Magdalena Wieczorkowska Ph.D. SOCIOLOGY AS A DISCIPLINE.

Magdalena Wieczorkowska Ph.D.

SOCIOLOGY AS A DISCIPLINE


What is Sociology?

SOCIOLOGY – a science about society and laws that stand behind people`s everyday behaviours and decisions. Sociology studies patterns of social

behaviours.


SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVESOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

people - behaviour - prediction;people - behaviour - prediction; one person - solitary situation; two or more people -

social situation; modification of our behaviour and thoughts; prediction of our behaviour in certain situations and

the behaviour of others to be able to create some patterns of behaviour;

imagine your behaviour in the following situations: praying alone in a church, sitting with your family at home, playing football, having the job interview;


SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVESOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE What is Society?

LARGER SENSELARGER SENSE - a cluster, system of patterned interactions among organized group of people, eg. Western society – industrial capitalism, parliamentary democracy, public education, monogamous marriage;

SPECIFIED SENSESPECIFIED SENSE - an organized group of people who have distinctive social patterns, occupy a defined terrority and share a sense of common identity, eg. French society, Spanish society (each can be called Western society);


SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVESOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Common terms

SOCIETY – people. SOCIAL STRUCTURE – interaction

(mutual relations) between people, eg. family.

CULTURE – beliefs, rules, ideas that characterize a society`s way of life.


SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE SocietySociety

It exists independently of the individuals who belong to it (it is a WHOLE greater than a sum of its parts);

People are born and die but society exists – it`s because the STRUCTURE is made by relationship among the people, not the people themselves;


SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVESOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

TWO MAIN QUESTIONS IN SOCIOLOGY

WHY PEOPLE BEHAVE THE WAY THEY DO?

WHY ARE THEIR SOCIAL SITUATIONS THE WAY THEY ARE?


SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVESOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVEFrom personal to social problemFrom personal to social problem

Many personal troubles can be understood and solved on a broader, society-wide level. When someone loses his job – it`s a personal trouble that can be explained by his own lack of skills or willingness to work. But when the rate of unemployment is 14% for the Polish population it becomes a social problem.


SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVESOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVEFundamental questionsFundamental questions

Sociology tries to find answers to the following questions: What is human nature? How are people trained to behave in certain ways in certain situations? Why do you feel the way you do about college education, health policy, the kind of job you desire, the sort of family life you want to have? How much chance do you have in achieving these goals? What causes poverty, revolutions, riots, terrorism? What will the society of the future be like?


SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVESOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVESocial manSocial man

Social man is a creature who has learned to direct biological drives into socially accepted channels and who has made the values and goals of a particular time and place part of his personality.


SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVESOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVESocial manSocial man

MUCH OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR IS BEST EXPLAINED NOT IN TERMS OF THE INNATE CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIVIDUALS, BUT AS AN OUTCOME OF SOCIAL ARRANGEMENTS THAT AFFECT PARTICULAR INDIVIDUALS BECAUSE OF THEIR POSITIONS IN THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE. HUMAN BEHAVIOUR WILL CHANGE WHEN SOCIAL CONDITIONS CHANGE AND NOT THE OTHER WAY AROUND.


SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVESOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVESummarySummary

It is paying particular attention to certain aspects of social reality while deliberately neglecting others.

Sociological perspective:Sociological perspective:– Gives us a new view of familiar things;– Helps us understand strange behaviour and

unfamiliar situations [eg. Eastern empires like China, Byzanthium, Persia – the high ranking positions were held by eunuchs. The eunuch system was so widespread because such people were absolutely loyal toward despot`s demand. They coudn`t have descendants and usually had little connection to their families.


HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology has its roots in ancient times. Greece and Rome were places where the social thought has begun. But sociology as a science has its beginning in 18th century.


HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGYHISTORY OF SOCIOLOGYFounders - Comte

AUGUST COMTE (18-19th century) he is said to be the founder of sociology. He claimed that social social world should be studied in the same, scientific world should be studied in the same, scientific manner as the natural worldmanner as the natural world.. The purpose of sociology is to predictpredict. The purpose of prediction is controlcontrol. Sociology was to discover the laws of social order so that the stability could be maintained.

– Subjects of sociology:•Statics – stable structures of society

which endured over time•Dynamics – forces of change and conflict

that disrupted social order


HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGYHISTORY OF SOCIOLOGYFounders - Durkheim

EMILE DURKHEIM (19-20th centruy) – he asked: “what makes mutually hostile and self-seeking individuals work together in a society?” In his view, society is maintained by its members` common bonds. Interaction comes from shared activities – praying, working – and shared beliefs (collective consciousness). There are two kinds of social unity:

Mechanical solidarity – based on a moral consensus among people who have many social similarities (eg. rural village – people share many traditional customs);

Organic solidarity – based on mutual dependence among people of different backgrounds and beliefs (eg. residents of a modern city where people have few emotional bonds/ties but are held together by the division of labor.



