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Table of Contents

ForewordKullman HistoryIntroduction

Part 1 Overview

ConceptsAdvantagesProcurementDesign process Lean fabrication Craft Time savingsCost Building performanceSustainability

Part 2 Modular Design

MassingKullman Frame System (KFS)Fire protectionArchitectural design of modulesBathroom podsCodes and regulations Part 3 Construction process

FactorySetting Finishing

Part 4 Examples in detail

Appendix: GlossaryAcronyms and abbreviations Bibliography

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4

Foreword

Industrialization of the building process has remained the great unfulfilled promise of our time. The waves of efficiency increases that have transformed the production of nearly every other product of the last century have had no corollary in the design and construction industry. In fact, a study comparing productivity (measured in contract dollars per work hours) found that since 1964 non-construction productivity has more than doubled whereas the construction industry has experienced a productivity decrease of more than 20% (Khemlani, p4).

We now face a crisis of affordability in the construction industry. As a culture we have largely failed to deliver high-performance and durable buildings at an affordable cost. This has vast societal consequences from homelessness to compromised living standards and the inefficient use of resources.

To walk onto a construction site today is to be surrounded by disorder. To manage a contemporary construction project is to be overwhelmed by weather, uncooperative or overly-scheduled subcontractors, lack of accountability, and poor craftsmanship. Even the most experienced client understands that schedule and cost projections are likely to be in continuous flux. To a very real extent we build the same way today that we did thousands of years ago: by assembling materials and men at a site and figuring things out as we proceed.

Over the course of the twentieth century there have been many attempts to bring industrialized building systems to market. Nearly all, with the exception of the mobile home, have failed. Le Corbusier’s “Machine for Living” has not captured our

imagination. This may be due to our own inherent conservatism, nostalgia, or the need for individual expression. But why should our buildings be the only place where these sentiments prevail? One could argue that for the most part we express our identities in our homes and buildings just as we do in the purchase of products – we want choice, we appreciate options, and we certainly want value, performance, and reliability.

Compared to a well-run in-situ construction effort, industrialized building offers two primary advantages: predictability and time savings. These are so dramatic that they immediately translate into significant cost advantages. In an industrialized building project there are two construction sites: the field and the factory, operating simultaneously. An industrialized building can be constructed in half the time of a conventional building.

Multiple advantages flow from this time savings; construction financing costs and general conditions are halved, and quality control is much easier to maintain. Compared to a poorly-run in-situ construction effort, the advantages of industrialized building are compounded.

Modular buildings are conventionally understood as an assembly of boxes. There is an inherent logic in this as large modular components allow the greatest degree of completion in the controlled factory environment. The module itself is, however, infinitely variable. It can be formed and combined into endless configurations. Modules can be joined, bridged, stacked, and cantilevered. It can be a component of a hybridized system, used in combination with in-situ construction. For this reason

industrialized construction can be seen as a process, that is, a particular way to build rather than a predetermined product or set of components. It is open to architectural expression in the same way any other building system is, and like other systems it has its own logic and potential.

The emergence of the fully industrialized building at this moment is being increasingly facilitated by computer-aided design. Like the contemporary automobile, created and engineered as a virtual object before it is produced, industrialized buildings profit tremendously from integrated computerized design. The factory setting allows the optimization of this technique as fabrication and assembly are rationalized through time motion studies. There is no doubt that the use of CNC fabrication and robotic assembly will create ever greater advantages as industrialized buildings continue to evolve with the application of mass customization techniques by architects.

This book is a manual, describing the procurement, processes, constraints, and possibilities of industrialized modular building. The book defines processes, details, structural concepts and case studies with enough specificity to act as a planning guide. This manual can also be seen as a point of departure for any number of as-of-yet unimagined applications and techniques. This book was prepared at the request of the Kullman Building Corporation, whose dedication to both the potential of industrialized building and the advancement of architecture is exemplary.

James GarrisonNew York City, 2007

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In the same year Charles Lindbergh would make his solo crossing of the Atlantic and Hollywood would introduce the “talking pic-ture,” a quiet but determined Sam Kullman started his own company building diners. Sam struck out on his own, leaving behind a good job with an industry leader and now a major competitor. With the Great Depres-sion looming, perhaps it wasn’t the best time for start-ups, yet Sam’s business acu-men and attention to quality and customer loyalty allowed him to thrive. Six years later, his former employer faced bankruptcy while Sam’s new company began a legacy of quality and innovation that now stretches 75 years - and counting.

The diner industry provided turn-key, porta-ble restaurants that served a market seek-ing fast, low-cost, home-cooked meals. Kullman Diners during this period earned a reputation within its industry for innova-tion and quality, placing it as a leader by the onset of World War II. The company consistently strove to introduce the latest materials into its product line, which then featured the earliest uses of stylized, fabri-cated stainless steel and Formica surface laminates - elements that still make the diner so immediately recognizable today.

Returning from service in World War II, Sam’s son Harold Kullman joined the com-pany after having earned his own degrees in finance and engineering. In a time when the industry produced larger and more or-nate diners, Kullman advanced the design and construction standards of the industry. Sam’s direction would see Kullman build some of the roadside’s most streamlined and soaring restaurant designs.

Trends would prove fickle, however. By the mid-1960s, the spread of the “family res-taurant” concept would induce Kullman’s designers to reverse course. Suddenly, the diner experience would reflect a cozier set-ting drawing from colonial America - then all the rage in home decorating.

Still, the decade would not bode well for the industry. With the rise of the fast-food industry encroaching on America’s roadsides, the demand for large, multi-sec-tioned diners had seriously contracted. The spreading popularity of homey chains such as Howard Johnson’s and their meticu-lous attention to operational consistency threatened the family-owned diner as never before.

Clearly, the company would need a new direction or face its own demise. “We were friendly with presidents of different banks,” Harold recalls, “because we provided financing for some of their diner projects.” At the time, banks looked to expand their business by building more suburban branches. Kullman developed some plans up for branch banks, exploiting the advan-tages of prefabricated construction.

The result was America’s first bank con-structed in the modular process installed in Marlboro, New Jersey and still in use. This milestone coincided with the entry into the business of the Kullman family’s third generation, Robert Kullman. Seeing a new direction for the family business, Robert set out to prove to the world of the benefits of modular construction.

Strip a diner of its stainless steel, its restaurant equipment, furnishings and ornamentation, and what remains is a highly durable steel and concrete build-ing module, that interconnects with other such modules to form a variety of building types. Kullman, with Robert’s urging, ag-gressively pursued this new potential in the

History of the Kullman Building Corporation

6

corrections, educational, institutional, and broader food service markets.

The company coined the term “Acceler-ated Construction” to describe a building process free from the uncertainties of weather, site conditions, and contractor relations. Accelerated or factory construc-tion utilizes the same building materials and labor found on any project site, but with an extra measure of quality control and predictability.

With the explosive growth of wireless communications, equipment shelters have also become a core part of the company’s business. Kullman’s design-build capabilities and tight control over the manufacturing environment made it a logical candidate for mass-producing diminutive but vital structures to protect sensitive communications equipment against extreme weather and vandalism.

If you don’t use a cell phone, you don’t eat at diners, you or your child may have attended one of the many school facili-ties Kullman has constructed. Kullman calculates over 60,000 students presently attend the over 2,500 classrooms built by the company in just the last 20 years.

In 1994, Kullman made history yet again by building a United States embassy building at its plant in Avenel, New Jersey and shipping it to Bissau, Guinea-Bis-sau. This development marked the first construction of an American embassy in America, and its success led to projects for Ashgabat, Turkmenistan and Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan. Built, shipped, and assem-bled by American personnel with security clearances, Kullman helped the State Department avoid the security risks that

often plague on-site construction by local labor in foreign countries.

With all those old stainless steel diners disappearing off the landscape, the smart money betted on the diner’s extinction. Yet, some individuals took notice and worked to elevate this unique architectural form into a new level of appreciation. In 1988, Jeffrey Gildenhorn’s new restaurant in Washing-ton, D.C. drew its inspiration from the style of a classic 1950s vintage Kullman diner. Gildenhorn asked the company to build the American City, a retro-styled diner that complied with all modern building codes. Kullman has since furthered this trend with new retro-styled diner construction and renovations across the northeast and overseas.

In 1995, Kullman moved to its new facility in Lebanon, New Jersey, greatly expand-ing the company’s capacity to produce an increasing variety of building types. In the past decade, Kullman constructed hospi-tals and a college campus, while its food service division has branched out to build double drive-thru hamburger restaurants and stylish drive-up businesses for coffee vendors. In 2003, the company expanded its presence in the correctional facility market by acquiring the key assets of Mark Solutions, Inc., the leading manufacturer of galvannealed steel jail and prison cells.

“The next time you talk on a cell phone, leave your child at school, call a police dispatch for emergency services or wonder how Americans are being protected in overseas embassies, think Kullman.”

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Deciding to go modular

An increasing number of architects and engineers today are discovering the numerous benefits of modular construction. The decision to build using modular construction should be made after careful consideration by both the architect and the client. Modular construction is not right for every project. Architects must understand the specific implications and benefits of modular construction for each individual project. By describing the process of modular design and construction, this book can work as a guide for deciding if modular is appropriate for a given project.

Introduction

Structure of the book

This book is intended to be a process and product desk reference manual for architects and engineers considering or engaged in modular construction with Kullman Buildings Corporation. This book compares and contrasts the Kullman method of modular construction with any of the various forms of in-situ construction and provides the technical information necessary for the architect to design a building which can be constructed by Kullman.

Part 1 - Overview

This section introduces the topics, concepts, and advantages of modular building. It examines both generalized advantages and the Kullman method of construction.

Part 2 - Modular design

This section provides technical design information, including discussions on engineering, space planing, fire protection, architectural details, and codes and regulations.

Part 3 - Construction process

This section is a sequential examination of the building process. It follows the process of modular construction from the factory to the final application of finishes on site.

Part 4 - Examples in detail

This section gives examples of Kullman’s work. It includes built work, competitions, and prototypes.

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Part 1-Overview

Concepts

Advantages

Procurement

Design process

Lean fabrication

Craft

Time savings

Cost

Building performance

Sustainability

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Definitions of “modular”

All uses of the term modular refer in some way to a self-contained component of a system which has a well-defined interface in relation to the other components. This term, however, has been co-opted by many disciplines, each giving it their own shade of meaning. Modular has discreet meanings in the disciplines of computer programming, music, philosophy, medicine, mathematics, and design. Further complicating matters, even within the design discipline the terms modularity, Le Modular, modular design, modular home, modular constructivism, modular construction, and just plain modular each have their own discreet meanings. Finally, even when the term “modular construction” is understood to have the correct definition, it carries with it a wide variety of connotations. Modular may be ugly homogeny to some and contemporary refinement to others. Modular buildings, simply stated, are volumetric components of a building which are manufactured in a factory, and transported to the site on a flatbed trailer and erected into a finished building. Modular building v. manufactured housing

Kullman produces modular buildings not manufactured housing. This is an important distinction. A “modular building” is composed of factory-built volumetric units which are transported to a site on a flatbed trailer. These modules must be lifted into their final location. Conversely, a “manufactured home” has an integrated permanent chassis to which axles are directly attached for transportation. These buildings are typically of lower quality than modular buildings. Much of the confusion between these two terms arises because

Overview

Concepts

the manufactured housing industry uses the term “module” to describe individual manufactured housing units.

