La voz pasiva. Formas y funciones - sarasuati.com_0poS_^/T27.pdf · Active sentence The passive...
17
http://www.sarasuati.com Tema 27: La voz pasiva. Formas y funciones Madhatter 09/06/2007
Transcript of La voz pasiva. Formas y funciones - sarasuati.com_0poS_^/T27.pdf · Active sentence The passive...
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Tema 27: La voz pasiva. Formas y funciones
Madhatter 09/06/2007
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Ta
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Bi
Br
able of con
The passive1.1. The act
1.2. Choice 1.2.1. Cho1.2.2. Cho
The passive2.1. To be a
2.2. To beco
2.3. To have
The passive3.1. Central
3.2. Semi-pa
3.3. Pseudo
3.4. Summa
Voice cons4.1. Verb co
4.1.1. Acti4.1.2. Pass
4.2. Preposi
4.3. Object
4.4. Meanin
4.5. Freque
4.6. Passive
Compariso5.1. Constru
5.2. Freque5.2.1. Age5.2.2. Freq5.2.3. Esta
5.3. Usual a
5.4. Two ob
5.5. Transit
Verb active
ibliography.
rief summar
tents.
e voice: Deftive-passive
of the passioice of the pasoice of the pas
e auxiliarieand to get. __
ome. ______
e. _________
e gradient. _l passives. __
assives. ____
-passives. __
ary. _______
straints ____onstraints. _ive only. _____sive only. ____
itional verbs
constraints.
ng constrain
ncy constra
e versus activ
on of the pauction differ
ncy of use. _ent deletion. __quency of use.ar + Adj. ____
auxiliary Ve
bject sentenc
tive Vs. ____
e in form, b
. _________
ry ________
La voz
efinition. ___correspond
ive. _______sive when thesive when the
es. __________________
__________
__________
____________________
__________
__________
__________
____________________
________________________
s. ________
. _________
nts. _______
aints. ______
ve infinitive
assive in Engrences. ____
______________________. __________
____________
rbs in the p
ces. _______
__________
but passive i
__________
__________
Tema 27:z pasiva. Formas
__________dence. _____
___________e agent is omite agent is indic
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e. _________
glish and in___________
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assive. ____
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in sense. __
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s y funciones.
_____________________
___________tted. ________cated. _______
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n Spanish.___________
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Iván Matella
____________________
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anes’ Notes
2
_____ 3 ______ 3 ______ 4 ______ 4 ______ 4 _____ 5 ______ 5 ______ 5 ______ 5 _____ 6 ______ 6 ______ 7 ______ 8 ______ 8 _____ 8 ______ 9 ______ 9 ______ 9
______ 9 _____ 10 _____ 11 _____ 12 _____ 12 ____ 13 _____ 14 _____ 14 _____ 14 _____ 14 _____ 14
_____ 14 _____ 15 _____ 15 ____ 15
____ 15
____ 16
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Tema 27: La voz pasiva. Formas y funciones.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
3
1. The passive voice: Definition. First of all, I must define the term VOICE. VOICE is a grammatical
category which makes it possible to view the action of a sentence in
either of two ways, without change in the facts reported.
[1]The singer killed the bass player. [ACTIVE] ≈ [2]The bass player was killed by the singer. [PASSIVE]
As we see from [1] & [2], the active-passive relation involves two
grammatical levels: The VP & the clause. In the VP, the difference btw
the two voice categories is that the passive adds a form of the aux BE
followed by the past participle of the main V.
ACTIVE PASSIVE Simple Present: Kisses ≈ Is kissed Simple Past Kissed ≈ Was kissed Modal + perfective: May have kissed ≈ May have been kissed Modal + progressive: May be kissed ≈ May be being kissed Perfective + Progressive: Has been kissed ≈ Has been being kissed
1.1. The active-passive correspondence. In addition, at the clause level, changing from the active to the
passive involves rearrangement of two clause element, and one
addition:
(a) The active subject becomes the passive AGENT.
(b) The active object becomes the passive subject.
(c) The Pp by is introduced before the AGENT.
The PpP (AGENT By-Phrase) of passive sentences is generally an optional
element. The active-passive correspondence for a transitive V with an obj (NP)
can be seen as follows:
The passive voice: Definition.
Grammatical category which makes possible to view the action of a sentence in either of two ways, without change in the facts reported.
Form: Aux BE + past participle of the main V.
Grammatical level: VP.
Gramm level: Clause.
The active-passive correspondence.
Activ Subj→Passive AGENT.
Active Obj→Passive subj.
By + AGENT.
AGENT By-Phrase is often optional.
John
ACTIVE SUBJ
admired
ACTIVE V
Mary
ACTIVE OBJ
PASSIVE SUBJ
Mary
PASSIVE V
Was admired
OPTIONAL AGENT BY-PHRASE
(By John)
S V O
S VPASS Ag
Active sentence.
Passive sentence.
