CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINE TO OB Psychology Sociology

Class- B.B.A 2nd Year Subject- Organizational Behavior Navsamvat College,Ujjain

22/2 Lalpur Nagjhiri , Ujjain (M.P)

CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINE TO OB

Organizational behavior is an applied behavioral science that is built upon contributions from a number

of behavioral disciplines. The main areas are psychology, sociology, social psychology, anthropology, and

political science.

Psychology

Psychology is the study of humans mind that attempts to measure, explain, and at times change the

behavior of humans and other animals. Early industrial/organizational psychologists were concerned with

problems of fatigue, boredom, and other factors relevant to working conditions that could disrupt/ impede

efficient work performance. More recently, their contributions have been expanded to include learning,

perception, personality, emotions, training, leadership effectiveness, needs and motivational forces, job

satisfaction, decision making processes, performance appraisals, attitude measurement, employee

selection techniques, work design, and job stress.

Sociology

Sociologists study the social system in which individuals fill their roles; that is, sociology studies people in

relation to their fellow human beings. Their significant contribution to OB is through their study of group

behavior in organizations, particularly formal and complex organizations.

Key concepts of Sociology are;

Most sociologists today identify the discipline by using one of the three statements:

Sociology deals with human interaction arid this communication are the key influencing factor

among people in social settings.

Sociology is a study of plural behavior. Two or more interacting individuals constitute a plurality

pattern of behavior.

When analyzing organizing as a social system, the following elements exist:

People or actors

Acts or Behavior

Ends or Goals

Norms, rules, or regulation controlling conduct or behavior



Social Psychology

It has been defined as the scientific investigation of how the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of individuals

are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied the presence of others.

It deals with how people are affected by other individuals who are physically present or who are imagined

to be present or even whose presence is implied.

In general, sociology focuses on how groups, organizations, social categories, and societies are organized,

how they function, how they change.

The unit of analysis is the group as a whole rather than the individuals who compose the group.

Social Psychologists study an enormous range of topics including conformity, persuasion, power,

influence, obedience, prejudice, discrimination, stereotyping, sexism and racism, small groups, social

categories, inter-group behavior, crowd behavior, social conflict, social change, decision making, etc.

Social psychologists making significant contributions to measuring, understanding and improving

attitudes, communication patterns in how groups can satisfy individual needs and group decision-making

processes.

Anthropology

Anthropology is the study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities. It deals with the

study of complete human being about how they adapt themselves in particular organization.

Anthropologists work on cultures and environments; for example, they have aided in understanding

differences in fundamental values, attitudes, and behavior among people in different countries and within

different organizations.

The use of anthropology focuses on the study of societies to learn about human beings, their cultures,

environments and activities. It enables us to understand differences in fundamental values, attitudes and

behaviour between people in different countries and within different organisations.

Political Sciences

Contributions of political scientists are significant to the understanding of behavior in organizations.

Political scientists study the behavior of individuals and groups within a political environment.

They contribute to understanding the dynamics of power centers, structuring of conflict and conflict

resolution tactics, allocation of power and how people manipulate power for individual self-interest.



MEANING OF OB

Organizational Behavior (OB) is the study of human behavior in organizational settings, the

interface between human behavior and the organization, and the organization itself.

DEFINITIONS OF OB

Organizational Behavior word has been consisted of two different words "Organization" and "Behavior". Organization means a disciplined and regulatory process by which planned objective turns into realistic. On the other hand, Here. Behavior means human behaviors inside a organization.

Different authors have defined Organizational Behavior on their

aspects:

Stephen P. Robbins states as "Organizational Behavior studies the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on behavior within organization for the purpose applying such knowledge toward improving n organizations effectiveness."

Keith Davis quoted as " Organizational Behavior is the study and application of knowledge about how people act within organization."

Fred Luthans said as "Organization Behavior is directly concerned with the understanding prediction and control of human behavior in organization."