Modular and architecture

Modular buildings designed by an architect often blur the distinction between product and a custom designed object. This is the case because modular buildings generally have their own systems and methods of construction. When working with Kullman, the system of construction relates only to the structural frame allowing finishes, configuration, etc., to be determined by the architect similar to any other custom designed building.

The continuum of prefabrication

The vast majority of buildings constructed today use some prefabrication. Modular construction lies at one end of a continuum of various types of prefabrication (see Figure 1.1.1 across). Modular construction expands prefabrication as a viable and beneficial option for an increasing number of building project types.

Figure 1.1.1: Continuum of prefabrication

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Open v. cellular plan

In the past, only buildings which employed a repetitive cellular plan were built using modular construction. However, this boundary has been pushed by advances in the techniques of building and assembling modules. Modules can come together in a number of ways to create an incredible variety of spatial forms including large span spaces. As well, open-sided modules can be combined to create buildings of near-infinite length. These capacities expand the design possibilities for modular construction.

Overview

Building projects particularly well-suited to modular construction

Almost any type of building can be built either entirely or in part using modular construction. Below is a list of project types which are commonly built using modular construction and which have shown significant advantages using this type of construction.

Building types

Single-family residences Multi-family residences Hotels Dormitories Classroom buildingsCorrectional facilities High-security government facilities Hospital patient towersClinics Offices Gas stations

Building types or building components

Food service Equipment enclosures Building additionsRooftop penthouses Physical plants

Building components

Bathrooms Elevator shafts Mechanical plenums Elevator shafts Staircases

Repetition v. customization

Although almost any building can now be divided into modules, certain project types will receive the greatest economic benefit. Today economies of scale can be achieved through mass customization. The term mass customization describes the ability of certain products with pre-designed facets to be customized. Until the very end of the last century, exact repetition was the only way to achieve economies of scale. Modular construction, as compared to in-situ construction, can more readily utilize this type of economy. As a result, exact repetition dominated the modular industry during this period, leading to buildings which were, in many cases, banal. Digital design, computer numeric control (CNC) fabrication technologies, and various systems approaches allow mass customization to replace exact repetition as a means of achieving economies of scale. Kullman is at the forefront of such advances and has invested in advanced modeling software, and numerous CNC fabrication technologies, in addition to developing the Kullman Frame System (KFS). Architects working with the Kullman system can now create custom designs in which each module is different while achieving an industrialized economy of scale.

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Overview

The advantages of modular construction are diverse. From a client’s perspective the greatest benefits are reduced costs, consistent high quality, and a savings in time. The advantages enumerated here should be understood as interrelated and overlapping topics rather than discrete or autonomous issues.

Procurement

Increases the ability for collaboration and single point of responsibility.

Design process

Wide-ranging benefits of increased collaboration and flexibility.

Construction schedule

Reduces construction time up to 50%.

Financial - cost control

Lowers hard costs, soft costs, financingcosts, out-of-service costs, and provides a faster return on investment.

Craft - quality

The factory setting allows for theimprovement of building craft.

Factory efficiency

Methods of production reduce task time.

Sustainability and energy efficiency

Improves project sustainability and viability of LEED® rating.

Disturbance

Minimizes disruptions to adjacent buildings and occupants and increases cleanliness.

Technology

Greater ability to manufacture components with a high degree of technical complexity.

Site Eliminates various site constraints such as staging, weather, transportation, etc. Security

Reduces the possibility of job-site vandalism or theft. Safety The factory environment improves conditions for construction workers

Risk

Increases in the predictability of quality, cost, and time reduces the risk assumed by the client.

Relocatability Creates the possibility of moving the structure to a new location.

OversightThe client and architect can oversee and preview parts of the structure in the factory. This enables conflicts to be identified and resolved early, subverting the large costs associated with discovery of such conflicts in the field.

Advantages

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Overview

At the beginning of a project, architects and clients must consider approaches to procurement. The procurement process for ready-made products is different from that for custom-designed objects. As modular construction is both ready-made and custom-designed, some slight adjustments must be made to the typical process of building procurement to account for these differences. There are four standard types of construction procurement which are relevant to modular construction: design-bid-build, negotiated bid, design-build, and strategic partnering.

Design-bid-build:

Design-bid-build is the conventional method in which a project is designed by an architect and bid among competing builders. In this method, an architect produces bid documents which are then bid by a qualified general contractor who will select a subcontractor to provide the modular components. The owner can bid the site and modular components separately. If this route is chosen, construction management services are recommended, and extra care must be taken in definition of the separate scopes.

Procurement

Figure 1.3.1: Flow chart of procurement process for design-bid-build

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Although many architecture projects are procured by design-bid-build, this method has some distinct disadvantages in modular construction. Design-bid-build does not take complete advantage of the potential collaboration benefits of modular construction including time savings. Because most modular manufacturers have their own systems for the design and construction of modular frames, the production of bid documents will require one of the following approaches:

Design using a manufacturer’s standard system:

• Limits the competitive options for bidding.

• Expedites the design process.

Design using a performance-based or prototypical system:

• Less architectural control of final product.

• Additional design work will be required after the manufacturer is selected.

• Less certainty of cost early in the design process.

Design and engineer a custommodular system:

• Severely limits the number of manufacturers interested in bidding.

• Additional burden on the design process.

• Maximum design flexibility. • Increased cost.

Kullman (as well as most other modular manufacturers) only provides bids on a lump sum basis. The alternatives to lump sum bids all require a type of accounting which is difficult in the context of modular construction. Also, contractor overhead comprises a higher percentage of the total cost. This is difficult to account for on a project specific basis.

AIA contract documents: A141™, B141™, B151™

Overview

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Negotiated bid:

With negotiated bid procurement, the architect and client select either a modular manufacturer or a general contractor who is teamed with a modular manufacturer at the beginning of the design process. If only the modular manufacturer is preselected, there are two arrangements which can be made for providing general contracting services:

• The modular manufacturer can provide general contracting directly or through a general contractor hired by the modular manufacturer This provides single-point procurement.

• A general contractor can be selected through design bid-build procurement. The modular manufacturer or manufacturers are specified as a pre-condition of the contract. Specifying the modular manufacturer is similar to specifying a group of qualified manufacturers for any other typical building product.

Negotiated bid procurement allows for the maximum collaboration between the architect, client, and modular manufacturer. Manufacturers’ capabilities and standard systems can efficiently be incorporated in design. (See “Benefits of Collaboration” in the “Design Process” section)

AIA contract documents: A101™, A111™, 143™

Figure 1.3.2: Flow chart of the procurement process for negotiated bid

Overview

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Design-build:

In design-build procurement, the client enters into a single contract with Kullman to provide partial or full design services in addition to construction services. The design-build contract can be signed at various points in the process. There are two permutations of design-build.

Traditional design-build

Kullman provides in-house design services or retains an architect’s services directly. Kullman has developed relationships with various architects or can work with any firm of a client’s choosing. The Architectural & Engineering Services Department at Kullman can provide final construction documents.

Design-build with bridging documents

In design-build with bridging documents, the architect produces bridging documents which Kullman completes in-house. The architectural drawing set can be used as bridging documents when the drawing set has reached a stage of completion between final design development and 50% construction documents. This type of procurement takes advantage of the collaboration benefits described in the following design process section.

This method provides all of the potential benefits of the pre-selection process. Also, this system is a single point of procurement and responsibility for the client.

AIA document: A141™, A142™, A143™

.

Figure 1.3.3: Flow chart of procurement process for traditional design build

Overview

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Figure 1.3.4: Flow chart of procurement process for design build for bridging documents

Figure 1.3.5: Flow chart of procurement process for strategic partnering

Overview

Strategic partnering

The client employs the modular manufacturer for an extended period of time for multiple projects. This is the method of procurement used by clients to acquire communication shelters from Kullman. This method requires a high volume of repetitive work and is therefore not typically used for architectural projects

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There are three basic arrangements which can be made for the preparation of construction documents:

• The architect can produce 100% construction documents. Kullman will produce shop drawings.

• The architect can collaborate with Kullman on the production of construction documents. Kullman is ideally involved in a “review and advise” capacity throughout the process and will typically begin to provide drawings at a point between final design development documents and 50% construction documents.

• The architect can produce bridging documents which Kullman completes in house. This is only applicable when

using a design-build method of procurement.

Use of advanced digital analysis

Kullman collaborates with architects using a wide range of advanced architectural software.

Revit / BIM

For many projects, Kullman uses the software program Revit for Building Information Modeling (BIM). This program expedites the drafting process, decreases document errors, delivers more information to team members, and improves the speed and accuracy of estimating. These benefits result in reduced project duration and cost. Perhaps the greatest advantage of this software program is the way in which it facilitates collaboration between disciplines (including between the architect and Kullman). Collaboration is facilitated through the method of generating the model, the setup of the software

The potential for expanded involvement of Kullman in the design phase of the project is of great benefit for architects, although the method of procurement will affect this collaboration. These benefits include:

Pricing

Kullman can provide up-front pricing guidance on an individual project basis; generate estimates early in the design process; collaborate on value-engineering; and for negotiated bid procurement, can provide an accurate pricing guidance at an earlier stage of design than in typical bidding.

Logistics

Modular solutions depend upon well coordinated logistics. Kullman is solely responsible for means and methods of construction; however, architects must also consider these issues in the design process. When working with Kullman, architects are able to understand with greater transparency what the means and methods of construction will be. This transparency improves design efficiency because the design team can anticipate and/or consult with Kullman on the manufacturing implications of design decisions. This gives the architect a greater ability to predict and monitor work quality.

Resources & consultants

It is important for consultants to be familiar with modular construction. Structural and MEP engineering for modular construction requires specialized knowledge. Although architects can work with any consultant of their choosing, Kullman’s Architectural & Engineering Services Department can recommend consultants who are familiar with modular construction. The department can answer project specific

questions, provide additional resources or updates to the content of this book, and recommend contacts for outside consultant services.

Prototyping / mock-ups

Prototypes or mock-ups allow the client, architect, and contractor to predict the outcome of the project with a high degree of certainty. The ability to create prototypes can be a significant benefit for projects such as hotels, plant rooms, etc. Prototypes can be produced at a much lower cost for modular construction than for in-situ construction. These prototypes or mock-ups can usually be completed in about a month. Modular prototypes are built using the proposed methods of construction, whereas prototypes of in-situ construction cannot exactly replicate the process of construction.

Construction documents Collaboration on construction documents is one of the most significant benefits of working with Kullman. The benefits include:

• The seamless integration of the Kullman Framing System into the design.

• Streamlined specification process.• Kullman has the ability to produce

appropriate systems drawings, thereby eliminating some drawing redundancy.

• Construction documents are combined with shop drawings, thereby eliminating the need to produce the latter as a separate process.

• BIM (Building Information Modeling) and other advanced software programs have multiple benefits discussed in the following section.

Design process

Overview

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Overview

interface, and functions allowing real-time collaboration with architects on the design of a building through an internet capable server.

Shop drawing

The conventional shop drawing method uses the architectural drawings as basis for reinterpretation by tradespeople into their own drawings which must be resubmitted to the architect. Kullman has developed specialized functions within Revit to facilitate the production of shop drawings. This process automatically generates shop drawing packages from the overall BIM. These packages include the details for each part being produced and a bill of materials.

IntelliWall

For projects which are not designed using Revit, Kullman uses the software program IntelliWall to produce the shop drawings of light-gauge steel framing. This program automatically generates the most efficient layout of the steel studs. As well, it automatically generates a bill of materials, and includes this bill with the dimensioned drawings all on one sheet.

