Learning Theories (1)

8/21/2019 Learning Theories (1)

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Learning Theories

Dr Shahram Yazdani

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http://www.atgci.org/http://www.atgci.org/


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General learning theories

Behaviorism

Cognitivism

Constructivism


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Representations of the Learning

Process Behaviorism

Stimulus-Response

Reinforced Behavior

Antecedent Behavior Consequence

Sequenced knowledge and skills presented in

logical limited steps Cognitivism

Cognitivist Learning Perspective

Information Processing

Schema

Mental Models

Constructivism Inquiry-based

Discovery learning
http://www.atgci.org/http://www.atgci.org/http://www.atgci.org/


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Relevant Frameworks

Behaviorism Programmed Instruction (logical presentation

of content, overt responses, immediateknowledge of correctness)

Cognitivism Events of Instruction (Conditions of Learning)

Constructivism

Cognitive Apprenticeship

Cognitive Flexibility

Situated Learning

Zone of Proximal Development


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Key Principles: Behaviorism

Learning happens when a correct

response is demonstrated following

the presentation of a specificenvironmental stimulus Emphasis is

on observable and measurable

behaviors


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Key Principles: Cognitivism

Learning is a change of knowledge state

Knowledge acquisition is described as amental activity that entails internal coding

and structuring by the learner. Learner is viewed as an active participant

in the learning process

Emphasis is on the building blocks of

knowledge (e.g. identifing prerequisiterelationships of content)

Emphasis on structuring, organizign andsequencing information to facilitate

optimal processing


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Key Principles:

Constructivism Learners build personal interpretation of

the world based on experiences and

interactions Knowledge is embedded in the context in

which it is used (authentic tasks in

meaningful realistic settings)

Create novel and situation-specific

understandings by "assembling"

knowledge from diverse sources

appropriate to the problem at handflexible use of knowled e


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Goal of Instruction: Behaviorism

Communicate or transfer behaviorsrepresenting knowledge and skills to thelearner (does not consider mentalprocessing)

Instruction is to elicit the desiredresponse from the learner who ispresented with a target stimulus

Learner must know how to execute theproper response as well as the conditionsunder which the response is made

Instruction utilizes consequences andreinforcement of learned behaviors


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Goal of Instruction:

Cognitivism Communicate or transfer knowledge in the

most efficient, effective manner (mind-independent, can be mapped onto learners)

Focus of instruction is to create learning orchange by encouraging the learner to useappropriate learning strategies

Learning results when information is stored inmemory in an organized, meaningful way.

Teachers/designers are responsible for

assisting learners in organizing information inan optimal way so that it can be readilyassimilated


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Goal of Instruction:

Constructivism Build personal interpretations of the world

based on individual experiences andinteractions (constantly open to change, cannotachieve a predetermined, "correct" meaning,knowledge emerges in relevant contexts)

Learning is an active process of constructingrather than acquiring knowledge

Instruction is a process of supportingknowledge construction rather than

communicating knowledge Do not structure learning for the task, but

engage learner in the actual use of the tools inreal world situations


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Instructional/Learning Strategies:

Behaviorism Behaviorism

Instructional cues to elicit correct response

Practice paired with target stimuli

Reinforcement for correct responses

Building fluency (get responses closer and closerto correct response)

Multiple opportunities/trials (Drill and practice)

Discrimination (recalling facts)

Generalization (defining and illustrating concepts) Associations (applying explanations)

Chaining (automatically performing a specifiedprocedure)


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Cognitivism

InformationProcessing Model

Explanations

Demonstrations

Illustrative examples

Gestalt Theory

Matched non-

examples Corrective feedback

Outlining

Mnemonics

Dual-Coding Theory

Chunking Information

Repetition

Concept Mapping

Advanced Organizers

Analogies

Summaries

Keller's ARCS Modelof Motivation

Interactivity

Synthesis


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Constructivism

Modeling

Collaborative Learning

Coaching

Scaffolding Fading

Problem-Based Learning

Authentic Learning

REALs Anchored Instruction

Cognitive Flexibility Hypertexts

Object-based Learning


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Theorists

Behaviorism Skinner

Bandura

Thorndike

Pavlov

Cognitivism Gagne

Bruner

Anderson

Gardner

Novak

Rummelhart

Norman

Constructivism

Vygotsky

Lave & Wenger

Piaget

Bransford,

Hasselbring,etc.