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Tema 27: La voz pasiva. Formas y funciones.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
4
1.2. Choice of the passive. Jespersen points out that in the vast majority of cases the choice of the
passive is due to one of the following reasons:
1.2.1. Choice of the passive when the agent is omitted. Over a 70% of passive sentence found in English contain no
mention of the active subj (passive AGENT):
1. The agent is omitted when it is unknown or it is referred to in a
vague general way, such as they, people, someone …
[ACTIVE]They make laws in Parliament. ≈ Laws are made in Parliament. [PASSIVE]
2. If the active subj is self-evident from the context it needn’t be
mentioned:
He was elected prime Minister of Great Britain.
3. There may be a special reason, such as tact or delicacy of sentiment,
for not mentioning the active subj. In writing it is more frequently
used than in speaking:
I was said that you are in love with me. Is that true?
1.2.2. Choice of the passive when the agent is indicated. Only a 30% of the passive sentences in English have the AGENT by-
Phrase present in the clause:
1. The passive is preferred when the action seems more important
than the person who performs it. The Agent is placed after the subj
and the V and is preceded by the Pp by.
JFK was shot by a gunman 25 years ago.
If something inanimate is mentioned, other Pps rather than by may
be used instead:
[Active] Petrol filled the truck ≈ The truck was filled with petrol. [Passive] [Active]Tap-water contained arsenic ≈ Arsenic was contained in tap-water. [Passive]
2. The passive voice may facilitate the connection of one sentence
with another.
He rose to speak, and was listened by the crowd.
Choice of the passive.
The agent is omitted.
AGENT is unknown or referred to in a vague general way (they, people, someone).
Active subj is self-evident from the context.
Tact or delicacy.
The agent is indicated.
Passive is preferred when the action seems more important than the person who does it.
Inanimate is mentioned with other Pps rather than by.
The passive voice may help the connection of one sentence with another.
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Tema 27: La voz pasiva. Formas y funciones.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
5
2. The passive auxiliaries.
2.1. To be and to get. The passive aux is normally be. Its only serious competitor is get, which
however is not, by most syntactic criteria, an aux at all. Moreover, get tends
to be limited to constructions without an expressed animate agent.
The cat got run over (by a bus). James got beaten last night.
Get with an animate agent is not impossible.
James got caught (by the police)
The get-passive is avoided in formal style, and even in informal English it
is far less frequent than the be-passive.
Get is much more common as a RESULTING COPULA in sentences like My
mother is getting old [=My mother becomes old], and it may be best analyzed as
such in sentences which look superficially like passives, but which
cannot be expanded by an AGENT.
Your argument gets a bit confused here. [by who??? – It’s not a passive]
2.2. To become. To become is occasionally followed by a past participle denoting action,
and may then be said to be a kind of aux of the passive. The combination
expresses change from one condition to another.
We became acquainted with New Technologies. [=familiarize]
According to Zandvoort, the difference btw get and become as aux of the
passive may be expressed by the terms PERFECTIVE (expressing an idea of
completion) and DURATIVE (expressing a continuing action).
2.3. To have. The passive is also used with the V to have and the past participle of
the main V. This form is used when someone has the action done by
another person, instead of doing it himself.
He always has his burglar alarm tested every year. I had the telephone installed yesterday.
As with the passive form of be, have can also be used with modal aux Vs:
may, might, can, could, ought to, need, must … He MUST have had the house repainted since uncle John died. He COULD have had their money stolen on the bus.
The passive Auxiliaries.
Be.
Get: Not aux; w/ inanimate Agent.
Can also occur with animate agents.
Get: avoided in formal style; less frequent than be-passive in informal.
To become.
The combination expresses change from one condition to another.
Diff btw get and become expressed by the terms perfective & durative.
To have.
Used when someone has the action done by another person, instead of doing it himself.
Can be used w/modal aux Vs: may, might, can, could, ought to, need, must ….
To be & to get.
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Tema 27: La voz pasiva. Formas y funciones.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
6
3. The passive gradient. The purely formal definition of the passive (the clause contains the
construction be (or get) + -ed participle) is very broad and would include all
the following sentences.
[1] This violin was made by my father. [≈My father made this violin – PERSONAL AGENT][2] This conclusion is hardly justified by the results. [≈The results hardly justify … – NONPERSONAL AGENT] [3] Coal has been replaced by oil. [≈Oil has replaced coal or ≈People have replaced coal by oil – TWO ACTIVE COUNTERPARTS][4] This difficulty can be avoided in several ways. [≈someone can avoid this difficulty in several … - NO EXPRESS AGENT] [5] We are encouraged to go on with the project. [≈ The results encourage us to go on … or We feel rather encourage to …][6] Leonard was interested in Linguistics. [≈Linguistics interested Leonard or Leonard seem interested in & keen on Linguistics.] [7] The building is already demolished. [NO ACTIVE COUNTERPART nor AGENT ADDITION] [8] The modern world is getting [becoming] more highly industrialized. [NO ACTIVE COUNTERPART nor AGENT ADDITION]
[5-8] do not have a clear correspondence with an active VP or active
clause, and are increasingly remote to the ideal model of passive [1]. The
variety of relationships displayed by [1-8] may be well regarded as points on a
scale running from [1] to a sentence such as [9], clearly a copular
construction.
