Life Below Zero: Microorganims Of The Cryosphere

MICROORGANISMS OF THE CRYOSPHERE

Issue 1 · June 2016


EDITOR’S LETTER

1 · LIFE BELOW ZERO

EDITOR: Adriana Sanz Mañogil

GRAPHIC DESIGN: Adriana Sanz Mañogil

ONLINE MAGAZINE:

www.issu.com/lifebelowzero

Get in touch: [email protected]

‘Life below zero: microorganisms of the cryosphere’

is a project born from the encounter of two

personal passions, being microbiology and polar

environments. It is simply described as a project

that has focused on the smallest life forms that

inhabit one of the biggest components of the

Earth, the cryosphere.

With the goal to share some curiosities with all of

you, I am happy to launch this magazine which I

hope you will enjoy. The content of this magazine

will give you a basic knowledge about the

microorganisms inhabiting the cryosphere. I am

sure that after reading it you will think is an

interesting and curious topic. Enjoy and remember

that these tiny organisms have a lot to tell!

Sincerely yours,

Adriana Sanz


CONTENTS

2

What is the cryosphere?

Extremophiles: living in extreme conditions

Small but useful!

Cryophiles: cool microorganisms

Interviews


What is

the cryosphere?Cryosphere is a word derived from the Greek kryoswhich means cold and sphaira which means globe.

The cryosphere encompasses the portion of the

Earth’s surface were water is found in solid form,

or, what is the same, were water is frozen. We have

to consider that some sub-systems of the

cryosphere are not frozen all the year round, but

seasonally, while others stay frozen year-round

even tens, hundreds, thousands, hundreds of

thousands or millions of years.

The cryosphere is a very complex part of the Earth’s

sphere which includes different sub-systems.

Generally, cryosphere refers to snow, ice and frozen

soils. Snow covers permanently or seasonally up to

35% of the lands surface. When the snow covers an

area all year round is known as a snowfield; these

snowfields are mostly found in high latitude regions

or mountaintops. When we refer to ice, we cannot

just think on simple ice-cubes used to refresh our

drinks: ice is not that simple! In our planet we found

different ice components that are important

modulators of the global climate and play an

important role as a biome. The biggest portions of

ice in the Earth are the ice sheets from Greenland

and Antarctica.

The ice sheets are enormous continental glaciers,

that cover large amounts of land. Actually, to be

considered as an ice sheet they need to extend more

than 50.000 km2. Nowadays, we can found two ice

sheets in the Earth: one covering most of

Greenland’s surface (1.7 million km2) and the other

one, found in the icy continent, Antarctica, which is

extended almost 14 million km2.

The ice sheets are the biggest cryospheric sub-

systems and they contain more than 99% of the

freshwater ice on Earth. During the last ice age, ice

sheets were also covering much of North America

and Scandinavia.

Ice sheets are formed in areas where the snow that

falls in winter does not melt entirely over summer,

then the layers of snow pile up into thick masses of

ice over thousands of years, growing thicker and

denser as the weight of new layers compresses the

older ones. Ice sheets are not static, they are

constantly in motion: parts of the ice sheet are

detached to the sea as an ice shelves, but, as long as

an ice sheet accumulates the same mass of snow as

it loses to the sea, it remains stable.

Can you imagine how many football fields is that?

4

Glaciers are another component of the

cryosphere, they are masses of ice smaller

than the ice sheets that are originated on land

and show evidence of past or present

movement.

The icebergs are large pieces of ice floating on

the ocean that have broken off of ice shelves or

glaciers. Approximately 90% of an iceberg’s

mass is below the surface of the seawater.

Icebergs are very varied in shape and size.

When the sea water freeze, we can find sea ice

that can be several meters thick and it moves

over the time. The salt from the seawater do

not freeze and form high salinity pockets.

Usually, much of the sea ice melts during

summer and it is formed again during winter

time. Sea ice differs in composition to lake or

river ice, which are also part from the

cryosphere.

In regard to frozen soils, we will refer to

permafrost, which is a lithospheric material

(soil, rock or sediment) permanently exposed

to 0ºC or below 0ºC temperatures that

remains frozen for, at least, two consecutive

years. Permafrost covers 20% of the land

surface and it is found in the Arctic and the

Antarctica. What distinguishes permafrost from

other cold environments is its structural

heterogeneity, as it has both horizontal and

vertical differences in soil or sediment texture,

ice content and organic-matter content.

Do you know that there is permafrost up to 3 million years

old in the Arctic and even older in the Antarctica?