(CTGV) Grabinger

Spiro and

colleagues


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Constructivist Theory

Jerome Bruner


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Learning is an active process in which learnersdiscover and construct new ideas/conceptsbased on their current/prior knowledge. Theissues that guide this process must bepersonally or societally relevant. Brunerbelieved that the learner selects information,constructs ideas based on that information and

makes decisions by relying on their owncognitive structure of information.


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Bruner believed that instruction shouldallow the learner to discover principles

for themselves through active dialog.Instructors should become informationfacilitators instead of information

transmitters.


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Instruction should address four majoraspects:

1. predisposition toward learning2. the ways in which knowledge can be

structured so that it is readily grasped by

the learner

3. effective sequencing of the material

4. the nature and pacing of rewards


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To Bruner, knowledge is the activity ofthe person in the content domain and

learning is the struggling of the learnerwith the issues within that domain.


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Principles:1. Instruction must be concerned with the

experiences and contexts that make the studentwilling and able to learn.

2. Instruction must be structured so that it can beeasily grasped by the student (spiralorganization).

3. Instruction should be designed to facilitateextrapolation and/or fill in the gaps (goingbeyond the information given).


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Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget


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Cognitive Development

Piaget believed that cognitivedevelopment occurs through a

sequence of successive qualitativechanges in cognitive structures.

C iti D l t


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Cognitive DevelopmentPiagets Four Stages:

Sensorimotor Stage (birth - 2 yrs): actions become more intentional and integrated intopatterns, there is an increased awareness of self andsurroundings.

Preoperational Thought Stage (2 - 7yrs): development of language and conceptual thought

occurs.

Concrete Operations Stage (7-11yrs): increased ability to apply logical thought to concrete

problems, thinking is still primarily related toimmediate experience.

Formal Operations Stage (11yrs on): ability to apply logic to a variety of problems; higher

order thinking occurs.


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Cognitive DevelopmentInstructional Implications:

1. There should be plenty of opportunity forassimilation and accommodation in orderfor students to proceed from one stage to thenext.

2. The richer the experience, the moreelaborate the cognitive structuredevelopment.

3. Materials and activities should be geared forthe appropriate level of cognitivedevelopment.


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Elaboration Theory

Reigeluth


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Elaboration Theory

Elaboration Theory details a generalmodel of organizing instruction from a

simple to more complex structure.


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Elaboration Theory

Features of the Model (Ragan & Smith,1996):

1. An epitome at the beginning of theinstruction

2. A learning-prerequisite sequence withineach level of elaboration

3. A learner-control format4. The use of analogies, summarizers and

sythesizers.


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Elaboration Theory Courses can have 3 different structurings

which are based on the goals of the course.1. Conceptual:A course structure that is based upon

concepts. There are three types: parts, kinds, andmatrices

2. Procedural:A course structure wherelearning/teaching is based on knowing theprocedures for how to do something. There are twodifferent kinds of procedural knowledge: proceduralorder and procedural decision.

3. Theoretical:A course structure wherelearning/teaching is based on theory. There are twotypes: theory that describes a natural phenomena(descriptive) and those that affect a desired outcome(prescriptive).


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Roger Schank


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Learning that is situated around anevent, case, problem, or scenario.

P bl B d L i


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Problem-Based LearningFive Strategies for Using PBL (Duffy &

Cunningham, 1996):

1.The Problem as a Guide:the problem ispresented in order to gain attention

prior to presenting the lesson.


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Five Strategies for Using PBL

2. The Problem as an Integrator or Test:theproblem is presented after readings are

completed and/or discussed -- these areused to check for understanding.


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3. The Problem as an Example:the problemis integrated into the material in order

to illustrate a particular principle,concept or procedure.


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4. The Problem as a Vehicle for Process:theproblem is used to promote critical

thinking whereby the analysis of howto solve it becomes a lesson in itself.


