Magic Lens: Grammar Notes
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Transcript of Magic Lens: Grammar Notes
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GrammarGrammar is a way of thinking about
language.Four Levels of Grammar:• Parts of Speech• Parts of the Sentence• Phrases• Clauses
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Parts of Speech: the eight kinds of words in English
•nouns•pronouns•verbs•adjectives•adverbs•prepositions•conjunctions•interjections
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Nouns
A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.
Examples: Mozart, Chicago, epidermis, rock, freedom
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Proper nouns are capitalized; common nouns are not.• Mozart (proper), epidermis (common)Concrete nouns are names of objects; abstract
nouns are names of ideas.• rock (concrete), freedom (abstract)
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When we address someone directly, the person’s name or title is called the noun of direct address.
• Karen, meet me at the library.• Meet me at the library, Karen.A collective noun names a group.• flock
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Singular nouns name individual things; plural nouns name multiple things.• boat, flock, kindness (singular)• boats, flocks, kindnesses (plural)
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PronounsA pronoun is a word that takes the
place of a noun.Noun: Pronoun:Ike passed the ball. He passed the ball.
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Pronouns may be masculine gender (he, him, his), feminine gender
(she, her, hers), or neuter gender (it).
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Pronouns may have person and number.
First Person
Second Person
Third Person
SINGULAR PLURALI we
you youhe, she, it they
Subject Pronouns:
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The pronoun’s antecedent is the noun the pronoun replaces.
Example:Ike caught the ball, and then he passed it. ↑ ↑antecedent pronoun
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*There isn’t always an antecedent.Example:Anyone who is registered may vote. (no antecedent)
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Use subject pronouns as subjects; use object pronouns as objects.
Example:They bought the tickets and gave them to us. ↑ ↑ ↑subject pronoun object pronouns
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MEMORIZE the subject and object pronouns!
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Singular
SUBJECT PRONOUNS
OBJECT PRONOUNS
I meyou youshe, he, it her, him, it
Pluralwe usyou youthey them
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MEMORIZE the subject and object pronouns!The quiz will be on _________________.
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Possessive pronouns are used to indicate ownership or possession.
Example:Diego lost his pesos.The dog found its doghouse.
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Singular
SUBJECT OBJECT POSSESSIVEI me my, mineyou you your, yoursshe, he, it
her, him, it
her, hers, his, its
Pluralwe us our, oursyou you your, yoursthey them their, theirs
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Possessive pronouns DO NOT need apostrophes (because they are already in the possessive form).
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Its or It’s?
Example:It’s too late to lock its cage.
Possessive Pronoun Contractionits it’s = it + is
Its is a possessive pronoun. It’s is a contraction of it and is. The apostrophe replaces the missing i.
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Using the Right Word:it’s/its
Examine the use of the word “its” in the following sentence.
“She approached the monster cautiously and bravely touched its cold, steel claw.”
Its is a possessive pronoun. Example: The dog lost its collar.
It’s is a contraction for the words it is.Example: The dog barks because it’s hungry.
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Using the Right Word: it’s/itsCopy the following sentences. Choose the
correct word according to its use in the sentence.
1. The snake shed ______ (its, it’s) skin.2. Did you hear the bell? ____ (Its, It’s) ten
minutes early.3. Trying is not hard; ______ (its, it’s) easy.4. Sometimes success is ______ (its, it’s)
own reward.
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Using the Right Word: it’s/itsCopy the following sentences. Choose the
correct word according to its use in the sentence.
1. The snake shed ______ (its, it’s) skin.The snake shed its skin.
2. Did you hear the bell? ____ (Its, It’s) ten minutes early.Did you hear the bell? It’s ten minutes early.
3. Trying is not hard; ______ (its, it’s) easy.Trying is not hard; it’s easy.
4. Sometimes success is ______ (its, it’s) own reward.Sometimes success is its own reward.
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Using the Right Word: Your TurnWrite sentences, using the word in
parentheses correctly.5. (its) 6. (it’s)
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Singular
SUBJECT OBJECT POSSESSIVEI me my, mineyou you your, yoursshe, he, it
her, him, it
her, hers, his, its
Pluralwe us our, oursyou you your, yoursthey them their, theirs
So far, we have studied personal pronouns.
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Other Kinds of Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions.
who, whose, whom, which, what
Example:Who went to the park?
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Demonstrative pronouns are used to demonstrate or point out.
this, that, these, thoseExample:This is the dog I want to adopt.
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A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates an adjective clause to a main clause.
who, whose, whom which, that
Example:I called the man who lost his wallet.
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Indefinite PronounsAn indefinite pronoun does not refer to a
specific person or a specific thing.
Singular Indefinite Pronouns
another anything
everybody
neither
one
anybody
each everyone nobody
somebody
anyone either everything
no one someone
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Possessive pronouns must agree in number with indefinite pronouns.