SNOW

ICE SHEET

ICE SHELVE

GLACIER

SEA ICE

ICEBERG

PERMAFROST


"The cryosphere is the portion of

the Earth’s surface covered by

frozen water”

Extremophiles:

living in extreme conditionsHave you ever heard about extremophiles?

They are not the citizens of Extramadura in Spain

and neither they are the workers of an extreme

sports company; with the word extremophiles we

refer to the organisms capable to thrive and adapt

to physically or geochemically extreme conditions

that are detrimental to most life of on Earth.

Extremophiles are mostly prokaryotic

microorganisms (Bacteria and Archaea), even some

insects as the Pompeii worm or the grylloblattid, as

well as the Antarctic krill which is a crustacean, are

also extremophiles.

Which kind of extreme conditions are we referring

to? There are extremophiles for almost all the

factors that have influence on life as temperature,

pH, oxygen, salinity, nutrient. radiation or pressure,

among others. For example, we have acidophiles

which can grow at pH of 3 or below, barophiles who

can live at high pressures or xerophiles, able to

survive in desiccating conditions.

In the case of microorganisms adapted to extreme

temperatures, we distinguish among those who can

thrive high temperatures as the thermophiles and

hyperthermophiles and the ones able to beat the low

temperatures: psychrotrophs and psychrophiles or

cryophiles.

Although to study the extremophiles and classify

them, we pay attention just to one kind of stress

factor, we need to consider that in natural

environments, the extremophiles are most often

exposed to more than one stress conditions at a

time; this fact bolsters the idea of interlinked stress

resistance of bacteria. Cryophiles have to

counteract not just low temperatures but also

desiccation, excessive UV, high or low pH, high

osmotic pressure and low nutrient availability

6

Cryophiles

Cool microorganisms are those extremophiles

adapted to live in cold temperatures. We distinguish

among the cold-adapted and the cold-loving

microorganisms. Humans always tend to classify

things, even sometimes is hard to do strict

classifications; that is why the use of minimum and

maximum growth temperature to define and classify

adapted microorganisms is a subject of ongoing

debate. Traditionally, two groups of extremophiles

able to live in cold temperatures have been

accepted: psychrotolerant and psychrophiles, but

recently, it has been proposed referring all of them

as cryophiles. Despite the nomenclature and

classification, these organisms are those capable of

growing and reproducing at low temperatures,

typically ranging from -20ºC to +25ºC.

Low temperatures place severe physicochemical

constraints on cellular function by negatively

influencing cell integrity, water viscosity, solute

diffusion rates, membrane fluidity, enzyme kinetics

and macromolecular interactions.

With all these problems caused by the temperature’s

decrease, you should be wondering how these

organisms are able to keep active their vital

functions in such temperatures. Cryophiles are very

adaptable and have several strategies to cope with

the cold stress and make possible the live below

zero. Their capability to adapt and their dispersal

mechanisms have allowed them to have a high

diversity in the polar regions while the diversity of

other living forms as plants or animals, decrease in

these areas.

How the microorganisms feel the temperature?

To adapt to low temperatures, first, they need to

sense. The primary cold sensor is the cell membrane

that acts as an interface between external

environment and the internal cell environment.

When the cell membrane notices external changes,

such low temperature, something happens on its

components to bring the sign inside the cell. The

most typical way to announce an external change is

through phosporilation or dephosporilation of

membrane proteins. After the phosporilation there is

a signaling cascade that will let the cell known it

needs to modify some of its normal processes as the

gene expression, the membrane composition or the

structure of some proteins.

Do you want to know more about the different

strategies for adaptation of cryophiles?

Saving energy!

Some microorganisms seem to disappear at cold

temperatures, only to resurface when more

favourable temperatures return.

7· LIFE BELOW ZERO

cool microorganisms

8

These strategy consists on entering a dormant state

with low metabolic activity to save their energy. That

means that the microorganisms will continue

respiration and uptake of substrates but will not

divide.

Transferring genes!

It is said that sharing is living and, in the case of

cryophiles, this is also a fact. The phenomenon of

horizontal gene transfer (HGT) which is the transfer

of genes between related and unrelated organisms

mediated by viruses, plasmids and other elements, is

very frequent in low temperature habitats and

beneficial for their survival in the cryosphere. So, if

the microorganisms share their best genes with

others, more kinds of cryophiles will be able to

survive in the cold environment and the diversity of

microorganism will be higher!

The best place to live!