My uncle was very tired. [Adjectival status of “tired” → COPULAR CONSTRUCTION].
3.1. Central passives. Examples [1-4] can be called CENTRAL or TRUE PASSIVES. Sentences [1]
& [2] have a direct active-passive relation. The difference btw the two
is that the [1] has a personal and [2] a nonpersonal agent.
Sentence [3] brings some unclarity about the nature of the active
counterpart. There are two possible active counterparts, depending on
the interpretation of the by-phrase. The by-phrase can be interpreted as
an agent phrase corresponding to the active subj (Oil has replaced coal) or
with an instrumental interpretation (People in many countries have replaced coal
by oil –by = with-).
Sentence [4] exemplifies the most common type of passive, that which has
no expressed agent (AGENTLESS PASSIVE) and so leaves the subj of the
active counterpart undetermined.
The passive gradient.
Scale from +Passive to +Copular clause.
+ Pa
ssiv
e
Central or true passives.
- Pas
sive
[1] & [2] > Direct active-passive relation.
[1] → Personal agent [2] → Nonpersonal
[3] > Unclarity about the active counterpart (Two possibilities).
By-phrase: - Agent phrase - given an instrumental interpretation.
[4] > Has no expressed agent & so leaves the subject of the active counterpart undetermined.
CEN
TRA
L P
ASSIVES
SEM
I- P
ASSIVES P
SEUD
O- P
ASSIVES
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Tema 27: La voz pasiva. Formas y funciones.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
7
3.2. Semi-passives. Sentences [5] & [6] represent a “mixed” or SEMI-PASSIVE CLASS whose
members have both verbal and adjectival properties. On the one hand,
they are V-like in having active analogues [5a – 6a]. On the other hand,
their adjectival properties include the possibility of:
(a) Coordinating the participle with an adj.
(b) Modify the participle with quite, rather, more …
(c) Replace be by a lexical copular V such as feel or seem.
[5] We are encouraged to go on with the project. ≈ [5a]The results encourage us to go on with the project. [V-like] ≈ [5b]We feel rather encourage and content to go on … [Adjectival]
[6] Leonard was interested in linguistics. ≈ [6a]Linguistics interested Leonard. [V-like] ≈ [6b]Leonard seem very interested in and keen on Linguistics. [Adjectival]
To these we may add that they are stative rather than dynamic. It does
not exclude a passive analysis, for there are stative passives as well as dynamic
passives. It does, however, incline the scale in favor of an adjectival
analysis, since all participle adjs have a stative meaning.
There are several Pps which can introduce agent-like phrases:
About, at over, to and with. But just as the by-phrase may cooccur, in
an instrumental function, with an active subj, so can these agent-like
phrases sometimes. Thus, there is thus no strong reason to treat such PpP,
whether introduced by by or some other Pp, as diagnostic of passive voice.
We were all worried ABOUT the complication ≈ The complication worried us all. I was a bit surprised AT her behavior ≈ Her behavior surprised me a bit.
Leonard was interested IN linguistics. ≈ Linguistics interested Leonard. ≈ (someone) interested Leonard IN Linguistics.
So, I can summarize that this kind of sentences look like passives
but they really consist of a V to be not used as an aux, and a past
participle functioning as an adjectival.
Semi- passives.
[5] & [6] > Have both verbal and adjectival properties.
V-like> have active analogues.
Adjectival> They can: (a) Coordinate the participle with an adj. (b) Modify the participle with quite, rather, more … (c) replace be by a lexical copular V such as feel or seem.
Stative Vs.
Adj analisys: All participle adjs have a stative meaning.
This kind of sentences look like passives but they really consist of a V to be not used as an aux, and a past participle functioning as an adj.
Pps which can introduce agent-like phrases: About, at over, to & with.
Just as the by-phrase may cooccur, in an instrumental function, with an active subj, so can these agent-like phrases sometimes.
No reason to treat such PpP as diagnostic of passive voice.
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Tema 27: La voz pasiva. Formas y funciones.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
8
3.3. Pseudo-passives. Finally, sentences [7] & [8] have neither an active transform nor a
possibility of agent addition. Moreover, the participle has adjectival value just as
semi-passives. Such elements can be called PSEUDO-PASSIVES, since it is
chiefly only their superficial form [BE + -ed participle] that
recommends them for consideration as passives and the fact that the
subj undergoes the action expressed by the V.
In terms of meaning, the active sentence corresponding to [7] is not
[7a’] but [7a’’]:
[7] The building is already demolished. ≈[7a’] ?* (Someone) already demolishes the building. ≈[7a’’] (Someone) has already demolished the building.
That is, is demolished denotes a RESULTANT state: it refers, like the
perfective, to a state resulting from the demolition, rather than the act of
demolition itself.
3.4. Summary. Summarizing the passive gradient:
1) CENTRAL PASSIVES:
a) With expressed agents: [1-3].
b) Without expressed agents: [4].