Example: Neither believed his eyes. (Not
their eyes)
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Plural Indefinite Pronouns
both many few several
Examples: Several reported their findings.Many are absent.
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The following pronouns may be singular OR plural, depending on their meaning in the sentence:
all some any none
Singular: Plural:All of my story is true. All of the reporters are
here.None of the lake is foggy. None of the photos are
sharp.
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Using Who and Whom
Who is the subject form; whom is the object form.
Who will play the lead? (Who= subject)Whom do you see? (Whom=direct object)From whom do we buy the tickets?
(whom=object of the preposition)
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Reflexive and Intensive PronounsPronouns that end in –self or –selves are
either intensive or reflexive pronouns.Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns:myself yourself herself himself itselfourselves yourselves themselves
A reflexive pronoun reflects back to a word used previously in the sentence. The sentence’s meaning is incomplete without it.
Example: Linda reminded herself to buy film.
An intensive pronoun adds emphasis to a noun or another pronoun. The meaning of the sentence is complete without it.
Example: I myself agree with that idea.
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AdjectivesDefinition: An adjective is a word
that modifies a noun or pronoun. Example:
The red car looked good.
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An adjective often tells what kind, which one, or how many.
Examples: broken robotthose wirestwo technicians
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Proper AdjectivesWhen adjectives are made from proper
nouns, they are called proper adjectives. They are always capitalized.
Examples: Friday nightJune dayItalian dressing
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ArticlesThe words a, an, and the are special
adjectives called articles. The is the definite article; it points
out one specific person, place, thing or idea.
Example: Please hand me the book. A and an are indefinite articles; they
are less specific.Example:Please hand me a book.
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Good and WellThe word good is an adjective that may be
used to modify nouns or pronouns; the word well is an adverb that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
Example:The good athlete runs well. adjective adverbmodifying the modifying thenoun athlete verb runs
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Three Degrees of AdjectivesUse the positive degree of an
adjective to describe one thing.• This is a long movie.
Use the comparative degree of an adjective to compare two things.
• This movie is longer than the one I watched yesterday.
Use the superlative degree of an adjective to compare more than two things.
• This is the longest movie I have ever watched.
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Short adjectives change their forms by adding
–er for the comparative and –est for the superlative.
Positive ComparativeSuperlativehot hotter hottestripe riper ripestcreamy creamier creamiestspicy spicier spiciest
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Longer adjectives use more for the comparative and most for the superlative.
Positive Comparative Superlativefragrant more fragrant most fragrantwell-done more well-done most well-doneflavorful more flavorful most flavorful
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The comparative and superlative forms of some adjectives are totally different words.
Positive Comparative Superlativegood better bestwell better bestbad worse worstmany more most
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VerbsDefinition: A verb is a word that
shows action, or being, or links a subject to a subject complement.
Examples:• The skaters raced around the
park.• He is.• He is tired.
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Action VerbsDefinition: An action verb says
what the subject of the sentence does.
• Shanna knew the winner.• Students gathered their books.
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If the verb is an action verb, it might show action on a direct object.
• Verdi composed the opera. (direct object)
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Or, an action verb might show simple action not on a direct object.
• Verdi composed.
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Linking VerbsDefinition: A linking verb links
the subject of the sentence with a subject complement.
Examples:
• He is a poet.
• My skates are fast.
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Principal Parts of Verbs
Infinitive Present Participle
Past Past Participle
to do (do) doing did doneto go (go) going went goneto think (think) thinkin
gthought thought
to dream (dream)
dreaming
dreamed
dreamed
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Regular VerbsMost verbs make the principal
parts in the same regular way; therefore, we refer to them as regular verbs.
Infinitive Present Participle
Past Past Participle
to work working worked (has) workedto spill spilling spilled (has) spilled
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Irregular VerbsMany verbs do not follow a
regular pattern. Instead, they have principal parts which are unique.
Infinitive Present Participle
Past Past Participle
to shrink shrinking shrank
(has) shrunk
to write writing wrote (has) written
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Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
A verb that has a direct object is called a transitive verb.
•Rocks hit Sue. (Sue is the d.o.)A verb that does not have a direct
object is called an intransitive verb.•Rocks flew. (No d.o.)
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Why We Call Them “Transitive”
Transitive verbs are action verbs that are called “transitive” because of the transit of action or energy that takes place when the subject acts on the object.
If I kick the bucket, the energy transfers from me to the bucket I am kicking.
The stem trans means “across.”In an intransitive verb, there is no
transfer of energy.
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Transitive or Intransitive?
• Laura saw a snake. Saw what? snake (d.o.) Saw is transitive.
• The snake moved quickly.
Moved what? no d.o. Moved is intransitive.
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Transitive or Intransitive?
• Ian shouted a warning. shouted--transitive
• He shouted loudly. shouted--intransitive
• The reptile exhibit will open soon.
will open--intransitive
• The snake opened its jaws.
opened--transitive
Copy each sentence. Underline the verb and label it as transitive or intransitive.