Choosing a place to live is a mission for every

organism. Just like humans that try to find the best

locations to do their lives more comfortable and

easy, microorganisms choose the best habitat for

them. Inside the cryosphere, they look for protected

niches or refugis where the living conditions are less

harsh; places where they can find what they need.

There are spots in the icy environments, as There

are hot spots in the icy environments, that are mini-

ecosystems with distinct boundaries, energy flow,

and nutrient cycling where the microbial metabolic

activity found is higher. A good example of a hot spot

in the cryosphere are the cryoconite holes which

are water filled cylindrical melt-holes found on

glacial ice surface.

At bottom of the cryoconite holes, dark colored

material called cryoconite is deposited

As the cryoconite absorbs solar radiation and

promotes melting of the ice beneath it, the

cylindrical holes are formed. Also veins or liquid

films containing metabolic substrates are another

frequent inhabited glacial environment.

Keeping membrane fluidity!

When talking about the viability of a microorganism

we need to consider the fluidity of cell membranes

which is important for the integrity of the cell and

the transport of nutrients, among others.

Cell membranes are composed by lipids and these

molecules change their state at low temperatures,

from a liquid-crystalline phase to a gel phase, which

results in the loss of membrane integrity. When 50–

90% of membrane lipids are in the gel phase,

bacteria will stop functioning.

Do you know what a cryoconite hole is?

In order to keep the membrane fluidity, cryophiles

change the fatty acid membrane’s composition:

increasing the ratio of unsaturated lipid, changing

fatty acid isomerization, increasing in methyl-

branched fatty acids, altering the polar head group,

or decreasing the average chain length of fatty acids

Efficient enzymes!

Low temperature, compromise the reactions rates.

The reactions that take place in a microorganism are

catalyzed by enzymes so, to cope with the reduction

of chemical reaction rates, these organisms

synthesize enzymes that are more active.

High enzymatic activity at low temperatures can be

achieved by destabilization of the active site, or of

the whole protein, which enables the catalytic center

to be flexible at temperatures that freeze molecular

motion. This is achieved through different strategies

as reducing weak stabilizing interactions (ion pairs,

hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic and intersubunit

interactions), increasing solvent interactions with

apolar or interior residues, reducing proline and

arginine content, and clustering of glycine residues.

Synthetizing proteins!

Cryophilic microorganisms produce various proteins

to protect themselves or the extracellular

environment against intracellular freezing or to

minimize the deleterious effects of ice crystal

formation. Four classes of proteins for coping with

the cold temperatures have been described. These

are: the cold-shock proteins (CSPs), cold acclimation

proteins (Caps), antifreeze proteins (AFPs) and ice-

binding proteins (IBPs).

They protect the cell trough different mechanisms;

for example, AFPs can protect the cell in two ways:

by lowering the freezing point of water, preventing

ice nucleation or, when water is already in frozen

state, by inhibiting the re-crystallization activity to

avoid the formation of larger ice crystals from

water molecules or the IBPs that bind to ice-crystal

lattices and prevent them from recrystallizing,

thereby protecting the bacterium from freeze-

damage of the cytoplasmic membrane.

What is outside is also important!

Microorganisms know that maintaining an ice-free

microenvironment is also very important. That is

why they produce extracellular polymeric

substances (EPS) that are complex organic

materials composed primarily of polysaccharides

with carbon backbones of high molecular weight.

These molecules are released and, as they have a

high polyhydroxyl content, they can lower the

freezing point and ice nucleation temperature of

water outside the cell and also play a role in

protecting extracellular enzymes against cold

denaturation and autolysis.

As we can see, there are several mechanisms of

adaptation to low temperatures used by

microorganism which demonstrate how evolved they

are. The adaptation process is focused on avoiding

the intracellular and extracellular freezing and is

very complex.

9· LIFE BELOW ZERO

11· LIFE BELOW ZERO

Did you know that in 2015 Mollivirussibericum, a 30.000 years old virus, was

found in the deep Siberian permafrost?

10

Small but useful!

Why there is an interest about extremophiles?

Humans have continually searched for and utilized

novel materials from the natural environment to

survive and thrive. Nowadays, we continue

investigating ways in which natural products can

offer sustainable and economical alternatives to

traditional industrial processes and can be applied in

the agricultural, energy, food, medical, structural

material and textile industries.

The mechanisms of adaptation to cold stress have

received an important attention due to their

biotechnological potential. These organisms and

their biomolecule, specially, their cold-adapted

enzymes can be applied for a lot of processes.