The shift from one type of solidarity to the other – apsect of the Great Transformation. He studied moral values. Religion gave a sense of moral obligation that led people to give up their own selfish purposes for the sake of community. That “religious solidarity” could break down into a state of anomie.



Durkheim created a sociological concept of suicide. Suicide is influenced by social conditions. Society is a peculiar phenomenon that can`t be understood by studying only the personal characteristics of its members. The rate of suicides depends on the strenght or looseness of the social network. He distinguished types of suicides but not in terms of motives (psychology), but according to the relationship of the actor to society:

Egoistic suicide – an effect of isolation and loneliness; when the networks in society are loosened;

Anomic suicide – an effect of anomie – a condition of social and moral disorder;

Altruistic suicide – when the network in society is too tight; Fatal suicide – an individual perspective; situation is seen

by a person himself as the one without solution.


HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGYHISTORY OF SOCIOLOGYFounders - Marx

KARL MARX (18th century) – society had been historically always divided betwen two groups – classes; the one that controls the means of production (land, factories) and the one that doesn`t. The main social process is not collaboration but conflict between the exploiters and the exploited. All the history is the history of class struggles – between masters and slaves, peasants and lords, capitalists and workers. He predicted that contradictions of capitalism would destroy it from within and that a CLASSLESS society would be created.


HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGYHISTORY OF SOCIOLOGYFounders - Weber

MAX WEBER (19-20th century) – sociology is a science which focuses on interpretive understanding (VERSTEHEN) of social behaviour in order to gain an explanation of its causes, its course and its effects. VERSTEHEN can be achieved only by discovering the subjective meanings that individuals give to their own behaviour and to the behaviour of others. In earlier times the motivating forces were tradition and religion. Nowadays –

purposive rational behaviour.


MAIN SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTSMAIN SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTSFunctional and structural analysisFunctional and structural analysis

Main interest is how one part of a society relates to another part or to the social system as a whole.

SOCIETY is a system of coordinated and interdependent parts. Various parts are affected by the system.

Functional analysis focuses on consequences of social phenomenon for the society.

A phenomenon can be: Functional – it contributes to the maintenance of a

system; Dysfunctional – it dezintegrates the system;


MAIN SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTSMAIN SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTSFunctional and structural analysisFunctional and structural analysis

Main founders of this theory – Parsons, Merton, Radcliffe – Brown.

Social actions can have two kinds of meaning: Manifest function – intended consequences of social

actions; Latent functions – unintended consequences;

Change in one part of the social system (eg. economy) produces changes in the family, population, social values.


MAIN SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTSMAIN SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTSConflict theoryConflict theory

It studies social processes that arise from the struggle to attain whatever people consider as a desirable – wealth, power, high social position, prestige. Main assumptions: All social systems distribute valuable resources inequally; The resulting inequalities create conflicts of interest among

various strata and classes in the system; Conflicts of interest generate overt (open) conflicts between

those who control valuable resources and those who don`t; In a longer perspective these conflicts result in the

reorganization of social systems; The final stage of the conflict – victory of working class and

creation of the classless society.


MAIN SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTSMAIN SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTSConflict theoryConflict theory

Main founders: Lewis Coser, Peter Blau LEWIS COSER – flexible, complex social structures

are more likely to absorb conflicts than simple, tightly integrated societies. There are many different group affiliations, different conflicts crisscross and this prevent the formation of deep crisi. In more traditional, smaller societies group affiliations are less in number; religious, ethnic and political conflicts don`t crisscross but run together.


MAIN SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTSMAIN SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTSSymbolic interactionismSymbolic interactionism

Social life depends on the mutual communication. Social interaction takes place through language and

other symbolic communications (music, art.). In order to communicate people must interpret the

meaning of these symbolic messages and respond in a way that will be understood.

These SHARED MEANINGS are the basis of social life.

SOCIAL REALITY is fluid, it is a process in which social actors are involved in negotiations with other people about how to behave.


MAIN SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTSMAIN SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTSEthnomethodologyEthnomethodology

The study how people invent and convey shared meanings in their everyday routines.

The founder – HAROLD GARFINKEL. He tried to bring unspoken rules of social life out into

the open by breaking them. Insignificant rules are important because they

represent the consistent social patterns that make it

possible for people to live and work together.


SOCIAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVESOCIAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVESOCIAL PERSPECTIVE

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

ECONOMICS

PSYCHOLOGY

POLITICAL SCIENCE

HISTORY

ANTHROPOLOGY

SOCIOLOGY


DIVISIONS OF SOCIOLOGYDIVISIONS OF SOCIOLOGY

MACROSTRUCTURES - country, nation, global society;

MEZZOSTRUCTURES - institutions, organizations;

MICROSTRUCTURES - human being, family;


SUBDISCIPLINES IN SOCIOLOGYSUBDISCIPLINES IN SOCIOLOGY

sociology of medicine sociology of culture sociology of professions sociology of education sociology of organization sociology of communication sociology of human resources, etc.