OBJECTIVE OF OB

We have identified 8 objectives of organizational behavior;

Job Satisfaction

Finding the Right People

Organizational Culture

Leadership and Conflict Resolution

Understanding the Employees Better

Understand how to Develop Good Leaders

Develop a Good Team

Higher Productivity (Note:

Explain it by yourself)



NATURE AND SCOPE

OF OB

1. A Separate Field of Study and not a Discipline Only

By definition, a discipline is an accepted science that is based on a theoretical foundation. But,

O.B. has a multi-interdisciplinary orientation and is, thus, not based on a specific theoretical

background. Therefore, it is better reasonable to call O.B. a separate field of study rather than a discipline

only.

2. An Interdisciplinary Approach

Organizational behaviour is essentially an interdisciplinary approach to study human behaviour at work.

It tries to integrate the relevant knowledge drawn from related disciplines like psychology, sociology

and anthropology to make them applicable for studying and analysing organizational behaviour.

3. An Applied Science

The very nature of O.B. is applied. What O.B. basically does is the application of various researches to

solve the organizational problems related to human behaviour. The basic line of difference between pure

science and O.B. is that while the former concentrates of fundamental researches, the latter concentrates

on applied researches. O.B. involves both applied research and its application in organizational analysis.

Hence, O.B. can be called both science as well as art.

4. A Normative Science

Organizational Behaviour is a normative science also. While the positive science discusses only cause effect

relationship, O.B. prescribes how the findings of applied researches can be applied to socially accepted

organizational goals. Thus, O.B. deals with what is accepted by individuals and society engaged in an

organization. Yes, it is not that O.B. is not normative at all. In fact, O.B. is normative as well that is well

underscored by the proliferation of management theories.

5. A Humanistic and Optimistic Approach

Organizational Behaviour applies humanistic approach towards people working in the organization. It,

deals with the thinking and feeling of human beings. O.B. is based on the belief that people have an innate

desire to be independent, creative and productive. It also realizes that people working in the organization

can and will actualize these potentials if they are given proper conditions and environment. Environment

affects performance or workers working in an organization.



6. A Total System Approach

The system approach is one that integrates all the variables, affecting organizational functioning. The

systems approach has been developed by the behavioural scientists to analyse human behaviour in view of

his/her socio-psychological framework. Man's socio-psychological framework makes man a complex one and

the systems approach tries to study his/her complexity and find solution to it.



Unit - 2

PERCEPTIO

N

Meaning and Definition of Perception:

“Perception is the process through which the information from outside environment is selected, received,

organised and interpreted to make it meaningful to you. This input of meaningful information results in

decisions and actions.”

“Perception may be defined as a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory

impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.”

Nature and characteristics of perception

1. Perception is a selective process:

We do not perceive each and everything in the world or around us. We attend to only a part of the stimuli

around us. We select only a limited range of stimuli to which we attend. Attention is a basic process in

perception. It makes our perception selective in nature. What we select would depend upon our needs,

interests, and motives or on the nature of stimuli to which we are exposed.

2. Perception requires sensation:

Perception is intimately related to sensation. In order for perception to occur, we must first experience

some sensation.

3. Perception involves organisation:

Perception is not merely a collection of present sensations and memory traces of past experiences. It is

a meaningful and integrated organization of past and present knowledge.

4. Perception involves past experience:

Perception involves past experience also. The present information can be meaningfully

understood only when we integrate our past and interpret it in terms of present or future

consequences.

5. Change is the basis of perception:

Perception is always a response to some change or diffe rence in the environment. If the world were

uniformly the same we would experience no perception. E.g., change in the weather, style of dress, food,

etc. is easily perceived. Any change in the normal routine is perceived quickly.

6. Perception is objective as well as subjective:



We all perceive certain things as the same e.g., table, chair, etc. are perceived by every one of us in a more

or less similar manner. This is objective perception. In many cases our per ception is considerably

influenced by our thoughts, motives, interests, etc. Such percep tion is subjective in nature, e.g., an

ambiguous event may be perceived differently by diffe rent individuals

7. Perception has affective aspect:

Our perception often induces emotions in us. When we perceive an old friend we feel happy. When we

perceive a snake we are afraid. Thus, perception produces feelings and emotions.

