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Learning Theories
2002ATGCI
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General learning theories
Behaviorism
Cognitivism
Constructivism
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Representations of the LearningProcess
Behaviorism
Stimulus-Response Reinforced Behavior
Antecedent Behavior Consequence
Sequenced knowledge and skills presented in logicallimited steps
Cognitivism
Cognitivist Learning Perspective
Information Processing
Schema
ental odels
Constructivism Inquir!-"ased
#iscover! learning
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Relevant $rameworks
Behaviorism Programmed Instruction %logical
presentation of content& overt responses&immediate knowledge of correctness'
Cognitivism (vents of Instruction %Conditions of
Learning'
Constructivism
Cognitive Apprenticeship
Cognitive $le)i"ilit!
Situated Learning
*one of Pro)imal #evelopment
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+e! Principles,
Behaviorism Learning happens when a
correct response is
demonstrated following thepresentation of a specicenvironmental stimulus
(mphasis is on o"serva"le andmeasura"le "ehaviors
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+e! Principles,
Cognitivism Learning is a change of knowledge state +nowledge acquisition is descri"ed as a
mental activit! that entails internal codingand structuring "! the learner.
Learner is viewed as an active participant inthe learning process
(mphasis is on the "uilding "locks ofknowledge %e.g. identing prerequisiterelationships of content'
(mphasis on structuring& organi/ign andsequencing information to facilitate optimalprocessing
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+e! Principles,
Constructivism Learners "uild personal interpretation of
the world "ased on e)periences andinteractions
+nowledge is em"edded in the conte)t inwhich it is used %authentic tasks inmeaningful realistic settings'
Create novel and situation-specic
understandings "! 0assem"ling0 knowledgefrom diverse sources appropriate to thepro"lem at hand %1e)i"le use of knowledge'
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2oal of Instruction,Behaviorism Communicate or transfer "ehaviors
representing knowledge and skills to thelearner %does not consider mentalprocessing'
Instruction is to elicit the desired responsefrom the learner who is presented with atarget stimulus
Learner must know how to e)ecute theproper response as well as the conditions
under which the response is made Instruction utili/es consequences and
reinforcement of learned "ehaviors
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2oal of Instruction,
Cognitivism Communicate or transfer knowledge in themost e3icient& e3ective manner %mind-independent& can "e mapped ontolearners'
$ocus of instruction is to create learning
or change "! encouraging the learner touse appropriate learning strategies
Learning results when information isstored in memor! in an organi/ed&
meaningful wa!. 4eachers5designers are responsi"le forassisting learners in organi/inginformation in an optimal wa! so that itcan "e readil! assimilated
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2oal of Instruction,Constructivism
Build personal interpretations of theworld "ased on individual e)periencesand interactions %constantl! open tochange& cannot achieve a predetermined&0correct0 meaning& knowledge emerges in
relevant conte)ts' Learning is an active process of
constructing rather than acquiringknowledge
Instruction is a process of supportingknowledge construction rather thancommunicating knowledge
#o not structure learning for the task&"ut engage learner in the actual use of
the tools in real world situations
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Instructional5LearningStrategies,
Behaviorism Behaviorism Instructional cues to elicit correct response Practice paired with target stimuli Reinforcement for correct responses
Building 1uenc! %get responses closer andcloser to correct response'
ultiple opportunities5trials %#rill and practice' #iscrimination %recalling facts' 2enerali/ation %dening and illustrating
concepts' Associations %appl!ing e)planations' Chaining %automaticall! performing a specied
procedure'
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Instructional5LearningStrategies,
Cognitivism Information
Processing odel ()planations
#emonstrations Illustrative e)amples 2estalt 4heor! atched non-
e)amples Corrective feed"ack 6utlining nemonics
#ual-Coding 4heor! Chunking Information Repetition
Concept apping Advanced 6rgani/ers Analogies Summaries +eller7s ARCS odel
of otivation Interactivit! S!nthesis
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Instructional5LearningStrategies,
Constructivism odeling Colla"orative Learning Coaching
Sca3olding $ading Pro"lem-Based Learning Authentic Learning
R(ALs Anchored Instruction Cognitive $le)i"ilit! 8!perte)ts 6"9ect-"ased Learning
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4heorists
Behaviorism Skinner
Bandura
4horndike Pavlov
Cognitivism 2agne
Bruner
Anderson
2ardner
:ovak
Rummelhart
:orman
Constructivism
;!gotsk!