2 APPROACHES TO SOCIAL REALITY2 APPROACHES TO SOCIAL REALITY

QUALITATIVE QUALITATIVE – humanistic, – non-statistical methods, – more complex data,– non standarized data, – descriptive

presentations, – deeper, – expensive, – example: in-depth

interview;

QUANTITATIVE QUANTITATIVE – scientific, – statistical methods,– simple data,– standarized data, – statistical

presentation, – faster, – cheeper, – example: survey;


SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURESCIENTIFIC PROCEDURE

BASIC RESEARCH PROCEDURESSelecting a topic;Reviewing the literature;Forming a hypothesis;Choosing a research method;Collecting the data; Interpreting the data;Publishing the findings.


SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURESCIENTIFIC PROCEDUREStep 1. Defining the questionStep 1. Defining the question

CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP – an association between things, persons, behaviours, where one thing “A”, leads to another “B”:

A (cause) B (effect)

VARIABLE (a measurable characteristic or property that changes, eg. age – it changes from one person to another).In the simplest type of causal relationship we have two variables: INDEPENDENT VARIABLE (poverty) DEPENDENT VARIABLE (crime)


SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURESCIENTIFIC PROCEDUREStep 1. Defining the questionStep 1. Defining the question

CORRELATION – a tendency between phenomena to go together.

Correlation can be:Positive – when all the variables rise and

fall together;Negative – one variable rise and the other

falls at the same time.


SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURESCIENTIFIC PROCEDUREStep 2. HypothesisStep 2. Hypothesis

HYPOTHESIS – a supposition about a relationship between variables.

Example: hypothesis about poverty and crime: poor people lack many of things they need, that`s why they are more likely to commit crimes, than people from higher classes.


SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURESCIENTIFIC PROCEDUREStep 3. The investigated populationStep 3. The investigated population

It`s a group of people we want to examine, for example poor people. Usually we are not able to examine all the people from the interesting category and we draw a SAMPLE – a portion of a particular population. Two types of a sample:Simple random sample Stratified sample


SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURESCIENTIFIC PROCEDUREStep 4. Choosing the research methodStep 4. Choosing the research method

Quantitative and qualitative. Based on observation and based on

communication (direct or non-direct). Standarized and non-standarized.

Examples: SURVEY, INTERVIEW, CASE HISTORY, FIELD STUDY, EXPERIMENT, CONTENT ANALYSIS


SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURESCIENTIFIC PROCEDUREStep 4. Research methods - surveyStep 4. Research methods - survey

It is a poll of a sample of people whose responses are likely to be representative of the opinions of the whole population under study. It is a kind of non-direct method. People are asked questions through self-admistered questionaires. Application of survey today: polititians, television, advertising, public officials.


SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURESCIENTIFIC PROCEDUREStep 4. Research methods - interviewStep 4. Research methods - interview

AN INTERVIEW – a conversation between an investigator and a person being interviewed. We have a set of questions, but it is a more flexible method. Skills of the interviewer decide about the success or failure of the interview. A face-to-face relation makes people answer in the way to satisfy the interviewer and thay don`t reveal their real opinions.Usually interview is recorded.


SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURESCIENTIFIC PROCEDUREStep 4. Research methods - case historyStep 4. Research methods - case history

A CASE HISTORY (BIOGRAPHY) – a close study of the behaviours, feelings and thoughts of individuals. There is a risk of obtaining untruthful data as we rely on somebody`s memoires. Usually recorded by an interviewer (on a tape recorder) or by the person interviewed (in the form of a diary).


SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURESCIENTIFIC PROCEDUREStep 4. Research methods - field studyStep 4. Research methods - field study

It is a method based on observation of the behaviours of people in their natural setting. We can make participant or non-participant observation. In a PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION an investigator is a member of a group he examines. He can make an observation in secret (nobody knows what is his role) or in the open (everybody knows his role and purpose).


SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURESCIENTIFIC PROCEDUREStep 4. Research methods - experimentStep 4. Research methods - experiment

It is a test of cause and effect under controlled conditions. It`s not very popular in sociology, because it has many limitations. The method itself consists of several steps:

Choosing two comparable groups – experimental group and control group;

Measurement of the level of the examined variable in both groups before exposition;

Exposition of the experimental group to a stimulus; Second measurement of the level of the examined variable

in both groups to estimate whether the stimulus caused any effect.


SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURESCIENTIFIC PROCEDUREStep 4. Research methods - content analysisStep 4. Research methods - content analysis

It uses documents not individuals to make a research. It studies records, archeological evidence, etc. It enables to get an insight into cultural values of a particular society.


SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURESCIENTIFIC PROCEDUREStep 5. AssessmentStep 5. Assessment

To avoid unreliable information and false conclusions researchers combine research methods. This procedure is called TRIANGULATION.


SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURESCIENTIFIC PROCEDUREStep 6. SummaryStep 6. Summary

We interpret collected data and draw some conclusions that should be published broadly.

Magdalena Wieczorkowska Ph.D. SOCIOLOGY AS A DISCIPLINE.

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