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Problem-Based LearningFive Strategies for Using PBL

5. The Problem as a Stimulus for AuthenticActivity:the problem is used to developskills necessary to solve it and otherproblems -- skills can include physicalskills, recall of prior knowledge, andmetacognitive skills related to the

problem solving process. A form ofauthentic assessment of the skills andactivity necessary in the content domain.


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Design PBL Instruction:1. Task Analysis:analysis must take place

not only within the content domain butshould also determine the actual settingwhere the learning will be authentic.

2. Problem Generation:The problems must

be constructed so they include theconcepts and principles that are relevantand they must be set in a real context.


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Learning Sequence:

1. Collaborative Analysis session where

groups work together to solve theproblem.

2. Self-directed Learning where the studentsidentify the information and resourcesthat are necessary to solve the problem.


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The instructor in PBL only acts as afacilitator to learning, instead of a

transmitter of the necessaryinformation.


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Assessment:assessment of learningmust occur within the context of the

problems and should be in the form ofboth self assessment and peerassessment.


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Conditions of Learning

Robert Gagne


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Gagnes theory defines five majorcategories of learning that each require

a different type of instruction in orderfor learning to occur. The five categoriesare: verbal information, intellectual

skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills,and attitudes.



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Conditions of LearningNine events of Instruction

(Ragan & Smith, 1996)1. Gain Attention

2. Inform the learner ofthe objective

3. Stimulate recall ofprior knowledge

4. Present stimulusmaterial

5. Provide learningguidance

6. Elicit performance

7. Provide feedback

8. Assess performance

9. Enhance retentionand transfer


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Major Principles of Gagnes Theory (Kearsley,1998)1. Different instruction is needed for different

learning outcomes.2. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways

that constitute conditions of learning.

3. The specific operations that constitute

instructional events are different for each type oflearning outcome.

4. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skillsare to be learned and a sequence of instruction.


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Assimilation Theory

David Ausubel


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Assimilation Theory

Assimilation Theory:Concerned withhow individuals learn large amounts of

meaningful material. The primaryprocess in learning is that newinformation is related to relevant

knowledge that is already existing in anindividuals cognitive structure.


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Assimilation Theory

The steps to this process are:1. Subsumptive:meaning and new

examples are added to an existing concept

2. Superordinate:ideas and concepts aresythesized and therefore new inclusiveconcepts are created

3. Combinatorial:additional background isadded to achieve a more globalunderstanding of the concept.


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Assimilation Theory

Ausubel differs from Gestalt theories,schema theory and Bruners spiral

learning model in that he emphasizesthe reorganization of existing cognitivestructures. Ausubel believed that you

should ascertain the cognitivestructures of your learners and teachthen accordingly.


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Assimilation Theory

Principles:1. The most general ideas of a subject should

be presented first and then progressivelydifferentiated in terms of detail andspecificity.

2. Instructional materials should attempt to

integrate new materials with previouslylearned material by comparing new andold ideas and concepts.


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Meaningful Learning

David Ausubel


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Meaningful Learning

Meaningful learning occurs when learnersactively interpret their experience usinginternal, cognitive operations.

Prior knowledge is the most significant indetermining what new learning will occur.

"The model of cognitive organizationproposed for the learning and retention ofmeaningful materials assumes the existenceof a cognitive structure that is hierarchicallyorganized." (Ausubel, 1963, p. 217)

Meaningful Learning


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Meaningful LearningKey Concepts

Cognitive Structure: the learner's overallmemory structure or integrated body ofknowledge.

Anchoring Ideas: the specific, relevant ideasin the learner's cognitive structure thatprovide the entry points for new informationto be connected.

Reception Learning: the entire content ofwhat is to be learned is presented to thelearner in its final form.

Meaningful Learning


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Meaningful LearningKey Concepts

Discovery Learning: learners are required torearrange a given array of information,integrate it with existing cognitive structures,and reorganize the integrated combination insuch a way as to create a desired end product.

Rote Learning: the learner memorizes andmakes no connection between what wasknown and what was memorized.

Meaningful Learning: the process of relatingpotentially meaningful information to whatthe learner already knows in a substantiveway.


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Meaningful Learning

Representational Learning:learning themeanings of unitary symbols or words.This is the most basic form of learning andserves as a foundation for all other learning

to occur.

