learning

learning

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What is learning?Learning can be defined as any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice or experience.

LearningLearningInvolves changeIs relatively permanentIs acquired through experience

Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.

Definitions: Learning is:a persisting change in human performance or performance potential . . . (brought) about as a result of the learners interaction with the environment (Driscoll, 1994, pp. 8-9). 2.the relatively permanent change in a persons knowledge or behavior due to experience (Mayer, 1982, p. 1040).an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other forms of experience (Shuell, 1986, p. 412).

Learning is an important psychological process that-determines human behavior. Learning can be defined as relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience or reinforced practice". There are four important points in the definition of learning: Learning involves a change in behavior, though this change is not necessarily an improvement over previous behavior. Learning generally has the association of improved behavior, but bad habits, prejudices, stereotypes, and work restrictions are also learned.

The, behavioral change must be relatively permanent. Any temporary change in behavior is not a part of learning.The behavioral change must be based oh some form of practice or experience.The practice or experience must be reinforced in order so as to facilitate learning to occur

COMPONENTS OF THE LEARNING PROCESS:

The components of learning process are:Drive/Motives Stimuli,GeneralizationDiscriminationResponses, Reinforcement and Retention.

Drive/MotiveLearning frequently occurs in the presence of drive - any strong stimulus that force action. Primary energisers of behaviour. Drives are basically of two types -primary (or physiological); and secondary (or psychological). These two categories of drives often interact with each other. Individuals operate under many drives at the same time. To predict a behavior, it is necessary to establish which drives are stimulating the most.

Cue (sign or signal) StimuliCue stimuli are those factors that exist in the environment as perceived by the individual. The idea is to discover the conditions under which stimulus will increase the probability of eliciting a specific response. There may be two types of stimuli with respect to their results in terms of response concerned: generalization and discrimination

GeneralizationIt is the condition when the subject is not able to discriminate between CS and another stimulus because of a great degree of similarity between them.

discrimination

The process of making the subject learn how to discriminate between two different stimuli through practice. . Discrimination has wide applications in 'organizational behavior. For example, a supervisor can discriminate between two equally high producing workers, one with low quality and other with high quality.

ResponsesThe stimulus results in responses. Responses may be in the physical form or may be in terms of attitudes, familiarity, perception or other complex phenomena. In the above example, the supervisor discriminates between the worker producing low quality products and the worker producing high quality products, and positively responds only to the quality conscious worker.

ReinforcementReinforcement is a fundamental condition of learning. Without reinforcement, no measurable modification of behavior takes place. Reinforcement may be defined as the environmental event's affecting the probability of occurrence of responses with which they are associated.

RetentionThe stability of learned behavior over time is defined as retention and its contrary is known as forgetting. Some of the learning is retained over a period of time while others may be forgotten.

Theories of Learning:Key ConceptsUnconditioned stimulusUnconditioned responseConditioned stimulusConditioned response

1-behavioristic theory:A- Classical ConditioningA type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response.

What is conditioning?It is a form of learning in which the capability to elicit or extract response is transferred from one stimulus to another.

It is of two types:1. Classical conditioning( Ivan Pavlov)2. Instrumental conditioning (B.F. Skinner)

The work of the famous Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov demonstrated the classical conditioning process. When Pavlov presented a piece of meat to the dog in the experiment, Pavlov noticed a great deal of salivation. He termed the food an unconditioned stimulus and the salivation an unconditioned response. When the dog saw the meat, it salivated. On the other hand, when Pavlov merely rang a bell, the dog did not salivate. Pavlov subsequently introduced the sound of a bell each time the meat was given to the dog. The dog eventually learned to salivate in response to the ringing of the-bell-even when there was no meat. Pavlov had conditioned the dog to respond to a learned stimulus. Thorndike called this the "law of exercise" which states that behavior can be learned by repetitive association between a stimulus and a response.

Classical conditioning has a limited value in the study of organizational behavior. As pointed out by Skinner, classical conditioning represents an insignificant part of total human learning. Classical conditioning is passive. Something happens and we react in a specific or particular fashion. It is draw out in response to a specific, identifiable event. As such it explains simple and reflexive behaviors. But behavior of people in organizations is emit rather than elicited, and it is voluntary rather than reflexive. The learning of these complex behaviors can be explained or better understood by looking at operant conditioning.

classical conditioningIt is that conditioning when the conditioned stimulus starts evoking the similar response as that of unconditioned stimulus

Classical Conditioning TermsUnconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that will provoke a response without traininge.g. food Unconditioned Response (UR): The response to an unconditioned stimuluse.g. salivationConditioned Stimulus (CS): A stimulus that is paired with a US, and comes to provoke the same response as the US (in the absence of the US)e.g. toneConditioned Response (CR): The same response as the UR, but now to a CS, rather than to a USe.g. salivation

Classical Conditioning: Pavlovs Dogs

Instrumental conditioning

Also known as operant conditioning

Instrumental conditioning refers to an association between our response to the event and its consequences.