Do you want to know all the processes were

microorganisms or biomolecules can be involved?

Microorganisms that eat contaminants!

One of the most desirable targets in investigations

on bacterial cold adaptation is genetically

engineered strains that are capable of degrading

man-made wastes and petroleum products.

The idea of using microorganisms to reduce

environmental contamination, such as in soils and

waste waters, is not new but appears to be a

feasible alternative to physicochemical methods.

Bioaugmentation and inoculation of contaminated

environments with specific cold-adapted

microorganisms in mixed cultures should help to

improve the biodegradation of recalcitrant

chemicals.

lowering the amount of toxic compounds, for

example, nitrates, hydrocarbons, aromatic

compounds, heavy metals and biopolymers such as

cellulase, chitin, lignin, proteins and triacylglycerols.

Recent European Union programs focusing on

psychrophilic microorganisms have helped to

increase our understanding of these organisms and

to create the appropriate scientific environments

for their evaluation.

The fuel of the future!

There is increasing worldwide interest in developing

alternative sources of energy. Biofuels, such as

ethanol made from the fermentation of

carbohydrates produced in plants, represent a

renewable energy source that can provide a myriad

of other benefits, including increased energy

security, a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions,

economic benefits for rural communities, and

mitigating problems associated with disposal of

agro-industrial residues.


Despite these advantages, the conventional ethanol

production process it is not energetically or

economically efficient as it requires high heat levels

and specialized equipment, thus limiting the

production capacity of biorefineries to compete with

the existing fossil fuel industry and become

commercially viable.

These problems can be solved by using enzymes

capable to work at lower temperature that would

allow to create a low-energy ethanol production

process involving raw starch hydrolysis, also known

as cold hydrolysis.

A lot of companies are studying enzymes from

cryophiles in order to create a more efficient

biofuel’s obtaining process.

Therapeutic biomolecules!

Nowadays, there is a need for new antimicrobial

agents due to the increase in drug resistance in

many common bacterial pathogens, together with

the emergence of new infections that is why there

are a lot of screening programs seeking for

therapeutic and anti-tumor drugs from natural

products focus on biomolecules with unusual

properties. In these programs, extremophiles, which

produce biomolecules adapted to their unusual living

conditions, are recognized as valuable sources of

novel bioproducts.

Do you know that enzymes are also involved in

the treatment of fabrics?

The cotton fiber ends protruding from the main

fibers reduce smoothness and alter the appearance

of the garment. To avoid this effect, in the textile

industry, a pre-treatment of the fibers is done. This

pre-treatment consists in using cellulases, an

enzyme that excises the protruding ends, reduces

the pill-formation and increases the durability and

softness of the tissue. The problem is that the

current treatment, is accompanied by a loss of

mechanical resistance owing to alteration of the

main fiber as a result of the resistance of the

enzyme to inactivation. So, using a cold-adapted

cellulose from a cold-adapted bacteria would be the

solution and would enable a decrease in the

temperature of the process and the concentration of

the enzymes required improving the mechanical

resistance of the final product.

Feeding salmons!

PUFA (Poly-Unsaturated Fatty Acids). PUFA is used in

aquaculture, livestock and human diets.

In addition to microalgae, certain strains of bacteria

do produce high levels of PUFA.

These fatty acids, are essential for normal growth

and development of the larvae of many aquaculture

species like the Atlantic salmon. PUFA-producing

bacteria used in aquaculture diets, either as

extracts or by direct addition to feed, is now an

expanding area of interest.

12

14

Interviewing

Isabel Ferrera (Roses, Girona, Spain) is a

researcher at the Marine Sciences Institute in

Barcelona. After obtaining her degree in Biology,

she received a PhD in Environmental Microbiology

from the Autonomous University of Barcelona.

Later on, she was a postdoctoral researcher at

Portland State University (USA) and at the Leibniz-

Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland

Fisheries in Berlin (Germany). Her researcher

focuses in studying the diversity and function of

microorganisms and the processes they carry out

in different systems, from laboratory models to

the natural environment.

“”

One of the most fascinating facts about microbes is

that they are tiny, but also because they are so

abundant, they can change whole planets.


14

Studying microbial diversity is crucial to

understand the functioning of our planet but

also to develop new industrial and medical

applications.“

”

Studying microbial diversity is crucial

to understand the functioning of our

planet but also to develop new

industrial and medical applications.

“”

Mrina Nikrad

14

Mrina, can you explain us about your research?

