EDL 201 METHODS AND APPROACHES

Changes in language teaching methods throughout history have reflected recognition of changes in the kind of proficiency learners need.

MATRIX A: COMPARISON BETWEEN METHOD, APPROACH and TECHNIQUEMETHOD APPROACH TECHNIQUE

CHARACTERISTICS

o Overall [lan for the prderly presentation of language material (all of which is based upon the selected approach)

o Proceduralo Within one approach there

can be several methods (Anthony, 1963)

o Set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning

o Axiomatico Describes the nature of the

subject matter to be taught (Anthony, 1963)

o Implementational (actually takes place in the classroom)

o Stratagem used to accomplish an immediate objective

o Must be consistent with method and therefore in harmony with an approach as well (Anthony, 1963)

LEVELS

o Level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made about the particular skills and content to be taught, order in which content will be presented (Anthony, 1963)

o Level at which assumption and beliefs about language and language learning are specified (Anthony, 1963)

o Level at which classroom procedure is described (Anthony, 1963)

MATRIX B: LINGUISTIC AND PSYCHOLINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF APPROACH

APPROACH

THEORY OF LANGUAGE

o Structural view (language is a system of structurally related elements for the coding of meaning) Audiolingual Method TPR Silent Way

o Functional view (language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning; emphasizes the semantic and communicative dimension rather than the merely grammatical characteristics of language)

o Interactional view (language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the performance of social transactions between individuals) “Students achieve facility in using a language when their attention is focused on conveying

and receiving authentic messages” (Rivers, 1987) Task-Based Language Teaching Content-Based Instruction Cooperative Language Learning

THEORY OF LANGUAGE LEARNING

Responds to 2 questions:o What are the psychologlinguistic & cognitive processes involved in language learning?o What are the conditions that need to be met in order for these learning process to be

activated? Process Oriented Theories (built on learning processes such as habit formation, induction,

inference, hypothesis testing & generalization) Condition Oriented Theories (emphasize the nature of human & physical context in which

language learning takes place) Monitor Model (Dr. Krashen)

o Addresses both the process and the condition dimension of learningo “Monitor is the repository of conscious grammatical knowledge about a language that is

learned through formal instruction & that is called upon in the editing of utterances produced through the acquired system”

o Acquisition- natural assimilation of language rules through using language for communication

o Learning- formal study of language rules and is a conscious process Natural Approach (Tracy D. Terrell)

o method derived primarily from a learning theory rather than a particular view of language Counseling Learning ( Charles A. Curran)

o Focuses primarily on the conditions necessary for successful learningo believes the atmosphere of the classroom is crucial factor o seeks to ameliorate the feelings of intimidation and in securing the many learners

experience Total Physical Response (James Asher)

o derives primarily form a learning theory rather than from a theory of the nature of language

o addresses both the process and condition aspects of learningo based on the belief that child language learning is based on motor activity, on coordinating

language with action, and that this should form the basis of adult foreign language teaching Silent Way (Caleb Gattegno)

o built around a theory of the conditions necessary for successful learning to be realizedDESIGN Level of method analysis in which we consider:

o Objectives of the methodo Selection and organization of language content o Types of learning tasks and teaching activities advocated o Roles of learnerso Roles of teacherso Role of instructional materials

OBJECTIVES Product of design, not of approachCONTENT CHOICE & ORGANIZATION

Involves the use of the target language Involves overt or covert decisions concerning the selection of language items that are to be

used within a course or method Decisions about the choice of language content relate to both subject matter and linguistic

matterTYPES OF LEARNING & TEACHING ACTIVITIES

Differences among methods at the level of approach manifest themselves on the choice of different kinds of learning and teaching activities in the classroom

LEARNER ROLES Instructional system will be considerably influenced by how learners are regardedTEACHER ROLES Similarly related ultimately both to assumptions about language and language learning at the

level of approachROLE OF INST. MATERIALS

Specified with respect to objectives, content, learning activities, and learner and teacher roles for materials within the system

Reflect decisions concerning the primary goal of materials, the form of materials, the relation of materials to other sources of input, and the abilities of teachers

MATRIX C: METHODS AND APPROACHES

METHOD ORAL APPROACH & SITUATIONAL LANGUAGE TEACHING

AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD

BACKGROUND o Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby- leaders in this movement

o Systematic study of the principles & procedures that could be applied to the selection & organization of the content of a language course (Palmer, 1917)

o ASPECTS: Vocabulary control

Vocabulary was seen as an essential component of reading proficiency

Frequency counts showed that a core of 2000 or so words occurred frequently in written text and that a knowledge of these words would greatly assist in reading a foreign language

Grammar Control Palmer had emphasized the problems of

grammar for the foreign learner Palmer viewed grammar as the

underlying sentence patterns of the spoken language

o Leonard Bloomfieldo “Informant Method” or “Army Method” o Innovative mainly in terms of the procedures

used & the intensity of teaching rather than in terms of its underlying theory

o Language was taught by the systematic attention to pronunciation and by intensive oral drilling of its basic sentence patterns

o A lesson began with work on pronunciation, morphology, grammar; followed by drills and exercise

o Pattern Practice- basic classroom techniqueo Commonsense application of the idea:

Practice makes perfecto Combination of structural linguistic theory,

contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures and behaviorist psychology

o Provided methodological foundation for materials for the teaching of foreign languages at the college and university level in the US and Canada

o DISTINCT FEATURES: (Finnochiaro, 1983) Attends to structure & form more than

meaning Demand memorization of structure-

based dialogue Language items are not necessarily

contextualized Language learning is learning structures,

sounds or words Mastery is sought Drilling is central technique Native-like pronunciation is sought Grammatical explanation is avoided Communicative activities only come

after a long process of rigid drills and exercises

Translation & use of student’s native language is forbidden

Reading & writing are deferred till speech is mastered

Target linguistic system will be learned through the overt teaching of the patterns of the system

Linguistic competence is the desired goal Varieties of language are recognized but

not emphasized Sequence of units is solely by principles

of linguistic complexity Teacher controls the learners & prevent

them from doing anything that conflicts with the theory

“Language is habit” , errors must be prevented

Accuracy, in terms of formal correctness, is primary

Students are expected to interact with the language system

Teacher specify the language that students are to use

Intrinsic motivation will spring from an

interest in the structure of languageAPPROACH o Involved systematic principles of selection,

gradiation and presentationo MAIN CHARACTERISTICS: Language teaching begins with the spoken

language. Material is taught orally before it is presented in written form

Target language is the language of the classroom

New language points are introduced and practiced situationally

Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered (key feature)

Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms should be taught before complex ones

Reading & writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical & grammatical basis is established

Structural theory of language constituted its backbone

Language was viewed as a system of structurally related elements for the encoding of meaning, the elements of phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence types

Learning a language entails mastering the elements or building blocks of the language and learning the rules by which these elements are combines

Primary medium: oral o “Primarily what is spoken & only

secondarily what is written” (Brooks 1964)