2) SEMI-PASSIVES: [5-6]
3) PSEUDO-PASSIVES:
a) With “current” copular Vs1 be, feel, look, seem … : [7]
b) With “resulting” copular Vs get, become, grow … : [8]
4. Voice constraints Although it is a general rule that transitive Vs sentences can be
either active or passive, there are a number of exceptions where the
active and the passive sentences are not in systematic
correspondence. I will distinguish five kinds of VOICE CONSTRAINTS.
1 Usually stative and cannot occur with the progressive aspect.
Pseudo- passives.
Passives: - Their superficial form. - Subj undergoes the action of the V
Have neither an active transform nor a possibility of agent addition. The participle has adjectival value
Meaning: Denote a RESULTANT state.
Voice constraints.
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Tema 27: La voz pasiva. Formas y funciones.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
9
4.1. Verb constraints.
4.1.1. Active only. There are greater restrictions on Vs occurring in the passive than on Vs
occurring in the active. In addition to copular and intransitive Vs, which
having no obj cannot take the passive, some transitive Vs, called MIDDLE VS,
do not occur at least in some senses in the passive.
They have a nice house. Will this suit you? He lacks confidence. John resembles his father.
≈ He has no confidence John is like his father All these belong to the stative V OF BEING AND HAVING, as they can be
paraphrased by stative be or have.
4.1.2. Passive only. Conversely, with some Vs and verb constructions only the passive
is possible.
John was [said / reputed] to be a good teacher ≈ *They [said / reputed] him to be a good teacher
Other examples are be born (with an irregular past participle), and be
drowned (in cases where no agent is implied):
He was born in London The wanted man fell into the water and was drowned. ≈ ?* Her mother bore him in London. ≠ … and someone drowned him.
4.2. Prepositional verbs. In English, PpVs can often occur in the passive, but not so freely
as in the active. These Ppal Vs are verbal idioms consisting of a lexical V
followed by a Pp, such as in look at. Compare the following sentences, in
which [1a] & [2a] contain Ppal Vs, whereas [1b] & [2b] contain the
same words in nonidiomatic use.
The engineers went very carefully into the problem. [1a] the tunnel. [1b]
≈ The problem was very carefully gone into by the engineers. ?* The tunnel
They eventually arrived at the expected result. [2a] the splendid stadium. [2b]
≈ The expected result. was eventually arrived at. ?* the splendid stadium
V constraints.
Active only.
Copular & intransitive Vs.
Middle Vs.
Stative Vs of being & having.
Passive only only.
BE said.
BE born.
BE drowned.
Ppal Vs.
PpVs can often occur in the passive, but not so freely as in the active.
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Tema 27: La voz pasiva. Formas y funciones.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
10
It is only in the abstract, figurative use that go into, arrive at, look into
and many other expressions accept the passive. One may construct contexts
where such verbal expressions (not in the figurative sense) will occur in the
passive. So that, it cannot be stated that all nonidiomatic combinations
of V and Pp cannot occur in the passive.
4.3. Object constraints. The subject of a passive is what in the active would be an obj. However,
a sentence may contain two objs: A DO, usually denoting a thing, and an
IO, usually denoting a person.
John gave me a bottle of Glenfidich. [IO – DO]
Then, only one of them can be made the subj of the passive clause, the
other subj is retained as such, and it is therefore possible to have two
passive forms:
!!! I was given a bottle of Glenfidich. A bottle of Glenfidich was given to me.
In fact, when the active indirect obj becomes the passive subj is far
more usual than the other. Jespersen points out that the greater interests
felt for people than for things naturally places the IO before the DO.
Transitive Vs can be followed either by phrasal or by clausal
objs. With clauses as objs, however, the passive transformation is
restricted in use:
1) NP as object:
[1] John loved Mary ≈ Mary was loved by John.
2) Clause as obj:
a) Finite clause:
[2] John thought (that) she was unattractive ≈ ?* That she was unattractive was thought (by John).
b) Nonfinite clause:
i) INFINITIVE:
[3] John hoped to meet her ≈ ?* To meet her was hoped by John
ii) PARTICIPLE:
[4] John enjoyed seeing her ≈ *? Seeing her was enjoyed (by John)
It is only in the figurative use that some PpVs accept the passive.
Cannot be stated that all nonidiomatic combinations of V and Pp cannot occur in the passive.
Object constraints.
An active sentence may contain two objs: A DO and an IO.
One of them can be made the subj of the passive clause. it is therefore possible to have two different passive forms.
IO is often preferred when there is such a choice.
Transitive Vs can be followed either by phrasal or by clausal objs. 1) NP as obj.
2) Clause as obj.
2.a) FINITE clause.
2.b) NonfINITE clause: Infinitive & Participle.
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Tema 27: La voz pasiva. Formas y funciones.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
11
The passive becomes acceptable, however, particularly when the obj is a
finite clause, if (1) the clausal obj is extraposed and replaced by the
anticipatory pron it or if (2) the subj of the obj clause is made the subj
of the passive clause.
[2b] It was thought that she was unattractive. [3b] ?It was hoped to meet her. [2c] She was thought to be attractive.
Co-reference btw a subj and a NP obj blocks the passive
correspondence. This constraint occurs with (a) reflexive Prons, (b)
reciprocal prons & (c) possessive prons when co-referential to the subj.
