolicy provides for mechanisms for

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matters of the environment. The EAD,on the other hand, is responsible for thecoordination of the cross-sectoralenvironment and natural resources

management. Co-ordination Unit for theRehabilitation of the Environment(CURE) coordinated implementation ofNGO environmental education.

Summary of issues

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Objective 8.1 Raise awareness on the valueof biodiversityStrategy 8.1.1 Raise the appreciation of thecommunities on the value of biodiversity insustaining life.Actions(a) Develop, revise and coordinate the

implementation of an effectivepublic awareness strategy.

(b) Make information aboutbiodiversity available to people bydeveloping, promoting andimplementing an effectiveinformation exchange and sharingstrategy.

(c) Develop a public awarenessprogramme about Malawi's lesserknown ecosystems, habitats andspecies that are of biodiversityconservation importance.

(d) Prepare simple extension messages,visual aids, radio programmes onthe conservation and wise use ofbiodiversity for dissemination tostakeholders.

Key Players: MoA&FS, MoNRE, MoH,WESM, CURE, NHBG, UNIMA, VNRMC,MoLGRD, MZUNI, MMCT, NGOs.Objective 8.2 Strengthen linkages betweenstakeholders on biodiversity conservationand sustainable useStrategy 8.2.1 Strengthen the participationof communities and the private sector asequal partners in biodiversity conservationand sustainable use and equitable sharing ofbenefits.Actions(a) Involve communities, NGOs and the

Private Sector in international andlocal negotiations in order to ensurethat indigenous knowledge is notsubject to political manipulation andis not lost through excessivebureaucracy.

(b) Promote the involvement of the localcommunities, local leaders andNGOs in decision-making regardingthe management of biologicaldiversity and ecosystems throughvillage natural resourcesmanagement committees.

(c) Promote and support establishmentof local groups and associations onsustainable use of natural resourcesand promote communityparticipation in biodiversityresearch.

(d) Develop training guidelines andprogrammes for communityparticipation and strengthening.

Key Players: MoJ, MoMNRE, WESM,CURE, MoA&FS, FD, DoF, EAD, NGOs,CBOs, MoLGRD, Museums of Malawi,MMCT.Objective 8.3 Biodiversity knowledgebase in education system improvedStrategy 8.3.1 Promote and strengthen theteaching of biodiversity in Malawi’seducation system.Actions(a) Instil biodiversity culture in the youth

of Malawi by developing guidelineson environmental education and byreviewing and developing newcurricula for schools so that issues ofbiodiversity are addressed throughfolk stories and textbook readings.

ICUCN Netcab, however a process todevelop an Environmental Education Policywas initiated but the policy is yet to befinalised.

the implementation of environmentaleducation and public participation, Malawidoes not have a stand alone EnvironmentalEducation Policy. With support from

Action Plan

(b) Establish, promote and support in-service training programmes forteachers and assist traininginstitutions identify theirenvironmental education needs andstrategies.

(c) Promote informal biological diversityeducation programmes throughcommunity natural resourcesmanagement programmes, outreachprogrammes and adult literacyprogrammes.

Key Players: MoE, MoLVT, EAD, UNIMA,MZUNI, MoLG&RD, WESM, DNPW,NHBG, Museums of Malawi, FD, DoF,NRC, MMCT.Objective 8.4 Mainstream HIV/AIDS andgenderStrategy 8.4.1 Integrate issues of Genderand HIV/AIDs in biodiversity programmes,policies and practices.Actions(a) Address socio-economic and

cultural obstacles that posechallenges in biodiversityconservation and equitable sharingof benefits.

(b) Involve communities in gender andHIV/AIDs awareness in order topromote participation in biologicalconservation and promote theinvolvement of women inbiodiversity programmes.

(c) Address the impacts of HIV/AIDson biodiversity and initiate researchon how biodiversity can best bemanaged amidst HIV/AIDspandemic.

(d) Integrate issues of HIV/AIDs andgender and biodiversityconservation into the schoolcurricula.

Key Players: EAD, FD, MoA&FS, DNPW,DOF, NAC, NGOs, MZUNI, UNIMA,CBOs, VNRMC

Objective 8.5 Strengthen policies, legaland institutional frameworksStrategy 8.5.1 Provide enabling policy, legaland institutional frameworks forEnvironmental Education and PublicAwareness.Actions(a) Strengthen and establish

mechanisms for effectivecoordination, monitoring andimplementation of environmentaleducation and public awarenessprogrammes.

(b) Develop an enabling policy onenvironmental education and publicawareness and integrate issues ofEnvironmental education intoexisting sectoral policies andstrategies.

(c) Develop guidelines andprogrammes for enhanced existinginstitutional capacity includingenvironmental focal points andcoordination units.

Key Players: EAD, WESM, MoLG&RD, FD,DOF, DNPW, NHBG, CURE, MoA&FS.

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Desired outcome by 2020(a) Biodiversity information is readily available and in a format and language most

appropriate to the end user.(b) Inventories of Malawi's taxonomic groups maintained and regularly updated to

facilitate efficient monitoring and identification of biodiversity.(c) Sufficient progress is made in filling the existing scientific information gaps in the

following areas: species identification and classification, natural products researchincluding medicinal plants, ecosystems management and systematics.

(d) Noticeable progress in the collection, classification, identification and management ofbiological collections of different taxonomic groups, with emphasis on understudiedtaxonomic groups, such as invertebrates, leading to accurate identification of croppests and to improved food security.

(e) Guidelines and mechanisms for information sharing and exchange are enhancinginformation sharing between institutions and organisations.

Theme Nine: Information, Knowledge and CapacityScopeThe provision of adequate information, knowledge and capacity for theconservation and sustainable use, and sharing of benefits arising from the use, of

Malawi has a number of differentbiodiversity information sources in form ofgray and published literature, databasesand biological collections. Literature on thebiodiversity of Malawi is particularlyinadequate although available informationshows that a considerable amount of studyand research has been carried out in thecountry over the past 135 years. Results ofthe research were either published inforeign journals or are unpublished and assuch are inaccessible to users. In order toaddress these problems and improve onavailability, accessibility and informationflow at national level, Cabinet in 1996approved a policy on library,documentation and information services.Despite being broad and comprehensive,and advocating and recognizing theimportance of information technology,communication patterns and indigenousknowledge systems, the policy was neveradopted. Government is in the process of

developing an Information andCommunication Technology Policy (ICT) toguide the utilization and development ofICT to enhance information access, sharingand dissemination.Biological collections, such as herbariumspecimens, living and zoological collections,and museum specimens are a primarysource of taxonomic, ecological andbiodiversity information. The NationalHerbarium maintains over 100,000 plantspecimens of which 50% have beendatabased. A representative sample ofMalawi's mammals, birds, reptiles andinvertebrates are housed at the NationalMuseums. It would appear, however, thatmost collections are in foreign museumsand are inaccessible to local users.Specimens of fishes of Malawi are housed atthe Fisheries Research Unit, Monkey Bay.Presently, the major invertebratecollections, each containing 10,000-20,000

State of information, knowledge and capacity

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(insect) specimens, are housed with theBvumbwe Agriculture Research Station, theDepartment of Biology, Chancellor College,and the Forestry Research Institute ofMalawi. Other institutions, such as theMuseums of Malawi; Crop SciencesDepartment, Bunda College; MakokaResearch Station; and Chitedze AgriculturalResearch Station, have smaller but stillvaluable collections.Malawi’s biological collections are often notwell managed, misidentified and arescattered about. In addition the informationcontained on specimen labels is in a formatnot easily accessible to users and henceunavailable to the users.Most of Malawi's biodiversity informationhas never been consolidated, repackagedand made available to the users. Apart froma few checklists of selected taxonomic

groups the biological collections have neverbeen databased and this forces users tophysically visit the institutions. This hasbeen one of the factors that have affectedinformation exchange and sharing betweenand among institutions at the national,regional and international levels. Inaddition unresolved concerns on issues ofIntellectual Property Rights (IPR),inadequate terms and procedures forinformation exchange and data sharing, andlack of fully fledged data standards andclassification systems that are applicable tocustodians of biodiversity information,have affected data exchange and sharing.Information on Malawi’s biodiversitywould certainly be effectively shared andexchanged if some of the information wasavailable on line or in designatedinformation centers such as exiting nationallibraries.

Current managementManagement of biodiversity and its relatedinformation in Malawi is the responsibilityof specific government departments andinstitutions such as fisheries, forestry,national parks, agriculture and landsalthough much emphasis is placed on theconservation of the biodiversity and verylittle is done to manage the information,literature and biological collections. This isevidenced by the lack of provisions withinthe existing policies pertaining tomanagement of biodiversity informationand associated biological collections. Grayliterature held by these organizations hasnever been consolidated and the institutionsdo not have functional libraries. Theproposed Clearing House Mechanism whenfully operational would assist to collect,manage and disseminate biodiversityinformation. Considering that the CHMwould sometimes be dealing with grayliterature, it might be necessary to developor revise the existing legislation to include

regulation on access to biodiversityinformation and biological collections.Despite the fact that loss of biodiversity ishighlighted in NEAP as one of majorproblems the country is facing, financing ofbiodiversity management activities throughthe national budget is inadequate. Apartfrom the Malawi EnvironmentalEndowment Trust (MEET) and the MulanjeMountain Conservation Trust, there is nomechanism to finance biodiversityprogrammes. The Environment Fund Framedeveloped and approved by Cabinet inSeptember 2003 proposes allocation of thefunds to some environment and naturalresources sectors at national and districtlevels. Ironically, the Environment Fund hasnot included Biodiversity as a sector thatwould get a share of the funds forimplementation of biodiversity activitiesincluding information management.