Process of perception

n

The perceptual process allows us to experience the world around us.

In this overview of perception and the perceptual process, we will learn

more about how we go from detecting stimuli in the environment to

actually taking action based on that information and it can be organized

into our existing structures and patterns, and are then interpreted based

on previous experiences.

Although the perception is a largely cognitive and psychological

process, how we perceive the people and objects around us affects

our communication.



I ) Perceptual Inputs

A number of stimuli are constantly confronting people in the form of

information, objects, events, people etc. in the environment.

These serve as the inputs of the perceptual process. A few of the stimuli

affecting the senses are the noise of the air coolers, the sound of other

people talking and moving, outside noises from the vehicular traffic or a

street repair shop or a loud speaker playing somewhere plus the impact

of the total environmental situation.

II) PERCEPTUAL MECHANISM:

Selection

The world around us is filled with an infinite number of stimuli that we

might attend, but our brains do not have the resources to pay attention to

everything.

Selecting is the first part of the perception process, in which we focus

our attention on certain incoming sensory information. In selection, we

choose stimuli that attract our attention.

We focus on the ones that stand out to our senses (sight, sound, smell,

taste, and touch). We take information through all five of our senses, but

our perceptual field includes so many stimuli that it is impossible for our

brains to process and make sense of it all.



Organization

Once we have chosen to attend to a stimulus in the environment, the

choice sets off a series of reactions in our brain.

Organizing is the second part of the perception process, in which we sort

and categorize information that we perceive based on innate and learned

cognitive patterns.

Three ways we sort things into patterns are by using proximity, similarity,

and difference

Interpretation

After we have attended to a stimulus, and our brains have received and

organized the information, we interpret it in a way that makes sense

using our existing information about the world Interpretation simply

means that we take the information that we have sensed and organized

and turn it into something that we can categorize.

By putting different stimuli into categories, we can better understand and

react to the world around us.

III. Perceptual Outputs:

Perceptual outputs encompass all that results from the throughout

process. These would include such factors as one’s attitudes, opinions,

feelings, values and behaviours resulting from the perceptual inputs and

throughputs. Perceptual errors adversely affect the perceptual outputs.

The lesser our biases in



perception, the better our chances of perceiving reality as it exists or at

least perceiving situations with the minimum amount of distortions.

ERRORS OR FACTORS AFFECTING

PERCEPTION

1. Halo Effect

2. Stereotyping

3. Dogmatism or Selective perception

4. Attribution

Projection

HALO EFFECT

Halo effect (sometimes called the halo error) is the tendency

for positive impressions of a person, company, brand or

product in one area to positively influence one's opinion or

feelings in other areas.Halo effect is “the name given to the

phenomenon whereby evaluators tend to be influenced by their

previous judgments of performance or personality.”The halo

effect which is a cognitive bias can possibly prevent someone

from accepting a person, a product or a brand based on the

idea of an unfounded belief on what is good or bad.



STEREOTYPING

Stereotype is a set of idea that people have about someone or something. A

stereotype is a characteristic associated with a group of people. ITE differentiate

people on the basis of gender ,race ,national, origin cast and other factors.

Stereotypes are formed because people really don't know other people. Usually

they are formed based on mis information and opinions. That is why diversity

training is important

Types of stereotype can be seen via behaviour way of thinking and respond.

Stereotypes between male and female are unique and it is is beneficial to one

another in many ways. Stereotyping can leaves a negative impact thus creating

problems in a person's life.

DOGMATISM OR SELECTIVE

PERCEPTION

Selective perception is the tendency not to notice and more quickly forget stimuli that

cause emotional discomfort and contradict our prior beliefs. For example, a

teacher may have a favorite student because they are biased by in-group

favoritism. The teacher ignores the student's poor attainment. Conversely, they

might not notice the progress of their least favorite student.

Selective perception is the process by which individuals perceive what they want to

hear in a message while ignoring opposing viewpoints. It is a broad term 25 the

behaviour that people exhibits as we all tend to to see things based on our

personal frame of reference. Using selective perception people tend to overlook or

forget information that contradicts there beliefs or expectation.