SolidWorks

For projects involving custom metal fabrication Kullman uses the software program SolidWorks to provide parametric design capabilities and seamless integration with CNC (Computer Numeric Control) milling.

Figure 1.4.1: Shop drawing created by IntelliWall Figure 1.4.2: Revit model Muhlenberg dormitory

Catia or NavisWorks

For more complex logistics simulations, Kullman uses Catia or NavisWorks, 4D modeling programs, to simulate the on-site building process. These programs allow for the animation of a building model to demonstrate the setting process including the movements of the crane and the delivery of the modules. This dynamic modeling tool identifies any potential conflicts in the setting process.

Figure 1.4.3: Screen shot of Catia 4D model

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Overview

Kullman has adopted lean fabrication practices. This refers to a method of conceptualizing and performing industrial processes in a more efficient way. The lean paradigm began in auto-manufacturing by the Toyota Production System (TPS) and has metamorphosed into the construction industry. “Lean construction” and “lean manufacturing” are separate terms with overlapping meanings and both are influential in the transformation of Kullman’s operation. The focus of “lean” is to reduce all of the various types of waste and to improve overall value for the customer. Kullman has implemented lean production practices in four areas:

Integration of BIM

See “Use of advanced digital analysis” under the previous section on “Design process.”

Input material flow

Contractor-generated takeoffs have been the standard means of estimating and organizing material flow for a specific job. With this conventional approach most of the materials are purchased at one time and stockpiled on site, which risks damage and misuse. In lean production practice, the bill of materials generated by the BIM replaces the much more time-consuming, inaccurate, and often wasteful method of performing takeoffs. Material is ordered using the Kanban Method which results in the elimination of inefficiencies related to material stockpiling. The material for each workstation is delivered directly to the station by the supplier. The material is scheduled to arrive only at the moment that it is needed and it is delivered directly to strategically located points to maximize worker efficiency. This practice reduces unnecessary human motion and material movement.

“One-Piece Flow Manufacturing Method”

This method makes use of a production line with multiple stations where the work is performed. Each one of these stations performs specific tasks so that when the module has passed through all stations it is complete and ready to ship.

Lean fabrication

Integrated subcontractors

In the Kullman factory, outside subcontractors are hired on a project-specific basis. These subcontractors perform tasks which require very specialized skills and are not common to all of the modules produced at the Kullman factory. The subcontractors work in the factory alongside Kullman constructors. Typically fire protection, masonry, and the installation of some highly technical specialized components are performed by subcontractors.

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Craft is defined as the construction of a building with skill and with careful attention to detail. The high level of craft in modular building is the result of: • Increased skill level and cooperation of

constructors.• Repetition of work. • Improved physical access to the work.• Improved working environment.• Access to technology in the factory

environment.• Monitoring and quality control.• Tolerances.

Increased skill level and cooperation of constructors

Union

Kullman is a union workplace. The union ensures that the workers are dedicated craftsmen and fosters a sense of collaboration between the workers.

A highly skilled, specialized workforce

A consistent flow of work is necessary to attract highly skilled production workers to an area. This is the case for both the Kullman factory and urban areas. In the latter, skilled workers are available some of the time but not on a consistent basis. In remote locations, generalization often replaces specialization.

Continual training

Kullman organizes continual training for its workforce. On a weekly basis Kullman hosts either a “Tool Box Talk” for construction products and services, or a “Lunch and Learn” to learn about architectural products.

holding work and for guiding a machine tool to the work. The increased use of jigs is the result of the repetition of factory work, even on customized projects. As well, the increased ability for storage and easy access of items in a factory relative to job site setting improves the viability using jigs.

Improved physical access to the work

Increased proximity of the location of the work to the requisite tools and materials.

Improved exposure of the work

In-situ construction is characterized by the process of concealing previous works or assemblies such as framing with successive layers of material. Conversely, modules expose more surfaces and spaces throughout the construction process. This exposure allows better access to a greater number of building components after the finishes have been applied. Thus, work can be performed or inspected from two sides of an assembly.

Improved ergonomics

The placement of the work and the arrangement of workstations allow the Kullman assembly to work without impediment or strain.

Fewer confinements, interferences, or disruptions Confinement is a difficulty for many construction activities. In modular construction, the work is surrounded by open factory space and not subject to many interior space constraints.

Craft

Overview

Increased stability of the workforce

The majority of Kullman’s workforce is comprised of long-term employees. They are dedicated craftsmen and have many years of experience working together. With in-situ construction, a subcontractor’s workforce may or may not be comprised of long-term employees. On the project site the various subcontractor work forces often have little or no experience working together, and when working under separate contracts, have minimal incentive for cooperation.

Repetition

Optimize The organization and layout of work on an in-situ construction site is temporary and therefore not worth the time investment required in order to optimize as a work environment. The Kullman factory has invested in time-motion studies of individual work stations to find ways of optimizing workflow.

Intuit For workers on an in-situ construction site each job and each day yields a new work environment. Conversely, a factory worker knows exactly where the needed tool will be, and with experience this knowledge becomes intuitive. Consistency allows for uninterrupted concentration on the task at hand and provides time savings. Although it may seem like a minute point, studies and experience indicate that this has significant cumulative effects.

Jig The modular building construction process provides increased opportunities for jigging. A jig is any type of apparatus for

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Overview

Increased security

A secure environment and the elimination of job-site theft allows for greater investment in equipment and tools. Additional security measures such as optical scan access doors are installed at the Kullman factory for use with specific project types such as embassies and military facilities.

Investment in technology

The high volume of buildings produced by Kullman provides a greater economic incentive to invest in technology. This allows high first costs to be offset by lower life-cycle costs. Monitoring and quality control

Accessibility and visibility of work The improved physical access to the work allows for the inspection of any component at any time during the construction process. This is a benefit for owners, architects, building inspectors, quality control staff, and Kullman.

Quality control

For in-situ construction, day-to-day quality control is typically a function of the superintendent or general contractor who is concerned with many aspects of the construction process. Modular construction allows for the ability to more closely monitor work and improve quality. This is the case because in modular construction, quality control is a very methodical and consistent process performed at each assembly station, eliminating error and reducing the time needed to perform the quality checks.

Improved working environment

Indoor work environment The factory environment eliminates outdoor conditions such as uncomfortably high or low temperatures, precipitation, wind, and sun exposure allowing for a predictable workflow and consistent quality of product.

Increased control of pollutants and hazards.

The Kullman factory is monitored and controlled for air quality and ventilation. As well, hazardous or noxious construction activities have their own zones equipped with specialized mitigation and safety equipment, such as spray booths, welding shields, vent hoods, etc.

Improved auxiliary services

The Kullman factory has improved auxiliary services such as bathrooms, a locker-room, and break-room with lunch facilities.

Access to technology

Stationary technologies

Mobile on-site technologies are generally less efficient and accurate than stationary shop technologies. Although many components of in-situ construction are fabricated in remote shops, these items must be dimensionally coordinated, timed for delivery, packaged, shipped, delivered to the site, and unpacked. This laborious process has the effect of increasing cost and encourages the fabrication of components on-site. At the Kullman factory the use of stationary technology and shop methods is maximized throughout construction.

Proximity between the office and the work

For in-situ construction the tasks of estimating, drafting, ordering, and management are performed in an office which is disconnected and often distant from the job site. Conversely, all of Kullman’s staff is located directly adjacent to the factory floor. This allows for quick resolution of any issue that may arise. More importantly, it creates a feedback loop between the planning of work and the realities of the work being performed.

Tolerances

The primary factors in determining tolerances are the inherent characteristics of the material or assembly and craft. Because factory methods improve the craft of construction, tighter tolerance can typically be achieved in modular relative to in-situ construction. In modular construction, tolerances fall into two categories: inner-module tolerances and assembly tolerances. Inner-module tolerance refers to the tolerance of the walls and finishes within a modular frame. Assembly tolerance refers to the tolerance of the module frame itself and the process of placing modules on site.

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Construction scheduling

The ability to perform site work and building construction simultaneously is the greatest time benefit of modular construction. For in-situ construction, most work must proceed sequentially where each construction task is a point along the critical path. In modular construction the modules are fabricated within the time required to complete site work, which means that only the setting and finishing of modules affect the critical path.

Time savings

Overview

Start-upSubstructureSuperstructureInterior workServicesFinishesCommissioningProject Hand Over

Production planningManufacture modulesSiteworksModule settingSite finishingCommissioningProject Hand Over

Small in-situ construction project

Small modular construction project

Weeks

Weeks

5 10 15 20 250

5 10 15 20 250

TRADITIONAL IN-SITU CONSTRUCTION

MODULAR CONSTRUCTION

50%-70% EXPECTED REDUCTION

Figure 1.7.1: Gantt chart comparison between construction schedules for modular and in-situ construction

Factory time efficiency

Factory time efficiency refers to the decreased time required to perform a given task in factory relative to in-situ construction environments.

The “Craft” and “Lean fabrication” sections of this book describe many of the factors which contribute to factory time efficiency.

Kullman has worked diligently to find and capitalize on the diverse opportunities for efficiency. By investing in time-motion studies of their factory work stations, Kullman has been able to analyze each

Figure 1.7.2: Gantt chart comparison of construction schedules for modular and in-situ communication shelters.

In-situ construction

Modular constructionWeeks

Weeks

action of individual constructors and to find numerous ways of maximizing the flow of work. Kullman estimates a 70% reduction in task time for work performed in their factory compared with the same tasks performed in the field.

The production of equipment enclosures at Kullman exemplifies the potential of factory time efficiency. Equipment enclosures are manufactured by Kullman in 4.5 days, whereas a similar structure using in-situ methods might require 60 days. (See “Equipment enclosures” in “Part 4 Examples in Detail”)

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“Time is money.”

This saying is the key to understanding how many of the previously discussed advantages create cost savings in modular construction.

A concept which is useful in considering cost is the value-to-volume ratio. This ratio compares the total value of the finishes, equipment, etc. to the volume of the module. In general, modules which have a high value-to-volume ratio will ensure that there are sufficient opportunities for manufacturing cost savings to offset the relatively fixed cost of transportation and setting.

Hard cost

The definition of hard cost will differ depending on the role or point of view of an individual in the project. This discussion is framed from the client’s point of view, which means that hard cost refers to all construction costs which are paid to the contractor.

Hard cost savings include: • Factory time efficiency. • Lower labor rate.• Decreased general conditions. • Fewer incidents of component damage

or errors.• Fewer building risk claims. • Transportation. Hard cost expenses include:

• Redundancy and robustness. • Factory overhead.

Factory time efficiency

Efficiency helps to lower labor and other costs. For most types of in-situ construction, the direct labor cost accounts for about 50% of the total hard cost. The labor savings for modular construction will be proportional to the reduction of total man-hours required for construction.

Lower labor rate

The rate for labor in urban areas is generally higher than at the Kullman factory. Kullman workers are paid well and yet the cost of their employment is lower than workers performing similar work in many dense urban areas such as Boston or New York City.

Decreased general conditions

General conditions are typically 10 - 12% of total hard cost. Modular construction allows for fewer components, shorter use, and even the elimination of many components of the general conditions. These items include: security service, craning, parking, dumpsters including carting and tipping, and temporary installations such as portable restrooms, site-fence, unloading dock, contractor office/trailer, finished assembly protections, and materials storage.