THEORY OF LANGUAGE

Speech was regarded as the basis of language Structure was viewed as being at the heart of

speaking abilityo “our principal classroom activity in the

teaching of Englsih structure will be oral practice of structures” (Pittman. 1963)

Knowledge of structures must be linked to situations in which they could be used

Language was viewed as purposeful activity related to goals and situations in the real worldo “the language which a person originates…

is always expressed for a purpose.” (Frisby, 1957)

Structural linguistics; structural theory of language constitutes its backbone

Language was viewed as a system of structurally related elements for the encoding of meaning, the elements being phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence types

Learning a language entails mastering the elements or building blocks of the language and learning the rules by which these elements are combined

The primary medium of language is oral: Speech is language

o “language is speech not writing….a language is a set of habits…teach the language, not about the language” (William Moulton)

THEORY OF LEARNING

Addresses primarily the processes rather than the conditions of learning

Adopts an inductive approach to the teaching of grammar

Meaning is to be induce from the way the form is used in a situation

Extending structures and vocabulary to new situations takes place by generalization

Reinforcement: vital element in the learning process, it increases the likehood that the behavior will occur again and eventually become a habit

Language Mastery: represented as acquiring a set of appropriate language stimulus-response chains

Language teaching should focus on mastery of speech & that writing or even written prompts should be withheld until reasonably late in the language learning process

PRINCIPLES OF AUDIOLINGUAL:o Foreign language learning is basically a

process of mechanical habit formationo Language skills are learned more

effectively if the items to be learned in the target language are presented in spoken form before they are seen in written form

o Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis

o The meanings that words of a language have for the native speaker can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation

o “We have no reason to assume that verbal behavior differs in any fundamental respect from nonverbal behavior, or that

any new principle must be invoked to account for it” (BF Skinner, 1957)

DESIGN and OBJECTIVES

To teach a practical command of the four basic skills of language

Skills are approached through structure Accuracy in both pronunciation & grammar is

regarded crucial Errors are to be avoided at all cost

o “We shall teach orally both the new structures and the new vocabulary” (Pittman, 1963)

o “Only when the teacher is reasonably certain that learners can speak fairly correctly w/in the limits of their knowledge of sentence structure and vocabulary may he allow them free choice in sentence patterns & vocabulary” (Pittman, 1963)

return to speech-based instruction w/ primary objective of oral proficiency

dismissed the study of grammar or literature as the goal of foreign language teaching

Short Range Obj.- training in listening comprehension, accurate pronunciation, recognition of speech symbols & the ability to produce these symbols in writing

Long Range Obj.-“must be language as the native speaker uses it…there must be some knowledge of a second language as it is possessed y a true bilingualist” (Brooks, 1964)

SYLLABUS Structural syllabus (list of the basic structures & sentence patterns) and a word listo Structure- always taught w/in sentenceso Vocabulary- chosen according to how well

it enables sentence patterns to be taught

Structural-based

Lexical-syllabus of basic vocabulary item is usually specified in advance

Language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking, reading & writing

Listening- viewed largely as a training in aural discrimination of basic sound patterns

TEACHING/LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Situational approach presenting new sentence patterns & a drill-based manner of practicing themo Situation- concrete objects, pictures and

realia; actions & gestures can be used to demonstrate meanings of new language items (Pittman)

o Practice Technique-guided repetitions and substitution activities, chorus repetition, dictation, drills, controlled oral-based reading & writing tasks

o Oral Practice-pair practice & group work

Dialogueo means of contextualizing key structures

and illustrate situations in w/c structure might be used as well as some cultural aspects of the target language

o used for repetition & memorization Drills & Pattern Practice-distinctive feature o KINDS: repetition; inflection;

replacement; restatement; completion; transposition; expansion; contraction; transformation; integration; rejoinder; restoration

LEARNER ROLES Required simply to listen & repeat what the teacher says

Responds to questions & commands No control over the content of learning Avoid incorrect habits at all costs (Later) more active participant Initiates responses and asking each other

questions Practice new language is stressed

Reactive, responding to stimuli Have little control over the content, pace or

style of learning Not encouraged to initiate interaction,

because this may lead to mistakes

TEACHER ROLES Model Sets up situations where need for target

structure is created Modeling new structures for students to

repeat Skillful manipulator, using questions,

commands & other cueso LESSON is: teacher-directed, teacher sets

the pace Organizing review

Central & active Teacher-dominated method Teacher models the target language Controls the direction & pace of learning Monitors & corrects learner’s performance Keep the learners attentive by varying drills

& tasks & choosing relevant situations to practice structures

ROLE OF INST. MATERIALS

Textbook (tightly organized lesson planned around different grammatical structures)

Visual Aids ( wall charts, flashcards, pictures, stick figures)

Assist the teacher to develop language mastery in the learner

Teacher have access to a teacher’s book that contains the structured sequence of lessons

Tape recorders & audiovisual equipments often have central roles

Language laboratory-provides accurate

models for further drill work & to receive controlled error-free practice of basic structure

PROCEDURE Consist of Five Partso Pronunciationo Revision (prepare for new work if

necessary)o Presentation of new structure or

vocabularyo Oral practice (drilling)o Reading of material on new structure, or

written exercise

Involves extensive oral instruction Focus of instruction is on immediate &

accurate speech Little provision for grammatical explanation

or talking about the language Target language is used as the medium of

instruction Translation or use of the native language is

discouraged Classes of 10 or fewer is considered optimal

OTHER HIGHLIGHTS

DECLINEo Practitioners found that the practical

results fell short of expectationso Students were found unable to transfer

skills acquiredo Many students found it boring &

unsatisfyingCONCLUSION Essential features of SLT are seen in the PPP

lesson modelo Presentation- introduction of a new

teaching item in contexto Practice-controlled practiceo Production- freer practice phase

Because of the principles of SLT and its strong emphasis on oral practice, grammar and sentence patterns; conforms to the institutions of many language teachers, and offer a practical methodology suited to countries where national EFL/ESL syllabuses continue to be grammatically based, it continues to be widely used , though not necessarily widely acknowledge

There are many similarities between SLT & Audiolingualism. The order which the language skills are introduced, and the focus on accuracy through drill & practice in the basic structure & sentence patterns of the target language. These similarities reflect similar views about the nature of language & of learning, through these views were in fact developed from quite different traditions

METHOD TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE THE SILENT WAYBACKGROUND o James Asher - sees successful adult second

language learning as a parallel process to child first language acquisition Claims that speech directed to young

children consists primarily of command, w/c children respond to physically before they begin to produce verbal responses

o Built around the coordination of speech & action

o Attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity

o Method that is undemanding in terms of linguistic production & involves gamelike movements reduces learner stress & creates a positive mood in the learner w/c facilitates learning

o Caleb Gattegno o Base on the premise that the teacher should

be silent as much as possible & the classroom but the learner should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible

APPROACH o Grammar-based view of languageo Asher views the verb, particularly imperative

verb, as the central linguistic motif around w/c language use & learning are organized

o Stimulus Response View- provides the learning theory

o “Trace Theory”-linked to TPR, of memory in psychology; the more often or intensively a