ATTRIBUTION

The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to attribute other people's

behaviour to internal factors such as personality traits, abilities and feelings. The

fundamental attribution error refers to an individual's



tendency to attribute another's actions to their character or personality, while

attributing their behavior to external situational factors outside of their control.

PROJECTION

Projection means attributing one's own characteristics to other people.

Individuals attribution of their own feelings attitudes and perception to others.

Individuals can project their fears, hatreds, anxieties and resentments onto others

home they view less powerful. It mis represents their perceptions about others. For

example ,when a person has uncomfortable thoughts aur feelings ,they make

project these on to other people assigning the thoughts that they need to repress to

a convenient alternative target.



SOCIAL PERCEPTION

Social perception (or person perception) is the study of how people form

impressions of and make inferences about other people as sovereign

personalities.[1] Social perception refers to identifying and utilizing

social cues to make judgments about social roles, rules, relationships,

context, or the characteristics (e.g., trustworthiness) of others. This

domain also includes social knowledge, which refers to one’s knowledge

of social roles, norms, and schemas surrounding social situations and

interactions. [2] People learn about others' feelings and emotions by

picking up information they gather from physical appearance, verbal,

and nonverbal communication. Facial expressions, tone of voice, hand

gestures, and body position or movement are a few examples of ways

people communicate without words. A real- world example of social

perception is understanding that others disagree with what one said

when one sees them roll their eyes.

There are four main components of social perception: observation,

attribution, integration, and confirmation.

IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT

Impression management is a conscious or subconscious process in which

people attempt to influence the perceptions of other people about a

person, object or event by regulating and controlling information in

social interaction.

Impression management is usually used synonymously with self-

presentation, in which a person tries to influence the perception of their

image. The notion of impression management was first


applied to face-to-face communication, but then was expanded to apply to

computer-mediated communication. The concept of impression

management is applicable to academic fields of study such as psychology

and sociology as well as practical fields such as corporate

communication and media.


Organisational behaviour

Unit 3

Topic- Concept of leadership

Theories of leadership


Concept of leadership

Leaders and their leadership skills play an important role in the growth of any organization. Leadership refers to the process of influencing the behaviour of people in a manner that they strive willingly and enthusiastically towards the achievement of group objectives.

A leader should have the ability to maintain good interpersonal relations with the followers or subordinates and motivate them to help in achieving the organizational objectives.


Features of leadership

1. Influence the behaviour of others: Leadership is an ability of an individual to influence the behaviour of other employees in the organization to achieve a common purpose or goal so that they are willingly

co-operating with each other for the fulfillment of the same

2. Inter-personal process: It is an interpersonal

process between the leader and the followers. The relationship between the leader and the followers decides how efficiently and effectively the targets of

the organization would be met.


3. Attainment of common organizational goals: The purpose of leadership is to guide the people in an

organization to work towards the attainment of common organizational goals.

The leader brings the people and their efforts together to

achieve common goals.

4. Continuous process: Leadership is a continuous process. A leader has to guide his employees every

time and also monitor them in order to make sure that their efforts are going in the same direction and that they are not deviating from their goals.


Trait theory of leadership

The trait model of leadership is based on

the characteristics of many leaders

- both successful and unsuccessful - and is

used to predict leadership effectiveness.

The resulting lists of traits are then

compared to those of potential leaders to

assess their likelihood of success or

failure.


Scholars taking the trait approach attempted to identify physiological (appearance, height, and weight), demographic (age, education and socioeconomic background), personality, self- confidence, and aggressiveness), intellective (intelligence, decisiveness, judgment, and knowledge), task-related (achievement drive, initiative, and persistence), and social characteristics (sociability and cooperativeness) with leader emergence and leader effectiveness.


Strengths/Advantages of Trait Theory 1.It is naturally pleasing theory.

2. It is valid as lot of research has validated the foundation and basis of the theory.

3. It serves as a yardstick against which the leadership traits of an individual can be assessed.

4. it gives a detailed knowledge and understanding of the leader element in the leadership process.