Malawi through the Science and TechnologyPolicy of 2001 recognizes the importance ofscientific information in socio-economicdevelopment. However, effectiveinformation management, sharing andexchange appear to be affected by some ofthe following factors:Inadequate capacityCurrently institutions holding biodiversityinformation have inadequate capacity inform of infrastructure, human capacity andsustainable financing mechanisms, and assuch are unable to maintain informationsources as part of their work programmes.This has resulted in information materialbeing scattered within the institutions,which makes information gathering,retrieval and selective disseminationdifficult. Efforts must therefore be made to:● Build human capacity capable of

collecting, packaging, interpreting anddissemination biodiversityinformation;

● Build infrastructure capacity in form ofpurpose built herbaria, museums,information centers, researchequipment, etc;

● Strengthen training institutions onbiodiversity research anddissemination; and

● Develop sustainable financingmechanisms to support informationmanagement activities includinginformation dissemination.

Lack of an enabling policyMalawi currently has no clear policy onmanagement of biodiversity informationand as such most activities are haphazardand result in inefficient collection,management and dissemination of qualityscientific information. In addition, theinadequate policy leads to inadequateappreciation by policy makers of the valueof biodiversity information. As a result

inadequate budget allocations towardsherbarium, museums, and library activitiesare made. Policy makers are unable toappreciate the value of Malawi'sbiodiversity because the biological resourceand its diversity has not been systematicallymeasured to determine its economic value.This calls for reliable and credible means ofmeasuring the benefit and costs ofbiodiversity.Lack of information managementstandardsBiodiversity information maintained byvarious institutions is often in a format thatcannot be easily understood and accessedby resource users, and shared between thecustodian institutions. In order to makesuch information available to users there isneed to put in place mechanisms torepackage and or reorganize theinformation and present it in the format andlanguage appropriate to potential users.Malawi's commitment to achieve this ismanifested through its commitment toestablish a Clearing House Mechanism thatis designed to face the challenge of setting anational biodiversity information networkof experts and institutions. The network willimprove information flow and a means forresource sharing and technology transfer atnational, regional and international levels.Thus, the network will endeavor to promoteawareness on the available informationresources and their sources. The networkwill also attempt to sensitize resourcecenters to provide tailor-made services.Inadequate biodiversity informationVery little is known about Malawi'sbiodiversity. In particular there are scientificgaps in the knowledge of taxonomy,distribution, population variations andviability, socio-economic importance,classification and ecosystems functioning.There is therefore need to initiate processesto identify knowledge gaps and recommendways of filling up the gaps.

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Summary of issues

Lack of sustainable financing mechanismsFinancing of biodiversity activitiesincluding biodiversity informationmanagement has tended to depend onexternal sources which are routed throughprojects. The over dependency on externalsources has impinged severely on datacollection, dissemination and distribution ofbiodiversity information as most of theactivities have not continued once

Objective 9.1 Develop Human,infrastructure, financial and institutionalcapacity.Strategy 9.1.1 Build the capacity ofinstitutions to collect, interpret, manage anddisseminate quality and relevantbiodiversity information and biologicalcollections effectively and efficiently.Actions(a) Ensure that herbaria and museums

have adequate infrastructural capacityto collect, classify and identifybiological collections.

(b) Ensure appropriate skills training andeducation to enhance the capacity ofpeople and relevant agencies tomanage biodiversity information andknowledge.

(c) Establish national biodiversityinformation centers using existinginfrastructures such as nationallibraries or other resource centers.

(d) Establish formal and informalcollaborative linkages with regionaland international centers of taxonomicexcellence to ensure accurateidentification, classification andmanagement of biological collectionsand exchange and access to biologicalinformation not available in Malawi.

(e) Ensure that innovative financingmechanisms are established to supportbiodiversity information management

and awareness programmes andensure that the Environment Funddeliberately include a component onsupport to management ofbiodiversity information.

Key Players: NRCM, NHBG, MoMNRE,FRIM, Museums of Malawi, UNIMA,MZUNI, MoA&FS, DISTMS, NSDC.Objective 9.2 Develop Informationsharing mechanisms.Strategy 9.2.1 Develop, consolidate andshare existing and new biodiversityinformation, methods, technologies andmanagement experiences.Actions(a) Document and database existing and

new biodiversity data and informationand make it available to users throughvarious media.

(b) Compile a list of core datasets andestablish metadatabases to capturecore datasets of key biodiversityinformation and make it available inthe national biodiversity informationcenters as pointers to key informationsources.

(c) Establish a standardized informationsystem capable of tracking relevantMalawian biodiversity literaturethrough cross-referencing keywords.

(d) Create, strengthen and implement theexisting CHM institutional structure.

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external support stops. Efforts should bemade to develop innovative financingmechanisms to strengthen existinginstitutions in management of theclearinghouse mechanisms, herbaria,museums and biodiversity informationcenters. The starting point would be toensure that a portion of the EnvironmentalTrust Fund is allocated to biodiversityprogrammes through a biodiversitysecretariat.

Action Plan

(e) Promote the use of ICT in biodiversityinformation management.

Key players: NRCM, NHBG, MoMNRE,Museum of Malawi, UNIMA, MZUNI,MoA&FS, DISTMS, NSDC.Objective 9.3 Strengthen policy, law andinstitutional capacityStrategy 9.3.1 Develop and review existingpolicy and legislation on exchange andsharing of biodiversity scientific knowledge,technologies and management practices.Actions(a) Develop and review the existing

policies for access to biologicalinformation and data including grayliterature, published literature andoral literature and biologicalcollections.

(b) Establish mechanisms for effectiverepatriation of biodiversity data andcollections maintained in foreigninstitutions.

(c) Establish mechanisms for effectivemonitoring and implementation ofpolicies and regulations on sharingand exchange of biodiversityinformation and knowledge.

Key Players: NRCM, MoMNRE, MoA&FS,MoJ, DISTMS, NSDC, LSM.Objective 9.4 Increase scientificknowledge and research capacityStrategy 9.4.1 Identify and fill critical gapsin scientific knowledge, including appliedresearch and coordinate future research toaddress key issues and threats tobiodiversity.Actions(a) Assess knowledge gaps, prioritize

critical research areas requiring urgentattention and identify and motivateappropriate institutions to research onthe prioritized areas.

(b) Develop resources and a system that

promotes coordination of researchactivities and promotion of knowledgesharing.

Key Players: NRCM, NHBG, Museums ofMalawi, UNIMA, MZUNI, MoA&FS, LSM.

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Causes of biodiversity loss appear eitherdirectly or indirectly linked to economicgains of the societies. Therefore, to achievesustainable biodiversity conservation, thereis need to create or develop relevantincentive measures which may be in form ofeconomic, regulatory and investmentincentives.The National Environmental Policy (2004)provides for mechanisms for economicincentives for sustainable environmental insection 3.2. The concept of incentivemeasures in biodiversity conservationhowever is relatively recent and not trueincentive measures in biodiversityconservation have been recorded in Malawi.The only measure that are providing somekind of incentives to the rural communitieson sustainable use of natural resources arethose related to access and benefit sharing.For example, since the late 1990s Malawigovernment has on a pilot basis gone intocollaborative management of forest reserveswith communities living close to the forestreserves. Co-management activities havegiven back to communities some stake inforest conservation and use, have beensource of income to the communitiesthrough sharing of revenues earned from

confiscation of illegal forest produce andincome-generating activities (IGAs) as aneconomic incentive such as bee keeping,guinea fowl rearing and juice making.Another example of CBNRM relatedincentive measures for conservation ofbiodiversity has been through the borderzone project around Nyika-Vwaza innorthern Malawi. The project took an oldapproach used under the IntegratedConservation Development Projects(ICDPs) initiated by conservationorganisations throughout the world in the1980s. This takes the form of socio-economicinvestiment through support to communitydevelopment projects (community schoolsand clinics, boreholes, agricultural andenterprise development, credit and incomegenerating activities) for communitiesbordering parks.A project implemented by the Wildlife andEnvironmental Society of Malawi (WESM)also following a similar approach. Theproject developed strategies for sustainableharvesting of non-timber forest products,processing and marketing with an emphasison sustainable management of indigenousforest resources to ensure continuedavailability of benefits to communities.

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Theme Ten: Incentive MeasuresScopeMechanisms for creating incentive measures are promoting stakeholderparticipation in biodiversity conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing ofbenefits arising from the use of biological resources.

Desirable outcome by 2020(a) Policies, laws and institutional frameworks are revised or developed to

remove or minimize potential perverse incentives.(b) Guidelines and procedures to regulate creation of incentives and promote

community participation in biodiversity conservation are in place.(c) Significant progress is made in developing and or adopting tools and

methodologies for valuation of biodiversity and biological resources.(d) Institutional framework is established to facilitate implementation and

effective monitoring, enforcement and evaluation of incentive measures.State of incentive measures

Overall guidance on incentive measures isprovided for in the NEP (2004). In additionto this Forestry, Fisheries and NationalParks and Wildlife policies and legislationhave provisions that provided an enablingenvironment to advance the paradigm ofprovision of incentive measures. Thepolicies have put the interests of localcommunities as being central to themanagement of forests, fisheries andwildlife. These policies however do not

Inadequate policy and legal frameworkSectoral policies such as forestry, fisheriesand national parks lack specific provisionsfor incentive measures althoughcomanagement arrangements providessome kind of incentives for biodiversityconservation. Implementation ofcomanagement programmes however hasbeen very slow and is still monopolized bygovernment control which encouragesencroachment and unsustainable use ofnatural resources.Other policies, such as the economic growthpolicy, trade policy, public roads policy,agriculture and livestock policy whichencourage development of one sort, maydirectly or indirectly have negative impactson biodiversity and ecological functioningsystems. For instance, price controls and

high taxes in such commodities as paraffinand electricity force people to depend onfuel wood for domestic uses.Policies and legislation that would promoteincentives are simply unavailable. Forexample lack of legislation on intellectualproperty rights mean that genetic resourcesand indigenous knowledge are exchangedfreely and as such the potential resultingcommercial and technological benefits donot trickle down to the local communities.Malawi therefore needs to undertake acomprehensive study of various policiesand legislation to identify policy areas anddevelop a streamlined policy that clearlyarticulate issues of incentive measures.Economic policy and market failureMalawi’s biodiversity is inadequatelyvalued, resulting in poor pricing of

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The other reason was to arrest deforestation,by providing alternative sources of incometo local communities. The activitiesinvolved include bee keeping, guinea fowlrearing, indigenous fruit processing,bamboo furniture making and fire briquettemaking for both home and commercialpurposes.The private sector has been involved inprovision of indirect incentive measures forbiodiversity conservation to both rural andurban populations in Malawi. They have

provided technologies that providealternative sources of energy to both localcommunities and low-income urbanresidents. These include solar energy,biogas, gel fuel, solid fossil fuel (coal),ethanol and electricity. These energysources provide alternative sources ofenergy to fuelwood and biowaste fromagricultural fields, thus conservingbiodiversity. The provision of electricity inrural areas (rural electrification) may beconsidered an investment incentivemeasure for natural resources management.