Lave < =enger Piaget
Bransford&8assel"ring&etc.
%C42;' 2ra"inger
Spiro andcolleagues
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Constructivist Theory
Jerome Bruner
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Constructivist Theory
Learning is an active process in whichlearners discover and construct newideas/concepts based on theircurrent/prior knowledge. The issues thatguide this process must be personally orsocietally relevant. Bruner believed thatthe learner selects information,
constructs ideas based on thatinformation and makes decisions byrelying on their own cognitive structureof information.
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Constructivist Theory
Bruner believed that instructionshould allow the learner to
discover principles for themselvesthrough active dialog. Instructorsshould become information
facilitators instead of informationtransmitters.
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Constructivist Theory
Instruction should address fourmaor aspects!
". predisposition toward learning
#. the ways in which knowledge can bestructured so that it is readily
grasped by the learner$. e%ective se&uencing of the material
'. the nature and pacing of rewards
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Constructivist Theory
To Bruner, knowledge is theactivity of the person in the
content domain and learning is thestruggling of the learner with theissues within that domain.
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Constructivist Theory
(rinciples!
". Instruction must be concerned with the
e)periences and conte)ts that make thestudent willing and able to learn.
#. Instruction must be structured so that itcan be easily grasped by the student*spiral organi+ation.
$. Instruction should be designed to facilitatee)trapolation and/or -ll in the gaps *goingbeyond the information given.
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Cognitive evelopment
Jean Piaget
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Cognitive evelopment
(iaget believed that cognitivedevelopment occurs through a
se&uence of successive &ualitativechanges in cognitive structures.
C iti l t
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Cognitive evelopmentPiagets Four Stages:
Sensorimotor Stage (birth - 2 yrs): actions become more intentional and integrated into
patterns, there is an increased awareness of self andsurroundings.
Preoperational Thought Stage (2 - 7yrs): development of language and conceptual thought occurs.
Concrete Operations Stage (7-yrs): increased ability to apply logical thought to concrete
problems, thinking is still primarily related to immediatee)perience.
Formal Operations Stage (yrs on):
ability to apply logic to a variety of problems0 higher orderthinking occurs.
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Cognitive evelopmentInstructional Implications!
". There should be plenty of opportunityfor assimilation and accommodation inorder for students to proceed from onestage to the ne)t.
#. The richer the e)perience, the moreelaborate the cognitive structuredevelopment.
$. 1aterials and activities should begeared for the appropriate level ofcognitive development.
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2laboration Theory
Reigeluth
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2laboration Theory
2laboration Theory details ageneral model of organi+ing
instruction from a simple to morecomple) structure.
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2laboration Theory
3eatures of the 1odel *4agan 56mith, "778!
". 9n epitome at the beginning of theinstruction
#. 9 learning:prere&uisite se&uencewithin each level of elaboration
$. 9 learner:control format'. The use of analogies, summari+ers
and sythesi+ers.
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2laboration Theory Courses can have $ di%erent structurings
which are based on the goals of the course.! Conceptual:9 course structure that is based
upon concepts. There are three types! parts,kinds, and matrices
2! Proce"ural:9 course structure wherelearning/teaching is based on knowing theprocedures for how to do something. There aretwo di%erent kinds of procedural knowledge!procedural order and procedural decision.
#! Theoretical:9 course structure wherelearning/teaching is based on theory. There aretwo types! theory that describes a naturalphenomena *descriptive and those that a%ect adesired outcome *prescriptive.
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(roblem:Based Learning
Roger Schank
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(roblem:Based Learning
Learning that is situated around anevent, case, problem, or scenario.
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(roblem:Based Learning3ive 6trategies for ;sing (BL *u%y 5
Cunningham, "778!
1.The Problem as a Guide:theproblem is presented in order to
gain attention prior to presentingthe lesson.
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(roblem:Based Learning
3ive 6trategies for ;sing (BL
2. The Problem as an Integrator orTest:the problem is presented
after readings are completedand/or discussed :: these are usedto check for understanding.
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(roblem:Based Learning
3ive 6trategies for ;sing (BL
3. The Problem as an !am"le:theproblem is integrated into the
material in order to illustrate aparticular principle, concept orprocedure.