LEARNING HYPOTHESESo Learning is facilitated of the learner

discovers or creates rather than remembers & repeats what is to be learned

Benefits derived from “Discovery Learning” (Bruner, 1966)

Increase intellectual potency

memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory association will be & the more likely will be recalled

o (INFLUENTIAL) LEARNING HYPOTHESES- There exist a specific bio-program for

language learning 3 Bio-Program Process : Children develop listening competence

before they develop the ability to speak Because children are required to

respond physically, their listening comprehension ability is acquired

Speech evolves naturally & effortlessly once listening comprehension foundation is established

Brain lateralization defines different learning functions in the left & right brain hemisphere

Directed to right brain learning; language through motor movement

Similarly, adult should proceed to language mastery through right-hemisphere motor activities, while the left-hemisphere watches & learns

Stress intervenes between the act of learning & what is to be learned

Stress Reduction- absence of stress Language acquisition takes place in a

stress-free environment

Shift from extrinsic to intrinsic rewards

Learning of heuristic discovering Aid to conserving memory

o Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects Rods & Fidel Charts- provide physical

foci for learnerso Learning is facilitated by problem solving

involving the material to be learned Related to a set of premise that we

have called “problem-solving approaches to learning”

THEORY OF LANGUAGE

Requires initial attention to meaning rather than to the form of items

Successful learning involves commitment of the self to language acquisition through the use of silent awareness & then active trial

Focus on the self of the learner, priorities & commitments

Silence- considered the best vehicle for learning because in silence learners concentrate on the tasks to be accomplished & the potential means to its accomplishment

Inner Criteria- acquired by learners; allow learners to monitor & self-correct their own production

Self-awareness- what makes Silent Way different from other ways of language learning

THEORY OF LEARNING

Grammar is taught inductively Fixed number of items are to be introduced at

a time, to facilitate ease of differentiation & assimilation

Structural approach to the organization of language to be taught

Sentence is the basic unit of teaching Teacher focus: propositional meaning rather

than communicative value Vocabulary is the central dimension of

language learning (Gattegno) Choice of vocabulary is crucial (Gattegno) Deals with the most functional & versatile

words of the language Learners “return to the state of mind that

characterizes a baby’s learning-surrender” (Scott & Page, 1982)

DESIGN and OBJECTIVES

To teach oral proficiency at a beginning level To teach basic speaking skills Aims to produce learners who are capable of

an uninhibited communication that is intelligible to a native speaker

Must be attainable through the use of action-based drills in the imperative form

General Obj.- give beginning level students oral & aural facility in basic elements of the target language

General Obj.-emphasis on the near-native fluency in the target language & correct pronunciation & mastery of the prosodic elements of the target language

Immediate Obj.- provide learners with basic practical knowledge of the grammar

SYLLABUS Inferred from an analysis of exercise types employed in TPR classes

Sentence-based Syllabus- grammatical & lexical criteria primary in selecting teaching items

Structural syllabus Lessons planned around grammatical items &

related vocabulary Language are introduced according to their

grammatical complexity, relationship to previous learning, & ease with which items can be presented visually

TEACHING/LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Imperative Drills- major classroom activity; used to elicit physical actions & activity on the part of the learners

Conversational Dialogues- delayed until after about 120 hours of instruction

Role Plays- should focus on everyday situations

Have function of encouraging & shaping student oral response w/o direct oral instruction from or unnecessary modeling by the teacher

LEARNER ROLES

Listener Performer Expected to recognize & respond to novel

combination of previously taught items Required to produce novel combinations of

their own Monitor & evaluate their own progress Encouraged to speak when they feel ready to

speak

Expected to develop independence, autonomy & responsibility

Required to develop “inner criteria” & to correct themselves

TEACHER ROLES

Active and direct role Decides what to teach, who models & presents

the new materials, & who selects supporting materials for classroom use

(Asher) not so much to teach but to provide opportunities for learning

Provide best kind of exposure to language so that the learner can internalize basic rules of the target language

Controls the language input received by learners

Provide raw materials for the “cognitive map” that learners will construct in their own minds

Allow speaking abilities to develop in learners at learner’s own natural pace

Refrain from too much correction in the early stages

Minimal teacher modeling Teach, test and get out of the way Silently monitors learners’ interactions w/

each other & may even leave the room while learners struggle w/ their new linguistic tool

ROLE OF INST. MATERIALS

Beginners, lessons may not require the use of materials since teacher’s voice, actions and gestures may be a sufficient basis for classroom activities

Later, teacher may use common classroom objects such as realia; collect supporting materials to support the lesson

Designed for manipulation by the students as well as by the teacher, independently & cooperatively

Set of colored rods, color-coded pronunciation & vocabulary wall charts, pointer, reading/writing exercise

PROCEDURE Review New commands Role reversal Reading & writing

First part of the lesson focuses on pronunciation

Beginning Stage- teacher models appropriate sound after pointing to a symbol on a chart

Later Stage- teacher silently point to individual symbols & combinations of utterances & monitors student utterances

Pointer- used to indicate stress, phrasing & intonation

Stress- shown by touching certain symbols more forcibly than others

Intonation & Phrasing- demonstrated by tapping on the chart to the rhythm of the utterance

CONCLUSION Should be used in association with other Innovations from Gattegno’s method derive

methods and techniques Represents a useful set of techniques & is

compatible with other approaches to teaching

primarily from the manner in which classroom activities are organized, the direct role of the teacher is required to assume in directing & monitoring learner performance, the responsibility placed on the learners to figure out & test their hypotheses about how the language works, and the materials used to elicit & practice language.

METHOD COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING SUGGESTOPEDIABACKGROUND o Charles A. Curan

His application of psychological counseling techniques to learning is known as Counseling-Learning

o Derives its primary insights, & indeed its organizing rationale from Rogerian Counseling (Rogers 1951)

o Draws on the counseling metaphor to redefinine the roles of the teacher & learners in language classroom

o Humanistic techniqueo “Blend what the students feels, thinks & knows

w/ what he is learning in the target language.” (Moskowitz, 1978)

o engage the whole person including the emotions & feelings as well as linguistic knowledge & behavior skills

o Georgi Lasonov -o Specific set of learning recommendations

derived from Suggestologyo “science…concerned with as systematic

study of the motivational and/or nonconscious influence” (Stevick, 1976)

o most conspicuous characteristics: decoration, furniture, and arrangement of classroom

o uses Music Therapyo 3 Functions of Music Therapy:

facilitate the establishment & maintenance of personal relations

bring about increased self-esteem use unique potential of rhythm to energize

& bring order

APPROACH o La Forge goes beyond the structuralist view of language and elaborates an alternative theory of language which is referred to as “Language as Social Process”

o “Language is people; language is persons in contact; language is persons in response” (La Forge, 1983)

o 2 FUNDAMENTAL INTERACTIONS: Interaction between Learners- unpredictable in

content but typically are said to involve exchange of affect; the desire to be part of the growing intimacy pushes learners to keep pace with the learning of their peers