Current Managementcover the issues of incentive measuresadequately.Private sector involvement in provision ofincentive measures is almost non-existentprobably due to high investment costs.NGOs especially the Wildlife andEnvironmental Society of Malawi have beenactive in providing incentives forconservation of biodiversity throughCBNRM programmes. These programmeshowever are donor supported.

Summary of issues

biological resources. This when coupledwith ill-defined, disputed or non-existentproperty rights and missing or incompletemarkets for biological resources results inover exploitation of the resources. Inaddition, the low prices of natural resourcesproducts are a discouragement tocommunities to invest in natural recoursesmanagement as an economic activity.Weak Institutional frameworkThe concept of incentive measures has notbeen integrated into the existing institutionsand as such human capacity to implementprogrammes is inadequate resulting inineffective implementation of programmesthat have elements of incentives. A goodexample of institutionalfailure in theimplementation of incentives is the Blantyre

Objective 10.1 Improve knowledge andunderstanding of incentive measuresStrategy 10.1.1 Promote the participation ofthe private sector and local communities inidentification of practices that promoteperverse incentives and identification andimplementation of incentivesActions(a) Assess and identify available

incentive measures important forbiodiversity conservation,sustainable use as well as benefitsharing and promote the adoption ofbest practices.

(b) Carry out biodiversity valuation todetermine potential economic usesof biodiversity resources in Malawi.

(c) Developmechanisms to regulate andpromote the transfer of innovativetechnologies.

Key Players: UNIMA, NRCM, FRIM,MZUNI and MoLG&RD, CBOs, NGOs,NHBGObjective 10.2 Promote publicparticipation and awareness

Strategy 10.2.1 Develop guidelines forpromoting public participation andawareness on importance of removingpolicies and practices that promote perverseincentives.Actions(a) Undertake an inventory of incentive

measures being practiced andpromote the adoption of bestpractices.

(b) Carry out community and privatesector awareness campaigns onavailable and innovative incentivemeasures.

(c) Undertake community training oninnovative measures for biodiversityconservation and sustainable use.

Objective 10.3 Develop policies andregulatory framework for incentivemeasuresStrategy 10.3.1 Identify policies andpractices that generate perverse incentivesand formulate appropriate policies thatencourage conservation through provisionof incentives.

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City Fuelwood Project (BCFP), whichestablished forest plantationby transfer of land usufruct rights from localcommunities to the project throughcompensation. When the plantations werelater given back to local communities, thequestion of who should get back the forestplantations had to be addressed especiallyin cases where communities adjacent to theplantations were without traditional rightsto forest land. In order to ensure sustainableuse of the resources, plots were allocate toall villages living along the plantationwithout taking into consideration theoriginal boundaries. This has caused anumber of conflicts, which have resulted inunsustainable harvesting by communitiesthat feel unfairly treated.

Action Plan

Actions(a) Study, critically review and evaluate

existing policies and practices thatpotentially contribute to biodiversityloss.

(b) Harmonize sectoral policies andlegislation that have a bearing onbiodiversity with a view tominimizing their conflict and impacton the promotion of incentivemeasures at local and national level.

(c) Develop guidelines and mechanismsto promote periodic quantitativeevaluation of the effectiveness ofpolicy instruments and anassessment of any incentives created.

Key Players: MoMNRE, NRCM, UNIMA,MZUNI, DNPW, DoF, CBOs, MIRTDC,MoJ.Objective 10.4 Enhance institutionalcapacityStrategy 10.4.1 Enhance capacity ofinstitutions to undertake biodiversityvaluation, research, and monitoring andevaluation of policy reforms andprogrammes.Actions(a) Undertake institutional needs

assessments and enhance theircapacity to monitor and implementprogrammes.

(b) Develop and implement researchguidelines on incentive measures.

(c) Undertake skills developmenttraining programmes for thecommunity cooperatives and otherlow-income groups in collaborationwith the private sector.

(d) Develop guidelines and mechanismsfor sustainable financing ofprogrammes to identify policies andpractices promoting perverseincentives.

(e) Establish a coordinating mechanismfor implementation of incentives.

Key Players: MZUNI, UNIMA, NHBG, FD,DoF, DNPW, MoA&FS, MoE, MIRTDC,EADStrategy 10.4.2 Develop markets for theagricultural and natural resource products(including non timber and wildlifeproducts).Actions(a) Conduct socio-economic surveys to

establish new potential products andfacilitate local market development.

(b) Improve existing products and theirmarketing locally andinternationally.

(c) Establish the monetary value ofAgriculture and Natural ResourceProducts.

(d) Encourage development ofcommunity cooperatives foragricultural and natural resourceproducts.

(e) Provide credit schemes to supportlocal community cooperatives andother low-income groups.

(f) Promote multiplication distributionand marketing of indigenous geneticmaterial of plants with highcommercial value.

Key Players: FD, DNPW, MoA&FS, MEPC,MoTPD, VNRMC, NGOsStrategy 10.4.3 Develop SustainableFinancing MechanismsActions(a) Undertake an inventory of available

financing mechanisms anddocument lessons and experiences.

(b) Develop innovative sustainablefinancing mechanism strategies asincentives to biodiversityconservation.

(c) Undertake community training andawareness campaigns on sustainablefinancing mechanisms.

Key Players: EAD, FD, DNPW, MoA&FS,NGOs, VNRMC

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Malawi's commitment to global biologicalconservation dates back four decades agowhen Malawi signed the Convention onFishing and Conservation of the LivingResources of the High Seas (1958). This wasfollowed by the signing of the Conventionon Wetlands of International ImportanceEspecially as Water Fowl Habitat (RamsarConvention, 1971) in 1971, the AfricanConvention on the Conservation of Natureand Natural Resources (1968) in 1973, thePlant Protection Convention (1951) in 1974,the signing of the Convention onInternational Trade in Endangered Speciesof Wild Fauna and Flora (1973) in 1975 andits ratification in 1982, the signing of theConvention on Protection of World Culturaland National Heritage Sites (1972) in 1975and its ratification in 1982, and the signingof the Convention on the Conservation ofMigratory Species of Wild Animals (1893) in1983. The signing of the 1992 United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC) in 1992 and its ratification in1996, and the signing and ratification of theConvention on Biological Diversity 1992also confirms Malawi’s continued

commitment to the international efforts tocontribute towards conservation ofbiological diversity, sustainable use andequitable sharing of benefits of biologicaldiversity.In conformity with some of the aboveconventions, Malawi has designated thefollowing sites for the protection ofbiodiversity: Lake Chilwa was designated aRamsar Site in 1997; Nankumba Peninsulawas declared the Lake Malawi NationalPark and further declared a World HeritageSite (UNESCO) in 1984 and MulanjeMountain was declared a Man andBiosphere Reserve (UNESCO) in 2000.In addition to the international conventionsthat she is party to, Malawi also contributesto biodiversity conservation at the regionallevel. Malawi was the secretariat forbiodiversity activities in the SADC regionbefore SADC activities moved to the SADCsecretariat in Botswana. This gave Malawithe opportunity to manage and implementregional biodiversity projects such as theSouthern African Biodiversity Programme,

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Theme Eleven: Malawi’s Role in Global BiodiversityConservationScopeMalawi’s international role and responsibilities with respect to the goal of conservation andsustainable use of biodiversity and furthering of national biodiversity goals as spelled outin the Malawi constitution.

Desired Outcome by 2020(a) Malawi contributes to a global vision of implementing the biological resources

management by participating in international fora, sharing information and expertiseand fostering bilateral and multilateral cooperation in biodiversity conservationefforts.

(b) Malawi continues to plays an important role in protecting biodiversity nationallyregionally and globally.

(c) Malawi makes significant progress to implement the CBD in harmony with relevanttreaties and conventions related to biodiversity and natural resources.

State of Malawi’s Role in Global Biodiversity Conservation

SADCWetlands Project etc. Recognising thetransboundary nature of Malawi’sbiological resources, Malawi signed regionalprotocols on shared Watercourse systems,Wildlife Conservation and LawEnforcement, the Environment, Forestryand tourism development.With a view to incorporating relevantaspects of the international conventions intonational laws and policies, Malawi for thepast decade was engaged in a review andreform of environmental and naturalresources management policies andlegislation. The reform was also in responseto the requirements of the CBD. In addition,the reforms were driven by the recognitionof two deficiencies in the existing policy andlegislation regime: the over reliance oncentral government control over the use ofnatural resources and lack of communityparticipation in natural resourcemanagement. Thus in 1994, Malawiprepared its first NEAP and further madeenvironmental management a nationalpolicy priority by including in theconstitution section 13 (1) which empowersthe state to promote the welfare anddevelopment of the people by adopting

The Ministry of Mines, Natural Resourcesand Environment through the EAD is thenational focal point for conventions andprotocols dealing with natural resourcesmanagement and as such is charged withfollowing up and implementation at thenational level. Furthermore some issues thatfall under different conventions but havestrong relationship to the CBD are generallycoordinated by local agencies and focalpoints. For example coordination of CITESis the responsibility of the Department ofNational Parks and Wildlife.To ensure effective implementation of theCBD and other conventions dealing withnatural resources management variousinstitutions have been given keyimplementing responsibilities. For exampleForestry Department, Department of

National Parks and Wildlife and theNational Herbarium and Botanic Gardens ofMalawi are key lead implementinginstitution for the CBD whilst thedepartment of Forestry is the implementinginstitution for the UNCCD (Table 4).However, EAD lack capacity to effectivelycoordinate implementation of obligations ofvarious conventions at the national level.

and implementing policies and legislationthat manage the environment responsibly. Thiswas followed in 1996 by the NEP and theEnvironmental EMA, which is the legalinstrument for the implementation of theprinciples of environmental and naturalresource management contained in theNEP. These documents are cross-cutting innature and, therefore, provide structure andlegal frameworks for sustainablemanagement and conservation of biologicalresources.Most sectoral legislation has been revised tobe consistent with EMA. Furthermore, themajority of Acts have provisions that makean express commitment to internationalcooperation. This commitment is put intoeffect through an elaborate system of rules,regulations and procedures.In line with regional and internationalconventions that Malawi is party to, Malawihas participated in a number of regional andinternational biodiversity projects such asSADC Biodiversity Support Programme,Southern Africa Botanical Network(SABONET) and Lake Malawi BiodiversityProject.