Theories of Learning (contd)2*Key ConceptsReflexive (unlearned) behaviorConditioned (learned) behaviorReinforcement

Operant ConditioningA type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.

An operant is defined as a behavior that produces effects. Operant conditioning, basically a product of Skinnerian psychology, suggests that individuals emit responses that are either not rewarded or are punished. Operant conditioning is a voluntary behavior and it is determined, maintained and controlled by its consequences.Operant conditioning is a powerful tool for managing people in organizations. Most behaviors in organizations are learned, controlled and altered by the consequences; i.e. operant behaviors. Management can use the operant conditioning process successfully to control and influence the behavior of employees by manipulating its reward system. Reinforcement is anything that both increases the strength of response and tends to induce repetitions of the behavior. Four types of reinforcement strategies can be employed by managers to influence the behavior of the employees, viz., positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction and punishment.

Operant Conditioning TermsReinforcement: Increasing the frequency or probability of a behavior by presenting or removing a stimulus following that behavior

Punishment: Decreasing the frequency or probability of a behavior by presenting or removing a stimulus following that behavior

Operant Conditioning

Cognitive theory: Edward Tolman in the field of cognitive psychology, stated that cognitive learning consists of a relationship b/w cognitive environmental cues and expectations. cognition refers to an individuals ideas, thoughts, knowledge ,interpretations and understanding about himself and herself and his environment. Main focused points are: Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbolsLearning is the process of connecting symbols in a meaningful & memorable wayStudies focused on the mental processes that facilitate symbol connection

Cognitive theoryHe tested this theory by conducting controlled experiments on white rats. In These experiments, rats were allowed to run through a complicated maze in search of the food. The food were placed at certain points in maze. When the rats came across the food, they began to associate the presence of food with certain cognitive cues. As a result, learning took place.This theory argue that the learner forms a cognitive structure in memory, preserves and organizes information about the various events that occur in a learning situation.

*Grew in response to Behaviorism in an effort to better understand the mental processes behind learning

Social learning theoryThe social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura has become perhaps the most influential theory of learning and development. Bandura believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning.His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people. Known as observational learning (or modeling), this type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors.

Theories of Learning (contd)Key ConceptsAttentional processesRetention processesMotor reproduction processesReinforcement processes

Social-Learning TheoryPeople can learn through observation and direct experience.

Basic Social Learning Concepts

There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is the idea that people can learn through observation. Next is the idea that internal mental states are an essential part of this process. Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior.

People can learn through observation.

Observational LearningIn his famous "Bobo doll" studies, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people, what we have learned comes from watching models parents, peers motion pic. etc

2. Mental states are important to learning.

Intrinsic ReinforcementBandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning and behavior. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories. Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social cognitive theory.'

3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior.

While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior, observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviors.

The Modeling ProcessNot all observed behaviors are effectively learned. Factors involving both the model and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain requirements and steps must also be followed. The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling process:

Attention:In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that detracts your attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model interesting or there is a novel aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to learning.

Retention:The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning.

Reproduction:Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to actually perform the behavior you observed. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill advancement.

Motivation:Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can observing other experience some type of reinforcement or punishment. For example, if you see another student rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each day.

Theories of Learning (contd)2*Key ConceptsReinforcement is required to change behavior.Some rewards are more effective than others.The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.

Shaping BehaviorSystematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response.

Types of ReinforcementPositive reinforcementProviding a reward for a desired behavior.Negative reinforcementRemoving an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs.PunishmentApplying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior.Extinction-Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation.

Schedules of Reinforcement2*Continuous ReinforcementA desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated.Intermittent ReinforcementA desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated.

Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-Interval ScheduleRewards are spaced at uniform time intervals.Variable-Interval ScheduleRewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses.

Schedules of Reinforcement 2*

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*Grew in response to Behaviorism in an effort to better understand the mental processes behind learning*