Learning

• A relatively permanent change in an organisms behavior due to experience

Learning

• Classical Conditioning– Ivan Pavlov

• Operant Conditioning– BF Skinner

• Observational Learning– Albert Bandura

Behaviorism

• The idea that Psychology should be based on observable behavior and NOT on thoughts, feelings, or internal motivation

• Adaptability- our capacity to learn new behaviors that enable us to cope with changing circumstances

• Associative learning- learning that links events together – (2 stimuli; classical conditioning) – response and consequence (operant

conditioning)

Concepts associated with Classical Conditioning

• Unconditioned stimulus (US)• Unconditioned response (UR)• Neutral stimulus (NS)• Conditioned stimulus (CS)• Conditioned response (CR)• Acquisition- initial pairing of the NS with the US• Extinction- the diminishing of the CR; or when the US and the

NS are no longer paired to elicit the CR. Ex. Presenting the US without the NS

• Spontaneous recovery the reemergence of the CR • Generalization the capacity to respond to stimuli similar to the

CS• Discrimination- the capacity to distinguish between the CS and

irrelevant stimuli

Facts to know about Classical Conditioning

• Minimal time should lapse when pairing the NS and the US

• The more predictable the association the stronger the CR

• Natural selection favors traits that aid in survival (taste aversions, mating rituals are difficult to extinguish

• Classical conditioning is one way organisms adapt to their environment

• Provides a process by which learning can be studied objectively

Operant Conditioning

• Learning due to results (operant)

• Learning with events it doesn’t control (classical)

• Thorndikes Law of Effect– Rewarded behavior is likely to recur

BF Skinner

• BF Skinner– Skinner conditioned pigeons to do very “UN pigeon-

like” behavior– “Skinner box”- box where an animal presses a bar or

lever to release a reward also functions as a device that records the behavior

Shaping

– Shaping• Where reinforcers guide an animals behavior

towards a desired behavior– Ex. Petsmart, Pet-Co

• Successful approximation- gradually rewarding behaviors closer to a desired result

– guide an animal’s natural behavior toward a desired behavior. By rewarding responses that are ever closer to the final desired behavior (successive approximations), and ignoring all other responses, researchers can gradually shape complex behaviors.

» Seeing eye dogs

Token Economy

• Token economy– An operant conditioning procedure in which

people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats

• Token economies have been successful in an array of settings

– Homes, hospitals, schools, mental institutions, prisons– This technique is especially effective with the mentally ill

and mentally disabled

Token Economy

• Criticisms of Token economies– What happens when the reinforcement stops?

As in when the person leaves the institutuion– Ethical concerns…

• Is it right for one human to control another human being’s behavior?

Reinforcement and Punishment

• Reinforcement is any event that increases the likelihood a behavior will repeat itself– Positive reinforcement a tangible reward– Negative reinforcement removing an aversive stimulus

as a reward

• Primary reinforcers– Getting food when hungry, etc.

• Conditioned or secondary reinforcers – Getting money for good grades, praise, etc. (we

LEARN these things are linked to basic rewards)

Reinforcement

• Immediate reinforcement vs. delayed reinforcement– Animals do NOT readily respond to a delayed

reinforcement– Humans on the other hand DO (sign of maturity;

delayed gratification)• Ex. Paycheck after 2 wks• Trophy at the end of a season• College graduation

– Exceptions to the rule: unprotected sex, smokers, SUVs

Reinforcement schedules

• Continuous reinforcement- the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs

• Partial (intermittent) reinforcement- where responses are sometimes reinforced– Has a greater resistance to extinction (ie hope

springs eternal!) ex. Children & tantrums, gamblers..etc.

Intermittent or partial reinforcement schedules

• Fixed ratio- reinforces behavior after a FIXED number or responses– Sweatshop workers getting paid by the # of completed pieces

• Variable ratio- reinforces after an unpredictable number of responses– slot machines

• Fixed interval- reinforces at a FIXED time– 2 week paycheck (showing up to work on pay Friday)

• Variable interval- reinforces at an unpredictable time– Fishermen– Button pushing at an elevator

• Which reinforcement schedule yields the highest # of responses?– Variable Ratio

Punishment

• Punishment is any event that decreases the likelihood a behavior will repeat itself– Positive punishment- administering an aversive

stimulus. ie spanking– Negative punishment- removing a reinforcer. Taking

cell phone or car keys• Punishment MUST be given consistently • Intermittent punishment usually has the effect of

rewarding unwanted behavior– A supervisor overlooking the late arrival of an

employee

Punishment

• The power of punishment to suppress behavior disappears when the threat of punishment is removed– Ex. Speeders observe the limit ONLY when police are

watching• Punishment triggers escape or aggression

– Wounded animal will turn and fight– Prison riots, etc.

• Punishment makes the learner apprehensive which inhibits learning new and better responses– Learned helplessness ------ Depression

Punishment

• Punishment should be swift• Punishment should be limited in duration and

intensity• Punishment should target the behavior• Punishment should be limited to the situation in

which the response occurred • Punishment works best when combined with a

reinforcer• The most effective punishment is usually

omission training

Observational Learning• Albert Bandura

– Bobo dolls• Where we observe and imitate others

– Ex “monkey see, monkey do”• Modeling

– the process of observing and imitating specific behavior• Mirror neurons- located in the frontal lobe of the brain that provide a

neural basis for observational learning• Pro-social behaviors

– People who perform positive helpful behavior can prompt similar behavior in others

– Ex. Mahatma Gandhi--- MLK--- civil rights movement in America• Television

– Cartoon violence yields violent children

Observational Learning