Behavioral theory of leadership

The behavioral leadership theory focuses on how leaders behave, and assumes that these traits can be copied by other leaders.

Sometimes called the style theory, it suggests that leaders aren’t born successful, but can be created based on learnable behavior. Behavioral theories of leadership focus heavily on the actions of a leader—this theory suggests that the best predictor of leadership success is viewing how a leader acts. Action rather than qualities are the focal points of behavioral learning theory.


A great example of the behavioral theory is looking at a task-oriented leader vs. a people-oriented leader. If there’s a problem with a team, a task-oriented leader will look at the process to see if something needs to be adjusted with the workflow. A people- oriented leader will look at the individuals and go right to them, asking what the issue is. Whatever behaviors you choose, the behavioral leadership theory helps leaders focus on their actions and utilize their decisions to be a great leader.


Fielder Contingency Model The Fiedler Contingency Model was created in the mid-1960s by Fred Fiedler, a scientist who studied the personality and characteristics of leaders.

The model states that there is no one best style of leadership. Instead, a leader's effectiveness is based on the situation. This is the result of two factors –

"leadership style" and "situational favorableness" (later called "situational control").


This theory puts forth the idea that effective leadership hinges not only on the style used by the leader, but also on the control held over the situation. In order to succeed, there must be strong leader- member relations. Leaders must

have to possess the ability to hand out punishments and rewards, as well.

This particular theory only fits situations where groups are closely supervised and not team-based. It also uses a least preferred co-worker (LPC) scale to help determine the

type of worker the leader least likes working with. This theory emphasizes the leader’s disposition as the main trait that defines the ability to lead.


Qualities of a good leader

1. Good personality: Successful leaders have good personality. A leader has to be physically and mentally fit. This requires tremendous physical stamina and mental strength. Followers respect a dynamic leader.

2. Honesty: People want to follow an honest leader. As a leader, showing people that you are honest even, when it means admitting a mistake, displays a key trait that people are looking for in their leaders. By demonstrating honesty,

the leader will increase their leadership influence.


3. Innovative and creative: A leader needs to be creative and innovative who generates new ideas. A

leader should have a vision for the future. Some leaders have a clear vision and are innovative. Followers expect their leaders to be innovative.

4. Competency: People want to follow someone who is competent. A leader should possess a thorough knowledge of the

theory and practice of the job; they should be familiar with the jobs done at different points in the department.


5. Self-confidence: The leader should have self-confidence to face challenging situations and take prompt decisions. A self-confident leader will be in a position to influence their followers in a better manner.

6. Discipline: A disciplined leader always commands respect. They will be able to keep their followers in a

disciplined manner. This will help them to lead the group in a positive way and improve group performance.


7. Inspiration: Followers want to be inspired. People will follow an inspiring leader. Being inspiring is usually just a matter

of communicating clearly and with passion. Being inspiring means telling people how they and the organization is going to change the world.

8. Intelligence: To develop intelligence the leader needs to commit to continual learning—both formally and informally. The

leader must have superior knowledge and must be intelligent to handle the various group conflicts.


9. Human skills: A leader should be a master of human psychology. They should possess deep understanding of human behaviour,

emotions, needs and motives.

This would enable the leader to anticipate the response to their decision and action.

10. Emotional stability and patience:- A leader should be emotionally stable and tolerant. They should be able to reason rationally and logically to

analyse the problems and solve them without any fear or favour.


11. Communicating skill:

A leader should be an effective communicator of ideas, decisions, instructions, etc. The leader should ensure that the subordinates understand their instructions clearly, and the leader should also

understand the communication of the subordinates.

12. Initiative: The leader should have the quality of initiative. The leader must take initiative to do the right things at the right time. The leader should be able to take sound

decisions without any delays.


13. Administrative skills: A leader should possess good administrative skills, and should have the skill to effectively plan,

organize, direct and control the activities of the group.

14. Coach and guide: A leader should act as a coach and guide for subordinates, and should show keen interest in the

subordinates. Leaders should try to meet them often, and encourage them to discuss their problems and difficulties. Leaders should be friendly, helpful, and easily accessible to the subordinates and advise them

whenever necessary.