Interaction between Learns and Knowers- initially are dependent

Emphasis on memorization of vocabulary pairs

Refers to language to be learned as “material”

Suggestion is at the heart of this theory PRINCIPAL THEORITICAL COMPONENTS:o Authority- people remember & are most

influence by information coming from an authoritative source

o Infantilization- suggest a teacher-student relation like parent to a child

o Double-Planedness- learners also learns from the environment where learning takes place

o Intonation, Rhythm & Concert Pseudo-Passiveness- varying tone & rhythm of presented material helps both to avoid boredom ; intonation & rhythm are coordinated w/the musical background; induce a relax attitude

THEORY OF LANGUAGE

Consensual Validation or Covalidation is considered essential in to the learning process & key element of CLL classroom procedures

THEORY OF LEARNING

View learning as a holistic one, since “true” human learning is both cognitive & affective; “whole-person learning”

Five Stages:o “Birth” Stage- feelings of security &

belonging are establishedo learner as a child- begins to achieve a

measure of independence from the parento learner “speaks independently” & may

need to assert his or her own identityo learner is secure enough to take criticism

o learner merely works on improving style & knowledge of linguistic appropriateness

Requirements for Successful Learningo Securityo Attention & Aggressiono Retention & Reflectiono Denotes discrimination

Address not the psycholinguistic & cognitive processes involved in second language acquisition but rather the personal commitments that learners need to make before language acquisition can operate

DESIGN and OBJECTIVES

Progression is topic-based Learners nominate things they wish to talk

about & meanings they wish to communicate with other learners

To deliver advanced conversational proficiency quickly

Bases its learning claims on students mastery of prodigious list of vocabulary pairs

Classes are held 4 hours a day, 6 days a week Unit study is organized around 3 days Days 2 & 3: Primary elaboration (imitation,

question & answer, reading) and Secondary elaboration (encouraging students to make new combination s& productions based on dialogues)

Last day is devoted to performance in which every student participates

SYLLABUS Emerges from the interaction between the learners expressed communicative intentions & the learner’s reformulations of these into suitable target-language utterances

TEACHING/LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Combines innovative learning tasks & activities w/ conventional ones (translation, group work, recording, transcription, analysis, refection & observation, listening, free conversation)

Imitation, question and answer and role play

LEARNER ROLES

Member of a community Expected to listen attentively to the knower Freely provide meaning they wish to express Repeat target utterances without hesitation Support fellow members of a community Report deep inner feelings & frustrations, as

well as joy & pleasure Counselors to other learners

Must forgo mind-altering substances & other distractions

Immerse themselves in the procedures of the method

Must not try to figure out, manipulate or study presented but must maintain pseudo-passive state

Expected to tolerate & in fact, encourage their own “infantilization”

TEACHER ROLES

Supportive role, providing target language translation & a model for imitation on request of client

Monitors learner’s utterances providing assistance when requested

May intervene directly to correct deviant utterances, supply idiom & advice on usage & fine point in grammar

Create situations in which the learner is most suggestible

Present linguistic material in a way most likely to encourage positive reception and retention by learner

ROLE OF INST. MATERIALS

My be developed by the teachers as the course develops

Conversations may be transcribed & distributed for study & analysis, learners may wok in groups

Direct support material, primarily text & tape Indirect support materials, including

classroom fixtures and music

PROCEDURE First Class- may begin with a period of silence, in which learners try to determine what will happen in their language class

Intermediate or Advanced Class- teacher may encourage groups to prepare a paper drama for presentation

Teacher asks learners to reflect on the language class, as a class or as a group

First Part, oral review section - previously learned materials are used as basis for discussion; involve micro studies (specific attention given to grammar, vocabulary and precise question & answer) and macro-studies (emphasis is on role playing & wide ranging ,innovative language construction)

Second Part, introduction and presentation of

new material Third Part, concert session- reading of text while

background music is playedCONCLUSION places unusual demands on language teachers. They

must be highly proficient & sensitive to nuance in both L1 & L2

stresses the humanistic side of language learning and not merely its linguistic dimension

“If we have learnt anything at all in the seventies, it is the art of language teaching will benefit very little from the pseudo-science of suggestology” (Scovel, 1979)

METHOD MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES COMPETENCY-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHINGBACKGROUND o Howard Gardner -argues that all humans have

these intelligences, but people differ in strengths & combinations of intelligences

o Learner-based philosophy that characterizes human intelligence as having multiple dimensions that must be acknowledged and developed in education

o Learners are viewed as possessing individual styles, preferences or intelligences

o Gardner claims that his view of intelligences is culture-free & avoid conceptual narrowness usually associated with traditional models of intelligences

o 8 Native Intelligences : Linguistic Logical/Mathematical Spatial Musical Bodily/Kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalistic

o Competency Based Education - education movement that focuses on the outcomes or outputs of learning

o Competency-Based Language Teaching Designed not around the notions of

subject knowledge but around the notion of competency(Docking, 1994)

A syllabus & course content are developed around the subject

Objectives may be specified but usually have little role in teaching or referencing

Student assessment is usually based on norm referencing

Competency- description of the essential skills, knowledge, attitudes & behaviors required for effective performance of the real-world task or activity

o

APPROACH o Looks at the language of the individual, including one or more second languages, not as an “added on” & somewhat peripheral skill but as central to the whole life of the language learner & user

o EIGHT KEY FEATUIRES OF CBE: Focus on Successful Functioning in

society- enable students to become autonomous individuals capable of coping w/ the demands of the world

Focus on life skills- teaches language as a function of communication

Task or Performance-Centered Orientation- what counts is what students can do as a result of instruction

Modularized Instruction - “Language learning is broken down into manageable & immediately meaningful chunks (Center for Applied Linguistics, 1983)

Explicit Outcomes are Priority- specified in terms of behavioral objectives

Continuous & Ongoing Assessment - program evaluation is based tests results

Demonstrated Mastery of Performance Objectives- assessment is based on the ability to demonstrate prespecified behaviors

Individualized, Student -Centered Instruction

THEORY OF LANGUAGE

MI proponents believe that there is more to language than what is usually subsumed under rubric linguistics

Language has its ties to life through senses Senses provide accompaniment & context for

linguistic message that give it meaning &

purposeTHEORY OF LEARNING

there exist a cluster of mental abilities that are separate but equal & that share the pinnacle at the top of the hierarchy called intelligence- thus the eight Multiple Intelligences

“Is not a perspective. Rather, it gives teachers a complex mental model from which to construct curriculum & improve themselves as educators” (Campbell, 1997)

DESIGN and OBJECTIVES

aimed at making the language learner a better designer of his/her own learning experiences

SYLLABUS Basic Developmental Sequence (Lezar, 1991)- considered as a type of “syllabus”o Stage 1: Awaken the Intelligenceo Stage 2: Amplify the Intelligenceo Stage 3: Teach with/for the Intelligenceo Stage 4: Transfer of Intelligence