(a) John i could see [Paul / himself i] in the mirror. ≈ [Paul / *Himself] could be seen in the mirror. (b) We i could hardly see each other i in the fog. ≈ *Each other could hardly be seen in the fog. (c) The woman i shook [my hand / her hand i]. ≈ [My hand / *Her hand] was shaken by the woman.
4.4. Meaning constraints. We cannot assume that matching active and passive sentences
always have the same propositional meaning. The difference of order
brought about by changing an active sentence into the passive or vice versa
may well make a difference not only in emphasis, but also the scope of
negatives and quantifiers.
[1] Every schoolboy knows one joke at least. [2] ≈ One joke at least is known by every schoolboy.
The most likely interpretation of [1] is quite different from the most likely
interpretation from [2]: Whereas [1] favors the reading “each schoolboy
knows at least some joke or other”, [2] favors the reading “there is one
particular joke which is known to every schoolboy”.
Moreover, a shift of modal meaning may accompany a shift of
voice in VP containing modal auxs.
John cannot do it. [ABILITY] ≈ It cannot be done (by John). [POSSIBILITY]
Can will be normally interpreted as expressing ABILITY (active sentence),
whereas in the passive it is interpreted as expressing POSSIBILITY. Examples
with other modal aux are:
Every one of them must be reprimanded. [=Every one of them is to be blame] ≈ You must reprimand every one of them. [=It’s your duty to do so]
1) Passive becomes acceptable when the obj is a finite clause if …
Clausal obj is replaced and extraposed by the anticipatory pron it.
The subj of the obj clause is made the subj of the passive clause.
2) Coreference btw a subj & a NP obj blocks the passive.
Reflexive prons, reciprocal prons & possessive prons.
Meaning constraints.
Cannot assume that matching active and passive sentences always have the same meaning.
Shift of modalmeaning may accompany a shift of voice in VP containing modal auxs.
Can: Active → ABILITY; Passive → EXPRESSING.
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Tema 27: La voz pasiva. Formas y funciones.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
12
The shift from active to passive may also change the meaning of the
perfective aspect.
[3]JFK has twice visited Oxford. ≈ [4]Oxford has twice been visited by JFK
The active sentence [3] can only be appropriately used in the lifetime of
JFK, since the subject of the sentence is determined by the perfective in
terms of a period of time leading up to the present (The subject must
exist in the real world). The passive sentence [4], according to this claim,
could appropriately be said now, after JFK’s death, since Oxford still
exists.
4.5. Frequency constraints. There is a notable difference in the frequency with which the active
and the passive voice are used. The active is far more common, but there is
considerable variation among individual text-types. The major stylistic factor
determining frequency seems to be related to the distinction btw
informative and imaginative prose. The passive is generally more
frequently used in the informative than in imaginative writing, and is
notably more frequent in the obj, impersonal style of scientific articles
and news reporting.
The passive becomes very much rarer in combinations with
other complex V constructions. So, progressive forms are avoided in the
passive, especially in the perfect tenses: “perfective progressive passive”
(HAVE + been + being + past participle main V) and “modal perfective
progressive passive” (Modal aux + HAVE + been + being + past
participle main V), perhaps in part because of an avoidance of the
awkwardness of the be being sequence:
The conservatives have not been winning sits lately. ≈ ?Seats have not been being won by the conservatives lately.
4.6. Passive versus active infinitive. The active form of an infinitive can be transformed in its corresponding
passive form. As a general rule, the active form of an infinitive denotes
active content and the passive form denotes passive content.
I like to teach. I like to be taught.
Shift from active to passive may also change the meaning of the perfective aspect.
The subject must exist in the real world.
Frequency constraints.
Stylistic factor which determines frequency is related to the distinction btw informative and imaginative prose.
Passive: more used in informative writing, objective, impersonal scientific style.
Rare with complex V constructions (progressive forms).
HAVE + been + being + past participle main V.
Modal aux + HAVE + been + being + past participle main V.
Passive vs. active Inf.
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Tema 27: La voz pasiva. Formas y funciones.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
13
Changes in the content of the Infinitive:
1) We find a number of cases in which the active form of the Inf can have
a passive content. The active form of the Inf with passive content is
found as the complement of many adjs, note in particular easy, difficult,
hard. The passive form is here infrequent.
There are a lot of things to do (=to be done). There remains a Qs easy to answer
2) In many cases, only one form may be used for passive content:
The map was no where to be found.[*to find] Oswald was to blame.[*to be blamed]
3) In other cases there is a vacillation btw the active and the passive
form for passive content. In some phrases, in spoken English the
shorter form is usually preferred.
There is no time [to lose / to be lost]
4) Occasionally a slight diff in meaning btw the two constructions
may be observed:
There was nothing to see. [=virtually nothing worth seeing] ≈ There was nothing to be seen. [=either nothing at all or nothing visible]
5) It must be noted that when Vs of perception (see, hear, feel …), make
and let are used in the passive, the Inf following them takes to even
though these Vs have not this Pp when used in the active.
Peter saw her take the pen. ≈ She was seen to take the pen.