Marine microorganisms are a global force in cycling

carbon and other nutrients. My research focuses on the

role that marine microorganisms play in the global carbon

cycle, and how the changing environment in Antarctica

(warming air and oceans, melting glaciers adding

freshwater to the ocean) will change the role of these

marine microbes.

Oh, so you have been studying marine

microorganisms from Antarctica. Can you tell us how

many times have you been in Antarctica?

I have taken 3 trips to Antarctica to collect samples. Two

trips were in December/January which is summertime.

And one trip in May, which is late Fall/Winter season. Each

expedition is approximately 30 days long.

How do you manage to arrive to Antarctica?

To go to Palmer Station (a Antarctic base from US located

on Anvers Island) we have to take a boat from Punta

Arenas, Chile. First we have to take a flight from the US to

Chile, then a boat for 4 days to Palmer Station.

How is the preparation to go to Antarctica?

In order to prepare for a trip to Antarctica, there are

several things we must do. First, the USAP (United Stated

Antarctic Program) requires us to do full physical check-

up. We must go to the doctor and check that we are in

good physical health, blood work, heart function, even

dental check! Once the doctor says we are fit, then we are

given clearance to plan for our trip.

For going to McMurdo Station or South Pole Station, the

USAP also requires a psychological exam, where your

mental state is assessed. I went to Palmer Station and this

does not require a psychological exam because we are

only there for 30 days. However, after my first expedition,

I realized that the feeling of isolation can become very

strong when there are only 40 people in a tiny station with

no civilization or cities or hospitals. It’s important to

realize this and be very careful when you are there.

For research, we must prepare a lot of equipment.

Everything for research must be shipped to the station, so

we must plan very carefully for each experiment and get

all the supplies. If we forget something, then the

experiment may be compromised and we may not have the

opportunity to try it. We made long lists of all supplies to

order. I remember that our team shipped 14 large crates

of supplies to Antarctica! The USAP provides warm

weather clothing for all Antarctic researchers, so we are

given gloves and parkas, boots and everything. The boat to

Palmer Station, Antarctica leaves from Punta Arenas,

Chile, and the USAP has a big warehouse in Punta Arenas.

Our first day in Punta Arenas, we go to the warehouse and

try the clothing and select the items we need. But I also

bought my own gear because I was making three trips,

such as thick gloves and boots, which fit me better than

UASP clothing.

When I went to

Antarctica in May, there

were big storms in the

ocean, so the boat trip

took 7.5 days to reach

Antarctica! It was

terrible weather and big

waves.

“

”Our team shipped 14

large crates of supplies to

Antarctica!

“

”15· LIFE BELOW ZERO

16

How is to do field work in Antarctica?

Doing field work in Antarctica is an amazing experience! I

felt very close to Nature, the ocean, and the wild animals

(like seals, penguins, and whales), and in every scene

there is quiet and beauty. I loved to look at the glaciers

while I was in the boat taking ocean water samples for my

research. Antarctica can also have dangerous weather,

but for that we prepare the appropriate equipment and

have safety training.

Which is your lab-work after taking samples?

After collecting water samples at two different locations,

we take the carboys back to the station lab and set up

multiple experiments. One experiment is leucine

incorporation, which uses radioactively labelled leucine to

detect carbon uptake activity in cells. Another experiment

has the same goal, to measure organic carbon use but at

the single-cell level by microscopy, this is called

Microautoradiography Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization.

We set up several bottle with the same amount of

seawater and add radioactively labelled organic carbon

compounds. We incubate for several hours and then filter

the water and freeze. Later on we can fluorescently tag

the microbes that we are interested in (like a group called

Gammaproteobacteria), and under the microscope we can

see if the fluorescent tag overlaps with the radioactive

signal, indicating if the Gammaproteobacterial cells have

“eaten” the radioactive compound. This work took a long

time to get a big data-set for analysis! But it is exciting to

know that even in below-freezing conditions, the

microorganisms in the ocean are very active and growing.

When you do research field work in Antarctica, do you

analyze the samples there?

Some analysis we can do in the labs at Palmer Station. For

example, the leucine incorporation experiments we have

the scintillation counter which can record radiation.

However, we don’t have a big epifluorescence microscope

there, so for the other experiment (MAR-FISH), I had to

filter the water after incubation, freeze the filters in

individual tubes, and put in a -80 ºC freezer. There are 4

or 5 freezers at Palmer Station for research samples. All

the samples are transported back by the USAP in

specialized research freezers on the boat. At the end of

the trip in Punta Arenas, each research group spends a

few hours packing all our freezer boxes full of samples

into shipping containers full of dry ice. These containers

are shipped by USAP to our home lab (my home lab was at

the University of Delaware, in DE, USA). When we are back

home, we have the microscope and equipment to do more

detailed analyses.