Fewer incidences of component damage, error, or theft

This refers to the costs accrued when any building component cannot be installed as planned. This problem can occur if building components are defective, incorrectly ordered, damaged during

Cost

Overview

storage, installation, or in the course of subsequent construction activities, or stolen from the job site by workers or intruders.

Many contractors make some budget allotment for these issues. Although problems may occur in any construction practice, the controlled environment of the Kullman factory makes these problems much less common.

Transportation

Modular construction generally has a lower overall transportation demand. Two studies which demonstrate this principle are discussed in greater detail in the “Sustainability” section. For the purpose of this discussion; however, it is sufficient to state that modular construction generally has about a 5% reduction in overall transportation demand.

Redundancy and robustness

Redundancy and robustness requirements lead to additional use of materials. Modular construction often requires up to 5% more overall structural material than similar in-situ construction. While constituting a mild increase in material use, redundancy and robustness have several advantages (see the “Robustness” and “Redundancy” sections).

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Overview

Soft cost

Soft cost refers to other expenditures or lost revenue associated with construction. This would include design fees and financing among other expenditures. The soft cost savings of modular construction would be difficult to quantify in a construction value-engineering format because these savings restructure the entire project delivery and assumptions.

The soft cost savings include:

• Reduced construction loan costs.• Less out-of-service time.• Faster return on initial investment.• Reduced design costs.

Financing

For some projects, lenders may be more willing to authorize a construction loan for a project if it utilizes modular rather than in-situ construction. This is the case for speculative developments because the risk in forecasting future market conditions increases with time. As well, for modular construction there is a lower risk of contractor cost overruns or delays and an increase in the reliability and quality of project outcomes. Some lenders have recognized these benefits. For lenders which have not recognized the effect of modular construction on risk, Kullman has found it beneficial to bring the lenders to the factory to see firsthand the methods

Less out-of-service time

For certain types of projects such as building additions or building replacements, reducing out-of-service time results in a very significant cost savings. Out-of-service time also includes alternative facilities costs. This is the case for many college dormitory projects where alternative housing will have to be found if the project cannot be completed in a relatively short window of time. Faster return on initial investment

For almost all income-producing projects a faster return on investment is a significant financial benefit. This advantage of modular construction must be considered within the context of the personal or institutional goals of the client.

Design process

There are many opportunities for savings related to the design process. The components of the process which may have a reduced cost are:

• Construction cost estimating.• Engineering fees.• Construction documents. • Construction administration.

The exact savings is determined by various factors including the nature of the project and the method of procurement.

and advantages of modular construction.

Reduced construction loan costs

Modular buildings can be built in less time than in-situ construction. This reduces the period of the loan and therefore the interest cost. Interest accrual is not, however, based on the duration of the overall project, but on the duration of each individual draw. For estimating purposes, a 50% reduction in construction duration can be assumed. For many projects the greatest dollar amount savings will come from reduced construction loan costs.

Figure 1.8.2: Modular construction: graph of construction loan draws

Note: For clarity, the diagrams show the same total construction cost.

Draw cycle (2 or 4 weeks)

$

$

Draw cycle (2 or 4 weeks)

Figure 1.8.1: In-situ construction: graph of construction loan draws

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Building performance

Acoustical

Multi-unit modular construction is inherently insulating to sound. Module mate-lines typically occur in between walls and floors. Because each module has its own framing, there can be no direct sound transfer through the light gauge steel framing into adjacent surfaces. Additional acoustic barriers such as acoustical quilts can be easily and efficiently integrated between modules.

Thermal and moisture

Attaching the insulation and vapor barrier in the factory is preferred because a much higher quality installation can be achieved in the factory environment. All of the advantages discussed in the “Craft” section play a part in this; however, “Improved Access to the Work” is of particular benefit in regard to insulation installation. Ideally, cladding is attached in the factory for various reasons, including as a means of protecting the insulation from damage during transport and placing.

Air infiltration is a greater component of thermal performance than is often recognized. Modular construction generally achieves a lower rate of air infiltration, which is the result of many of the issues discussed in the “Craft” section.

Robustness

The term robustness refers to the additional structural capacities of modular buildings in order to withstand road vibration, vehicle braking, and the craning forces. Modular buildings are built to be stronger structurally than a similar in-situ building. The benefits of robustness include increased strength and durability, seismic resistance, and future additional loading capacity.

Figure 1.9.1: Sound transfer through structures

In-situ construction Modular construction

Overview

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Overview

Modular construction provides inherent qualities and opportunities which can increase the sustainability of a building project.

There are many ways to gauge the environmental impact of a building. The most comprehensive method is the life cycle assessment. There are, however, other metrics and tools used to gauge performance which are more prescriptive and broadly instrumentalized as a mandate or incentive. Some of the various metrics which are particularly applicable to modular construction are: • LEED® (Leadership in Energy and

Environmental Design).• CHPS (Collaborative for High

Performance Schools).• EnergyStar.• Healthy Homes.

The list of clients requiring LEED® in some form has been growing exponentially. For this reason the discussion of sustainability in this guide is organized around LEED-NC. There are, however, various aspects of sustainability particularly relevant to modular construction which are not recognized by the LEED® system.

LEED

This section refers to the LEED-NC® Green Building Rating System for New Construction and Major Renovation, Version 2.2, unless otherwise noted. In the following section, the title of each credit is underlined and italicized. The two-letter acronym at the beginning of each title indicates the category under which that credit is classified. The acronyms and

categories used in the following section are:

• SS (Sustainable Sites)• EA (Energy & Atmosphere)• MR (Materials & Resources)• EQ (Indoor Environmental Quality),

(Disclaimer: the USGBC does not endorse Kullman and does not ensure compliance with any of the credits discussed.) Modular construction in general facilitates achieving many LEED® credits. Kullman in particular has gone further to incorporate sustainability into its practices and will help with the documentation of LEED® credits.

Technological investment

Many LEED® credits directly and/or indirectly encourage a greater level of technological investment in the building. Modular construction facilitates technological investment in various ways. Compared with in-situ construction, modular construction can integrate technological components into a building more economically. Thus technologically complex buildings are among the best suited for modular construction.

Construction pollution

SS Prerequisite 1: Construction Activity Pollution Prevention

This credit requires the creation of an “Erosion and Sedimentation Control Plan” (ESCP) in compliance with the 2003 EPA General Construction General Permit.

Modular construction may help buildings to achieve this credit in two ways:

Sustainability

• The ESCP requires consideration of all construction activity which produces significant particulate matter, pollutants, and run-off, as well as the storage of all materials on site. Modular construction eliminates the vast majority of on-site building activities considered in the ESCP.

• Foundation work is a primary concern of the ESCP. For small modular projects, precast foundations may be an option which reduces foundation work.

Urban development

SS Credit 2: Development Density and Community Connectivity

This credit requires development in dense, typically urban areas. Site selection is typically considered separately from construction type; however, modular construction may increase the viability of building in urban areas. Some benefits include increased economic value due to inflated labor cost in urban areas, decreased disruption to adjacent sites and to the public, and less roadway congestion.

Site disturbance

SS Credit 5.1: Site Development: Protect or Restore Habitat

This credit requires that “greenfields: … [must] limit all site disturbance to 40’ beyond the building perimeter.... [or for] previously developed or graded sites, restore or protect a minimum of 50% of the site area (excluding the building footprint) with native or adapted vegetation.”

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Overview

For greenfield development, modular construction will significantly limit site disturbance. Typically the crane can be located on a roadway or parking lot which makes this credit easy to achieve. For previously graded sites, replanting will require less effort if the soil has not been compacted by construction activity or covered with construction debris. Building configuration

SS Credit 5.2: Site Development: Maximize Open Space

This credit has various options for compliance; however, building vertically is, in many cases, the best way to achieve this credit.

Modular construction has an increased potential for savings in vertical applications, because a higher percentage of the overall construction is composed of factory produced elements.

Energy performance

EA: Prerequisite 2: Minimum Energy PerformanceEA: Credit 1: Optimize Energy Performance

This credit requires specific benchmarks of energy performance.

Air infiltration and the installation quality of the insulation are the two main benefits of modular construction in terms of improving energy performance. (See “Building Performance”)

Job-site recycling

MR: Credit 2.1: Construction Waste Management: Divert 50% from Disposal MR: Credit 2.2: Construction Waste Management: Divert 75% from Disposal This credit requires recycling of construction materials. Kullman meets the requirements of this credit on every building regardless of the pursuit of LEED® certification. At Kullman all metal, paper, and plastic is recycled. These materials are stored until the full container capacity is reached ensuring transportation efficiency. At Kullman recycling is a means of saving money. For in-situ construction, even when this credit is achieved it typically comes at a cost to the building project. This is the case for various reasons: subcontractors are not trained to separate recyclable items; multiple types of material are swept up together; there is little room to separate and store various materials; and finally carting companies are less willing to pick-up and transport relatively small quantities of materials.

Recycled content

MR: Credit 4.1: Recycled Content: 10% (post-consumer + ½ pre-consumer) MR: Credit 4.2: Recycled Content: 20% (post-consumer + ½ pre-consumer)

The easiest way to achieve and document this credit is in cases where primary structural material meets the recycled content benchmark. Although the information shown below is based on general 2006 data it demonstrates the extent to which steel exceeds the requirements of this credit.

Steel stud framing:(24.6% post-consumer + ½ 6.6% pre-consumer) = 27.9% which is greater than 10% or 20%.

Wide flange structural steel framing:(56.6% post-consumer + ½ 32.7% pre-consumer) = 72.95% which is greater than 10% or 20%.

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Regional material sources

MR: Credit 5.1: Regional Materials: 10% Extracted, Processed, and Manufactured Regionally MR: Credit 5.2: Regional Materials: 20% Extracted, Processed, and Manufactured Regionally

This credit defines “Regionally” as within a 500 mile radius. Kullman sources the majority of its materials regionally. If the project site is located within the map shown (Figure 1.9.1) it will likely qualify for this credit. Often design teams do not seek to earn this credit because of the extensive documentation requirements. Kullman will provide the necessary documentation.

Forestry practices

MR: Credit 7: Certified Wood

This credit requires the sourcing of wood which is Forest Stewardship Council ® (FSC) certified.

Kullman works with suppliers who stock FSC-certified wood and can easily obtain it for any project seeking this credit.

Indoor air quality (IAQ) EQ: Credit 3.1: Construction IAQ Management Plan: During Construction EQ: Credit 3.2: Construction IAQ Management Plan: Before Occupancy

This credit requires that an Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) management plan be created and followed for the safety of construction workers.

The Kullman factory is a very safe and well-ventilated place. All noxious construction activities take place in the spray room or using a vent hood. The Kullman factory can easily comply with even the most stringent IAQ management plan. Only activities occurring on the job site would have to be considered for LEED® reporting purposes. This means that factory construction is exempt from consideration of this requirement. Rather than a possible loop-hole allowing the intent of the credit to be undermined, this should be understood by the design team as a means of simplifying the submission requirements.

Figure 1.10.1: 500 mile radius from Kullman factory (the map will have to be re-centered to a project’s specific location)

Toxicity

“EQ: Credit 4.1: Low-emitting Materials: Adhesives and Sealants” “EQ: Credit 4.2: Low-emitting Materials: Paints and Coatings” EQ: Credit 4.4: Low Emitting Materials: Composite Wood & Agrifiber Products

These credits have various requirements for materials which are “applied on site”

Kullman avoids the use of highly emitting materials wherever possible and can comply with the requirements prescribed for achieving both of these credits. Technically, only job site applications are considered by LEED®. If no portion of a material is applied on-site, the credits are not available. However, if any portion of the material is applied on site, the entire application of the material (including the portion applied in the factory) must be evaluated.

