Lecture 2, RESEARCH METHODOLOGY(MBA General 1st semseter) by Dr. Qamar Zaman

8/9/2019 Lecture 2, RESEARCH METHODOLOGY(MBA General 1st semseter) by Dr. Qamar Zaman

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REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Dr. Qamruz Zaman

Associate Professor

Dept: of Statistics

University of Peshawar.


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24/02/2010 Qamruz Zaman 2

REVIEW OF LITERATUREREVIEW OF LITERATURE

Literature Review is the documentation of a comprehensiveLiterature Review is the documentation of a comprehensive

review of the published and unpublished work from secondaryreview of the published and unpublished work from secondary

sources of data in the areas of specific interest to the researcher.sources of data in the areas of specific interest to the researcher.

The main aim is to find out problems that are already investigatedThe main aim is to find out problems that are already investigated

and those that need further investigation.and those that need further investigation.

It is an extensive survey of all available past studies relevant to theIt is an extensive survey of all available past studies relevant to the

field of investigation.field of investigation.

It gives us knowledge about what others have found out in theIt gives us knowledge about what others have found out in the

related field of study and how they have done so.related field of study and how they have done so.


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literature refers to the knowledge of a particular area of

investigation

review means to organize the knowledge of the specific area of

research

In historical research, the researcher does much more than review

already published material

Meaning


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NEED OF REVIEW OF LITERATURE

It is very essential for every investigator to be up-to-date in his

information about the literature, related to his own problem

already done by others.

It avoids the replication of the study.

It provides a source of problem of study .


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OBJECTIVES OF REVIEW OF

LITERATURE It provides theories, ideas, explanations or hypothesis.

It provides the sources for hypothesis.

It suggests method, procedure, sources of data and statisticaltechniques appropriate to the solution of the problem.

It locates comparative data and findings useful in the interpretationand discussion of results.

Discovering important variable.

Distinguishing what has been done from what needs to be done.


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SOURCES OF REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Books and Text books Material

Periodicals

Abstracts

Encyclopaedias

Handbooks, Yearbooks and Guides

References

Specialized Dictionaries

Theses &Newspaper


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RECORDING THE LITERATURERECORDING THE LITERATURE

The most suitable method of recording notes is the card system.The most suitable method of recording notes is the card system.

The recording system involves use of two sets of cards:The recording system involves use of two sets of cards:

Source cardsSource cards used for noting bibliographic information.used for noting bibliographic information.

Note cardsNote cards used for actual note taking.used for actual note taking.


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SOURCE CARDSSOURCE CARDS

Source Cards serve two purposes:Source Cards serve two purposes:

a)a) Provide documentary information for foot notes.Provide documentary information for foot notes.

a)a) It is used for compiling bibliography to be given at the endIt is used for compiling bibliography to be given at the end

of the report.of the report.


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Source Cards can be coded by a simple systemSource Cards can be coded by a simple system

inorder to relate them to the corresponding noteinorder to relate them to the corresponding note

cards.cards.

Marking the letter B or J or R (B=Books,Marking the letter B or J or R (B=Books,

J=Journal, R=Report) on the left hand topJ=Journal, R=Report) on the left hand top

corner.corner.


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The recording of bibliographic information should beThe recording of bibliographic information should be

made in proper bibliographic format.made in proper bibliographic format.

The format for citing a book is:The format for citing a book is:

Authors name, (year), Title of the book, Place ofAuthors name, (year), Title of the book, Place of

publication, Publishers name.publication, Publishers name.

For Example; Koontz Harold (1980), Management, NewFor Example; Koontz Harold (1980), Management, New

Delhi, McGrawDelhi, McGraw--Hill International.Hill International.

The format for citing a journal article is:The format for citing a journal article is:

Authors name, (year), Title of the article, JournalAuthors name, (year), Title of the article, Journal

name, Volume (number), pages.name, Volume (number), pages. For Example; Sheth J.N (1973), A Model of IndustrialFor Example; Sheth J.N (1973), A Model of Industrial

Buying Behaviour, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), 50Buying Behaviour, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), 50--56.56.


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How to write the review?How to write the review?

There are several ways of presenting the ideas of others withinThere are several ways of presenting the ideas of others withinthe body of the paper.the body of the paper.

1)1) Sheth (1973, pSheth (1973, p--50) has suggested that, there are a number of50) has suggested that, there are a number of

influencing factors ..influencing factors ..

2)2) According to Sheth (1973) model of industrial buyingAccording to Sheth (1973) model of industrial buyingbehaviour, there are a number of influencing factors..behaviour, there are a number of influencing factors..

3)3) In some models of industrial buying behaviour, there are aIn some models of industrial buying behaviour, there are a

number of influencing factors (Sheth, 1973).number of influencing factors (Sheth, 1973).


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SUGGESTIONS FOR REPORTING

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Continuous process

Novel Problem

Up-to-date


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MEANING OF HYPOTHESIS

The word hypothesis consists of two words:

Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis

Hypo means tentative or subject to the verification and Thesis means

statement about solution of a problem.

Another meaning of the word hypothesis which is composed of two

words:

Hypo means composition of two or more variables which is to be

verified.

Thesis means position of these variables in the specific frame ofreference.


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DEFINITIONS OF HYPOTHESIS

A tentative supposition or provisional guess It is a tentativesupposition or provisional guess which seems to explain the situationunder observation. James E. Greighton

A hypothesis states what we are looking for. A hypothesis looksforward. It is a proposition which can be put to a test to determine itsvalidity. It may prove to be correct or incorrect.