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(roblem:Based Learning
3ive 6trategies for ;sing (BL
#. The Problem as a $ehicle %orProcess:the problem is used to
promote critical thinking wherebythe analysis of how to solve itbecomes a lesson in itself.
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(roblem:Based Learning3ive 6trategies for ;sing (BL
&. The Problem as a Stimulus %or'uthentic 'cti(it):the problem isused to develop skills necessary tosolve it and other problems :: skillscan include physical skills, recall ofprior knowledge, and metacognitive
skills related to the problem solvingprocess. 9 form of authenticassessment of the skills and activity
necessary in the content domain.
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(roblem:Based Learning
Design PBL Instruction:1. Task Analysis:analysis must take place
not only within the content domain butshould also determine the actual settingwhere the learning will be authentic.
2. Problem Generation:The problemsmust be constructed so they include the
concepts and principles that are relevantand they must be set in a real conte)t.
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(roblem:Based Learning
Learning Sequence:
". Collaborative 9nalysis session where
groups work together to solve theproblem.
#. 6elf:directed Learning where thestudents identify the informationand resources that are necessary tosolve the problem.
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(roblem:Based Learning
The instructor in (BL only acts asa facilitator to learning, instead of
a transmitter of the necessaryinformation.
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(roblem:Based Learning
Assessment:assessment oflearning must occur within the
conte)t of the problems andshould be in the form of both selfassessment and peer
assessment.
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Conditions of Learning
Robert Gagne
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Conditions of Learning
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Conditions of Learning?ine events of Instruction
*4agan 5 6mith, "778".
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Conditions of Learning
1aor (rinciples of
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9ssimilation Theory
*a(id 'usubel
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9ssimilation Theory
Assimilation Teory:Concernedwith how individuals learn large
amounts of meaningful material.The primary process in learning isthat new information is related to
relevant knowledge that is alreadye)isting in an individual=s cognitivestructure.
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9ssimilation Theory
The steps to this process are!! Subsumpti$e!meaning and new
e)amples are added to an e)istingconcept
2! Superor"inate!ideas and conceptsare sythesi+ed and therefore newinclusive concepts are created
#! Combinatorial!additional backgroundis added to achieve a more globalunderstanding of the concept.
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9ssimilation Theory
9usubel di%ers from
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9ssimilation Theory
(rinciples!". The most general ideas of a subect
should be presented -rst and thenprogressively di%erentiated in termsof detail and speci-city.
#. Instructional materials should attempt
to integrate new materials withpreviously learned material bycomparing new and old ideas andconcepts.
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1eaningful Learning
*a(id 'usubel
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1eaningful Learning
1eaningful learning occurs when learnersactively interpret their e)perience usinginternal, cognitive operations.
(rior knowledge is the most signi-cant indetermining what new learning will occur.
DThe model of cognitive organi+ationproposed for the learning and retention of
meaningful materials assumes the e)istenceof a cognitive structure that is hierarchicallyorgani+ed.D *9usubel, "78$, p. #"A
1eaningful Learning
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1eaningful Learning+e) ,once"ts
Cogniti$e Structure! the learnerEsoverall memory structure or integratedbody of knowledge.
%nchoring &"eas! the speci-c, relevantideas in the learnerEs cognitive structurethat provide the entry points for newinformation to be connected.
'eception earning! the entire contentof what is to be learned is presented tothe learner in its -nal form.
1eaningful Learning
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1eaningful Learning+e) ,once"ts
isco$ery earning! learners are re&uired torearrange a given array of information,integrate it with e)isting cognitive structures,and reorgani+e the integrated combination in
such a way as to create a desired end product. 'ote earning! the learner memori+es and
makes no connection between what was knownand what was memori+ed.
*eaning+ul earning! the process of relatingpotentially meaningful information to what thelearner already knows in a substantive way.
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1eaningful Learning
!e"resentational Learning:learning themeanings of unitary symbols or words. This isthe most basic form of learning and serves as afoundation for all other learning to occur.
#once"tion Learning:knowing beyond
representation :: understanding the criticalattributes that surround a concept anddi%erentiate it from other concepts.
Pre"ositional Learning:the meanings of newideas e)pressed in verbal prepositions are
ac&uired :: individual words and concepts are nowcombined to form a new idea :: inferences arenow being made by the learner.