5. Comparison of the passive in English and in Spanish. Here I will follow Stockwell, Bowen and Martin and we will mainly
consider those cases in which English construction differs from the
Spanish one.
The passive in English is generated in the same way as in Spanish,
with be + Past participle and transposition of subj and obj, with optional
omission of the by-phrase that carries the agent.
El toreo es considerado como un verdadero arte
Changes in the content of the Inf:
1. Active form of the Inf can have a passive content.
2. Only one formmay be used for passive content.
3. Vacilation btw active & passive form for passive content.
4. Slight diff in meaning btw the two constructions may be observed.
5. When Vs of perception, make & let are used in the passive, the Inf following them takes to even though these Vs have not this Pp when used in the active.
Comparison of the English & Spanish passives.
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Tema 27: La voz pasiva. Formas y funciones.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
14
5.1. Construction differences. Constructionally, Spanish passives differs from the English ones
basically in that the participle agrees in number and gender w/the subj.
La casa es terminada. Las casas son terminadas.
5.2. Frequency of use. The passive in English is frequent and highly productive
(especially in more formal style and writing), the passive in Spanish is
relatively rarer and less productive for the following reasons:
5.2.1. Agent deletion. The sense of the passive is usually conveyed by a sentence type
that results from agent deletion. That is, a sentence in which the
Spanish pron se is used with a passive Fn, though the form is active.
Se llevaron los heridos al hospital. [=The wounded people was brought to the hospital]
5.2.2. Frequency of use. Spanish makes use of the active more often than English does in
sentences which could be expressed in the passive too, especially when the
agent is not expressed.
His father was killed in the war. [=Mataron a su padre en la guerra – ACTIVE -]
5.2.3. Estar + Adj. The construction estar + Adj (including past participles) is used in
Spanish if an event is over and only its results are being noted.
Compare the diff:
The TV was broken La tele fue rota. [= Someone is breaking the TV] La tele estaba rota. [= Picture of a broken TV on the ground]
English Semi-passives are expressed in Spanish by a non-passive
construction with the V estar. El estaba interesado en la lingüística [≈He was interested in Linguistics]
5.3. Usual auxiliary Verbs in the passive. In Spanish ser is the only auxiliary of the passive. Get and become
being equivalent to a construction in the active with a pers pron.
We became acquainted [= Nos conocimos]. You’ll get hurt [=Te harás daño]
Construction differences.
Spanish passives: Participle agrees in number with gender with the subj.
Frequency of use.
English passives: highly productive and + frequent.
Spanish passives: Less productive & relatively rarer.
Agent deletion.
The Spanish pron se is used with a passive Fn, though the form is active.
Frequency of use.
Spanish uses the active more often than English, even w/passive meaning.
Estar + Adj.
Estar + Adj: It is used in Spanish if an event is over & only its results are being noted.
English Semi-passives are expressed in Spanish by a non-passive construction w/the V estar.
Aux V in the passive.
“Ser” is the only aux of the Spanish passive.
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5.
in
in
Joh
N
En
Sp
5.
to
6.
Th
sm
In
Ta
BEditCEDCENQui
4. Two oWhen
English lik
Spanish
ohn a book),
must go
nglish. On
panish.
Die
5. TransOnly t
English, w
. Verb aSome
he smell o
mell + Adj
The
the same
aste + Ad
Thi
ibliogratorial MAD DE N irk, R (1985). A
object sen two objs
ke John was
. The reas
with two N
into a Pp
ly the D
eron a Juan u
sitive Vs. transitive V
where caus
active in transitive
of someth
j:
ese roses sm
e way, we
j:
is tastes del
aphy.
A comprehensive
La voz
entencesoccur in
s given a boo
son is that
N objs, can
P that Fns
O can be
un libro [≈ Un
Vs can be
sative Intra
n form, bVs can be
hing can b
mell beautifu
can desc
licious [= It is
e grammar of th
Tema 27:z pasiva. Formas
s. the activ
ok or A boo
t the corre
nnot occur
s as an a
ecome S
n libro fue dado
used in th
ansitive Vs
but pase used in a
be describe
ul [=It is beautif
cribe the
delicious when
he English langu
s y funciones.
ve clause
ok was given
esponding
r in Spanis
dv of inte
ubj of th
o a Juan]
he passive
can occur
sive in a passive s
ed by usin
ful when they a
taste of
it is tasted].
uage. 3.63-78
a typical p
to John has
active sen
sh (*Dieron
erest (Diero
he passiv
voice in S
in the pas
sense.sense with
ng the cons
re smelt]
f food, dr
Iván Matella
passive tra
s no equi
ntence (Th
Juan un libro
on un libro a
ve senten
panish, co
ssive.
h the active
struction S
rink … by
anes’ Notes
15
ansform
valent
hey gave
ro). One
a Juan).
nce in
ontrarily
e form.