A hypothesis is defined as a statement for the tentative relationship oftwo or more variables.

The relationship of the variables may either be normative or causalrelationship. It should be based on some rationale


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THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AN

HYPOTHESIS AND A PROBLEM

Hypothesis is an assumption, that can be tested and can be provedHypothesis is an assumption, that can be tested and can be proved

to be right or wrong.to be right or wrong.

A problem is a broad question which cannot be directly tested. AA problem is a broad question which cannot be directly tested. A

problem can be scientifically investigated after converting it intoproblem can be scientifically investigated after converting it into

a form of hypothesis.a form of hypothesis.


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KINDS OF HYPOTHESES

There are four kinds of hypotheses:

(a) Question

(b) Declaration Statement

(c) Directional Statement and

(d) Null form or Non-Directional.


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CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD

HYPOTHESIS

A good hypothesis must possess the following main characteristics:

A good hypothesis is in agreement with the observed facts.

A good hypothesis is stated in the simplest possible term.

A good hypothesis ensures that the methods of verification areunder control of the investigator.

A good hypothesis guarantees that available tools and techniques

will be effectively used for the purpose of verification.

A good hypothesis ensures that the sample is readily approachable.

A good hypothesis indicates clearly the role of different variables

involved in the study.


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VARIABLESVARIABLES

Anything that can vary be considered as a variable.Anything that can vary be considered as a variable.

A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values.A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values.

For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism, Sex, Motivation,F

or example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism, Sex, Motivation,Income, Height, Weight etc.Income, Height, Weight etc.


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Variable / AttributeVariable / Attribute

A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more values whereas,A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more values whereas,

an attribute is a specific value on a variable (qualitative).an attribute is a specific value on a variable (qualitative).

For example;For example;

The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributesThe variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes -- Male and Female.Male and Female.

The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributesThe variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes Strongly Agree,Strongly Agree,

Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree.Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree.


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Types of VariablesTypes of Variables

Explanatory vs Extraneous VariableExplanatory vs Extraneous Variable

The variables selected for analysis are called explanatory variables andThe variables selected for analysis are called explanatory variables and

all other variables that are not related to the purpose of the study butall other variables that are not related to the purpose of the study but

may affect the dependant variable are extraneous.may affect the dependant variable are extraneous.

Dependant vs Independent VariableDependant vs Independent Variable

The variable that changes in relationship to changes in anotherThe variable that changes in relationship to changes in anothervariable(s) is called dependant variable.variable(s) is called dependant variable.

An independent variable is the one that influences the dependantAn independent variable is the one that influences the dependant

variable in either a positive or negative way.variable in either a positive or negative way.


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VARIABLES IN A HYPOTHESIS

In such a hypothesis the variables which must be considered are:

(i) Independent variable

(ii) Dependent variable

(iii) Moderator variable

(iv) Control variable


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Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its originDiscussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin

and objectives in seeking a solution.and objectives in seeking a solution.

Examination of data and records for possible trends, peculiarities.Examination of data and records for possible trends, peculiarities.

Review of similar studies.Review of similar studies.

Exploratory personal investigation / Observation.Exploratory personal investigation / Observation.

Continuity of research.Continuity of research.

Intuition and personal experience.Intuition and personal experience.

SOURCES OF HYPOTHESISSOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS


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Descriptive Hypothesis

These are assumptions that describe the characteristics (such as

size, form or distribution) of a variable. The variable may be an

object, person, organisation, situation or event.

Examples:

Public enterprises are more amenable for centralized planning.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS


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Relational Hypothesis [Explanatory Hypothesis]

These are assumptions that describe the relationship between two

variables. The relationship suggested may be positive, negative orcausal relationship.

Examples:

Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation.

Causal Hypothesis state that the existence of or change in onevariable causes or leads to an effect on another variable. The first

variable is called the independent variable and the latter is the

dependant variable.


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Testing of hypothesis

The purpose of testing a hypothesis is to determine the probability that it is

supported by fact.

Validity of a hypothesis is established in two stages:

1. Test of logic

2. Empirical test

A hypothesis is never proved it is merely sustained or rejected. If it fails to

meet the test of its validity, it must be modified or rejected.


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FORMAL CONDITIONS FOR

TESTING HYPOTHESES

There are two types of hypothesis statements:

(a) Null hypothesis, and

(b) Hypothesis prediction form.

There are certain formal conditions which must be met in order for the hypothesis to

be considered testable. These are listed below:

1. It should be worded clearly

2. It should be specific and testable

3. It should have simplicity. If it is too complex, consideration should be given to

dividing it into sub-hypothesis.

4. It should be directly related to the empirical phenomena.

5. It should be so designed that its test will provide an answer to the original

problem which forms the primary purpose of the investigation.6. It must be related to available techniques of design procedure, and statistical

analysis.


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CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING

HYPOTHESIS

1. The variables should be defined operationally and the predicted relations

among them can be tested empirically.

2. A hypothesis is of greater value if it establishes a generalization that can be

applied in many areas of education or in many fields.

3. Hypotheses need not be the correct answers to problems to be useful.

4. A useful educational hypothesis, therefore, adds something to previously

established knowledge by supporting, qualifying, refuting or enlarging upon

existing theories.

5. If two hypotheses are capable to explain the same facts, the simpler one is the

better hypothesis.

Lecture 2, RESEARCH METHODOLOGY(MBA General 1st semseter) by Dr. Qamar Zaman

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