Acoustics EQ: Prerequisite 3: Minimal Acoustical Performance (LEED for Schools Only) EQ: Credit 9: Enhanced Acoustical Performance (LEED for Schools Only)

Mold prevention EQ: Credit 10: Mold Prevention (LEED for Schools Only)

These credits only apply to LEED for Schools, but it is important to remember that typical modular construction strategies and materials lend themselves to increased acoustical performance and resistance to mold, independent of building typology.

Overview

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Design for end of life

This is a key concept of sustainability. In order to design for end of life, a building must contain recyclable materials as well as have the ability for these materials to be easily recovered. Steel construction is inherently the most recyclable type of construction; however, it is often difficult to recover steel from in-situ construction. Modular buildings can be more easily deconstructed, removed from a site, and recycled as raw material stock. Modular buildings also have the unique advantage of being easily relocated and/or factory refurbished.

Waste

Although job-site recycling is considered by LEED®, Kullman exceeds the prescriptive requirements and, in fact, reduces initial waste in various ways. Both the lean method of construction and the reduction of disposable items which are part of the general conditions contribute to initial waste reduction.

Disruption

Modular construction decreases disruptions to adjacent or undisturbed sites. LEED® does recognize impact to greenfields; however, modular construction exceeds the prescriptive requirements. Furthermore, modular construction reduces the quantity and duration of disruption to any type of site.

Transportation

Modular construction generally reduces the overall amount of transportation of people and materials required for construction. The amount of transportation required is variable for every project. As well, variability exists in the identification of correlative in-situ construction projects and the measurement of transportation.

Studies performed by the Steel Construction Institute in the UK found a 40% reduction in transportation demand. As well, Michele Kaufman Designs reported finding a decrease in transportation demand in the construction of modular homes compared with construction of the same home using in-situ methods.

Innovation & design

The nature of modular construction leaves plenty of room to gain LEED points for Innovation & Design. Up to four points can be earned by far exceeding required goals on established points in earlier sections or by proposing, accomplishing, and documenting something truly innovative.

Principles not considered by LEED

Factory time efficiency

The consumption of resources for day-to-day living comes at an environmental cost. In this way, labor is an environmental resource which can be used in terms of efficiency. The factory time efficiency of modular construction means that this most precious resource can be used with the greatest possible efficiency. Kullman estimates that the man-hours required to construct a modular building may be as low as half those needed to construct an in-situ building.

Longevity

Longevity is an important and often overlooked component of sustainability. One way of considering the environmental impact of a building is by amortizing the inputs of its construction by the length of the building’s useful life. In this way, longevity is a primary determinate of the sustainability of a building. Structures built by Kullman are durable and of high quality. Although the ultimate longevity of a building is rarely predeterminable, quality and durability are two of the primary factors influencing longevity.

Overview

Overview

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Part 2 - Modular design

Massing

Kullman Frame System (KFS)

Fire protection

Architectural design of modules

Bathroom pods

Codes and regulations

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38

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Massing

Types of assembly

Modular construction has evolved to the point where architects can initially conceptualize building form irrespective of the modular unit. Form generation in this manner may be applicable to certain project types or architectural ideologies. Other architects may choose to use the tectonics of modular building in the generation of form.

Modular Design

Figure 2.1.1: Module structural massing

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Non-attached Semi-attached Attached

SoloPods within

other framework

Field joint Mate Stack

Shift

Field

Turn Void Shift

Figure 2.1.3: Elemental module relationships

Turn

Modularization

The KFS system is flexible enough to accommodate any conceived architectural form as the perimeter of a module can have any imaginable relationship to the structural frame.

With some modification, almost any architectural form can be modularized; however, as stated earlier, best results are achieved when designs are initially conceived as modular.

Module Width: 13’ Common Maximum 16’ Oversized Maximum

Module Length: 52’ Common Maximum 60’ Oversized Maximum

Module Height: 12’ Maximum Building Height: 12 Stories Maximum

*Some states may allow larger module sizes to be transported overroad (see Transportation section).

The diagram at left shows a number of possible combinations and orientations of modules. An incredible diversity of form can be derived from these very few elemental types of interfacing modules.

Figure 2.1.2: Irregular modular floor plan

Modular Design

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Kullman Frame System (KFS)

KFS Building Module

KFS Interstitial Truss Module

Pod

Figure 2.2.3: Types of frames

Structure

The Kullman Frame System is the product of 80 years of experience in producing modular buildings. Kullman has developed this frame system through research and collaboration with architects and engineers.

This system offers advantages of compact member sizes, minimal welding, high rigidity, and the fewest possible column and connection points. The KFS is based on a Vierendeel truss which spans to the module ends so that the corner columns carry vertical loads to the foundations. Consequently the ends are the only required connection points.

Modular Design

Figure 2.2.2: Distribution of forces (load path) in stacked modules which bear through the four corner columns

Figure 2.2.1: Distribution of forces (load path) in stacked modules using conventional structure which bear directly at each column

Since all loads are transferred exclusively through the end columns, openings and glazing can be configured without consideration of shear forces.

Interstitial truss module

A compact version of the KFS can be used between vertically stacked modules to provide structural support for larger clear spans and additional space to run services.

Non-load-bearing pod

Pods include bathrooms, plant rooms, or other modules which do not comprise any part of the building super structure. These types of structures are typically built using light gauge steel (LGS) frames.

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Figure 2.2.4: Exploded axonometric of the Kullman frame

Modular Design

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Modular Design

GWB

Fire rating for the KFS is typically achieved with a UL rated GWB enclosure. For a two hour fire rating, walls and ceilings are finished with two layers of GWB creating a rated separation between the occupied spaces and the structural steel frame. To stop flame spread within the mate-line cavity, mineral wool is packed between steel members during the setting process. Where openings are placed or systems pass through the module wall the two hour encasement of the structure must be maintained.

Thin-film intumescent coating (intumescent paint)

The application of intumescent paint is particularly useful because it requires virtually no building volume and can be more efficiently applied in a factory setting than in the field. This method is expensive if it is used to cover large areas of a structure; however, for selective applications in modular construction it is often viable. Bolted or riveted connections cannot occur over intumescent coated steel, because this breaks the required fire protection. This necessitates that fire rating be applied in the field. Intumescent coatings are applied in the Kullman factory and/or on site by a specially licensed subcontractor. At connection plate locations either sprayed fire resistant material or GWB is installed after the connection plates are installed.

Figure 2.3.2: 2 hr. fire-rated section detail

Figure 2.3.1: Fire protection - 2 Layer GWB liner

Fire protection

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Interior openings between modules

Typical: 8’-0”Possible w/o modification: 9’-6”

Clear span openings are possible but will require one of the following:

• Increased beam depth

• Incorporate interstitial truss module

• Weld frames across mate lines

Architectural design of modules

Figure 2.4.4 Cross section showing clear span

Modular Design

Figure 2.4.3 Longitudinal section showing clear span

Figure 2.4.2 Longitudinal section showing clear span

Figure 2.4.1 Longitudinal section showing typical opening

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Wall thickness

Wall thicknesses vary depending on fire rating and location of the wall within the module. These dimensions assume the use of light gauge steel studs and 5/8” gypsum wall board.

Interior Wall (unrated): 5 1/4”

Interior Wall (2 hr fire rated): 6 1/2”

Interior Wall on Mate-Line: 8 5/16”

Exterior Wall (w/o cladding): 9 3/4”

Exterior Wall (w/ masonry cladding): 1’-3 3/8” Mate-line GapsThe term mate-line refers to the gap between structural members of adjacent modules.

Plan: 1/2”Elevation/Section: 3/4”

Figure 2.4.5 Plan section of typical mate line wall condition

Modular Design

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Plan detail (2 Hour Rated As Shown)

For 0 or 1 Hour rating remove one layer of GWB.

Figure 2.4.6 Typical plan detail

Modular Design

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Exterior wall section detail(2 Hr Rated As Shown)

For 0 or 1 Hour rating remove one layer of GWB.

Figure 2.4.7 Typical section detail

Modular Design

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Mate-line section detail (2 Hr Rated As Shown)

For 0 or 1 Hour rating remove one layer of GWB.

Figure 2.4.8 Typical Mate-line section detail

Modular Design

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Modular Design

Roofs

There are several options available for roofing modular buildings.

1 Separate module: The roof can be constructed of independent modules which are set on the building on site.

2 Integrated: The roof can be integrated into the construction of a module in the factory (ideal for flat-roof and low-sloping roofs).

3 Hybrid: This option is a combination of the separate module and integrated approach. The overhang and a portion of the roof are included in the occupiable module and a separate roof module is set on site. This method is useful for more steeply pitched roofs.

4 In-situ: The roof can be constructed using pre-fabricated trusses which are placed on site. This works well for multi-unit construction.

5 On site off building: The roof can be constructed conventionally off the building then lifted into place. This is ideal for multi-unit construction with available site space.

1a 1b

2 3

4 5Figure 2.4.9: Roof types

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Foundations

Typically, KFS modules place a point load rather than a distributed load on a foundation. Therefore, slab-on-grade is not a typical solution for modular construction. Rather, perimeter and piloti foundation systems are the best solutions for modular construction.

KFS modules are set onto 3/4” or 1” steel bearing plates which are embedded in the concrete foundation. The leveling tolerance of the steel plates is ±1/16”. Shims can be used to achieve this level. The specification of cast-in-place concrete

Figure 2.4.11: Piloti foundation

Figure 2.4.10: Foundation detail Figure 2.4.12: Perimeter basement foundation

Modular Design

for modular construction will stipulate a tolerance of ± 1/8” . This allows for a better application of the finishes and minimizes the amount of shimming required.

In most cases the major consideration is providing an accessible crawl space underneath the bottom module to allow for service connections. The minimum crawl space height is typically determined by building code prohibitions on inaccessible crawl spaces. An inaccessible crawl space is typically defined as any space with less than 18” between ground and bottom of joist. Ideally, crawl spaces should be no less than 3’ high if connection of the MEP services are to be made.

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Vertical circulation

Elevator shaft and stair modules can be configured in a number of ways to suite an individual project. The shaft modules can be constructed by Kullman to suit any standard type of elevator.

Figure 2.4.13: Possible elevator configuration

Modular Design

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Figure 2.4.14: Possible stair configuration (facing wall removed for clarity)

Figure 2.4.15: Typical stair detail (steel with concrete treads)

Modular Design

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ModuleSupply lineEnd useDuctConnectionLocation in moduleMate-line

Access panel

Service chase

Figure 2.4.17: Field connection shafts; adjacent fixtures

Figure 2.4.16: Field connection shafts; remote fixtures

Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems

Decentralized systemsFactory installation of mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) is one of the most significant cost-time benefits of modular construction; however, the configuration of MEP systems requires some special consideration for modular construction. Most in-situ construction utilizes centralized distribution of services whereas a common strategy in modular construction is to decentralize systems. There are various reasons for and benefits of this approach. The vertical dimensions of modular building components are necessarily limited by over-the-road clearances. A typical module maximum of 12’ will yield a clear interior dimension of approximately 10’8”. This is too little to allow a conventional three-foot-deep ceiling plenum while maintaining adequate ceiling heights. Another reason for decentralizing MEP systems is that when each modular unit is more or less self-contained, it allows architects to adopt more of a plug-and-play approach to design, construction, and addition. Furthermore, decentralizing avoids some of the complexities in the routing of systems and making field connections. The final benefit of the decentralization of systems is improved environmental control. This is the case because occupants are able to avoid using mechanical HVAC unless it is truly needed.