What is Group ? A group is a collection of individuals who interact with each other such that one person’s actions have an impact on the others. In other words, a group is defined as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives.

Group can be defined as a collection of individuals who have regular contact and frequent interaction,

mutual influence, the common feeling of camaraderie, and who work together to achieve a common set of goals.


Types of Groups

There are two types of groups an individual forms. They are formal

groups and informal groups.


1.Formal Groups These are the type of work groups created by the

organization and have designated work assignments and rooted tasks. The behavior of such groups is directed toward achieving organizational goals.

Formal Groups

These can be further classified into two sub-groups −

a) Command group − It is a group consisting of

individuals who report directly to the manager.


b) Interest group − It is a group formed by

individuals working together to achieve a specific

objective. Example − A group of workers working on a project and reporting to the same manager is considered as a command group. A group of friends chilling out together is considered as interest group or say members of a club.

These groups are formed with friendships and common interests. These can be further classified into two sub-groups −

a) Task group − Those working together to finish a job or task is known as task group.

2. Informal Groups


b) Friendship group − Those brought together because of their shared interests or common characteristics is known as friendship group.


Formation of group

A team cannot be expected to perform well right from the time it is formed. Forming a team is just like

maintaining a relationship. It takes time, patience, requires support, efforts and members often go through recognizable stages as they change from being a collection of strangers to a united group with common

goals.

Bruce Tuckman presented a model of five stages Forming, Storming, Norming, and Performing in order to develop as a group.


The first stage of group development is the forming stage. This stage presents a time where the group is just starting to come together and is described with anxiety and uncertainty.Typical consequences of the forming stage include achieving an understanding of the group's purpose, determining how the team is going to be organized and who will be responsible for what.At this stage, group members are learning what to do, how the group is going to operate, what is expected, and what is acceptable.

Orientation (Forming Stage)


The second stage of group development is the storming stage. The storming stage is where dispute and competition are at its greatest because now group members have an understanding of the work and a general feel of belongingness towards the group as well as the group members.

Questions around leadership, authority, rules, policies, norms, responsibilities, structure, evaluation criteria and reward systems tend to arise during the storming stage. Such questions need to be answered so that the group can move further on to the next stage.

Power Struggle (Storming Stage)


In this stage, the group becomes fun and enjoyable. Group interaction are lot more easier, more cooperative, and productive, with weighed give and take, open communication, bonding, and mutual respect.

If there is a dispute or disruption, it’s comparatively easy

to be resolved and the group gets back on track.

In the performing stage, consensus and cooperation have been well-established and the team is mature, organized, and well-functioning. There is a clear and stable structure, and members are committed to the team’s

mission.

Cooperation and Integration (Norming Stage)

Performing stage


Problems and conflicts still emerge, but they are dealt with constructively.The team is focused on problem solving and meeting team goals.

Adjourning This is the point where the project comes to an end and the team separates and goes their separate

ways. Some team members may find this hard because they liked the routine of the group, have made close friendships or if the future, after

leaving this team, looks bleak and unpromising.


Reasons for joining group Since most people belong to many groups, it is obvious that different groups offer different attractions and benefits to their members.

The most popular reasons for joining a group are related to our needs for security, esteem, affiliation, power, identity, huddling, and task functions.


1. Security

Probably the strongest reason for group formation is the people’s need for security. By joining a group we can reduce our insecurity – we feel stronger, have fewer self-

doubts, and are more resistant to threats.

2. Esteem

An individual can increase his self-esteem through group membership. one may gain esteem by becoming a member of a high-status group. Associating with high- status people is

reinforcing, and one who belongs to such a group is usually accorded a high status by outsiders.


3. Affiliation

Another reason why people join groups is that they enjoy the regular company of other people, particularly those who possess common interests. Individuals may seek out others at work who shares common hobbies or common backgrounds.

4. Identity

Group membership contributes to the individual’s eternal quest for an answer to the question “who am I”. It is common knowledge that’ tries to understand ourselves through the behavior of others towards us.

