Julius Caesar• Born to the patrician class but

not the elite amongst them.• Elected priest• Way to rise in society was

through the army• Elected to low office

– Prosecuting advocate

• Career took off when he allied with General Pompey– Elected questor– Governor of Spain– Elected Consul

1st Triumvirate

• Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus (richest Roman) formed a triple alliance to aid one another in gaining more power

• Caesar went on to governorship and conquest of Gaul– Uneasy alliance as each was jealous of the others

• Worsened with the death of Crassus without a counterweight to the more famous generals

Civil War• Caesar is recalled to Rome

to stand trial for overextending his orders– Senate sees Caesar as a

threat to the Republic– Illegally returns with his

legion– Pompey, as selected

defender of the Caesar’s opponents, flees and war breaks out between the armies of Pompey and Caesar

• Defeats Pompey’s army in Greece and pursues Pompey himself to Egypt where he is murdered• Caesar meets Cleopatra and

the have a son

• Caesar returns to Rome and is made dictator for life

Caesar’s Reforms• Relieved debt and

increased representation in the Senate

• Reformed calendar (Julian)• Reorganized local

governments• Forgave followers of

Pompey and granted citizenship to more foreigners

• Had Senate bestow more titles and awards and honors on him

Caesar’s Assassination• Popularity with lower

classes increased, but members of the Senate….not so much– Envy– Concern about his grab

for power (King)– Group of Senators called

the “Liberators” led by Cassius and Brutus plotted his assassination• Stabbed to death in front

of a statue of Pompey on the Ides of March (15)

Assassination Aftermath• Liberators thought

they would be heroes after stabbing Caesar– Mutilated body and

Caesar’s will (which gave land and cash to public) changed their minds

– Caesar’s divinity questioned when a comet “hairy star” was seen on the Ides of March• “Caesar” = “hairy”

Assassination Aftermath

• Rioting ensued and much support was given to Caesar’s right hand man and friend Mark Antony– Liberators flee– But Caesar named

grand-nephew Octavius as his heir• HUGE SURPRISE, Octavius

was a political nobody

Octavius to Octavian• Took Caesar’s name to cement

his place as heir• Immediate competition

between Octavian and Antony. – Undermining the other’s

authority, blocking recognition, etc.

– Caesar’s army flocked to Octavian=demonstrated power of the name of Caesar

– Shifting alliances in immediate aftermath between Octavian, Antony, Liberators and Senate• Octavian elected Consel

2nd Triumvirate

• Octavian and Antony reconcile and along with Lepidus form the 2nd Triumvirate– Divide Empire

amongst themselves• Junta!• Take lands of rivals

to pay for army/veterans• Defeat the Liberators

Breaking of 2nd Triumvirate• Three leaders

continued to distrust and compete with one another– Octavius gets in conflict

with son of Pompey• Lepidus tries to take

advantage – Lepidus’ army deserts

» Octavian strips Lepidus of any type of power

Octavian vs. Antony• Octavian emerges as defender of

Rome/Senate after beating Sextus and made him very popular

• Antony not so much, losing battles in East and became ‘involved’ with Cleopatra– Seen as being un-Roman and

his association with Caesar’s son puts Octavian’s base of power in a troublesome place

– Worried he was going to create an Egyptian based Eastern Empire• Senate declared war on

Cleopatra

Octavian/Augustus vs. Antony• Naval battle of Actium sees

the end of Antony and Cleopatra– Eastern army defects to

Octavian and naval engagement is decisive naval victory for Octavian• Antony and Cleo commit suicide• Octavian kills Cleo’s sons

• Changes name…again to Augustus “universal consent” as symbol of the fact he is sole power in Rome.

Reign of Augustus

• Elected Consul every year from 31 BCE until 23 CE– Pater Patriae– Had power of tribune

and consul

• Senate and people gave power to Augustus– Caesar requested/took it– Didn’t deride/abuse

Senate

Problem of Succession

• Augustus, like ALL emperors after him, had the problem of naming/choosing a successor.– Wanted stability, and

leader not chosen by the elite (…)

– Wanted to use family links plus his incredible power

• Marcellus- nephew-son in law- died young

• Agrippa-military advisor- son in law-died

• Tiberius- stepson/son in law

Reforms

• Professionalized the army– Moved army to frontier an

out of center of power– Kept them busy and

victories made them loyal to him

– Praetorian guard

• Civil Service– Long term appointments– Senate moved to advisory

role

• Limited excess of wealth

• Caped divorces and punished childlessness and adultry (reinforcement of the family)

• Rejected divine honors

Pax Romana• Roman Peace (27 BCE-180

BCE)• Peace within the empire• Large!• Common language and

money• Building projects– Pantheon: Capitol Building– Roads– Colosseum– Circus Maximus– Aqueducts

• Good Emperors– Vespasian– Titus– Trajan– Hadrian– Marcus Aurelius

• Bad Emperors– Caligula– Nero– Commodus