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1eaningful Learning
Cognitive structure and anchoringideas within the cognitive structureare the prere&uisites to meaningfullearning.
6ocial evelopment
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6ocial evelopmentTheory Fone of (ro)imal
evelopment
-e( $)gotsk)
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6ocial evelopment Theory
Gygotsky believed that socialinteraction played a role in the
development of cognition ::learning could occur through socialcontact.
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6ocial evelopment Theory
Gygotsky *"7A states Deveryfunction in the child=s cultural
development appears twice! -rst,on the social level, and then, later,on the individual level0 -rst,
between people, then inside thechild.D
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6ocial evelopment Theory
Three types of 2)perience!
". Historical! knowledge through
generations#. 6ocial! knowledge obtained through
contact with someone else
$. 9daptation! knowledge obtained byacting on the environment
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6ocial evelopment Theory
Gygotsky believed that all higherorder functions begin as actual
relations between individuals ::this should be focused on becauseit is uni&ue to humans.
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6ocial evelopment Theory
3our 9ssumptions about Learning!". 6ignali+ation! something that is common to
all organisms.
#. #. 6igni-cation! humans have evolved to adi%erent level0 the stimulus is not the onlything connected to the response. 9 symbolsystem becomes part of the response.1eaning is assigned to an arbitrary stimulus.
$. Biological! part of the evolutionary process
'. 6ociohistorical! creation and use of aculturally based signs and symbol system.
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Fone of (ro)imal
evelopmentThe distance between the actual
developmental level that is
reected and the level that isaccomplished : created in theinteraction between adult and
child.
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Fone of (ro)imalevelopment
The basic premise is that the adult
provides the support and sca%olding
for the individual until the individualassimilates the knowledge into theirown cognitive structure. The ideabehind sca%olding is that the
support system is gradually takenaway as the learner begins to takeover and understand the process.
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Cognitive 3le)ibility
Theory
Rand S"iro
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Cognitive 3le)ibility Theory
C3T states that learning should befocused in comple) and ill:
structured domains. *earsley,"77
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Cognitive 3le)ibility Theory
DThe theory is largely concerned withtransfer of knowledge and skills
beyond their initial learning situation.3or this reason, emphasis is placedupon the presentation of informationfrom multiple perspectives and use
of many case studies that presentdiverse e)amples.D *earsley, "77
ogn t ve e) ty eory
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g y yInstructional 6trategies *
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Instructional Transaction
Theory *I#
errill/ -i and Jones
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Instructional TransactionTheory
(urpose! In response to perceivedlimitations in e)isting instructional
design models and theories, 1errill,Li and Jones have developed what isreferred to as a Dsecond generationtheory of instructional designD whose
purpose is to e)pedite the design ofan automated system or DI e)pert.D
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Instructional TransactionTheory
4easons for I#!
". To analy+e, represent, and guide
instruction to teach integrated sets ofknowledge and skill
#. To produce pedagogic prescriptionsabout selection and se&uence of
instruction$. To be an open system that can
respond to new theory
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Theory
Critical Concepts!
&nstructional Transactions!instructional algorithms and patternsof learner interactions that have beendesigned to enable the learner toac&uire a certain kind of knowledgeor skill. 9 mutual, dynamic interactionbetween the instructional system andthe student in which there is ane)change of information.
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Theory
Critical Concepts!
Transaction Shell! the structure ofa transaction that identi-es the
interactions, parameters andknowledge representations needs fora given class of transactions. Theseshells can consist of # subsystems!
an authoring environment and adelivery environment.
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Theory
Critical Concepts!
Transaction Class! a set ofsimilar transaction shells which
have similar interactionre&uirements and similarknowledge representation
re&uirements.
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Theory
Critical Concepts!
Transaction Family! all of thetransactions necessary to enable
the learner to ac&uire all of thenecessary knowledge and skill :: toestablish an e%ective mental
model.
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Theory
Critical Concepts!
,nterprise Transaction! a higherlevel interaction which provides
direction of e)ecution andintegration of learning.
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6ituated Learning
Jean -a(e
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6ituated Learning
Learning is a function of the activity,conte)t, and culture in which it occurs.