Modular Design

Hookups For most in-situ construction types, MEP installation occurs before finishes are applied. Although this is also the case for modular construction, there is an additional step of connecting the services after a module has been placed. This step requires field access where systems are connected. Removable floor or wall panels allow connections to be made between modules. The design of access points and chase enclosures can be integrated with the building’s finishes. This is a useful feature of any building as it facilitates any needed maintenance and future systems replacement. In general, shafts and chases should be sized for tool and assembly clearances and may serve adjacent modules. See figures 2.4.16 and 2.4.17.

Interstitial moduleFor buildings where high-volume, low-velocity duct work and other space intensive systems are required, the plenum area is typically constructed as an independent and fully integrated module. This is ideal for laboratories and hospital applications. See figure 2.4.19.

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Figure 2.4.18: Interstitial module between a group of stacked modules and an in-situ constructed volume

Figure 2.4.19: Interstitial module between each occupied module

Heating and cooling systems Package wall unitsMany modular buildings and especially temporary modular buildings such as classrooms use wall-mountTM units. In the past these systems have been noisy and inefficient, and did not ventilate well. Today these systems have been completely re-engineered and can provide quiet, highly efficient HVAC.

TerminalAnother strategy is to use terminal conditioner units. These systems use a centralized condenser unit which pipes water to terminal conditioner units. The general mechanical efficiency of these units make this alternative a more environmentally sustainable solution

High-velocity small ductA third approach is to use high-velocity small duct systems. These systems have a centralized conditioner unit and use small flexible ducts to supply air to the desired location. The size of the duct reduces the need for large shaft spaces.

PlenumA fourth option is to increase the space between modules to create a ventilation plenum. This has great practical benefit and can be utilized as a piping and conduit chase as well. See figure 2.4.18.

RadiantRadiant heating and cooling systems are effective because they use very little vertical space, are best suited to installation in a controlled factory environment and have the additional benefit of reduced energy use.

Electrical

Electrical is the simplest service connection in modular construction. Typically a junction box is located on each module which is connected to the main power supply.

Plumbing

Assuming adequate access, plumbing can be easily connected in modular construction. See figure 2.4.16 and figure 2.4.17. Pipe “union” or torch sweating are commonly used.

Modular Design

50

MEP chases

Vertically aligned chases can service multiple units; chase size is dependent on the number of utilities contained within.

Access panel (min. 20 in.) or door allows connection of utilities between modules after setting process.

Note: Depending on design, MEP services can potentially be constructed within a typical 6” wall.

Figure 2.4.20: Plan section of service shaft

Modular Design

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ElectricalHot WaterCold WaterWaste WaterToilet VentAir VentConnection Collars

Figure 2.4.21: MEP connections

Modular Design

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Bathroom pods are designed and customized to the users’ and architectural needs. They are manufactured as individual pods in Kullman’s controlled, lean manufacturing facility. Depending on the clients’ selection and application, the structure is manufactured either out of GRP (Glass Reinforced Plastic) or light gauge steel frame with thin composite floor technology.

The mechanical, electrical and HVAC systems are pre-installed as well as all finish materials including sinks, toilets, tile, showers, tubs, shower curtains, towel racks, and finished flooring. Once the unit is manufactured to code, completed and inspected, the door is locked and it is packaged for delivery. The pods are delivered to the site and only four connections need to be made: hot and cold water, electrical, wasteline and any necessary venting.

Figure 2.5.1: Bathroom pod components

Modular Design

Bathroom pods

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Codes and regulations

Code and administrative law

All local building codes governing construction apply to modular buildings.

Because modular buildings are constructed at a distance from municipal building inspectors, a third-party inspector system has been established. The administrative code of each state makes provisions for this method of inspection.

In the permit drawing set, modular and in-situ components should be represented together as a final whole. However the drawing should still clearly differentiate site work components from modular components. Copies of these sets of drawings must be sent to the local building department as would be the case for any building. An additional set of the same drawings should be sent to Kullman which will forward them to TRA, their third party inspector, for review.

Inspection

At Kullman the independent third-party inspector is T.R. Arnold and Associates Inc. (TRA). The Quality Assurance department within KBC is inspected by TRA regularly. TRA certifies the Quality Assurance program which works with a level of autonomy within the KBC factory. At the Kullman factory various plates and insignia are attached to each module. The required plates are shown in Figures 2.6.1,2,3. The local building inspector is responsible for checking all in-situ construction and verifying that the modules display the requisite plates and insignia.

Approval

There are two methods of approval for modular projects: discrete model approval and systems basis approval. The projects described in this book use discrete model approval. This system of approval is relevant to most architecture projects whereby construction documents and specifications are generated for a specific building and approved on that basis. The systems basis approval is used for pre-designed systematized modules where the approval for each individual building would become redundant. This system is used with high volume products such as the equipment shelters built by Kullman.

Notes:For modular buildings, an organization called The Interstate Industrialized Buildings Commission (IBC) has sought to create modular code uniformity between states; however, currently only NJ, MN, RI, and ND are members. For Manufactured Housing, on the other hand, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) has developed a national code, (the Manufactured Home Construction and Safety Standards) which supersedes all local or state codes. It is important to remember that because residential modular buildings do not have an integrated chassis, this code does not apply to their construction.

Figure 2.6.3: Data plate

Figure 2.6.2: Code plate

Figure 2.6.1: TRA insignia

Modular Design

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Part 3 - Construction process

Factory

Setting

Finishing

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Factory

OfficeDinerLocker roomBreak roomReceiving areaLine 1 - CommunicationsGantryLoading jib craneTrack / wheel railSteel/weldingLine 3 - Component assemblyLine 2 - High baySecure areaCNC shopWood shopMetal shopSpray boothOvenRailroadCommand station

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Construction Process

Figure 3.1.1: Kullman factory plan schematic

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Construction Process

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SiteFactory assembly lineModular frame on jigTrack for modular buildings

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Welding of an LGS framePoured concrete floorWorkstationCommand stationCNC shopCNC metal fabrication machine

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Setting

Responsibilities and planning

Kullman coordinates all of the complexities discussed in this part of the book. It is important, however, for architects and clients to understand the building process. In doing so, architects can more effectively design for modular and clients can better understand the cost and value of modular construction.

Responsibility for the job site is typically transferred from the general contractor to Kullman from the setting process onward. Kullman will then coordinate all on-site finishing. This provides the most clear division of responsibility for all of the parties involved.

There are exceptions to this division of responsibility for highly specialized on site construction required after the setting of the modules such as elevator instillation, as well as pods delivered to in-situ construction sites.

The architect is to provide Kullman with a site plan showing enough context to locate crane and 18-wheeler approach. The final craning diagram will be developed by KBC and the craning company. In the example at right the architect’s site plan is in black and white and Kullman’s contribution is in red. For many projects a simple spreadsheet or Gantt Chart and craning site plan are sufficient for planning.

Figure 3.2.1: Craning site plan: Pierson College, New Haven, CT

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Figure 3.2.2: Stills from a Catia animation of the Muhlenberg setting sequence

4D modeling

More complex projects may require that a digital model simulation be generated which animates the setting process.The images shown here were taken from an animation produced for the Muhlenberg dormitory project. In this case, the model identified a conflict between the movement of the crane’s boom and previously set modules. The issue was easily corrected; however, it would have been costly to correct this conflict if it had not been identified until the crane was on-site in its originally planned location.

Construction Process

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Transportation

The Transportation and Field Service Department at Kullman coordinates the shipping of modules. The maximum size of modules is limited by individual state laws governing semi-trailer transportation. As well, city and county governments sometimes impose additional regulations. These laws place various restrictions on transportation such as permit requirements, maximum dimensions, times of day, roads, route reporting requirements, and maximum weights. Modules can be most economically transported if they do not require a permit and/or escort. There are differences between states in terms of permit requirements.

Dimensions below are generalized. More specific dimensions are listed by state on the opposite page.

Max Module Weight: 44,000 lbs.

Double Drop Trailer

Single Drop Trailer

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B

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Double Drop

40’-0”

13’-0”

2’-0”

15’-0”

13’-0”

Single Drop

50’-0”

12’-0”

3’-2”

15’-2”

13’0”

Figure 3.2.3: Truck and module dimensions

Construction Process

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* Determined entirely by route travelled( ) Indicates maximum possible dimension which requires permits and/or escorts

State Width Height Length State Width Height Length

Alabama 12' (16') * (16') 76' (150') Montana 12' 6" (18') * (17') * (120')

Alaska 10' (22') * 100' (*) Nebraska 12' (*) 14' 6" (*) 85' (*)

Arizona 11' (14') * (16') * (120') Nevada 8' 6" (17') * (16') 105' (*)

Arkansas 12' (20') 15' (17') 90' (*) New Hampshire 12' (16') 13' 6" (16') 80' (100')

Califonia 12' (16') * (17') 85' (135') New Jersey 14' (18') 14' (16') 100' (120')

Colorado 11' (17') 13' (16') 85' (130') New Mexico * (20') * (18') * (190')

Connecticut 12' (16') 14' (*) 80' (120') New York 12' (14') 14' (*) 80' (*)

Delaware 12' (15') 15' (17' 6") 85' (120') North Carolina 12' (15') 14' 5" (*) 100' (*)

District of Columbia 12' (*) 13' 6" (*) 80' (*) North Dakota 14' 6" (18') * (18') 75' (120')

Flordia 12' (18') 14' 6" (18') 95' (*) Ohio 14' (*) 14' 10" (*) 90' (*)

Georgia 12' (16') 15' 6" (*) 75' (*) Oklahoma 12' (16') * (17') 80' (*)

Idaho 12' (16') 14' 6" (16') 100' (120') Oregon 9' (16') * 95' (*)

Illinois * (18') * (18') * (175') Pennsylvania 13' (16') 14' 6" (*) 90' (160')

Indiana 12' 4" (16') 14' 6" (17') 90' (180') Rhode Island 12' (*) 14' (*) 80' (*)

Iowa 8' (16' 6") 14' 4" (20') 85' (120') South Carolina 12' (*) 13' 6" (16') (125')

Kansas * (16' 6") * (17') * (126') South Dakota 10' (*) 14' 6" (*) *

Kentucky 10' 6" (16') 14' (*) 75' (125') Tennessee 10' (16') 15' (*) 75' (120')

Louisana 10' (18') * (16 '5") 75' (125') Texas 14' (20') 17' (18' 11") 110' (125')

Maine 8' 6" (18') 8' 6" (*) 80' (125') Utah 10' (17') 16' (17' 6") 105' (120')

Maryland 13' (16') 14' 6" (16') 85' (120') Vermont 15' (*) 14' (*) 100' (*)

Massachuetts 12' (14') 13' 9" (15') 80' (130') Virginia 10' (*) 15' (*) 75' (150')

Michigan 12' (16') 14' 6" (15') 90' (150') Washington 12' (16') 14' (16') *

Minnesota 12' 6" (16') * 95' (*) West Virgina 10' 6" (16') 15' (*) 75' (*)

Mississippi 12' (16' 6") * (17') 53' (*) Wisconsin 14' (16') * 80' (110')

Missouri 12' 4" (16') 15' 6" (17' 6") 90' (150') Wyoming * (18') * (17') * (110')

Figure 3.2.4: State overroad dimensional transportation limitations

Construction Process

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Temporary weatherproofing

Any section of a module which would be exposed during transport is covered by a custom made polyethylene sheet or tarp. These covers require some engineering, namely the quantity and placement of air vents and the method and spacing of attachment points.