How MI can be Used to Individualize Learning:o Multiple intelligence Projectso Curriculum-based Projectso Thematic-based Projectso Resource-based Projectso Student-choice Projects

TEACHING/LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Designed to support development of the “whole person” to become more well-rounded individuals & more successful learners in general

LEARNER ROLES

Need to see themselves as engaged in a process of personality development above & beyond that of being a successful language learner

Encouraged to see their goals in broader terms Expected to take the MI inventory Develop their own MI profiles

TEACHER ROLES

Administer MI inventory on themselves & thereby be able to “connect life’s experiences to your concept of MI” (Christison, 1997)i

Curriculum developers, lesson designers & analyst, activity finders or inventors

ROLE OF INST. MATERIALS

Multi-sensory activity planning Realia

PROCEDURE Stage 1: Awaken the Intelligence Stage 2: Amplify the Intelligence Stage 3: Teach with/for the Intelligence Stage 4: Transfer of Intelligence

Stage 1 & 2- relate to general development Stage 3- learners are more often grouped

according to their goal focus & competencies are defined according to the three syllabus strands of Further Study, Vocational English and Community Access

Four Domains of Competency Description:o Knowledge & Learning Competencieso Oral Competencieso Reading Competencieso Writing Competencies

CONCLUSION The literature on MI provides a rich source of classroom ideas regardless of one’s theoretical perspective & can help teachers think about instruction in their classes in unique ways

CBLT is seen as prescriptivist in that it prepares students to fit into the status quo & maintain class relationships.

Teaching typically focuses on behavior & performance rather than on the development of thinking skills

METHOD COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING NATURAL APPROACHBACKGROUND o Partly a response to the sorts of criticism the

prominent American linguist Noam Chomsky Tracy Terell (1977)- attempt to develop a

language teaching proposal that

had leveled at structural linguistic theory o Proponents saw the need to focus in language

teaching on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures

o D.A. Wilkins (1972)- proposed a functional or communicative definition of langue that could serve as basis for developing communicative syllabuses for language teaching Described 2 types of meaning:

Notional Categories- time, sequence, quantity, location, frequency

Categories of Communicative Functiono AIMS TO:

Make communicative competence the goal of language teaching

Develop procedures for the teaching of the four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language & communication

o “One of the most characteristic of communicative language teaching is that it pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspects of language.” (littlewood, 1981)

o Strong Version of CLT (advances the claim that language is acquired through communication, so that it is not merely a question of activating an existing but inert knowledge of the language but of stimulating development of the language system) and Weak Version of CLT (stresses the importance of providing learners w. opportunities to use their English for communicative purposes & characteristically attempts to integrate such activities into a wider program of language teaching), Howatt

o Firth stressed that language needed to be studied in the broader sociocultural context of its use, which include participants, their behavior, their beliefs, the objects of linguistic discussion & word choice

o Learner-centered & experience-based view of the second language teaching

o Teachers are encouraged to develop materials “on the basis of the particular needs manifested by the class” (Applebee, 1974)

o DISTINCT FEATURES: (Finnochiaro, 1983) Meaning is paramount Dialogues, if sued, center around

communicative functions, not normally memorized

Contextualization is basic premise Effective communication is sought Peripheral drilling Comprehensible pronunciation is sought Attempts to communicate may be

encourage from the very beginning Judicious use of native language is

accepted where feasible Translation may be used Reading & writing may start from the first

day, if desired Target linguistic system will be learned

through the process of struggling to

incorporated the “naturalistic” principles researchers had identified in studies of second language acquisition

Stephen Krasehen - elaborated the theoretical rationale of Natural Approach

Place less emphasis on teacher monologues, direct repetition and formal question and answers

Less focus on accurate production of target language sentences

Emphasis on input rather than practice

communicate Communicative competence is desired

goal Linguistic variation is central concept in

materials & methodology Sequencing is determined by any

consideration of content, function or meaning that maintains interest

Teachers help learners in any way that motivates them to work

Language is created by the individual, often through trial & error

Fluency & acceptable language is the primary goal

Students are expected to interact with other people

The teacher cannot know exactly what language students will use

Intrinsic motivation will spring from interest in what is being communicated by language

THEORY OF LANGUAGE

Language is communication. The goal of language teaching is to develop what Hymes (1972) referred to as “Communicative Competence”

Person who acquires communicative competence acquires both knowledge & ability for language with respect to, whether: (Hymes, 1972)o Something is formally possibleo Something is feasible in virtue of the

means of implementation availableo Something is appropriate in relation to a

context in which it is used & evaluatedo Something is in fact done, actually

performed, & what its doing entails BASIC FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE: (Halliday,

1975)o Instrumental functiono Regulatory functiono Interactional functiono Heuristic functiono Imaginative functiono Representational functiono Personal function

DIMENSIONS OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE: (Canale & Swain, 1980)o Grammar competence o Sociolinguistic competence - understanding

of social context in w/c communication takes place, including role relationships

o Discourse competence - interpretation of individual message elements in terms of their interconnectedness & of how meaning is represented in relationship to the entire discourse or text

o Strategic competence-coping strategies that communication employ to initiate, terminate, maintain, repair, redirect communication

Language is a system for the expression of meaning

The primary function of language is to allow

Emphasize the primacy of meaning Importance of vocabulary is stressed “The quantity of information in the lexicon

overweighs that in any other part of the language, & there is anything to the notion of redundancy, it should be easier to reconstruct a message containing just words than on containing just the syntactic relations.” (Bolinger, in Terell, 1977)

Language is viewed as a vehicle for communicating meanings & messages

“Acquisition can take place only when people understand messages in the target language” (Krashen & Terrell, 1983)

Assumes linguistic hierarchy of structural complexity that one masters through encounters with “input” containing structures at the “I + 1 “ level

interaction & communication Structure of language reflects its functional &

communicative uses Primary units of language are not merely its

grammatical & structural features, but categories of functional & communicative meaning as exemplified by discourse

THEORY OF LEARNING

Communication Principle: activities that involve real communication promote learning

Task Principle: activities in w/c language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning (Johnson, 1982)

Meaningfulness Principle: language that is meaningful to the learner supports learning process

Krashen sees acquisition as the basic process involved in developing language proficiency & distinguishes this process from learning

“it is based on an emperically grounded theory of second language acquisition which has been supported by a large number of scientific studies in a wide variety of language acquisition & learning context” (Krashen & Terrell, 1983)

THE ACQUISITON/LEARNING HYPOTHESISo 2 ways of developing competence in 2nd

language: Acquisition ( “natural way”; unconscious process that involves naturalistic development of language proficiency) and Learning (process in which conscious rules about a language are developed)