9ll material that is taught should besituated in real:world conte)ts from the
start. *Kinn 5 6nyder, "778, p."#' Cognitive 9pprenticeships 9ll instruction should mimic the real life
situation in which that knowledge would
be useful. This will enable learners to storeinformation in such a way that is easilyretrievable. *Kilson 5 Cole, "778, p.88
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1ultiple Intelligence
Theory
0oard Gardner
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1ultiple Intelligence Theory
The theory states that there areseven distinct forms of intelligence
*recently an th was introducedthat each individual possesses to adi%erent degree.
1ultiple Intelligence Theory
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1ultiple Intelligence Theory
2ight Intelligences!
". Gerbal/Linguistic
#. Logical/1athematical
$. 6patial'. Bodily/inesthetic
@. Interpersonal
8. Intrapersonal
A. 1usical
. ?aturalistic
1ultiple Intelligence Theory
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1ultiple Intelligence Theory
Instructional Implications!
Teaching/learning should focus on
the strength *particularintelligences of each person andassessment of learning should
measure all forms, not ustspeci-c ones.
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1ultiple Intelligence Theory
(rinciples *earsley, "77!
". Individuals should be encouraged to use
their preferred intelligences in learning.
#. Instructional activities should appeal todi%erent forms of intelligence.
$. 9ssessment of learning should measuremultiple forms of intelligence.
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Component isplay
Theory
*a(id errill
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Component isplay Theory
Component isplay Theory is aconditions:based theory of
instructional design that is ane)tension of
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Component isplay Theory
CT classi-es learning obectivesin two dimensions! performance
level *remember, use or -nd andcontent type *facts, concepts,principles, or procedures *4agan 56mith, "778.
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Component isplay Theory
act ,once"t
Procedure
Princi"le
ind
se
Remember
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Component isplay Theory
(rimary (resentation 3orms! Content*generality or instance and 9pproach*e)pository or in&uisitory
6econdary (resentation 3orms!(rere&uisites, conte)t, helps,representation, mnemonics, feedback.
9ccording to the theory, instruction ismore e%ective when it contains all of thenecessary primary and secondarypresentation forms.
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Component isplay Theory
(rinciples *earsley, "77!". Instruction will be more e%ective if
all three primary performance formsare present.
#. (rimary forms can be presented byeither an e)planatory or in&uisitorylearning strategy.
$. The se&uence of primary forms is notcritical provided they are all present.
'. 6tudents should be given controlover the number of instances or
practice items they receive.
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6ocial Learning Theory
Mbservational Learning
'lbert Bandura
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6ocial Learning Theory
Social earning Theory! people arenot driven by either inner forces orenvironmental stimuli in isolation0
instead behaviors are learned throughcontinuous interaction of personal andenvironmental determinants and alllearning from direct e)perience occurs
by observing other people=s behavior.*Burton, 1oore, 5 1agliaro, "778.
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Mbservational Learning
Mbservation Learning (rocess *Burton etal., "778!
%ttention Processes! determine what isselectively observed and e)tracted
'etential Processes! patterns of behaviorare attended to and retained
*otor 'epro"uction Processes! thebehavior is reproduced and re-ned on a
basis of feedback. *oti$ation! the behavior is more likely
adopted if it is considered valuable orfunctional.
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Mbservational Learning
9. Learn by watching! you donEthave to do something in order tolearn it
B. 9bstract, decide, engage!learners see something in theenvironment, abstract what
theyEve seen, decide if it isimportant and then repeat thebehavior.
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6ocial Learning Theory
'eciprocal eterminism!Interpersonal and nonsocialenvironmental factors come
together. The behavior ofindividuals occurs because of priorinteractions with other people 9?with the immediate environment.*
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Bloom=s Ta)onomy
Ben4amin Bloom
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Bloom=s Ta)onomy
". nowledge! the remembering, identi-cationor recall of previously learned material.
#. Comprehension! the understanding of the
material and its meaning :: the learner canput the material in their own words.
$. 9pplication! The use of learned material innew situations :: the learner can use and
make an abstraction of the material in aconcrete conte)t
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ahramYazd
Bloom=s Ta)onomy
'. 9nalysis! The breaking down of the materialinto its component parts so its organi+ationalstructure can be understood
@. 6ynthesis! (utting all of the pieces of thematerial together to form a whole :: thelearner can put together old knowledge innew ways
8. 2valuation! the learner can makeudgements based on their knowledge aboutthe value of methods and materials for somepurpose.