If others praise us, we feel we are great, if others enjoy our jokes, we see ourselves as funny persons, and so on. Groups provide several “others” who will laugh, praise or admire us.


5. Huddilng

a huddle is an action of a team gathering together, usually in a tight circle, to strategize, motivate or celebrate.Commonly the leader of the huddle is the team captain and it is the captain who will try to inspire other team members to achieve success.


Organisational behaviour

Unit 4

Topic - Stress management


Meaning of stress

Stress is basically the influence of one object on another object. Many three terms are used as synonyms to stress i.e, stress ,strain and pressure. stress is an experience that creates physiological and psychological imbalance within a person. Stress is body's reaction to any demands or changes in its environment. Stress get generated whenever there is a change in environment such as temperature pollution humidity and work conditions.


Some definitions for stress According to Sclye , "the non specific response of body into any demands made upon it within a biological system".

According to luthans, " stress is an adaptive response to an external situation that result in physical psychological or behavioral deviations for organisational participants.

According to R.S Schuler, "stress is a dynamic condition in

which an individual is confronted with an opportunity or demand

related to what he or she desires and for which the outcome is

perceived to be both uncertain and important. the potential is

stress become actual stress when the outcome is uncertain but is

very important for the individual.


( Hans Sclye Model of Stress ) Distress Vs Distress

Stress is anything that changes our physical emotional or mental state while encountering various

stimuli in our environment. Sclye has used two separate terms to denote positive and negative values of stress on individuals.

Distress is negative aspect of stress which occurs when we feel insecure, inadequate , helpless and

desperate as a result of too much or too little pressure aur tension.


Eustress is positive aspect of stress which occurs when stress is accompanied with achievement. Eustress is the stress of meeting challenges such as


those which are found in managerial jobs


There may be number of conditions in which people may feel

stress. Condition that tend to cause stress are called stressors. The

various stresses can be grouped into four categories - individual

,group ,organisational and extra organisational.

Individual stressors :- there are many causes of stress development at the level of individual which may be generated in the context of organisational or personal life. Individual factors like traits and characteristics widely different from person to person. sudden changes may occur in one's life

leaving a tremendous impact on individual. Stress arise while performing complex jobs during this phase of one's life period. there are several ways through which stresses are developed

such as career changes personality type and role characteristics.


1. Career development and changes:- changes in life of an

individual bring him in state of affairs disequilibrium and he is responsible to bring a new equilibrium. life changes there may be changes in career in the form of promotion demotion

transfer separation. There is two major clusters of stresses relating to career development. (A) lack of job security (B) status incongruity .

2. Role characteristics:- role conflict arises because of

incompatibility of two or more roles. In many situations the

various roles may have conflicting demands and people experience stress as they are not able to fulfill the conflicting role requirements. the source of role stress is the role ambiguity in which people are not clear about actual

expectations from a role because of inadequate knowledge to do a job.


Group stressors :- group interaction affects human behaviour. Therefore there may be some factors in group process which act as stressors 1. Lack of group cohesiveness:- group cohesiveness is an

important part of any group success and satisfaction of individual in group interaction but wherever the opportunity of for this cohesiveness is denied in group it become very

stressing for individuals because they get some negative behaviour from other members of the group.

2. Lack of social support:- whenever individuals get

support from group members they feel themselves to be

highly satisfied. but when the support is missing the conditions become measurable for individuals to rises and they face the problem of stress.


3. Conflict :- any type of conflict arising out of group

interaction may become stressing for the individual. The conflict maybe interpersonal or intergroup conflict it leads to

stress in individual. in conclusion we can say that individuals are always associated with groups in any form that is formal group or informal group.But Poor or unpleasant relationship

with other members of the group may cause stress. The poor relationships can be caused with the superior and subordinate.

Organisational stressors:- organisations are the

composition of individuals and group therefore both individual and group stressors may also exist in

organisational context.


1. Organisational policies :- policies provide guidelines for action

in organisation. sometimes policies are unfavourable and

ambiguous which affect the functioning of individuals adversely

and they may experience stress, various activities like unfair

performance evaluation , rotating work shifts, inflexible rules

,inequality of incentives ,frequent relocation of activities can

cause stress in organisation.