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Active and Passive VoiceAn active voice verb is an action verb
that shows the subject actually acting.
•The meteor struck the ship. A passive voice verb is an action verb
that shows the subject passively being acted upon.
•The ship was struck by the meteor.
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Six Verb Tenses•Present•Past•Future•Present Perfect•Past Perfect•Future Perfect
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Conjugating a Verb
Present Tense Singular Plural“to protest”
1st Person
I protest. We protest.
2nd Person
You protest.
You protest.
3rd Person
He, she, it protests.
They protest.
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Conjugating a Verb
Past Tense Singular Plural“to protest”
1st Person
I _______. We _______.
2nd Person
You ______. You _______.
3rd Person
He, she, it _________.
They ______.
protested
protested
protested
protestedprotestedprotested
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Conjugating a Verb
Future Tense Singular Plural“to protest”
1st Person
I _______. We _______.
2nd Person
You ______. You _______.
3rd Person
He, she, it _________.
They ______.
will protest
will protest
will protest
will protestwill protestwill protest
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Conjugating a VerbPresent Perfect
Tense Singular Plural
“to protest”
1st Person
I _______. We _______.
2nd Person
You ______. You _______.
3rd Person
He, she, it _________.
They ______.
have protested
have protested
has protested
have protestedhave protested
have protested
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Conjugating a VerbPast Perfect Tense Singular Plural“to protest”
1st Person
I _______. We _______.
2nd Person
You ______. You _______.
3rd Person
He, she, it _________.
They ______.
had protested
had protested
had protested
had protestedhad protested
had protested
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Conjugating a VerbFuture PerfectTense
Singular Plural
“to protest”
1st Person
I _______. We _______.
2nd Person
You ______. You _______.
3rd Person
He, she, it _________.
They ______.
will have protestedwill have protested
will have protested
will have protested
will have protestedwill have protested
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Why We Call Them “Perfect”Tenses
The three perfect tenses are called perfect because the word perfect comes from
the Latin word perficere (“to finish”). Stem Meaningper throughfac makeperficere = to finish (to be through making
something; to make it perfect) The perfect tenses, therefore, are the
tenses of things which are finished.
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Present Perfect—action which is finished nowExample: I have returned.
Past Perfect—action which was finished then (in the past)Example: I had returned.
Future Perfect—action which will be finished in the futureExample: I will have returned.
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Progressive Verb FormsProgressive verb forms show
action still in progress. (always end in –ing)
Present Progressive: I am playing.
Past Progressive: I was playing.
Future Progressive: I shall be playing.
Present Perfect Progressive: I have been playing.Past Perfect Progressive: I had been playing.
Future Perfect Progressive: I will have been playing.
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AdverbsDefinition: An adverb is a word that
modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb. Examples:
• The movie started early.
• My report is too long.
• He and she swim very well.
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Adverbs help make meaning clear by telling how, when, where, or to what extent.
Examples:
• The guide spoke softly. (How?)
• The speaker arrived late. (When?)
• He approached the cave and looked inside. (Where?)
• The cave was very dark. (To what extent?)
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PrepositionsDefinition: A preposition is a word that shows a
relationship between its object (the object of the preposition) and another word in the sentence.
Examples:• The book is on the shelf.
(prep.) (object of prep.)
• I have a one hundred dollar check for you. (prep.) (obj. of prep.)
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Prepositions show relationships of time, relationships of space, and relationships of direction.
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Examples:
• I took the test before lunch. (Time)
• I will save you a seat beside me. (Space)
• My relatives are traveling from Chicago. (Direction)
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ConjunctionsDefinition: A conjunction is a word
that joins (junct) two words or two groups of words together (con).
Examples:• Bob and Jane were here. • I am eating outside since it is sunny.
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Types of Conjunctions•Coordinating conjunctions•Subordinating conjunctions•Correlative conjunctions•Conjunctive adverbs
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Coordinating Conjunctions Coordinating conjunctions are used to
join words which are equal (co) in importance.
Coordinating Conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet
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Subordinating Conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions join
unequals. They join something of lesser importance (sub) to something of greater importance.
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Words Often Used as Subordinating Conjunctionsafter because so that whateveralthough before than whenas if though wheneveras if in order
thattill where
as long as
provided unless wherever
as though
since until while
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Correlative Conjunctions Correlative conjunctions are multiple-
word conjunctions.
Correlative Conjunctions: either...or not only...but alsoboth...and neither…norwhether…or
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Conjunctive Adverbs Conjunctive adverbs are words which act
both as adverbs and conjunctions. They are commonly used to begin clauses.
Conjunctive Adverbs: therefore, however, hence, so, then, moreover, nevertheless, yet, consequently, besides
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InterjectionsDefinition: An interjection is a word which
shows emotion but has no grammatical purpose. In other words, they just throw (ject) and exclamation into (inter) a sentence.
Examples:• Whew!• Wow!• Oh, look at that beautiful valley.