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Current Management

Objective 11.1 Participate and contributeto intergovernmental negotiations onbiodiversity conservation and sustainableuseStrategy 11.1.1 Build consensus on andpresent critical biodiversity issues that are

important to Malawi in international foraand treaties.Actions(a) Promote the participation of

different government agencies andcollaboration with international

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Date of Signing or Key lead ImplementingRegional or international treaty Institutions InstitutionsAfrican Convention on the Conservationof Nature and Natural Resources 15 Sept. 1968 DNPWConvention on Wetlands of International 2 Feb. 1971 DNPWImportance Especially as WaterFowl HabitatConvention on International Trade 3 March 1973 DNPWin Endangered Species of Wild Faunaand Flora (CITES)Convention on the Conservation ofMigratory Species on Wild Animals 23 June 1979 DNPWUnited Nations Framework Convention Meteorologicalon Climate Change 9 May 1992 DepartmentConvention on Biological Diversity 22 May 1992 FD, NHBG, DNPWUnited Nations Convention to CombatDesertification and Drought 17 Jan. 1995 FD

Summary of issuesMalawi’s commitment to globalbiodiversity conservation and sustainableuse confirmed through the ratification of theConvention on Biological Diversity iscomplemented by a number of nationallegislation and policies. The inclusion ofsection 13(1) in the constitution implies aresponsibility to provide guidance andleadership in biodiversity issues.There is need to establish a nationalframework that harmonises all the sectoralActs and policies. The framework shouldestablish biodiversity goals and priorities toconserve the biodiversity and also integratethe role and responsibilities of the privatesector and NGOs. Appropriate mechanismsto enforce policies and Acts to conserve andsustainably use the biodiversity

need to be developed and used by relevantinstitutions.There is need to strengthen the existing CBDfocal points in international negotiationsand to undertake meaningful collaborativeresearch with international organisations. Inaddition there is need to strengtheninstitutions dealing with biodiversity inmanagement of bilateral and multilateralfunding with international donor agencies.There is need to harmonise and enhancecollaboration in the implementation of otherconventions and treaties related to the CBD.This will ensure sustainable use of naturalresources at regional and internationallevels including issues related tobiodiversity conservation and sustainableuse and international trade.

Action Plan

Table 4. A sample of biodiversity related conventions and protocols that Malawi is party to.

organisations in programmes andactivities to fulfil Malawi'sobligations to the CBD and relatedtreaties and protocols.

(b) Review policies and legislation thataddress the internationalconventions, protocols and treatieson conservation and sustainable usethat Malawi is a party to.

(c) Participate in the internationalnegotiations, in priority areas forMalawi as appropriate on thedevelopment of internationalprovisions and instruments relevantto the conservation and sustainableuse of biodiversity such as WTO,WIPO, Biosafety that are related tothe CBD.

(d) Promote the development and use ofsupportive trade and environmentalpolicies for the conservation andsustainable use of biodiversity ininternational trade and otherforums.

(e) Provide the international expertslists to assist in the drafting of thedifferent articles.

Key Players: MoMNRE, MoLGRD,MoLPPS, MoJ, DNPW, UNIMA, MZUNIand NGOsObjective 11.2 Promote regionalcooperationStrategy 11.2.1 Promote effectivecooperation and support for theconservation and sustainable use ofbiological conservation betweengovernments of the SADC region andbeyond.Actions(a) Operationalise the Biodiversity and

Bisafety Clearing House Mechanism(CHM) for information exchangeand scientific collaboration withother countries.

(b) Promote regional protocols related

to the CBD by integrating theprotocol into national policies andimplementing related activities.

(c) Participate in negotiations of theagreements on conservation andsustainable use.

(d) Provide experts to secretariats thatpromote the CBD provisions.

(e) Negotiate the transboundaryagreements that will promoteConservation and sustainable use ofbiodiversity.

Key Players: MoMNRE, DNPW, MoLGRD,EAD, MoJ, FD, DOF, MoLPPS, DNPW,Objective 11.3 Enhance inter-institutionalcooperationStrategy 11.3.1 Promote collaborativestudies between institutions in conservationand sustainable use of biological resources.Actions(a) Strengthen Malawi’s role in

international and regionalcollaboration in biodiversityresearch through collaborative linkswith institutions of excellence in thearea of biodiversity conservation.

(b) Promote joint management ofbiodiversity and ecosystems alongnational boundaries for themanagement of shared biologicalresources.

(c) Provide mechanisms for wise use ofinternational aid.

(d) Put in place initiatives that promoteimplementation of the CBD.

Key Players: NHBG, MoMNRE, UNIMA,MZUNI, MoJ, NGOs, NPGRC, FD. DOF,DNPW.

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Malawi has limited resources and lowcapacity to adequately implement all actionsidentified in this strategy and as such theseactions cannot all be implemented at once.Thus some should be implemented first,giving priority to those that address existinggaps and inadequacies in Malawi’sbiodiversity management and those thatwould contribute more towards achievingnational and global biodiversity goals andtargets. This means that although Malawihas not prepared a framework for theimplementation of the Global 2010 targets,actions that are perceived to contribute tothe implementation of the Global 2010targets were prioritised. These priorityactions are not sufficient by themselves andfor effective implementation, these will haveto be accompanied and integrated intogovernment programmes and initiatives.A total of 192 (one hundred ninety two)actions were identified for implementationover a period of fifteen years. Of these 23were prioritized and grouped into thefollowing five areas.Enhancement of protected areasmanagementAs a measure to protect and conserve thebiological diversity hotspots for species,habitats and ecosystems, areas are declaredprotected areas. The protected areasnetwork consists of national parks, wildlifereserves, forest reserves and botanicgardens. The priority protected areas shouldinclude vulnerable freshwater ecosystems,the four lakes in the country and watershedsfor major rivers, mountains and theterrestrial ecosystems. Currently, the LakeMalawi National Park forms the onlyfisheries protected area in Malawi.Conservation of mountain biodiversity is

crucial in this decade lest most of themountains are stripped bare due to over-exploitation of resources especially forfirewood and agricultural expansionespecially in areas close to urban areas. Thebiodiversity hotspots outside the protectedareas network must be identified andprioritised and comprehensiveenvironmental management plans shouldbe developed in partnership with allrelevant stakeholders.Communities and the private sector havevital roles to play in the management ofprotected areas. Effective partnershipbetween the private sector, governmentdepartments and the communities need tobe forged and strengthened. In order toensure that Malawi achieves sustainablemanagement of protected areas thefollowing actions should be given highpriority.Priority Action 1: Formulate a policyframework that would promoteconservation of species, habitats andecosystems that are important but notrepresented within the existing protectedarea networks or are vulnerable, fragile orare at risk of irreversible loss or decline ofbiodiversity.Targets: Biodiversity hotspots includinglakes and wetlands, mountains andterrestrial habitats and ecosystems outsidethe protected areas network are identified,characterized and protected by 2010.Priority Action 2: Develop and implementprogrammes for sustainable conservation ofimportant ecosystems of biodiversityimportance including miombo ecosystems,mountain ecosystems, wetlands andbiosphere reserves.

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Chapter 5Strategic Priorities, Targets and ImplementationArrangements

Strategic priorities

Targets: Areas of particular importance tobiodiversity such as Miombo ecoregions,Afromontane ecoregions of forestecosystems and wetlands diversityeffectively conserved by 2010.Priority Action 3: Encourage and supportthe protection, maintenance and restorationof areas of particular importance for theconservation of selected indigenous species.Targets: Restore, maintain or reduce thedecline of population of species of 50threatened species by 2010.Priority Action 4: Promote enforcement andcompliance to policy, legislation andinternational conventions.Targets: Policy, legislation and otherinternational instruments ratified andpromulgated by 2008.Priority Action 5: Promote the involvementof the local communities, local leaders andNGOs in decision making regarding themanagement of biological diversity andecosystems through village naturalresources management committees.Targets: Rates of loss and degradation ofnatural habitats decreased by 2010.Promotion of sustainable use of geneticresourcesSustainable use of genetic resources inMalawi is challenged by transboundaryissues such GMOs, Access and BenefitSharing and the problem of loss orreplacement of local indigenous cropvarieties and animal breeds. In the pursuitof food security, GMOs are introduced andthe indigenous species are crossbred withexotic varieties or breeds with desirabletraits. However, most of the indigenousgenetic resources are indiscriminatelycrossbred among communities withoutproper measures to preserve and conservethe indigenous species. Recognizing this,the strategy proposes strengthening andpromoting systematic protection andcharacterization of genetic resources by theNational Gene Bank, seed centers, and

agricultural research stations, theuniversities, MBERU and other researchunits.GMOs, Invasive Alien Species and pests canbe propagated by cross border tradethrough intentional or unintentionalintroductions. Alien species and pests canspread and threaten indigenous species,habitats and ecosystems. There is need todevelop and strengthen and implementpolicies and regulations for the prevention,control and management of such issues.Policies and regulations for Access andBenefit Sharing of genetic resources and Bio-prospecting also need to be developed.Access to genetic material and theassociated traditional knowledge,innovations and practices is inadequatelycontrolled and individuals andcommunities do not or inadequately benefitfrom bioprospecting and biotrade. Issues ofsustainable use of genetic resources arecomplex and as such require cross cuttingactions for effective implementation.Priority Action 6: Develop and enactregulations for access to and equitablesharing of benefit arising from the use ofgenetic resources.Targets: Benefits arising from commercialand other utilisation of genetic resources areequally shared with stakeholders by 2010.Priority Action 7: Collect and maintaingenetic resources in gene banks, botanicgardens, national parks, herbaria, museumsand zoos, and promote re-introduction,in-situ and ex-situ conservation of priority,rare, or endangered taxa.Targets: Databases of genetic resources arecreated and published by 2009.Priority Action 8: Collect allagrobiodiversity, including their wildrelatives, threatened and/or endangeredspecies, with full participation ofcommunities and preserve them on farm, infield gene banks, seed banks and botanicgardens.