Subj +
y using
Two o
V active in f
object senten
With SpanisDitransitiveDO can becsubj of the sentence in
Two N objsin Spanish,always has
form, but pas
nces.
sh e V, only the come the passive Spanish.
s cannot occur as one
s to be a PpP.
ssive in Fn. ***
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Topic 27:Brief summary.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
16Brief summary. La voz pasiva. Formas y funciones - THE PASSIVE VOICE: DEFINITION. - THE PASSIVE AUXILIARIES: - THE PASSIVE GRADIENT:
[1] This violin was made by my father. [≈My father made this violin – PERSONAL AGENT] [2] This conclusion is hardly justified by the results. [≈The results hardly justify … – NONPERSONAL AGENT] [3] Coal has been replaced by oil. [≈Oil has replaced coal or ≈People have replaced coal by oil – TWO ACTIVE COUNTERPARTS] [4] This difficulty can be avoided in several ways. [≈someone can avoid this difficulty in several … - NO EXPRESS AGENT] [5] We are encouraged to go on with the project. [≈ The results encourage us to go on … or We feel rather encourage to …] [6] Leonard was interested in Linguistics. [≈Linguistics interested Leonard or Leonard seem interested in & keen on Linguistics.] [7] The building is already demolished. [NO ACTIVE COUNTERPART nor AGENT ADDITION] [8] The modern world is getting [becoming] more highly industrialized. [NO ACTIVE COUNTERPART nor AGENT ADDITION]
- Voice is a grammatical category which makes it possible to view the action of a sentence in either of two ways, with no change in the facts reported. → The singer killed the bass player. [ACTIVE] ≈ The bass player was killed by the singer. [PASSIVE].
- Active-passive relation involves 2 grammatical levels: ♦ In the VP, the diff btw the 2 voice categories is that the passive adds an aux be followed by the past participle of the main V. ♦ At the clause level, changing from the active to the passive involves rearrangement of two clause element, and one addition: ___ The active SUBJECT becomes the passive AGENT. ___ The active OBJECT becomes the passive SUBJECT. ___ The Pp by is introduced before the AGENT. It is generally an optional element.
- Choice of the passive: Jespersen points out that the choice of the passive is due to one of the following reasons: ♦ 70% of passive sentences contain NO MENTION OF THE ACTIVE SUBJ (PASSIVE AGENT): ___ Omitted when it is unknown or referred to in a vague general way, as they, people, someone … → Laws are made in Parliament. ___ If the active subj is self-evident from the context it needn’t be mentioned → He was elected prime Minister of Great Britain. ___ There may be a special reason (tact or delicacy) for not mentioning the active subj → I was said that you are in love with me. ♦ 30% of the passive sentences have the AGENT by-PHRASE present in the clause: ___ The passive is preferred when the action seems more imp than the person who performs it → JFK was shot by a gunman in 1971. ___ The passive voice may facilitate the connection of one sentence with another → He rose to speak, and was listened by the crowd.
- To be and To get: ♦ The passive aux is usually be. ♦ Its only serious competitor is get, which is not an aux at all: get-passive is avoided in formal style, & even in informal English it is far less frequent than the be-passive ___ Get tends to be limited to constructions without an expressed animate agent (→James got beaten last night). However, it can
sometimes occur with an expressed animate agent → James got caught by the police. ___ Get is much more common as a resulting copula in sentences like My mother is getting old [=My mother becomes old], and it may be
best analyzed as such in sentences which look superficially like passives, but which cannot be expanded by an agent → Your argument gets confused here. [by who??? – It’s not a passive]
- To become is occasionally followed by a past participle denoting action, and may then be said to be a kind of aux of the passive. The combination expresses change from one condition to another → We became acquainted with New Technologies. [=”familiarize”].
- The passive is also used with the V to have, which can also be used with modal aux Vs. This form is used when someone has the action done by another person, instead of doing it himself → I had the telephone installed yesterday.
- Pas
sive
CEN
TRA
L PA
SSIV
ES
SEM
I- PA
SSIV
ESPS
EUD
O-
PASS
IVES
+ Pa
ssiv
e
- Central Passives - Semi-Passives - Pseudo-passives ♦ [1-2] have a direct active-passive relation ([1] pers & [2] nonpers agent) ♦ [3] has two possible active counterparts, depending on the interpretation of the by-phrase. ♦ [4] exemplifies the most common type of passive, that which has no expressed agent (AGENTLESS PASSIVE) and so leaves the subj of the active counterpart undet.
♦ [5-6]’s members have both verbal & adjectival properties:
a) V-like: They have active analogues. b) Adj properties:
b1- coordinate the participle with an adj. b2- Modify the participle w/quite, rather … b3- Replace be by a lexical copular V such as feel or seem
♦ They are stative rather than dynamic & incline the scale in favor of an adjectival analysis, since all participle adjs have a stative meaning
♦ [7-8] have neither an active transform nor a possibility of agent addition. Moreover, the participle has adjectival value just as semi-passives. ♦ Only their superficial form [be + -ed participle] considers them as passives and the fact that the subj undergoes the action expressed by the V. ♦ In terms of meaning, pseudo-passives denote a resultant state. it refers, like the perfective, to a state resulting from the action of the V, rather than to the action of the V itself.