Is exciting to know that even in below-freezing

conditions the microorganisms are very active and

growing.

“

”

Which kind of permission do you need to make a

bioprospection in Antarctica?

Our lab was funded by the National Science Foundation in

the US, and the USAP is a part of the NSF. It is a

government program for doing research in Antarctica, so

we need their permissions. Because Antarctica is a

continent where many countries do scientific research, it

is all controlled by governments and not private

companies or primate funding. Many groups are already

bioprospecting in Antarctica, as well as the Arctic. I think

there is opportunity to bioprospect in many exciting places

where extremophiles exist on Earth, such as acid mines,

salty lakes, seas and many more.

When did you start to be interested about the

microorganisms? And about the Antarctica?

I actually became interested because of reading a book! In

high school, I read the book Red Mars by author Kim

Stanley Robinson. This is a science-fiction and astrobiology

book, and in the story the first scientists to visit Mars use

microorganisms and microbial ecology to terraform the

planet so that Earth plants can grow and human beings can

live there. Before reading this book, I only thought of

microbes as “germs”, invisible and tiny organisms that

make humans sick. After reading this book I became

fascinated, realizing that these tiny organisms have

incredible power to change planets!

I started to read more and more about astrobiology and

microbes and learned that they created the oxygen which

we breathe and have changed our Earth’s atmosphere in

the past, and they have the power to change the

atmosphere in the future. I am still interested in

astrobiology, and there are two main reasons that I

wanted to do research in Antarctica. One reason is

because Mars and other planets and moons in our Solar

System which could have alien life are very cold places

with icy surfaces. On Europa, which is a moon of Jupiter,

there is a huge icy subsurface ocean and potentially there

is life there! The best example for this environment on

Earth is Antarctica and the Southern Ocean, so that’s one

reason I wanted to study cryospheric microbes. The

second reason is because Antarctica is a beautiful

continent which is in danger due to human-mediated

climate change. Microbes have a role in this and I wanted

to study that.

Which consequences can have climate change for the

microorganisms living in the cryosphere?

In general, we have found that cryosphere microbes react

to warming temperatures. They actively cycle and respire

carbon in the winter in frozen conditions, but when the

environment becomes warmer and more wet because the

ice melts, then they can become 100 times more active!

That means they use 100 times more organic carbon and

product more carbon dioxide in wetter and warmer

conditions. This phenomenon is going to impact the global

carbon cycle very significantly in the next 2-3 decades.

The West Antarctic Peninsula region especially is warming

very quickly. The ice is melting from the islands the air

temperature is 3-4 º C warmer in the winter on average,

than it was 20 years ago. So in a few years, they may not

be much sea ice left. For this reason, it’s very important to

document and communicate to the public about the role of

microbes in climate change.

There is opportunity to

bioprospect in many

exciting places where

extremophiles exist.

“

”

These tiny organisms

have incredible power to

change planets.

“

”

In few years, they may

not be much sea ice left.“

”


18

Which is the potential of extremophiles in the

nowadays increasing biotechnology industry?

Extremophiles are used in industry for many purposes,

and there are great papers which review this. As for

future potential, I think there are many processes which

can be improved. For example, enzymes from

extremophiles are constantly improving the process of

PCR, catalyzing reactions in below-freezing conditions, and

also enzymes which are still functional in very acidic or

alkaline conditions. The biggest potential I think is for using

enzymes from extremophiles for the degradation of

radioactive or toxic contaminants, which are sometimes

generated from industrial processes. Many biotech

companies now have a microbiology division to help

cleanup wastes. There are also NEW directions for the field

of microbial ecology in general, many companies have

environmental microbiology departments to develop new

products, like mixes of microbial communities to help

plants grow better or food to stay fresh longer or to

improve human health. There is lots of potential for

microbial ecologists and microbial physiologists.

Do you think there are still many novel species of

microorganisms to discover?

Yes! Absolutely! Lots of amazing metabolisms still to be

discovered, and many even some unknown ones on Mars,

Europa, and Titan.

Now we know a lot more from microorganisms but we

would like to hear what do you think is the most

rewarding from being a marine microbiologist like

you!