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Targets: Agrobiodiversity, genetic diversityof fish and other valuable species conserved.Priority Action 9: Develop or strengthenexisting regulations and institutionalframework on conservation and sustainableuse of rare and endangered taxa includinginternational trade on endangered species.Targets: Illegal trade on endangered speciesreduced by 2010.Priority Action 10: Develop methodologiesto monitor, prevent and arrest the spread ofinvasive species in shared ecosystems,including early detection and coordinatedmanagement efforts at the community,national and regional levels.Targets: Pathways for major potential alieninvasive species controlled by 2010,management plans in place for major alieninvasive species that threaten majorecosystems of Malawi by 2008.Priority Action 11: Implement the BiosafetyAct and develop and implement a broad-based biotechnology policy.Targets: Sectoral plans for theimplementation of the Biosafety Act aredeveloped and implemented by 2010;relevant departments and institutions haveidentified and trained staff in handling,monitoring and identification of GMOs.Priority Action 12: Assess and identifyavailable incentive measures important forbiodiversity conservation, sustainable use aswell as benefit sharing and promote theadoption of best practices.Targets: Biological resources that supportsustainable livelihoods, food security andhealth care identified and maintained by2010.Enhancement and maintenance ofpartnershipsDifferent groups of people have a stake inconservation of biodiversity resources. The90% of the nation living in the rural areas,have a broader appreciation and betterunderstanding of the indigenous species,

habitats and ecosystems associated with theplaces they live. As such informing,consulting and involvement of the localcommunities is central in the promotion ofconservation and sustainable use ofbiological resources. To influence people’sattitudes and behavior and make it moredesirable for them to conserve rather thandeplete or degrade biodiversity in thecourse of their economic activities, economicincentives for biodiversity conservationshould be developed.Forestry, fisheries, national parks andwildlife and the water sectors haveincorporated participatory approaches andhave established good workingrelationships and partnerships with localcommunities in natural resourcemanagement programmes. This partnershipneeds to be extended to private landownerswhose participation is of paramountimportance yet often lacking.Government needs to develop andstrengthen good working relationships andpartnerships with developmental partners,NGOs, private sector and relevantgovernment agencies. Partnerships shouldalso be developed when it comes tomanagement of shared natural resourcesalong national boundaries. Furthermore,government should work in collaborationwith international organizations inimplementation of its obligations to the CBDand other international conventions ortreaties.The Malawi Government should take intoconsideration the current decentralizationprocess and promote the involvement of allstakeholders at the local, district andregional levels in the implementationprocess. In this regard, the devolution of theenvironmental sector and the currentdecentralized institutional framework forthe environmental sector should besupported and strengthened.The following priority actions have beenidentified which when implemented wouldfacilitate implementation of biodiversitymanagement plans in partnership withother stakeholders.

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Priority Action 13: Promote theinvolvement of the local communities, localleaders, the private sector and NGOs indecision-making regarding the managementof biological diversity and ecosystemsthrough community based natural resourcesmanagement communities.Targets: Guidelines and regulation forestablishing and managing village naturalresource management areas are developedand implemented; community naturalresource management areas identified andmanaged by 2010.Priority Action 14: Promote jointmanagement of biodiversity and ecosystemsalong national boundaries for themanagement of shared biological resources.Targets: Cross border managementcommittees are established along sharednatural resources; guidelines for crossborder management of natural resourcesdeveloped and implemented by 2008.Priority Action 15: Promote theparticipation of different governmentagencies and collaboration withinternational organisations to fulfillMalawi’s obligations to the CBD and relatedtreaties and protocols.Targets: Establish and promotemultisectoral committees on naturalresources management at local, district andnational levels by 2010.Priority Action 16: Promote mechanisms forwise use of development assistance.Targets: New and additional financialresources are transferred to Malawi;regulations and code of conduct for use ofdevelopment aid are developed andimplemented by 2008.Priority Action 17: Promote theparticipation of different governmentagencies and collaboration withinternational organisations in programmesand activities to fulfil Malawi’s obligationsto the CBD and related treaties andprotocols.

Targets: Guidelines, procedures andmechanisms for technology transfer aredeveloped and implemented by 2010.Enhancement of governance inbiodiversity conservationThe government should provide strategicdirection, funding, national guidance,coordination and monitoring, andencourage the private sector, communityand individual participation to ensure theconservation and sustainable use ofMalawi’s biodiversity. Government shouldreview and establish an effectiveimplementation structure with well-definedroles for implementing and monitoringbiodiversity conservation strategies. Thecommitment displayed by governmentthrough incorporation of biodiversityconcerns into the constitution shouldcontinue if this strategy is to be fullyimplemented.Malawi should continue to play a leadingrole in coordinating and monitoring, andimplementation of biodiversityconservation and management programmesby incorporating commitments made in thisnational strategy into the national anddepartmental biodiversity managementplans. The current environmentalmanagement plans should have a soundimplementation mechanism. The existinginstitutions involved in the management ofbiodiversity should be strengthened andinitiatives to set up an EnvironmentalProtection Agency should be given priority,government support and funding. Theagency is important since it would beresponsible for coordinating programmesand also has potential to become the centerof biodiversity management in Malawi.Malawi is currently experiencing a declinein development assistance especially in thearea of environment and natural resources.In addition to this, Malawi has in recentyears experienced sudden withdrawal ofdevelopment assistance (e.g. the DanishDevelopment Aid, DANIDA) that resultedin the premature termination ofenvironmental programmes such as Lake

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Chilwa Wetlands project. This underscoresthe need to develop sustainable financingmechanisms to ensure long termsustainability of natural resourcemanagement programmes especially whendonor funding ends and to reducedependence on external assistance. It isagainst this background that intensive workwith the Ministry of Finance and alignmentsof natural resources activities with theMalawi Development and Growth Strategyis needed. It is envisaged that through thisapproach, Malawi will progressivelysupport efficient investment in biodiversityvia the national budget. Launching of Trustfunds and other mechanisms of mobilizingfinancial support for biodiversityconservation programme should certainlyassume a high priority.The responsibility to reverse the decline inbiodiversity is a government prioritystrategy and as such this strategyrecommends that government shouldstrengthen issues of governance throughimplementation of the following actions.Priority action 18: Provide strategicdirection and guidance to review andharmonize relevant policies and legislationand ensure that policy and legislation are inline with the Convention on BiologicalDiversity and other internationalconventions.Targets: Sectoral policies are revised toincorporate biodiversity issues by 2008.Priority action 19: Establish alternativefinancing mechanisms that will minimizeresource expenditure and encourage closecollaboration between sectors.Targets: Biodiversity Trust funds areestablished and fully operational; guidelinesfor establishing biodiversity workinggroups are developed and implemented by2008.Priority action 20: Promote enforcement andcompliance to policy, legislation andinternational convention through thecreation and empowerment of anindependent Environmental ProtectionAgency.

Targets: Environmental Protection Agencyis established and operational by 2007.Strengthen infrastructure and humancapacityFull implementation of actions identified inthis strategy will require considerable andsubstantial improvements in our knowledgebase and understanding of biodiversity.This can only be achieved if Malawi investsin training of professionals through researchand implementing a biodiversitycurriculum at primary, secondary andtertiary levels as well as communityeducation programme in biodiversitymanagement. A comprehensive biodiversityeducation programme would provideMalawi with human capacity necessary forlong-term natural resources management.Availability and accessibility of informationon biodiversity and biodiversityinformation sources have to be improved.Biodiversity information in form of gray andpublished literature, databases andbiological collections have to be packaged ina form that could be easily accessiblethrough information systems technologiesand other media.Malawi’s institutions such as the NationalHerbarium and Botanic Gardens (currentlya national centre for plant diversity),Agricultural Research and Extension Trust,Universities and colleges, the Museums ofMalawi, Fisheries Research Unit (with awide collection of fish of Malawi), ForestryResearch Institute of Malawi (with a decentinsect collection) have potential to becomebiodiversity centres because their biologicalcollections are primary sources oftaxonomic, ecological and biodiversityinformation; but they lack human andinfrastructure capacity. Such scientificinstitutions including the Molecular Biologyand Ecological Research Unit (MBERU) andthe proposed Malawi Invertebrate Centre,should be supported through provision ofresearch equipment and other necessaryinfrastructure.