Figure 3.2.5: Tarped module ready for transport

Construction Process

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Rigging and craning

The selection of the type of crane is based on weight and reach. The craning of modules requires a crane of greater capacity than those commonly kept on-site during in-situ construction projects. Site cranes often have a capacity of less than 5 tons whereas the cranes used for lifting modules often have a capacity in the range of 40 - 75 tons.

Various types of rigs or spreader bars can be used to lift modules. The various types of rigs each have their own advantages. Although direct lifting is an option for smaller modules, spreader bars are used for most projects in order to keep forces perpendicular to the module and reduce the possibility of introducing unwanted bending forces within the module.

Figure 3.2.7: 75 ton luffing jib crane, commonly used in modular construction.

Construction Process

Figure 3.2.6: Module craning with spreader bar

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Placing For most modular buildings, modules will be lifted directly from the flatbed trailer into their final location. Often a scissor lift or boom lift is used to access the module interfaces. Kullman’s on-site crew will guide the modules into place and make the connection. Ideally, the on-site work process does not impede the maximum workflow of the crane. As stated before, “time is money” but especially so when renting a large mobile crane.

Once the riggings are in place, the maneuvering of modules “on-hook” is typically performed by one or two guide-ropes. Weather conditions will prevent the placing of modules when wind speeds exceed 10 mph. The 1/2” space between the module frames allows the placing process to occur with greater speed. Finally, any joints or openings which remain exposed at the end of the day are covered with a tarp to protect against possible rain damage.

Various arrangements can be made for placing non-structural pods. Typically this process is coordinated entirely by the general contractor. Dimensional coordination is triple-checked. As well, the movement of a pod through the site must be well planned. Where the pod must move across a floor plate, the weight of the pods must be calculated as a live load.

Figure 3.2.8: Setting of a module

Construction Process

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Lifting

Until recently Kullman used bolt-on lifting lugs which were removed before the placement of adjacent modules; however, the time required to remove the lugs slowed the workflow and caused waste.

The new lifting procedure uses a pin and loop system (patent pending) that is faster and easier to manage. The top faces of the corner columns are drilled in the factory to receive a lifting pin. A looped cable is lowered inside the column, the pin is inserted through the loop, rotated and secured. After the module is set, the pin is removed and reused for the next lift.

Figure 3.2.9: Lifting pin and loop disengaged

Figure 3.2.10: Lifting pin and loop engaged

Construction Process

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Stacking

KFS modules use a tool-and-die based interlocking system (patent pending) that greatly increases accuracy and reduces setting time. A circular pin welded to the base of each corner column fits into the columns of the module below it. The tapered pin locates the module below, the diamond pin registers alignment in one direction, and the two floating pins allow for error.

Figure 3.2.11: Setting pin section

Figure 3.2.12: Setting pin identification, underside of module

Figure 3.2.13: Blind rivet section

Construction Process

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Figure 3.2.14: Stacking of modules

Figure 3.2.15: Fastening of modules

Construction Process

Fastening

Modules are fastened to a 3/8” steel plate with a 1-1/2” stiffening lip at top and bottom using 5/8” blind rivets (patent pending). These rivets have a sheer strength of 15,950 lbs and tensile strength of 10,250 lbs.

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Construction Process

Fireproofing of fastening plate

Fireproofing of the connection plate can be achieved in a number of ways. If the module wall build-up is sufficiently deep, a piece of the same fireproofing board as used in the module can be placed over the plate. Alternatively, the plate can be sprayed or trowelled with fireproofing material.

Figure 3.2.16: Connection plate fireproofing option

Module fastening end-to-end

Modules can also be fastened together end-to-end, using 5/8” bolts and a 1/2” steel connection plate. This method requires slightly more time and labor, as bolts need to be hand-tightened.

Figure 3.2.17: End-to-end fastening option

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Finishing

Ideally, only minimum field finishing will be required. Applying the maximum number of finishes in the factory ensures a high value-to-volume ratio and results in the maximum financial benefits of using modular construction; however some field work is required in order to cover the interfaces and mate-lines. All of the material required for field finishing is included in the shipment of the modules as ship-loose. Typically, Kullman performs the finishing because it simplifies the construction process and the coordination, as well as consolidating responsibility. When the general contractor is involved in the finishing process, Kullman prefers to use a closed-door installation, which means that the modular units will not require any finishing after the placing process.

Cladding

Installation of the cladding can either occur in the factory, on site, or a combination of the two. It is generally not possible to install all of the cladding in the factory because of the typical riveting and other setting requirements. On the other hand, the cladding can be installed entirely in- situ using conventional techniques. This allows for a seamless application of the cladding and eliminates any mate-line constraints of the cladding system. The modular unit will, however, require more protection during transit and will have a lower value-to-volume ratio. Most projects use a combination of the two approaches whereby portions of the cladding are installed in the factory and infill pieces can be placed in situ. This approach will require some coordination and should be considered during the design process.

Figures 3.3.1: Masonry facade before site finishing

Figures 3.3.2: Masonry facade after site finishing

Construction Process

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Construction Process

systems do not require any modification or special consideration for modular construction. These systems facilitate placing some panels on the building in the factory and then placing infill panels on site.

For progressive systems the installation must occur in sequence typically from the base of the building moving upward. A number of clip systems fall into this category. If these systems are to be applied in the factory and on site, special provisions must be made to provide construction access to the mate-line. The options include:• Finishing the bottommost module in the

factory and applying the cladding to upper floors on-site.

• Designing a reveal of sufficient height to allow a field-installed panel to be dropped in.

• Designing a special detail to allow field installed panels to be directly attached. Gluing is often a viable option.

Materials

MasonryMasonry facades can be constructed in the factory on the module. Precast elements can be inserted on site in much the same manner. The advantage of some precast elements is that their profile may allow additional room for tolerance. Designing a reveal between integrated masonry panels is perhaps the simplest way of designing an interface. For masonry constructed entirely on site, a clipping vertical track is typically installed in the factory which allows the masonry ties to be placed by the mason on site.

Wet mixesStucco and EIFS are well-suited for modular construction because factory processes ensure the high quality application which is critical to this type of finish. Using wet mixes requires that a small expansion joint be placed between modules. Both stucco and EIFS can be used and field finished in modular construction.

Panels (includes siding)There are an increasing number of panel products available on the market. In terms of relevance to modular construction, these panel systems fall into two broad categories: progressive systems and open systems.

For open systems the installation of panels can occur in any order. A common type of open system is a cassette panel. These are typically sheet metal or polymer products which have an inward folded edge around the panel. These types of

Figures 3.3.3: Masonry facade before site finishing

Figures 3.3.4: Masonry facade after site finishing

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Figure 3.3.5: Interior mate-line finishing

Interior

The mate-lines can be concealed or revealed as part of the tectonic of the building.

For walls and ceilings, GWB is the most common material requiring mate-line finishing. These joints can be field-finished using standard GWB finishing techniques.

Flooring can be applied on site, in the factory, or a combination of the two. For floors finished entirely in the factory, standard flooring transitions can simply be applied on site. A combination of factory and site finishing is the most common:

• Carpet - Typically the tack board is installed in the factory and the carpet is sent as ship-loose.

• Ceramic tile - Tile can be set in the factory, allowing one tile to be set on-site over the mate-line. It is generally best to perform grouting as a single process on site.

• VCT is set in the factory such that the tile which will cover the mate-line will be cut about 1/4” narrower, allowing a precise fit to be made on site.

• Concrete - Grout or self-leveling compounds can be placed in the mate-line joint on site.

• GWB - One full sheet of GWB is left off of the factory finish and applied on-site.

Construction Process

Muhlenberg Dormitory

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Part 4 - Examples in detail

Muhlenberg Dormitory

Yale College Dormitory

SIMPLE Dormitory

Pratt Institute Dormitory Competition

Koby Cottage

Bathroom pods

Clove Lake Center MRI Building

Equipment enclosure

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Examples in Detail

Muhlenberg College Dormitory:

Allentown, PA 2007

Architect: Spillman Farmer ArchitectsBethlehem, PA

• If project had used in-situ construction, the out-of-service cost to the college would have been $750,000.• Set in 10 days.• Total construction in 12 weeks.• 41,000 square feet.• 600-ton crane.

Note: See excerpts from the animation of the setting process in responsibilities and planning section.

A

Figure 4.1.2: Typical upper floor plan: 1:250

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Figure 4.1.1: Module breakdown

Factory Built

Site Built

Examples in Detail

Placing of-site assembled roof.Module frames on assembly line in Kullman factory.Masonry applied in factory. Module set on crawl space foundation.Complex on day 1.Complex on day 3.

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Joining plate.Factory set masonry.In-situ set masonry.Concrete on steel deck.Cast in place concrete foundation.Bearing plate with shims.

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Figure 4.1.3: Wall section: 1:250

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Examples in Detail

Yale Dormitory

New Haven, CT 2005.

Architect:Kieran Timberlake Associates LLP.

7,732 square feet34 modules

• Vertical masonry mate-line expresses the modular tectonic.• Set over spring break.

Note: See site craning plan in planning and responsi-bilities section

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Figure 4.2.1:Module breakdown

Factory Built

Site Built

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Finished photo.Frames are pre-assembled in factory.Setting process.Module on-hook Module on-hookFinished interior

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Examples in Detail

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Examples in Detail

SIMPLE Dormitory

Architect:Garrison Architects

• Simple is a prototype dormitory produced for Kullman. Product can be reconfigured for specific sites.• 6 months from call to delivery.• Passive heating and cooling• Rainscreen

Figure 4.3.2: Exterior rendering

Figure 4.3.1: Module Breakdown

Factory Built

Site Built

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Examples in Detail

Figure 4.3.5: Spring / Fall - air flow and sun angles Figure 4.3.6: Summer / Winter - air flow and sun angles

Figure 4.3.7: Building section - air flow

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Figure 4 3.8: Floor plans in different configurations.

Examples in Detail

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Finish floor (varies)Insulation2.5” Concrete fill on metal decking5/8” reinforced cement boardExterior cladding (varies)Formed S.H. wall system (beyond cladding)Wide flange steel sectionFlashingSuspended ceilingSun shading systemOperable windows

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Figure 4.3.9: Section detail perspective

Examples in Detail

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Examples in Detail

Figure 4.4.2: Plans of 4 unit types

Marble Fairbanks’ Kullman Pratt Institute Competition Entry

Figure 4.4.1: Module Breakdown

Factory Built

Site Built

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Examples in Detail

Figure 4.5.2: Modular building system

Narofsky Architecture’s Kullman Pratt Institute Competition Entry

Figure 4.5.1: Module Breakdown

Factory Built

Site Built

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Peter Gluck & Partners’ Kullman Pratt Institute Competition Entry

Figure 4.6.2: Section

Figure 4.6.1: Module breakdown

Factory Built

Site Built

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Examples in Detail

Garrison Architects’ Kullman Pratt Institute Competition Entry

Figure 4 7.1: Module breakdown

Factory Built

Site Built

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Figure 4 7.2: Unit floor plans.

Figure 4 7.3 : Building upper floor plan.