THE MONITOR HYPOTHESISo Claims that we may call upon learned

knowledge to correct ourselves when we communicate

o 3 conditions limit: time, focus on form and knowledge of the rules

THE NATURAL ORDER HYPOTHESISo Acquisition of grammatical structures

proceeds in a predictable order INPUT HYPOTHESISo Explain the relationship between what is

the learner exposed to of a language & language acquisition

o Four Main Issues: Relates to acquisition & not learning People acquire language best by

understanding input that is slightly beyond their current level of competence

Ability to speak fluently cannot be taught directly

If there is sufficient quantity of comprehensible input, I+1 will usually be provided automatically

AFFECTIVE FILTER HYPOTHESISo Leaner’s emotional state or attitudes a

an adjustable filter that free passes, impeded or blocks input necessary to acquisition

o 3 kinds of Affective Variables: Motivation, Self-confidence & Anxiety

DESIGN and OBJECTIVES

LEVELS of OBJECTIVES: (Piepho, 1981)o Language as a means of expressiono Language as a semiotic system & an object

learningo Language as a means of expressing values

& judgment about oneself & otherso Language learning within the school

curriculum

Learners “Will be able to function adequately in target situations, understand the speaker of the target language, will be able to convey their requests & ideas, should be able to make meaning clear but not necessarily be accurate all details of grammar” (Krashen & Terrell, 1983)

SYLLABUS Notional Syllabus - specified the semantic-grammatical categories & categories of communicative function that learners need to

Goals Should be Under Four Areas: (Krashen & Terrell, 1983)o Basic personal communication skills: basic

express (Wilkins, 1976) PROPOSALS FOR SYLLABUS:

o Structures + functions (Wilkins, 1976)o Functional spiral around a structure core

(Brumfit, 1980)o Structural, functional, instrumental (Allen,

1980)o Functional (Jupp & Hodlin, 1975)o Notional (Wilkins, 1976)o Interactional (Widdowson, 1979)o Task-based ( Prabhu, 1983)o Learner-generated ( Candlin, 1976;

Henner-Stanchina & Riley, 1978) “The only form of syllabus which is compatible

with & can support communicational teaching seems to be a purely procedural one- which lists, in more or less detail, the types of tasks to be attempted in the classroom & suggests an order of complexity for tasks of the same king” (Prabhu, 1983)

Some have argued that syllabus concept be abolished altogether in its accepted forms, arguing that only learners can be fully aware of their own needs

o Basic personal skills: writteno Academic learning skills: oralo Academic learning skills: written

“designed to develop basic communication skills- both oral & written” & “will vary according to the needs of the students & their particular interests” (Krashen & Terrell, 1983)

TEACHING/LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Enable learners to attain the communicative objectives of the curriculum

Engage learners to communication Require the use of such communicative

processes as information sharing, negotiation of meaning & interaction

Classroom Activities- are often designed to focus on completing tasks that re mediated through language or involve negotiation of information & information sharing

Functional Communication Activities- comparing sets of pictures, noting similarities & differences; sequence of events in a set of pictures, and related activities

Social Interaction Activities- conversation & discussion sessions, dialogues & role play, simulation, skits, improvisations and debates

Emphasis is on presenting comprehensible input in the target language

Learners are not required to say anything until they feel ready but are expected to respond to teacher commands & questions in other ways

Acquisition Activities- those that focus on meaningful communication rather than language forms

Techniques recommended by Krashen& Terrell are often borrowed from other methods & adapted to meet requirements of Natural Approach theory

Use of familiar techniques within the framework of a method that focuses on comprehensible input

A classroom environment that cues comprehension of the input, minimizes learner anxiety and maximizes learner self-confidence

LEARNER ROLES

Negotiator, between self, the learning process & the objects of learning ( Candlin)

Expected to interact primarily with each other rather than with the teacher

Correction of errors may be absent or infrequent

Recommend that learners see that failed communication is a joint responsibility

Seen to change according to their stage of linguistic development, central to his changing roles are learner decisions on when to speak, what to speak about and what linguistic expression to use in speakingo Pre-production Stageo Early-Production Stageo Speech-emergent Phase

FOUR RESPONSIBILITIES:o Provide information about their specific

goalso Take an active role in ensuring

comprehensible inputo Decide when to start producing speech

& when to upgrade ito Where learning exercises are to be part

of the programTEACHER ROLES

To facilitate the communication process between all participants in the classroom

Primary source of comprehensible input in the target language

Act as independent participant within the learning-teaching group

Researcher & learner with much to contribute in terms of appropriate knowledge & abilities

Needs analyst (assumes a responsibility for determining & responding to learner language needs)

Counselor (expected to exemplify an effective communicator seeking to maximize the meshing of speaker intention & hearer interpretation)

Group process manager (responsible in organizing the classroom as a setting for communication & communicative activities)

Required to generate a constant flow of language input while providing a multiplicity of nonlinguistic clues to assist students in interpreting the input

Creates a classroom atmosphere that is interesting, friendly, and in which there is a low affective filter for learning

Choose and orchestrate a rich mix of classroom activities, involving a rich variety of group sizes, content and contexts

ROLE OF INST. MATERIALS

TEXT-BASED MATERIALSo Typical lesson consist of theme, a task

analysis for thematic development, practice situation description

TASK-BASED MATERIALSo Variety of games, role plays, simulations,

and task-based communication activities; cue cards, exercise handbooks, activity cares, pair-communication practice materials, student-interaction practice booklets

REALIAo The use of “authentic”, “from life”

materials in the classroom

Make class room activities meaningful as possible

Realia Primary Aim: promote comprehension and

communication Games: by their very nature, focus students

on what it is they are doing & us the language as a tool for reaching the goal rather than as a goal in itself (Terrell, 1982)

Facilitate the acquisition of a large vocabulary within a class

PROCEDURE Presentation of a brief dialogue or several mini dialogues

Oral practice of each utterance of the dialogue segment

Question & answers based on the dialogue topic situation itself

Study one of the basic communicative expression in the dialogue or one of the structures w/c exemplify the function

Learner discover generalization or rule underlying functional expression of structure

Oral recognition, interpretative activities Oral production activities Sampling of written homework assignment, if

given Evaluation of learning

Start with TPR Use TPR to teach names of body parts,

numbers and sequence Introduce classroom terms and props

command Use names of physical characteristics and

clothing to identify members of the class by name

Use visuals, typically magazine pictures, to introduce new vocabulary combine use of pictures with TPR

Using several pictures, ask students to point to the picture being described

CONCLUSION Refers to a divers asset of principles that reflects a communicative view of language and language learning & that can be used to support a wide variety of classroom procedures

Stresses that the content or subject matter of teaching is of primary importance in teaching

Focus more directly on instructional factores

focus on comprehension and meaningful communication as well as provision of the right kinds of comprehensible input provide the necessary & sufficient conditions for successful classroom second & foreign language acquisition

evolutionary rather than revolutionary in its procedures. Its greatest claim to originality lies not in the techniques employs but in their use in a method that emphasizes comprehensible & meaningful practice activities, rather than production of grammatically perfect utterance & sentences