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Malawi will only effectively implementthese strategic priorities with improvedhuman and infrastructure capacity. Toachieve this the following actions should beearmarked for implementation within thefirst five years.Priority action 21: Develop human,institutional and national capacities toidentify, monitor and manage biodiversitythrough training for target groups inrelevant courses including taxonomy,natural resources management, biodiversityassessment and ethnobiology.Targets: Diplomas, certificates, BSc and MScdegrees in Biodiversity management areestablished and fully functional inuniversities and other natural resourcemanagement training institutions by 2010;relevant posts (e.g. taxonomists, ecologists,geneticists) and training opportunities areidentified and implemented by 2010.Priority action 22: Instill a biodiversityculture in the youth of Malawi and localcommunities by developing guidelines onenvironmental education and curricula forschools and establishment of in-servicetraining programmes for teachers.Targets: Curricula and guidelines forprimary and secondary schools aredeveloped and fully implemented. Trainingneeds and institutions for teachers areidentified, prioritized and promoted;guidelines for community participation andeducation for environmental and naturalresources management are developed andfully implemented by 2010.Priority action 23: Establish and providecapacity for operationalizing the nationalCHM and strengthen and implement theexisting CHM institutional structure, anddevelop national biodiversity databases.Targets: Policy guidelines on biodiversityinformation management are developedand/or reviewed; regulations andguidelines on biodiversity informationstandards and on access and benefit sharingof biodiversity information developed by2010.102

The National Biodiversity Strategy andAction Plan is a product of a consultativeprocess involving all stakeholders in themanagement and utilization of biologicalresources in Malawi. Effective and efficientimplementation of the strategy and actionplan requires effective institutionalarrangement and mechanism to facilitateactive participation of the stakeholders. Theperformance of the current institutionalarrangement and mechanism has not beenvery effective as evident by the continuedloss of biodiversity in many sectors.Therefore, it is important that stakeholderscontinually evaluate the performance andcapacity of key institutions as well as theinstitutional arrangement andmechanism tomake necessary improvements to ensureattainment of targets set in the NBSAP.Current Institutional ArrangementsThe implementation of the NBSAP fallswithin the existing institutionalarrangement at central and localgovernment levels in which relevantstatutory corporation and non-governmental organizations participate. Thekey institutions involved in biodiversityconservation activities include governmentministries, Departments, statutorycorporations, Non-GovernmentalOrganizations and trusts that have differentmandates and responsibilities. Some of theinstitutions are as follows:

(a) Ministry of Mines, NaturalResources and Environment throughDepartments of EnvironmentalAffairs, Fisheries and Forestry;

(b) Ministry of Information andTourism through the Department ofNational Parks and Wildlife;

(c) Ministry of Agriculture throughDepartments of Crop Production,Research and Technical Services,and Animal Health and Industry;

(d) National Research Council ofMalawi;

(e) Ministry of Youth, Sports andCulture through Department ofMuseums;

(f) Department of Local Governmentresponsible for District Assemblies;

(g) National Herbarium and BotanicGardens of Malawi;

(h) NGOs and Civil Society;(i) Mulanje Mountain Conservation

Trust;(j) Research and Development

Institutions e.g. Universities ofMalawi and Mzuzu;

(k) Ministry of Industry, Science andTechnology;

(l) Ministry of Trade and Private SectorDevelopment;

The organizations are linked throughcommittees and focal points at variouslevels (Figure 18).Roles and Mechanism for ImplementationAt the national level, the ministries andDepartments have responsibilities offacilitating participatory formulation,development and implementation ofsectoral policies and legislation withcoordination by the Ministry of Mines,Natural Resources and Environmentthrough Environmental Affairs Department.The Department of Local Governmentintegrates central government functions forimplementation at the District Assemblylevel.Role of Government AgenciesThe Environmental Affairs Department,which is the national focal point for theCBD, coordinates and facilitates sustainablemanagement of the environment andnatural resources in the country. As such itis responsible for harmonisation of nationalenvironmental policies and legislation,enforcement of legislation, capacitybuilding, setting of standards, compliance

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Implementation arrangements

monitoring and representation atinternational conventions and treaties. Itscoordination mandate enables it to balanceconcerns of both interested and affectedparties under the CBD and the Cartagena

Protocol on Biosafety. Therefore, theEnvironmental Affairs Department servesas a secretariat for implementation ofbiodiversity activities hence the NBSAP.

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Figure 18: Institutional structures for the implementation of the NBSAP

CCANR

National Council on

Environment (NCE)

National Biodiversity

Committee

MoMNRE

Environmental Affairs Department

(NFP & Secretariat)

NHBG FD DoF DNPW NGO & CivilSociety

R&D

InstitutionsNRCM

DISTRICT

ASSEMBLY

The Department of Forestry is mandated toconserve the national forestry resources tothe upliftment of the quality of life for thebenefit of the nation. The sector hasempowered communities throughcommunity based forest managementprogrammes that focus on theaugmentation, management and protectionof forests on customary land. The mandateof the Fisheries Department is to protect theexisting fish resources through appropriatecontrol mechanisms and to provideframework conditions and excellent servicesfor sustainable utilisation and managementof capture fisheries and aquacultureproduction.The Department of National Parks andWildlife in the Ministry of Information andTourism is mandated to protect andconserve wildlife in such protected areas asNational Parks and Wildlife Reserves incollaboration with other stakeholdersespecially boarder zone communities. TheNational Research Council of Malawicoordinates all forms of research in Malawiand is the secretariat for Genetic andBiotechnology Resources Committee.The Ministry of Agriculture promotesconservation and use of agro-biodiversitythrough the Departments of CropProduction, Animal Health and Industryand Agricultural Research and TechnicalServices. A gene bank was established and itserves as a repository for various biologicalresources thereby enhancing ex-situbiodiversity conservation.Museums of Malawi promotes conservationof biodiversity through cultural and naturalheritage education. It also promotespreservation and application of indigenousknowledge to conservation of the nationalheritage.The Department of Local Governmentestablished through the 1998 LocalGovernment Act is a single institutionalframework that unifies government andtraditional authorities thereby facilitatingcommunity participation in the formulationand implementation of developmental and

environmental programmes throughDistrict Assemblies. EnvironmentalProgrammes at the District Assemblies levelare implemented through theEnvironmental District Office. To ensurepublic participation in environmentalmanagement decisions and plans, theDistrict Assembly manages naturalresources through committees responsiblefor Agriculture and Natural Resources,Health and Environment. The AssemblySecretariat is the operational arm of theDistrict Assembly, which is responsible forplanning and implementing the DistrictDevelopment Plan (DDP) and DistrictEnvironmental Action Plan (DEAP) afterapproval by the Assembly. The Secretariatestablished District EnvironmentSubcommittee (DESC) to coordinate andensure that environmental issues aremainstreamed into all district developmentplans.Role of Non-Governmental Organizationsand TrustsThe Wildlife and Environmental Society ofMalawi is probably the most active andexperienced NGO in the field of naturalresources management. However, CUREcoordinates activities of all NRM NGOs andCBOs. In this regard, CURE in closecollaboration with WESM will continue totake an active leading role in coordinatingand implementing natural resourcesprogrammes and initiatives that promotesustainable use and management ofbiodiversity in the country.In the last few years Malawi witnessed theestablishment of Mulanje MountainConservation Trust that primarily promotesmountain biodiversity conservation.Malawi Environmental Endowment Trustwas established during the same period andprovides a sustainable financing mechanismfor community-driven environmentalmanagement projects.Role of Coordination CommitteesSeveral political, technical and grassroots'committees have been established in the

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country to guide or support policy,legislative and programme formulation aswell as implementation of environment andnatural resources management activities.The Cabinet Committee on Agriculture andNatural Resources (CCANR) is the highest-level policy and decision-making bodyresponsible for environmental policy issuesand informs Parliament on the state of theenvironment.The Parliamentary Committee onAgriculture and Natural Resources(PCANR) lobbies Parliament on allenvironmental maters but the NationalCouncil for the Environment (NCE) advisesboth the CCANR and PCANR committees.As a policy advisory institution, the NCEoperates through working groups andnational steering committees. The TechnicalCommittee on the Environment (TCE),which advises the NCE, examines scientificissues and makes recommendations foraction.The National Biodiversity Committeechaired by the National Herbarium andBotanic Gardens of Malawi meets quarterlyto steer the NBSAP implementation ofbiodiversity programs and activities.

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Strengthening existing Coordination andInstitutional LinkagesThe secretariat needs to coordinate andfacilitate the development of a detailedwork plan for the implementation of theNBSAP. However, effective coordinationand implementation of CBD activities inMalawi is constrained by lack of commonvision and strategy amongst implementingagencies. To ensure a coordinated approachthe institutional arrangement for theimplementation of NBSAP shall continue torest at Environmental Affairs Department ofthe Ministry of Mines, Natural Resourcesand Environment, as the National FocalPoint of the Biodiversity Convention andsecretariat of the National BiodiversityCommittee. The National Herbarium andBotanical Gardens of Malawi will continueto chair the National BiodiversityCommittee.Technically, the National BiodiversityCommittee will spearhead theimplementation of NBSAP activities invarious sectors (Figure 18) by providingguidance to different institutions andorganizations involved in biodiversityconservation and management.Furthermore, the National BiodiversityCommittee will provide leadership inmonitoring and evaluation of activitiesunder the NBSAP.The National Council on Environment(NCE) has the responsibility and providepolicy direction in addition and monitor theimplementation of NBSAP while theCabinet Committee will provide politicalguidance and support. The Secretariat willbuild and strengthen technical capacities atall levels of NBSAP implementationstructure through established focal points.Establishing sustainable financingmechanismsApart from establishing the variousinstitutions responsible for biodiversitymanagement, Malawi also set up twosustainable funding mechanisms namely

MEET and Environment Management Fund(EMF). However, the level of investment inMEET is still relatively small to ensuresignificant improvements in the naturalresources management to meet thebiodiversity targets by 2010 and theMillennium Development Goals as well asNSSD by 2015. In addition, capitalization ofthe EMF is often too small to sustainmeaningful implementation of biodiversityactivities.Furthermore, the current guidelines for themanagement of the EnvironmentalManagement Fund do not have specificprovisions for funding biodiversity as a“sector”. In this regard, the guidelines forthe management of the EnvironmentalManagement Fund will have to be revised toensure that the fund supportsimplementation of Malawi’s NBSAP.Strengthening existing technical capacitiesThe current technical capacity is insufficientto facilitate effective and efficientimplementation of NBSAP. Theinadequacies include human, financial,infrastructural and other material resources.Therefore, there is need to build capacity atall levels and in all sectors. Thus for effectivedelivery of services, the NationalBiodiversity Secretariat and keystakeholders will require professional staff,infrastructure and continuous financial andtechnical support.Promote enabling policies and approachesRevise and enforce existing policies toensure harmonization of principles andstrategies for conservation of variouscomponents of biodiversity.