2. Task demands:- task demands are factors associated to a person's job. they include the design of individuals job

working conditions and physical work layout. some occupations

are By Nature more stressful than others like the job of surgeon air

traffic controllers and professional football coaches are more

stressful than those of general practitioners.


3. Organisation structure :- it is defined as the level of

differentiation in the organisation, the degree of rules and regulations ,and where decisions are made. It provides

formal relationship among individuals in the organisation. due to defect in organisation structure activities like lack of opportunity of participation in decision making lake of opportunity for advancement high degree of specialisation

etc. Work as stressors for relationship among individuals and group.

4. Organisational process:- it affects individual

behaviour at work. Poor organisational process like poor communication ,poor and inadequate feedback of work

performance ,inadequate information flow cause stress for people in the organisation.


5. Organisation leadership :- it represent the managerial

style of organisation senior executives. They create a culture characterized by tension, fear and anxiety. They establish pressure to perform in the short run impose tight

control.

6. Physical condition:- organisational location can also

affect the performance. physical condition like crowding

,lack of privacy, excessive noise, excessive heat or cold ,safety hazards, air pollution etc create stress in people.


COPING STRATEGIES OF

STRESS

Stress is a normal part of life and something you cannot control, however you can control your response to

stress.

Here are seven ways to deal with stress:

1) Keep a positive attitude – sometimes the way you think about things can make all of the difference.

Your attitude can help offset difficult situations.

2) Accept that there are events you cannot control – when you know there are times when you have given

all that you can to a situation, it allows you to expend energy where it can be more effective.

3) Learn to relax – purposeful relaxation, such as deep breathing, muscle relaxation and meditation

is essential in training your body to relax. Relaxation should be a part of your daily regimen.

4) Be active regularly – being active also helps your body more easily fight stress because it is fit.

5) Eat well-balanced meals – staying on track with healthy eating habits is a great way to manage

stress.

6) Rest and sleep - your body needs time to recover from stressful events, so sleep is an important

part of caring for yourself.

EQUAL EMPLOYMENT

OPPORTUNITIES

Definition of equal employment opportunity

Equal employment opportunity is a concept that emphasis that opportunities in employment should be

freely available to all citizens irrespective of a person’s ethnic origin, political association, religion, sex,

race, color, gender, pregnancy, spirituality, belief, disability, military status, genetic information and age

that has no bearing on his qualification, performance, and ability.

The equal employment opportunity does not guarantee to hire a potential employee; instead, the purpose is

that no one is rejected based on any discrimination.

Equal employment opportunity or EEO is a right of every potential employee that safeguards his interest

during all the employment decisions. These include


Hiring

External and internal recruiting

Compensation

Interviewing job candidates

Termination

Applications for employment

Payscale

Pre-employment testing

Benefits

Background investigations

Working conditions

Perquisites

Lay-off or downsizing

Exercising of legal rights

Demotions

Promotions

Transfers

Disciplinary actions

ADVANTAGES OF EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES:-

The advantages of equal employment opportunity are as follows

1. Creates equality within the organization

It is a hard fact that people belonging to a minority or specific ethnic culture often face

discrimination, and it is this concept that can help to remove it altogether and create equality

within the organization

2. Promotes diversity

The concept of equal employment opportunity promotes a culture of diversity and


encourages every employee to work in a harmonious atmosphere irrespective of their origin.

3. Employee retention

Companies that promote equal employment opportunity leads to employee satisfaction and

engagement that automatically results in employee retention.

4. Search unique talent

Because of discriminatory policies, several companies are unable to hire talent that could have

otherwise proved beneficial. Removal of biased thoughts encourages searching and hiring of the

unique ability that would automatically prove a blessing in the long run

5. Strong brand image

Organizations with policies like equal employment opportunity can create and maintain a strong and

compelling brand image amongst its target audience and the industry as people tend to look upon

such companies that leave a positive mark on others

CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINE TO OB Psychology Sociology

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