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Examples in Detail

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Examples in Detail

Koby Cottage

Montcalm Lake, MI 2007

Architect:Garrison ArchitectsNew York City, NY

Engineer:Paulus Sokolowski & SartorWarren, NJ A

A A

• Two modules.• 1,200 square feet.• First application of the Kullman Frame System (KFS).• Field joined with glass.• Site disturbance and remote location were significant factors in decision to use modular construction.• Currently under construction.

Figure 4.8.3: Section 1:10

Figure 4.8.2: Site plan: 1:3000

Figure 4.8.4: Plan: 1:250

Figure 4.1.5

Figure 4.8.1: Module Breakdown

Factory Built

Site Built

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Examples in Detail

Figure 4.8.5: Axonometric

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Examples in Detail

Special form 14 ga. COR-TEN® steel plank.Cast-in-place concrete foundation wall.Custom form cont s.s. joint closer with backer rod.TradeReady steel floor joist.6” fiberglass batt insulation. Structural steel member.1” Rigid insulation.Steel bearing plates with shims.Waterproofing and vapor barrier layer.Continuous brake form COR-TEN drip cap.Window unit.3’x5” COR-TEN steel angle as coping face anchor with EPDM washer.S.M. flashing elastic caulk weld to coping.3 layer modified bituminous roofing membrane.Tapered roof insulation. 3/4” substrate.Shading system fabric.

Wd. finish floor.

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Figure 4.8.6: Wall section detail: 1:10

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Examples in Detail

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Examples in Detail

Bathroom pods

Figure 4.9.2: Common bathroom pod plans with integrated mechanical shafts.

Figure 4.9.1: Module Breakdown

Factory Built

Site Built

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Examples in Detail

Clove Lake Center MRI Building

Staten Island, New York 2007

Architect: Victor Famulari Architect P.C.

Engineer: Structural Workshop LLC.

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1 Equipment room.2 Waiting room.3 Reception.4 Toilet5 MRI scan room6 Control/viewing room

Figure 4.10.2: Common bathroom pod plans with integrated mechanical shafts.

Figure 4.10.1: Module Breakdown

Factory Built

Site Built

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Examples in Detail

Equipment enclosure

1 Kullman equipment shelters on ship.2 Kullman equipment shelter unloaded in Afghanistan.3 Kullman equipment shelter craned into place.4 Interior of equipment enclosure.5 Axonometric of a typical equipment enclosure.

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Figure 4.11.1: Module Breakdown

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Glossary

Bridging documents: Documents (drawings and specifications) which are created by an architect and are passed-off to a third-party for completion. In the context of modular building, these documents are typically at a level of completion similar to 50% construction documents.

Belly band: The portion of exterior cladding that is left absent to allow for the connection of modules and then applied on site.

Building information modeling (BIM): “an object-oriented building development tool that utilizes 5-D modeling concepts, information technology and software inter-operability to design, construct and operate a building project, as well as communicate its details” (definition provided by: Associated General Contractors)

Clear span: Refers to the length of uninterrupted space that can be left when designing intermodule connection, passage or space.

Construction loan: line of credit used to pay the costs of the construction process. The individual dispersals of funds by this type of loan are called “draws”. Interest on the loan is calculated based on the individual draws rather than the entire line of credit. The borrower typically only pays the interest on the loan. The principal of the loan is typically paid-off by the mortgage when the building receives a certificate of occupancy. These loans are considered by the lending institution to be

a higher risk than a mortgage for various reasons including the lack of collateral and the inherent risks of the process of construction. These loans typically have a higher interest rate than a mortgage.

Construction scheduling efficiency: Refers to the time saves gained by the ability to do site preparation and foundation work simultaneously with the construction of the building because the latter is occurring offsite in the factory.

Construction-to-permanent loan: Construction Loan and Mortgage combined into one package which reduces closing costs.

Craft: The act and quality of construction.

Critical-path: A scheduling concept that calculates the least amount of time required to complete a project, using a list of activities and their relationships to each other in terms of time and dependency.

Design-Bid-Build: A type of procurement in which the architect and client bid the construction contracts to modular manufactures after the design has been completed.

Design build: A type of procurement that charges the module manufacturer with the task of design as well as construction.

Diamond pin: A type of setting pin that is designed to contact the connection point on only one axis as to disallow rotation.

Draw cycle: The regular time period between disbursements from a construction loan or other funding mechanism.

Appendix

Factory time efficiency: Refers to the increased efficiency of factory conditions when compared to in-situ construction.

Feedback loop: The aspect of system which identifies the differences between the actual output and the desired output which allows for self correction.

Floating pin: A type of setting pin that is designed to be smaller than the connection point as to allow for error.

Gantt Chart: A chart that depicts progress in relation to time, often used in planning and tracking a project.

Garrison Architects: A an architecture firm in New York City which was founded in 1991 by James Garrison. The firm is studio-based and works on a broad scale of projects. Some of the key emphases of the firm are modern architecture, sustainable design, and modular building.

Huck bom: A blind rivet that is used to rivet the connection plate to the modules. The major benefits of the huck bom over traditional bolting are its increased strength and ease and speed of application.

In-situ: Construction which is carried out on the building site using raw materials

Interface: The location of any portion of an individual module which must be or has been brought into a relationship with another component or module on site.

Interstitial Module: A small uninhabitable module placed between two inhabitable modules to proved space for MEP systems, ducting, or structural support.

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Intumescent paint: A Fire retardant coating that expands in the presence of heat to form a tough char barrier fire cannot penetrate.

Jig: Any of a large class of tools in woodworking, metalworking, and some other crafts that help to control the location or motion (or both) of a tool.

Kullman Buildings Corporation: A modular building fabricator based in Lebanon, NJ which was founded in 1928 by Sam Kullman. The company specializes in modular steel construction for multi-family residential, institutional, commercial, and industrial projects.

Lean fabrication: An operational strategy oriented toward achieving the shortest possible cycle time by eliminating waste. Kanban method This is a visual signal system, typically a card, (used how and by whom) which contains all of the information necessary to order a given material.

Life cycle assessment: an objective process to evaluate the environmental burdens associated with a product, process, or activity by identifying energy and materials used and wastes released to the environment, also used to evaluate and implement opportunities to affect environmental improvements.

Lifting lug: A fabricated steel component which is attached directly to a module and used for lifting the module by crane. Luffing jib crane: A crane with an additional movable boom attached to the end of the primary boom.

Mate-line: The interface between modules.

Mass customization: The use of computer technology in order to produce individually customized products while retaining the benefits of mass production.

Modularization: The act of converting a traditionally designed building into a modular design.

Modular construction: Primary structural volumetric components of a building which have been built in a factory setting.

Mock up: A prototype or example module unit that is constructed in order to test and demonstrate design decisions, and expose construction issues.

Modular components: The individual units that make up a modular building.

Negotiated bid: A type of procurement that involves the selection of the module manufacturer and/or general contractor and the beginning of the design process.

One-piece flow manufacturing method: A type of manufacturing method that is akin to the assembly line where the manufactured item stops at a succession of stations where a single part of the construction process occurs.

Piloti: Type of basement consisting of piers or supports such as columns, pillars, stilts, by which a building is lifted above what is underneath.

Prefabrication: A method of construction where various elements of a structure are pre-assembled in a manufacturing facility, and are then transported to the site of

the structure. This method is often used instead of the more traditional method of first transporting the mass of materials to the site, and then assembling them on-site.

Procurement: The act of obtaining a service agreement. There are different types of procurement and each implies a different working relationship and delegation of responsibilities.

Redundancy: Refers to the duplication of structural elements in order to achieve the needed robustness.

Robustness: A structure’s ability to withstand a variety of forces including forces exerted during the transportation process.

Setting: The placing of modules on site.

Ship-loose: Materials that are shipped to the site as separate yet to be constructed or applied items.

Shimming: The act of applying a shim. A shim is a thin and often tapered or wedged piece of material, used to fill small gaps or spaces between objects. Shims are typically used in order to support, adjust for better fit, or provide a level surface.

Soft cost: Construction industry term for expense item that is not considered direct construction cost. Soft costs include architectural, engineering, financing, and legal fees, and other pre- and post-construction expenses.

Spreader bar: A device designed to allow lifting cables to be perpendicular to the object rather than at an angle, eliminating internal tensions within the lifted object.

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Appendix

Acronyms and Abbreviations

A/C: Air conditioningBIM: Building information modelingCHPS: Collaborative for high performance SchoolsCNC: Computer numeric controlDb: DecibelDocs.: DocumentsEA: Energy and atmosphereEIFS: Exterior insulation and finish systemEPA: Environmental Protection AgencyESCP: Erosion and sedimentation control planEQ: Indoor environmental qualityFSC: Forest Stewardship CouncilGC: General contractorGWB: Gypsum wallboardHVAC: Heating, ventilation, and air conditioningHUD: Department of Housing and Urban DevelopmentIAQ: Indoor air qualityIIBC: Interstate Industrialized Buildings commission KFS: Kullman Frame SystemLEED: Leadership in energy and environmental designLGS: Light gauge steelM: ModuleMEP: Mechanical, electrical, plumbingMfg: ManufacturerMR: Materials and resourcesPS&S: Paulus Soloski and SartorSS: Sustainable sitesTPS: Toyota Production SystemTRA: T.R. Arnold and Associates (3rd party inspector)UL: Underwriters laboratory USGBC: United States Green Building CouncilVCT: Vinyl composition tile

Strategic partnering: A form of services procurement that implies a long lasting relationship that will span over several projects.

Sustainability: Varying degrees of positive environmental impact on earth.

Systems basis: A type of industrialized construction which pre-defines a portion of the design (especially detailing) and methods of construction.

Tapered pin: One of the type of setting pins. The tapered pin is designed to fit snugly in the module below and act as the main locating pin.

Time and Motion Study: A study which is usually conducted in order to decrease the amount of time and the number of steps it takes to complete a task, while increasing productivity.

Value engineering: Value engineering is a systematic method to improve the “value” of goods and services by using an examination of function.

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Bibliography Mark Anderson, Anderson, Peter. Prefab Prototypes: Site-specific Design for Offsite Construction. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2007. Arieff, Allison. Prefab Buchanan, Michael. PreFab Home. Codrescu, A. Mobile: The Art of Portable Architecture. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2007. Davies, Colin. The Prefabricated Home. London: Reaktion Books ltd., 2005

Gibb, G.F. Alistair. Off-site Fabrication: Prefabrication, Pre-assembly and Modularization. Whittles Publishing, 1999. Herbers, Jill. Prefab Modern. New York: Harper Collins, 2004 Hutchings, Jonathan F. Builder’s Guide to Modular Construction Kieran, Stephen. Refabricating Architecture: How Manufacturing Methodologies are Poised to Transform Building Construction. New York: McGraw Hill, 2004 Steel Takes LEED with Recycled Content. Steel Recycling Institute. Pittsburgh, PA 2006

Tatum, C. Constructability Improvement using Prefabrication, Preassembly, and Modularization. Construction Industry Institute, Source document: 25. 1987. Modular Construction using Light Steel Framing: An Architect’s Guide (SCI Publication P272). The Steel Construction Institute. 1999. Modular Construction using Light Steel Framing: Design of Residential Buildings (SCI Publication P302). The Steel Construction Institute. 2001. United States Truckers Regulations on: Oversized Loads & Pilot Car Directory, Volume VIII. Hawkeye Specialties, Clear Lake, IA. 2007

Urban impact (SCI Report RT1098). The Steel Construction Institute.

Kehmlani, Lachmi Ph.D..Labor Productivity Declines in the Construction Industry: Causes and Remedies. AEC Bytes Viewpoint #4, April 14, 2004

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