Conception Learning:knowing beyondrepresentation -- understanding the criticalattributes that surround a concept and

differentiate it from other concepts.

Prepositional Learning:the meanings of newideas expressed in verbal prepositions areacquired -- individual words and concepts

are now combined to form a new idea --


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Meaningful Learning

Cognitive structure and anchoringideas within the cognitive structure arethe prerequisites to meaningfullearning.


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Social Development Theory


Lev Vygotsky


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Vygotsky believed that socialinteraction played a role in the

development of cognition -- learningcould occur through social contact.


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Vygotsky (1978) states "every functionin the childs cultural development

appears twice: first, on the social level,and then, later, on the individual level;first, between people, then inside the

child."


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Three types of Experience:

1. Historical: knowledge through generations

2. Social: knowledge obtained throughcontact with someone else

3. Adaptation: knowledge obtained by actingon the environment


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Vygotsky believed that all higher orderfunctions begin as actual relations

between individuals -- this should befocused on because it is unique tohumans.


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Four Assumptions about Learning:1. Signalization: something that is common to all

organisms.

2. 2. Signification: humans have evolved to adifferent level; the stimulus is not the only thingconnected to the response. A symbol systembecomes part of the response. Meaning isassigned to an arbitrary stimulus.

3. Biological: part of the evolutionary process

4. Sociohistorical: creation and use of a culturallybased signs and symbol system.

Z f P i l D l t


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The distance between the actualdevelopmental level that is reflected

and the level that is accomplished -created in the interaction between adultand child.

Z f P i l D l t


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The basic premise is that the adultprovides the support and scaffolding

for the individual until the individualassimilates the knowledge into theirown cognitive structure. The ideabehind scaffolding is that the support

system is gradually taken away as thelearner begins to take over andunderstand the process.


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Cognitive Flexibility Theory

Rand Spiro


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CFT states that learning should befocused in complex and ill-structured

domains. (Kearsley, 1998)


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"The theory is largely concerned withtransfer of knowledge and skills beyond

their initial learning situation. For thisreason, emphasis is placed upon thepresentation of information from

multiple perspectives and use of manycase studies that present diverseexamples." (Kearsley, 1998)



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Instructional Strategies (Grabinger, 1996)

1. CFT uses several cases and rich examples intheir full complexity.

2. CFT uses multiple forms of knowledge

representation, providing examples in severalkinds of media.

3. CFT links abstract concepts to case examplesand brings out the generalizable concepts and

strategies applicable to other problems or cases. 4. To avoid mistakes of oversimplification, CFT

presents a number of examples to makeapparent, rather than hide, the variability of

concepts and themes within the domain.


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Instructional Transaction

Theory (ID2)

Merrill, Li and Jones


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Instructional Transaction Theory

Purpose: In response to perceivedlimitations in existing instructional

design models and theories, Merrill, Liand Jones have developed what isreferred to as a "second generation

theory of instructional design" whosepurpose is to expedite the design of anautomated system or "ID expert."


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Reasons for ID2:

1. To analyze, represent, and guide

instruction to teach integrated sets ofknowledge and skill

2. To produce pedagogic prescriptions aboutselection and sequence of instruction

3. To be an open system that can respond tonew theory



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Critical Concepts:

Instructional Transactions:instructional algorithms and patterns of

learner interactions that have beendesigned to enable the learner toacquire a certain kind of knowledge orskill. A mutual, dynamic interaction

between the instructional system andthe student in which there is anexchange of information.



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Critical Concepts:

Transaction Shell: the structure of atransaction that identifies the

interactions, parameters and knowledgerepresentations needs for a given classof transactions. These shells can consist

of 2 subsystems: an authoringenvironment and a deliveryenvironment.



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Critical Concepts:

Transaction Class: a set of similartransaction shells which have similar

interaction requirements and similarknowledge representationrequirements.



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Critical Concepts:

Transaction Family: all of thetransactions necessary to enable the

learner to acquire all of the necessaryknowledge and skill -- to establish aneffective mental model.



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Critical Concepts:

Enterprise Transaction: a higher levelinteraction which provides direction of

execution and integration of learning.


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Situated Learning

Jean Lave


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Situated Learning

Learning is a function of the activity, context,and culture in which it occurs.