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Implementation Strategy

The Diversity of Plants in MalawiLead Agency_NHBGTask force Leaders: Prof. Seyani, NHBG

Members of the Team:Mr. A. K. Banda (Deceased)_NHBGMr. M. P. Munyenyembe_ChancellorCollegeMr. L.Mwabumba_FRIMMr. H. M. Banda_Malawi College ofForestryMr. M. C. Mwambene_Department ofLocal Government

MicroorganismsLead Agency_Bunda College of AgricultureTask force Leaders: Prof. V. W.Saka_Bunda College of Agriculture

Members of the Team:Prof. W. A. B. Msuku_Bunda College ofAgricultureDr. C. T. Kisyombe_Ministry ofAgriculture, Chitedze Research Station.Dr. A. T. Daudi_Ministry of Agriculture,Bvumbwe Research StationMrs. E. B. Mwafongo_NHBGP. Ngwira_Ministry of Agriculture,Chitedze Research StationN. C. Gondwe_Ministry of Agriculture,Chitedze Research StationDr. E. Kaunda_Bunda College ofAgriculture

Wild and Indigenous AnimalsLead Agency_DNPWTask force Leaders: L. D. Sefu_DNPW

Members of the Team:Ms.C. R.Mhango_Chancellor CollegeDr. C. O. Dudley_Chancellor CollegeMr. Wilbert N. Chitaukali_Museums ofMalawiDr. M. E. D. Nhlane_Museums of MalawiMr. D. D. Bandula_MetrologicalDepartment (Deceased)

Ecosystems of MalawiLead Agency_Chancellor College (BiologyDepartment)Task force Leaders: Mrs. M. P.Kalindekafe

Members of the Team:Mr. Lusayo Mwabumba_FRIMMr.Montfort L.Mwanyambo_NHBGProf. Aggrey J. Ambali__ChancellorCollegeMavuto Kapyepye_WESMMr. Shaibu Mapila_Department ofFisheries (Deceased)Dr. P. W. Chirwa__FRIMMr. S. Makungwa_FRIM

Review of Conservation Legislation inMalawiLead Agency_Ministry of JusticeTask force Leaders: Mr. K. Nyirenda_Ministry of Justice

Members of the Team:Mr. D. A. Kamundi_NHBGMr. Makawa_EADMr. F. E. Zhuwao_Ministry of FinanceMr. M. W. Mikuwa_EADN.D. Mhura_Chancellor College

Domesticated and Introduced SpeciesLead Agency_Bunda College of AgricultureTask force Leaders: Dr. A.B.C.Mkandawire, Bunda College.

Members of the Team:Dr. J. M. Bokosi_Bunda College ofAgricultureDr. M. B. Kwapata_Bunda College ofAgricultureProf. R. K. D. Phoya_Bunda College ofAgricultureE. M. H. Khonje_Ministry of Agriculture,Chitedze Research StationMr. L. Nsapato_Chitedze AgriculturalResearch Station

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Annex oneList of task force members for the NBSAP Project

Land Use Management and BiodiversityConservationLead Agency_Land Resources andConservation Unit (Ministry ofAgriculture & Irrigation)Task force Leaders: V. A. L.Mkandawire_Land Resources andConservation Unit

Members of the Team:Rev.D. P. K.Mjojo_Forestry DepartmentMr. B. B.A. Rashidi_Fisheries DepartmentDr. E. Y. Sambo_University OfficeG. Mloza_Ministry of Energy and MiningM. L. Kamwambe_Ministry of JusticeP. N. S. Mkwamba_Ministry of Women,Children Affairs and Community ServicesMr.S. J.Nanthambwe_Land Resources andConservation Unit

An Inventory of Literature on Biodiversityin MalawiLead Agency_EADTask force Leaders: Mr. J. Chuma_National Research Council of Malawi

Members of the Team:Mr. C. B. Malunga_National ArchivesMr. D. B. Vuwa-Phiri_Chancellor College

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Agrobiodiversity or agricultural biologicaldiversity; that component of biodiversitythat contributes to food and agricultureproduction, it encompasses within-species,species and ecosystem diversity.Access and Benefit Sharing; Access meansthe acquisition of biological resources, theirderivatives, community knowledge,innovations, technologies, or practices asauthorized by the National CompetentAuthority. Benefit Sharing means thesharing of whatever accrues from theutilization of biological resources,community knowledge, technologies,innovations or practices.Access to genetic resources; is the actionthrough which an interested party, havingfulfilled all relevant legal requirements innational and international legislation, makesuse of genetic resources.Agrobiodiversity; means that component ofbiodiversity that contributes to food andagriculture production.Alien Invasive Species; species thatbecomes established in a natural or semi-natural ecosystem or habitat, is an agent ofchange, and threatens native biologicaldiversity.Alien species; a species that has beenintroduced outside its normal past andpresent distribution.Aquaculture; breeding and rearing fish,shellfish, etc., or growing plants for food inspecial ponds.Benefit-sharing: means the sharing ofbenefits arising from the use, whethercommercial or not, of genetic resources, andmay include both monetary and non-monetary returns.Biological control; pest control strategymaking use of living natural enemies,antagonists or competitors and other self-replicating biotic entities.Biological diversity; the variability amongliving organisms from all sources including,inter alia, terrestrial, marine and otheraquatic ecosystems and the ecological

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Annex twoGlossary of Terms1

1Source: Belgian Clearing House Mechanism for CBD_on line http//bcd-cbd.naturalsciences.be/Be;gium/

complexes of which they are part; thisincludes diversity in withinspecies, between species and of ecosystems.Biological resources; includes geneticresources, organisms or parts thereof,populations, or any other biotic componentof ecosystems with actual or potential useor value for humanity.Biopiracy; bioprospecting regarded as theperpetuation of the colonial habit ofplundering other countries' biologicalresources without fair and equitablecompensation, resulting in environmental,economic and social detriment.Bioprospecting; the search foreconomically valuable genetic andbiochemical resource (i.e. useful genetic andbiochemical compounds and materials andrelated information) from nature.Biosafety; safety aspects related to theapplication of biotechnologies and to therelease into the environment of transgenicplants and other organisms particularlymicroorganisms that could negatively affectplant genetic resources, plant, animal orhuman health, or the environment.Biosphere Reserves; areas of terrestrial andcoastal ecosystems promoting solutions toreconcile the conservation of biodiversitywith its sustainable use. They areinternationally recognized, nominated bynational governments and remain undersovereign jurisdiction of the states wherethey are located.Biotechnology; any technologicalapplication that uses biological systems,living organisms, or derivatives thereof, tomake or modify products or processes for aspecific use. Biotechnology, in the form oftraditional fermentation techniques, hasbeen used for decades to make bread,cheese or beer. It has also been the basis oftraditional animal and plant breedingtechniques, such as hybridization and theselection of plants and animals with specificcharacteristics to create, for example, cropswhich produce higher yields of grain.

Co-management; the sharing of authority,responsibility, and benefits betweengovernment and local communities in themanagement of natural resources.Conservation of biodiversity; themanagement of human interactions withgenes, species, and ecosystems so as toprovide the maximum benefit to the presentgeneration while maintaining their potentialto meet the needs and aspirations of futuregenerations; encompasses elements ofsaving, studying, and using biodiversity.Customary land; all land falling within thejurisdiction of a recognized TraditionalAuthority, which has been granted to aperson or group and used under customarylaw.Deforestation; the conversion of forest toanother land use or the long-term reductionof the tree canopy cover below theminimum 10 per cent threshold.DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid); the longchain of molecules in most cells that carriesthe genetic message and controls all cellularfunctions in most forms of life.Domesticated species; species in which theevolutionary process has been influenced byhumans to meet their needs.Ecosystem; a dynamic complex of plant,animal and micro-organism communitiesand their non-living environmentinteracting as a functional unit.Ecosystem diversity; the diversity amongbiological communities and their physicalsettings, characterised by differences inspecies composition, physical structure, andfunction. It is the highest level of biologicaldiversity.Ecosystem restoration; the return of anecosystem to its original communitystructure, natural complement of species,and natural functions.Ecosystems approachEndangered species; a group of plant oranimal species that is not CriticallyEndangered but is facing a very high risk ofextinction in the wild in the near future.Endemic species; species is a native speciesrestricted to a particular geographic regionowing to factors such as isolation or inresponse to soil or climatic conditions.

Environmental Impact Assessment; theprocess by which the consequences ofproposed projects or programs areevaluated as an integral part of planning theproject, alternatives are analyzed, and thegeneral public has ample opportunity tocomment.Ethnobiology; study of the way plants,animals and micro-organisms are used byhumans.Ex-situ conservation; the conservation ofcomponents of biological diversity outsidetheir natural habitats.Farmers’ rights; rights arising from the past,present and future contributions of farmersin conserving, improving and makingavailable plant or animal genetic resources,particularly those in centres of origin.Forest biological diversity; the variabilityamong forest living organisms and theecological processes of which they are part;this includes diversity in forests withinspecies, between species and of ecosystemsand landscapes.Gene bank; a storage facility wheregermplasm is stored in the form of seeds,pollen, embryos, semen, pollen, or in vitroculture, or in cryogenic storage, or, in thecase of a field gene bank, as plants growingin the field.Genetic diversity; the diversity of geneswithin and among populations of a species.Genetic erosion; loss of genetic diversitybetween and within populations of the samespecies over time; or reduction of the geneticbasis of a species due to humanintervention, environmental changes, etc.Genetic material; any material of plant,animal, microbial or other origin containingfunctional units of heredity.Genetic resources; genetic material ofplants, animals or micro-organisms,including modern cultivars and breeds,primitive varieties and breeds, landracesand wild/weedy relatives of crop plants ordomesticated animals, of value as a resourcefor future generations of humanity.Genetically Modified Organism(GMO); the modification of the geneticcharacteristics of a micro-organism, plant oranimal by inserting a modified gene or agene from another variety or species.