1
2
3
1b 1c
1d
2a
2b
2c
3a
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Topic 27:Brief summary.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
17 - VOICE CONSTRAINTS: The general rule states that transitive Vs sentences can be either active or passive. However, there are 5 exceptions (or constraints) where the active & the passive sentences are not in systematic correspondence: - COMPARISON OF THE PASSIVE IN ENGLISH AND IN SPANISH: following Stockwell, Bowen and Martin.
- Verb constraints: ♦ Active Vs only: In addition to copular and intransitive Vs, which having no obj cannot take the passive, some transitive Vs, called MIDDLE VS, do not occur at least in some senses in the passive. MIDDLE VS belong to the stative V of being and having, as they can be paraphrased by stative be or have → He lacks confidence ≈ He has no confidence or John resembles his father John is like his father. ♦ Passive Vs only: Some Vs and verb constructions only the passive is possible. → Be said (John was said to be a good teacher), Be born & Be drowned .
- Prepositional Vs: PpVs (such as look at) can often occur in the passive, but not so freely as in the active. It is only in the figurative or idiomatic use of some PpVs that they can occur in the passive → [The expected result / ?* the splendid stadium] was eventually arrived at.
- Object constraints: ♦ The subj of a passive of a bitransitive V can be either the DO or the IO. Only one of them can be made the subj of the passive clause, the other subj is retained as such, and it is therefore possible to have two passive forms → I was given a bottle of Glenfidich or A bottle of Glenfidich was given to me. ♦ Transitive Vs can be followed either by phrasal or by clausal objs. With clauses as objs the passive transformation is restricted in use. ___ FINITE CLAUSE: John hoped to meet her ≈ ?* To meet her was hoped by John. ___ PR PARTICIPLE: John enjoyed seeing her ≈ *? Seeing her was enjoyed (by John) The passive becomes acceptable if (1) the clausal obj is extraposed and replaced by the anticipatory pron it or if → She was thought to be attractive or ?It was hoped to meet her.
- Meaning constraints: We cannot assume that matching active and passive sentences always have the same propositional meaning. Make a diff not only in emphasis, but also the scope of NEGATIVES [ John does not love Mary (but Susanne) ≠ Mary is not loved by John (But by Ian)] & QUANTIFIERS [→ Every schoolboy knows one joke at least (each schoolboy knows at least some joke or other)≈ One joke at least is known by every schoolboy (There’s 1 particular joke which is known to every schoolboy)]
♦ Can will be normally interpreted as expressing ability, whereas in the passive it is interpreted as expressing possibility → John cannot do it (ability) ≈ It cannot be done (Possibility) ♦ The shift from active to passive may also change the meaning of the perfective aspect → JFK has twice visited Oxford. ≈ Oxford has twice been visited by JFK (The active sentence can only be appropriately used in the lifetime of JFK, since the subject of the sentence is determined by the perfective in terms of a period of time leading up to the present. The passive sentence could appropriately be said now, after JFK’s death, since Oxford still exists.)
- Frequency constraints: notable difference in the frequency with which the active and the passive voice are used. ♦ The active is far more common. ♦ The passive is generally more frequently used in the informative writing, and is notably more frequent in the obj, impersonal style of scientific articles and news reporting. ___ Progressive forms are avoided in the passive (esp. in the perfect tenses), perhaps to avoid of the awkwardness of the be being sequence.
- Passive vs. active Infinitive: Changes in the content of the Infinitive: ♦ The active form of the Inf can have a passive content → There are a lot of things to do (=to be done). ♦ In many cases, only one form may be used for passive content → The map was no where to be found.[*to find] ♦ Sometimes there’s a vacillation btw the active and the passive form for passive content → There is no time [to lose / to be lost] (spoken UK prefers the shorter version).
- Spanish - English
FORM ♦ Aux ser is the only auxiliary of the passive. Get and become being equivalent to a construction in the active with a pers pron. → We became acquainted [= Nos conocimos]
♦ Aux (chiefly be) + Past participle ♦ Become + Past participle ♦ Have + something + Past participle
AGREEMENT ♦ The past participle agrees in number and gender w/the subj. → La casa es terminada vs. Las casas son terminadas. ♦ No agreement in nº & gender w/the subj
FREQUENCY ♦ Passive is rarer & less productive because: ___ The sense of the passive is usually to delete the agent. In Spanish,
the pron se is used with a passive Fn, though the form is active. → Se llevaron los heridos al hospital.
♦ Passive is frequent and highly productive. ♦ Used in the informative writing and in the objective impersonal style of scientific articles and news reporting.
SEMI-PASSIVES
♦ English Semi-passives are expressed in Spanish by a non-passive construction w/the V estar → El estaba interesado en la lingüística
♦ Semi-passives can be understood as active (past participle as an adj) or passive sentence.
BITRANS VS
♦ It has no equivalent in Spanish, because the corresponding active sentence (They gave John a book), with two N objs, cannot occur in Spanish (*Dieron Juan un libro). One N must go into a PpP that Fns as an adv of interest (Dieron un libro a Juan). Only the DO can become Subj of the passive sentence in Spanish.
♦ When two objs occur in the active clause a typical passive transform in English like John was given a book or A book was given to John
4
5
4a
4b
4c
4d
4e
4f
5a
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