All material that is taught should be situatedin real-world contexts from the start. (Winn &Snyder, 1996, p.124)

Cognitive Apprenticeships

All instruction should mimic the real life

situation in which that knowledge would beuseful. This will enable learners to storeinformation in such a way that is easilyretrievable. (Wilson & Cole, 1996, p.606)


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Multiple Intelligence

Theory

Howard Gardner


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Multiple Intelligence Theory

The theory states that there are sevendistinct forms of intelligence (recently

an 8th was introduced) that eachindividual possesses to a differentdegree.



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Eight Intelligences:

1. Verbal/Linguistic

2. Logical/Mathematical

3. Spatial4. Bodily/Kinesthetic

5. Interpersonal

6. Intrapersonal

7. Musical

8. Naturalistic



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Instructional Implications:

Teaching/learning should focus on the

strength (particular intelligences) ofeach person and assessment oflearning should measure all forms, not

just specific ones.


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Principles (Kearsley, 1998):

1. Individuals should be encouraged to usetheir preferred intelligences in learning.

2. Instructional activities should appeal todifferent forms of intelligence.

3. Assessment of learning should measuremultiple forms of intelligence.


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Component Display Theory

David Merrill


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Component Display Theory is aconditions-based theory of instructionaldesign that is an extension of GagnesConditions of Learning (Ragan & Smith,1996).

Use of this theory is promoted by

Reigeluth as a means for designinginstruction at the micro or lesson levelin Elaboration Theory.


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CDT classifies learning objectives intwo dimensions: performance level

(remember, use or find) and contenttype (facts, concepts, principles, orprocedures) (Ragan & Smith, 1996).


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Fact Concept Procedure Principle

Find

Use

Remember


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Primary Presentation Forms: Content(generality or instance) and Approach(expository or inquisitory)

Secondary Presentation Forms: Prerequisites,context, helps, representation, mnemonics,feedback.

According to the theory, instruction is moreeffective when it contains all of the necessaryprimary and secondary presentation forms.


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Principles (Kearsley, 1998):1. Instruction will be more effective if all

three primary performance forms arepresent.

2. Primary forms can be presented by eitheran explanatory or inquisitory learningstrategy.

3. The sequence of primary forms is notcritical provided they are all present.

4. Students should be given control over thenumber of instances or practice items theyreceive.


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Social Learning Theory

Observational Learning

Albert Bandura


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Social Learning Theory: people are notdriven by either inner forces orenvironmental stimuli in isolation;instead behaviors are learned throughcontinuous interaction of personal andenvironmental determinants and all

learning from direct experience occursby observing other peoples behavior.(Burton, Moore, & Magliaro, 1996).


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Observation Learning Process (Burton et al.,1996):

Attention Processes: determine what is selectivelyobserved and extracted

Retential Processes: patterns of behavior areattended to and retained

Motor Reproduction Processes: the behavior isreproduced and refined on a basis of feedback.

Motivation: the behavior is more likely adopted ifit is considered valuable or functional.


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A. Learn by watching: you don't have todo something in order to learn it

B. Abstract, decide, engage: learners see

something in the environment, abstractwhat they've seen, decide if it isimportant and then repeat the behavior.


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Reciprocal Determinism: Interpersonaland nonsocial environmental factorscome together. The behavior of

individuals occurs because of priorinteractions with other people ANDwith the immediate environment.(Glover, Bruning, & Filbeck, 1983)


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Blooms Taxonomy

Benjamin Bloom


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Blooms Taxonomy

1. Knowledge: the remembering, identificationor recall of previously learned material.

2. Comprehension: the understanding of thematerial and its meaning -- the learner canput the material in their own words.

3. Application: The use of learned material in

new situations -- the learner can use andmake an abstraction of the material in aconcrete context


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Blooms Taxonomy

4. Analysis: The breaking down of the materialinto its component parts so its organizationalstructure can be understood

5. Synthesis: Putting all of the pieces of thematerial together to form a whole -- thelearner can put together old knowledge innew ways

6. Evaluation: the learner can make judgementsbased on their knowledge about the value ofmethods and materials for some purpose.

Learning Theories (1)

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