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Habitat; the place or type of site where anorganism or population naturally occurs.Habitat restoration; the return of a habitatto its original community structure, naturalcomplement of species and naturalfunctions.Indigenous Knowledge; the accumulatedknowledge that is vital for conservation andsustainable use of biological resourcesand/or which is of socio-economic value,and which has been developed over years inindigenous/local communities.In-situ conservation; the conservation ofecosystems and natural habitats and themaintenance and recovery of viablepopulations of species in their naturalsurroundings and, in the case ofdomesticated or cultivated species, in thesurroundings where they have developedtheir distinctive properties.Intellectual property right; a right enablingan inventor to exclude imitators from themarket for a limited time.Invasive alien species; species whichbecomes established in natural or semi-natural ecosystems or habitats.Micro-organisms; groups of microscopicorganisms, some of which cannot bedetected without the aid of a light orelectron microscope, including the viruses,the prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea), andeukaryotic life forms, such as protozoa,filamentous fungi, yeasts and micro-algae.Modern biotechnology; the application of:(a) in vitro nucleic acid techniques,including recombinant deoxyribonucleicacid (DNA) and direct injection of nucleicacid into cells or organelles, or (b) fusionof cells beyond the taxonomic family,that overcome natural physiologicalreproductive or recombination barriers andthat are not techniques used in traditionalbreeding and selection.Nematode; roundworms, often internalparasites of animals and plants.Participatory approach; means the methodsthat bring about involvement of players andstakeholders in a decision making process.Patent; a government grant of temporarymonopoly rights on innovative processes orproducts.

Pollinator; a pollinator is an agent,generally an animal (insect, bird, bat, etc.)that carries pollen to the female part of aflower.Precautionary principle; (= do-no-harmprinciple) a proactive method of dealingwith the environment that places the burdenof proof on those whose activities couldharm the environment. (Opposite: wait-and-see principle).Private land; all land that is exclusivelyowned, held or occupied under freeholdtenure and customary land allocatedexclusively to a clearly defined community,corporation, institutions, clan, and family.Vascular plants; includes ferns, floweringplants and trees, but do not include mossesand liverworts.Protected Area; an area of land and/or seaespecially dedicated to the protection ofbiological diversity, and of natural andassociated cultural resources, and managedthrough legal or other effective means.Public land; land held in trust and managedby the government or Traditional Authorityand openly used or accessible to the publicat large. It includes land gazetted for use asnational parks, recreational areas, and forestreserves.Quarantine; official confinement ofregulated articles for observation andresearch or for further inspection, testing ortreatment.Red list; a comprehensive inventory of theconservation status of plant and animalspecies. It uses a set of criteria to evaluatethe extinction risk of thousands of speciesand subspecies. These criteria are relevant toall species and all regions of the world.Restoration; the return of an ecosystem orhabitat to its original community structure,natural complement of species, and naturalfunctions.Risk assessment; the use of scientific data toidentify and characterize the nature andmagnitude of hazards, if any, and thelikelihood of hazards being realized.Seed bank; a facility designed for the ex-situconservation of individual plant samplesthrough seed preservation and storage.

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Semi evergreen forestSpeciation; separation of one populationinto two or more reproductively isolated,independent evolutionary units.Species; a group of organisms capable ofinterbreeding freely with each other but notwith members of other species.Species diversity; the number and varietyof species found in a given area in a region.Stakeholder; means an individual,organization or group whether formal orinformal, affected by, or with an interest in,the activities relating to the acquisition, useor supply of genetic resources.Sustainable use; the use of components ofbiological diversity in a way and at a ratethat does not lead to the long term decline ofbiological diversity thereby maintaining itspotential to meet the needs and aspirationsof present and future generations.Taxon (pl. taxa); the named classificationunit to which individuals, or sets of species,are assigned.Technology transfer; the transfer ofknowledge or equipment to enable themanufacture of a product, the application ofa process, or the rendering of a service.Threatened species; species that are, oftengenetically impoverished, of low fecundity,dependent on patchy or unpredictableresources, extremely variable in populationdensity, persecuted or otherwise prone toextinction in human-dominated landscapes.Tissue culture; a technique in whichportions of a plant or animal are grown onan artificial culture medium.Traditional knowledge; refers to theknowledge, innovations and practices ofindigenous and local communities aroundthe world. Developed from experiencegained over the centuries and adapted to thelocal culture and environment, traditionalknowledge is transmitted orally fromgeneration to generation. It tends to becollectively owned and takes the form ofstories, songs, folklore, proverbs, culturalvalues, beliefs, rituals, community laws,local language, and agricultural practices,including the development of plant speciesand animal breeds. Traditional knowledgeis mainly of a practical nature, particularly

in such fields as agriculture, fisheries,health, horticulture, and forestry.World Heritage Site; a “cultural heritage”is a monument, group of buildings or site ofhistorical, aesthetic, archaeological,scientific, ethnological or anthropologicalvalue.

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Ansell W. F. H. 1985. Mammals fromMalawi-Part I. Nyala 11 (1): 18-24.

Banda E. A. K. and Morris B. 1986.Common Weeds of Malawi. Universityof Malawi, Zomba.

Banda J. W. and Sichinga K. 2001.Livestock Production in Malawi:Contribution and Implication on FoodSecurity. A report submitted to theEuropean Union, Food Security Project.Lilongwe, Malawi, October 2001.

Berrie A. 1981. Pteridophyta collected inMalawi, with a preliminary checklist ofthe Orders Psilotales and Lycopodiales.Luso 2 (1): 33-48.

Berrie A. 1982. The genus Lycopodiumin Malawi. Luso 3 (1):17-29.

Berrie A. 1984. A checklist of thePteridophytes of Zomba Mountain,Malawi. Luso 5 (2): 67-86.

Binns B. 1968. A First Checklist of theHerbaceous Flora of Malawi.Government Printer, Zomba.

Blackmore S., Dudley CO. and OsbornePL. 1989. An annotated checklist of themacrophytes of the Shire River,Malawi, with reference to potentialaquatic weeds. Kirkia 13: 125-142.

Brass L. J. 1953. Vegetation of Nyasaland.Report on the Vernay NyasalandExpedition of 1946. Memoirs of theNew York Botanical Garden 8 (3): 161-190.

Brenan J. P. M. 1953. Plants collected by theVernay Nyasaland Expedition of 1946.Memoirs of the New York BotanicalGarden 8 (3): 191-256.

Brenan J. P. M. 1954. Plants collected by theVernay Nyasaland Expedition of 1946.Memoirs of the New York BotanicalGarden 8 (5): 409-510.

Brenan J. P. M. 1954. Plants collected by theVernay Nyasaland Expedition of 1946.Memoirs of the New York BotanicalGarden 9 (1): 1-132.

Britten et al. 1894. The plants of Milanje,Nyasaland, collected by Mr. AlexanderWhyte FLS. Transactions of theLinnean Society II, Botany 4: 1-67.

Brummitt R. K. 1973. Systematic list ofNyika botanical collections. WyeCollege 1972 Malawi Project FinalReport: 47-77

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(vii)

PREFACEAfter long and comprehensive consultations and much work by both local and internationalbiodiversity experts I am pleased to present our Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan,NBSAP. The process started in 1998 with comprehensive analyses of biodiversity componentsand assessment of current biodiversity management regimes. The process identified a numberof critical biodiversity issues and threats that must be addressed if Malawi is to achieve itsenvironmental protection obligation as called for in the Constitution. As such the overridinggoal of the strategy is to protect, conserve and maintain protected areas, mountains andspecies within them, promote restoration of degraded and vulnerable ecosystems and habitatsand recovery of rare and threatened species for the benefit of the people.The ultimate objective is to promote conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing ofbenefits with full participation of all stakeholders including rural communities. As suchimplementation of this strategy and action plan is critical if Malawi is to fully benefit frombiodiversity. In implementing this strategy Malawi will be fulfilling its obligations to theConvention of Biological Diversity.The NBSAP follows a thematic approach rather than the traditional sectoral approach. It isthus comprehensive and I perceive this strategy as a spring board for the implementation ofthe five focal areas (water, energy, health, agriculture and biodiversity popularly referred toWEHAB) that the 2002 Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development identified.It is also my hope that priority actions identified in this strategy will be the basis forInternational donor commitments for supporting the conservation of biological diversity inMalawi.The NBSAP presents a number of strategies and action plans that I believe will lead to:- improved awareness of the importance of biodiversity and community participation in

biodiversity conservation;- harmonized sectoral policies, legislation, strategies and programmes;- improved infrastructure and human capacity for biodiversity conservation; and- improved biodiversity knowledge base.This strategy is not a stand-alone initiative. It forms part of a broad range of activities andprogrammes which are being implemented by various stakeholders. Its implementation willtherefore require coordinated approach and it is my hope therefore that this shall be achievedthrough the participation of all the stakeholders that are involved in the implementation of allmatters on the Conservation on Biological Diversity in Malawi.I trust that this NBSAP will be a valuable tool and guide that will contribute substantially tothe enhancement of conservation, sustainable use and benefit sharing of biodiversity inMalawi.

HENRY CHIMUNTHU BANDA, M.P.Minister of Mines, Natural Resources and Environment

MALAWI GOVERNMENT

Ministry of Energy, Mines, and Natural

Resources

National BiodiversityNational BiodiversityStrategy and Action PlanStrategy and Action Plan

Environmental Affairs DepartmentOctober 2006

Printed by THE GOVERNMENT PRINTER, Lilongwe, Malawi