METHOD COOPERATIVE LANGUAGE LEARNING CONTENT –BASED INSTRUCTIONBACKGROUND o makes maximum use of cooperative activities

involving pairs and small groups of learners in classroom

Teaching is organized around the content or information that students will acquire, rather than around a linguistic or other type

o group learning activity organizes so that learning is dependent on the socially structured exchange of information (Olsen & Kagan, 1992)

o provide opportunities for naturalistic 2nd language acquisition through the use of interactive pair/ group activities

o provide teachers with a methodology to enable them to achieve goal & one that can be applied to a variety of curriculum

o enable focused attention to particular lexical items, language structures and communicative functions thru interactive tasks

o enhance learner motivation & reduce learner stress

of syllabus “If any word in English language is hot,

buzzworthy and finger-snappingly with it, surpassing even millennium in both general discourse and insideres that word is content” (William Safire, New York Times, 1998)

Content-Refers to the substance or subject matter that we learn or communicate through language rather than the language used to convey it

St. Augustine- early proponent of Content-Based Language Teaching as proposed by Brinton, Snow and Wesche (1989)

“Language that is being taught could be used to present subject matter and students would learn the language as a by-product of learning about the real-world content “ (Widdowson, 1978)

ROLE IN OTHER CURRICULUM DESIGN:o Immersion Education- type of foreign

language instruction in which the regular school curriculum is taught through the medium of foreign language

o Immigrant On-Arrival Programs- focus on the language newly arrived immigrant in a country need for survival

o Program for Students with Limited English Proficiency (SLEP)- governmentally mandated programs to serve especially those children whose parents might be served by the on-arrival programs, more generally designed to provide in-class or pullout instruction for any school-age children whose language competence is insufficient to participate fully in normal school instruction

o Language for Specific Purposes (LSP)- movement that seeks to serve the language needs of learners who need language in order to carry out specific roles

APPROACH Two Central Principle:o People learn a second language more

successfully when they use the language as a means of acquiring information, rather than as an end in itself

o Content-based instruction better reflects needs for learning second language

THEORY OF LANGUAGE

Premise 1: “all normal children growing up in a normal environment learn to talk. We are born to talk…we may think of ourselves as having been programmed to talk…communication is generally considered to be the primary purpose of language” (Weeks, 1979)

Premise 2: most talk/ speech is organized as conversation

Premise 3: conversation operates according to a certain agreed upon set of cooperative rules or “maxims” (Grice, 1975)

Premise 4: one learns how these cooperative maxims are realized in one’s native language through casual, everyday conversational

Language is text and discourse-based- vehicle for learning content; focus on teaching is how meaning & information are communicated and constructed through text & discourse

Language draws on integrated skills- involving several skills together; students are often involved in activities that link the skills because this is how skills are generally involved in the real world; seek to bring knowledge, language and thinking skills

Language is purposeful- used for specific purposes; purpose may vary; language contains great potential for communicating

interaction Premise 5: one learns how the maxims are

realized in a second language through participation in cooperatively structured interactional activities

meaning

THEORY OF LEARNING

Learners develop communicative competence in language by conversing socially or pedagogically structured situations

Bloom assumes a hierarchy of learning objectives ranging from simple recall of information to forming conceptual judgments

Seeks to develop classrooms that foster cooperation rather than competition in learning

Cooperative learning is the instructional sue of small groups through which student s work together to maximize their own and other’s learning (Johnson, et. al 1994)

LEARNING ADVANTAGES: (McGoarty, 1989)o Increased frequency & variety of 2nd

language practice through different types of interaction

o Possibility for development or use of language in ways that support cognitive development and increased language skills

o Opportunities to integrate language with content-base instruction

o Opportunities include a greater variety of curricular materials to stimulate language as well as concept learning

o Freedom for teachers to master new professional skills

o Opportunities for students to act as resource for each other

“Content is the share of departure or organizing principle of the course- a feature that grows out of common underlying assumption that successful language learning occurs when students are presented with target language material in a meaningful, contextualized form with the primary focus on acquiring information” (Brinton, et. al Wesche, 1989)

People learn a second language most successfully when the information they are acquiring is perceived as interesting, useful & leading to a desired goal

Some content areas are more useful as a basis for language learning than other

Students learn best when instruction addresses student’s needs

Teaching builds on the previous experience of the learners

DESIGN and OBJECTIVES

Designed to foster cooperation rather than competition

Develop critical thinking skills To develop communicative competence

through socially structures interaction activities

Objectives in a typical CBI course are stated as objectives of a content course with the exception of theme-based instructional models for CBI

SYLLABUS Does not assume any particular form of language syllabus

Derived from the content area, and vary in detail and format

TEACHING/LEARNING ACTIVITIES

TYPES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING (Johnson, et. al., 1994)o Formal Cooperative Learning Groups -

established for a specific tasks & involve students working together to achieve shared learning goals

o Informal Cooperative Learning Groups- used to focus attention or facilitate learning during direct teaching

o Cooperative Base Groups -primary purpose is to allow members to give each other the support, help & encouragement , and assistance they need to succeed academically

KEY ELEMETS OF SUCCESSFUL GROUP-BASED LEARNING: (Olsen & Kagan, 1992)o Positive Interdependence - occurs when

group members feel that what helps one member helps all and what hurts one member hurts all; build mutual support within the group

o Group Formation - important factor in

ACCRDNG to INST. FOCUS (Stoller, 1997)o Language skills improvemento Vocabulary buildingo Discourse organizationo Communicative interactiono Study skillo Synthesis of content materials and

grammar UNIVERSAL STRUCTURES (Mohan, 1986)

o Description o Sequenceo Choiceo Concepts/classificationo Principles o Evaluation

creating positive interdependence (deciding on the size of the group, assigning students to groups & student roles in groups)

o Individual Accountability - involves both groups & individual performance; determine the way students interact with each other as teammates

o Structuring and Structures - refers to ways of organizing students interaction & different ways students are to interact

COOPERATIVE LEARNING TASKS (Coelho, 1992)o Team practice from common input-skills

development & mastery of factso Jigsaw: differentiated but pre-determined

input-evaluation & synthesis of facts & opinions

o Cooperative projects: topics/resources selected by students- discovery learning

LEARNER ROLES

Member of a group who must work collaboratively on tasks with other group members

Directors of their own learning

Become autonomous so they come to “understand their own learning process and…take charge of their own learning from the very start” (Stryker & Leaver, 1993)

Active interpreters of input Willing to explore alternative learning

strategies and to seek multiple interpretations of oral and written text

May be sources of content and joint participants in the selection of topics and activities

Committed to this new kind of approach to language learning

TEACHER ROLES

Create a highly structures & well-organized learning environment in classroom, setting goals, planning & structuring tasks, establishing the physical arrangement of the classroom, assigning to groups & roles, selecting materials

Facilitation of learning

Must be knowledgeable in the subject matter and able to elicit knowledge from their students

Keep context and comprehensibility foremost in planning and presentation

Responsible for selecting and adapting authentic materials for use in class

Become student needs analysts Create truly learner-centered classroom

ROLE OF INST. MATERIALS

May be specifically designed for CLL learning, modified from existing materials or borrowed from other disciplines