The most rewarding aspect of my job is the excitement of

discovering new things. Science, both academic and

industry, are on the leading edge of discovery. So

scientists are always at the forefront of adding new

knowledge to the human existence. I love being creative

and testing my new ideas and discovering new things,

that’s what makes me job rewarding every single day.

Unfortunately, this interview is coming to its end. Do

you have any wish for the future of your professional

future like a researcher?

I wish to see more research into the functional role of

microbes in large ecosystems, and how human activity is

affecting the microbial activity. Microbes are very

important to most of the ecosystems on the planet, not

just the oceans and soil, but also permafrost, the air, and

the human body. Microbial function is even more important

than microbial diversity, and we need to understand this

function. Of course, I also wish to find microbes on Mars

or Europa; that would also be an incredible discovery!

Thank you for your time, Mrina. We have learnt and

enjoy a lot with your answers. We wish the best for

you and hope you will be able to discover a lot of

fascinating things about microorganisms.

Using enzymes from

extremophiles for the

degradation of radioactive

or toxic contaminants.

“

”

Scientists are always at

the forefront of adding

new knowledge to the

human existence.

“

”

Interviewing

Isabel Ferrera (Roses, Girona, Spain) is a

researcher at the Marine Sciences Institute in

Barcelona. After obtaining her degree in Biology,

she received a PhD in Environmental Microbiology

from the Autonomous University of Barcelona.

Later on, she was a postdoctoral researcher at

Portland State University (USA) and at the Leibniz-

Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland

Fisheries in Berlin (Germany). Her researcher

focuses in studying the diversity and function of

microorganisms and the processes they carry out

in different systems, from laboratory models to

the natural environment.


20

Studying microbial diversity is crucial to

understand the functioning of our planet but

also to develop new industrial and medical

applications.“

”

Studying microbial diversity is crucial

to understand the functioning of our

planet but also to develop new

industrial and medical applications.

“”

Isabel Ferrera

Isabel, can you explain us about your research?

I am a microbial ecologist and during my career I have

covered a broad range of topics in relation to

understanding the diversity and function of

microorganisms and the processes they carry out in

different environments, from laboratory systems to the

natural ecosystem at local and global scales, with

particular interest on marine and extreme environments.

Why is important to study the microbial ecosystems?

Microorganisms are adapted to all ecosystems that exist

on Earth, from the human gut to deep-sea hydrothermal

vents, where they are responsible for nutrient cycling and

energy flow. Prokaryotes are able to grow across an

incredibly broad range of temperature, pH, salinity and

oxygen and are capable of decomposing many chemicals,

which are toxic or dangerous to other biota. For that

reason, microorganisms are used in several industrial

processes and are an important resource for

biotechnological and medical applications.

Microorganisms have thus an enormous role and impact in

our daily lives, from maintaining the biosphere where we

live to improving our lifestyles. Studying microbial

diversity is therefore crucial to understand the functioning

of our planet but also to develop new industrial and

medical applications.

When did you start to be interested about

microorganisms?

I started being interested during my undergraduate

studies of Biology at the university. In fact, initially I

wanted to be a biochemist but after taking the

microbiology course I changed my mind.

Microorganism are so small but they are very

complex. Tell us what you think are the most

fascinating facts from them!

In my opinion the most amazing thing is that they are small

but essential for the functioning of the planet. They carry

on functions so other living organisms can inhabit the

planet. They drive major biogeochemical cycling in our

planet, they produce half of the oxygen and are

responsible for the re-mineralization of organic matter.

Furthermore they provide numerous ecosystem services

that can improve our daily lives. They can be used to solve

problems derived of industrialization, pollution and over-

population of our planet. Another important aspect is that

they are tiny but their diversity is enormous since they

have evolved for millions of years. They were the first

inhabitants of our planet and regardless of the risk of

species extinction we face, they will always be here, they

can adapt to all conditions.

In this magazine, we are talking about the

microorganisms that inhabit the cryosphere.

According to your knowledge and opinion, which

consequences can have climate change for the

microorganisms living in the cryosphere?

Raising temperatures can lead to an increase in growth of

microorganisms, and therefore, in the increase of oxygen

consumption and CO2 production. Taking into account the

abundance of microbes, this situation can have significant

impacts in the global biogeochemical cycles, particularly

the carbon cycle which has implications in climate

regulation.

Microorganisms have an

enormous role and

impact in our daily lives

“

”

Microorganisms can be

used to solve problems

derived of pollution,

industrialization and over-

population.

“

”


22

Which is, from your point of view, the potential of

extremophiles in the nowadays increasing

biotechnology industry?