“Textbooks are contrary to the very concept of CBI- and good language teaching in general” (Stryker & Leaver, 1993)

Need modification in order to ensure maximum comprehensibility

COURSE IN UNIVERSITY LEVEL:o Theme-Based Language Instruction -

syllabus are organized around themes or topics

o Sheltered Content Instruction- content course taught in the second language by content area specialist

o Adjunct Language Instruction - students are enrolled in two linked course, one a content course and one a language course

o Team-Teach Approach - subject and language teacher working together in preparing the syllabus

o Skill-Based Approach - focus on specific academic skill

ELEMENTARY & SECONDARY LEVEL:o Theme-Based Approach- designed to

facilitate entry into regular subject-areas

classroom, focus on learning the mainstream curriculum

o Adjunct Approach - focused on preparing students to make the transition to learning science through English

PROCEDURE Linguistic analysis Preparation for film Viewing segment of the movie Discussion of the film Discussion of the reading Videotaped interview Discussion Preparation of articles Presentation of articles Wrap-up discussion

OTHER HIGHLIGHTS

CONCLUSION Promotes learning through pairs or small groups Cooperative learning, group activities are the

major mode of learning and are part of a comprehensive theory & system for the use of group work in teaching

Has been extensively researched and evaluated and research finding generally supportive (Slavin, 1995; Baloche, 1998)

Places considerable demands on teachers, who may have difficulty adapting to the new roles required of them

Advocates claim that it leads to more successful program outcomes than alternative language teaching approaches

“In content based approach, the activities of the language class are specific to the subject being taught, and are geared to stimulate students to think and learn through the target language.” (Brinton, et al. 1989)

Based on a set of broad principles that can be applied in many different ways and is widely used as the basis for many different kinds of successful language programs.

METHOD TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING GRAMMAR TRANSLATIONBACKGROUND refers to an approach based on the use of tasks

as the core unit of planning and instruction of language

proposes the notion of “task” as a central unit of planning and teaching

aimed to provide learners with a natural content of language use

“The central purpose we are concerned with this language learning, and task present this in the form of problem-solving negotiation between knowledge that the learners old and new knowledge.” ( Candlin and Murphy, 1987)

THEORITICAL BACKGROUND:o Psycholinguistic Perspective - task is a

device that guides learners to engage in certain types of information processing that are believed too important for effective language use for language acquisition and using mental processing that is beneficial to acquisition

o Interaction Hypothesis - meaning negotiation can contribute to acquisition.

“Prussian Method” PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTICS

o To learn language in order to read its literature or in order to benefit from the mental discipline & intellectual development that result from foreign language study

o Reading & writing are major focuso Vocabulary selection is based solely on

the reading texts used, and words are taught through bilingual word lists, dictionary study and memorization

o Sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice

o Accuracy is emphasizedo Grammar is taught deductivelyo Student’s native language is medium of

instruction

o Cognitive Approach - constructs both exemplar-based system and rule-based system wherein lexical items and formulaic chunks of language contribute to fluency, accuracy and complexity.

o Constructivism - learners learn in ways that are meaningful to them, they learn better if they feel in control of what they are learning, learning is closely linked to how people feel about themselves, and learning takes place in a social context through interaction with other people.

FOUR CATEGORIES OF TEAM PERFORMANCE:o orientation function (processes for

generating and distributing information necessary to task accomplishment to team members)

o organizational functions (processes necessary for members to coordinate actions necessary for task performance)

o adaptation functions (processes occurring as team members adapt their performance to each other to complete the task)

o motivational functions (defining team objectives and “energizing the group” to complete the task)

APPROACH Laid foundations for the development of

new ways of teaching languages and raise controversies that have continued to the present day

General Reformers Believed That:o Spoken language is primary and that this

should be reflected in an oral-based methodology

o Findings of phonetics should be applied to teaching and to teacher training

o Learners should hear the language first, before seeing it in written form

o Words should be presented in sentenceso The rules of grammar should be taught

only after the students have practiced grammar points in context-taught inductively

o Translation should be avoided, although the native language could be used in order to explain new words or to check comprehension

THEORY OF LANGUAGE

Language is primarily a means of making meaning. Emphasizes the central role of meaning in language use

Multiple models of language inform TBI. Advocates of TBLT draw on structural, functional, and interactional models of language

Lexical units are central in language use and language learning

“Conversation” is the central focus of language and the keystone of language acquisition

THEORY OF LEARNING

Tasks provide both the input and output processing necessary for language acquisition

Task activity and achievement are

motivational. TBLT improves learner motivation and therefore promote learning

Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine tuned for particular pedagogical purposes

DESIGN and OBJECTIVES

Selection of tasks should be based on a careful analysis of the real-world needs of the learners (Long & Crookes 1993)

SYLLABUS Must specify two types of tasks: real-world tasks and pedagogical tasks (Nunan)

TEACHING/LEARNING ACTIVITIES

“task in an activity which requires learners to arrive at an outcome form given information through some process of thought and which allows teachers to control and regulate that process.” Prabhu, 1987)

LEARNER ROLES

Group Participant Monitor

o learners need to “attend” not only to the message in task work, but also to the form in which such messages typically come packed

Risk-taker and innovatoro create and interpret messages for they

lack full linguistic resources and prior experience

TEACHER ROLES

Selector and sequencer of task Preparing learners for task Consciousness-raising

o employing a variety of form-focusing techniques, including attention-focusing pretask activities, text exploration, guided exposure to parallel tasks, and use of highlighted material

ROLE OF INST. MATERIALS

Pedagogic Material Realia (newspapers, television, internet)

PROCEDURE Pre-Task Phaseo students are prepared to perform the task

in ways that will promote acquisitiono students can perform similar tasks

Task Phaseo Two Kinds of Options:

Task Performance OptionI- under time pressure or own time; with or without access to text; and introduction of some surprise element into the task

Process Options- concerns itself with the way the task is enacted rather than the pedagogical decisions about the way the task is to be handled

Post Task Phaseo Pedagogic Goals:

to provide an opportunity for a repeat performance of the task

to encourage reflection on how the task was performed

to encourage attention to form, in particular to those forms that proved problematic to the learners when they performed the task

Proponents of TBLT believe that when learners repeat a task their production improves in a number of ways

Willis (1996) recommends asking students to present a report on how they did the task and

on what they have discoveredOTHER HIGHLIGHTS

5 Key Characteristics:o Meaning is primaryo There is some communication problem to

solveo There is some sort of relationship to

comparable real world activitieso Task completion has some priorityo The assessment is done in terms of

outcome

CONCLUSION Depending on one’s definition of task, task have long been part of the mainstream repertoire of language teaching techniques

Basic assumption of TBLT that it provides for a more effective basis for teaching than other language teaching approaches- remains in the domain of ideology rather than fact

EDL 201 – Applied Linguistics for Communication Arts

University of the Philippines – Visayas

Iloilo City