Extremophiles and their products, mainly enzymes, have

potential applications in a broad range of industrial,

agricultural and medical processes. The large diversity of

microorganisms and the broad range of temperature, pH

and pressures that they live on highlights the breadth and

type of biological products and processes that might be

exploited for biotechnology. Many industrial processes

require heat and therefore thermophilic enzymes have

received considerable attention because of their ability to

function at high temperatures. These enzymes have an

important economic impact in the pharmaceutical, textile,

paper, petroleum and food industries and have also

revolutionized aspects of biotechnology, where they are

used for different purposes including the synthesis of

nucleic acids and amino acids. Likewise, psychrophiles and

their products are utilized in biotechnology, for example in

the food industry or in biodiesel production.

Isabel has done field work in different extreme

environments of our planet. From Azores, to New

Zealand, from Antarctica to Iceland. What were you

studying in these places?

During my postdoctoral years at Portland State University,

I worked on the physiology, diversity and phylogenetics of

the Aquificales, an order of thermophilic Bacteria that are

widespread in terrestrial hot springs and deep-sea

hydrothermal vents. This deeply branching group in the

tree of life is of particular interest because they are likely

related with the early evolution of life on Earth.

Additionally, studying microbial diversity in thermal

environments can result in the discovery of new genes and

organisms that can be used for biotechnological

applications. To study these organisms, our lab did field

work in the hot springs in Yellowstone, in Iceland, Azores,

New Zealand and many other places. Furthermore, the

Aquificales live in deep-sea hydrothermal vents so I was

lucky to dive in the submarine Alvin at more than 2500 m

of depth!

I have only been in one expedition to Antarctica, the

PEGASO cruise that took place in 2015 during January and

February, it was a long cruise!

Wooow Isabel! Your research has lead you to very

interesting locations. We would like to know how did

you need to prepare to go to Antarctica. Did you need

any special psychological or physical preparation?

Psychologically it depends on whether is your first

experience or not. When I went to Antarctica I had been in

several other oceanographic cruises before, thus, I was

prepared for the life on board and the feeling of isolation.

In order to participate on a research campaign to

Antarctica we have to follow the requirements of the

Spanish Antarctic Committee. They require a medical

exam, vaccination and also getting some training for what

we had to go to Madrid.

And what is about the preparation of the materials

you will need to work?

The lab materials, as for any other campaigns, requires

preparing everything in advance, being very organized and

anticipating to everything you plan to do.

If you run out of tubes in

Antarctica you cannot

call a company and get

more.

“

”

Which kind of permission do you need to make a

bioprospection in Antarctica?

Activities in Antarctica are regulated under the Antarctic

Treaty System which has been built over the past 50 years

on fundamental ethical principles comprising peace, a

freeze on territorial claims, freedom of scientific

research, international cooperation, and environmental

protection in the interest of mankind as a whole. Countries

doing research in Antarctica have a national Antarctic

Committee, which has to approve the activities under the

Antarctic laws.

It is said that there are many novel species of

microorganisms to be discovered. Do you agree?

Definitely! We discover genes, functions and species every

day. Methodological development will help discover novel

species. A few years ago we could not believe that the

diversity is as large as we know now, but it is probably

much larger than we can predict with the tools we have

available at the moment.

After these few questions it seems that you have such

an interesting job. We would like to know what do you

think is the most rewarding from your job?

A mixture between the feeling of discovery and that my

research can derive not only in increasing knowledge but

also in some potential applications to improve the well

being of society and of our planet.

Before ending with this interview, we would like to

hear your wish for the future of the micro-

communities and their research.

I will make not one but two wishes: first more involvement

from our government in basic research, increasing

funding is vital, and second, a better awareness from

society of the relevance of these organisms, we need to

stop associating microorganisms to disease, they are

much more than that.

We hope you will have a lot of success in your future

researches and a lot of adventures like the ones you

have told us. Thank you for your time and your

responses, Isabel.

Do you know what is The Antarctic

Treaty System?

Is an international agreement that

regulate international relations with

respect to Antarctica. Establishes

freedom of scientific investigation

and bans military activity on the

continent.

We discover genes,

functions and species

every day.

“

”

We need to stop

associating

microorganisms to

disease, they are

much more than that.

“

”


MICROORGANISMS OF THE CRYOSPHERE


Life Below Zero: Microorganims Of The Cryosphere

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Transcript of Life Below Zero: Microorganims Of The Cryosphere