Journal of the Geological Society Effects of Cretaceous...

doi:10.1144/0016-76492009-118 2010; v. 167; p. 731-749 Journal of the Geological Society

Amit Segev and Michael Rybakov

quiescence on the central and southern Levant continental marginEffects of Cretaceous plume and convergence, and Early Tertiary tectonomagmatic

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Journal of the Geological Society, London, Vol. 167, 2010, pp. 731–749. doi: 10.1144/0016-76492009-118.

731

Effects of Cretaceous plume and convergence, and Early Tertiary tectonomagmatic

quiescence on the central and southern Levant continental margin

AMIT SEGEV* & MICHAEL RYBAKOV

Geological Survey of Israel, 30 Malkhe Israel St. 95501 Jerusalem, Israel

*Corresponding author (e-mail address: [email protected])

Abstract: This study synthesizes geological and geophysical evidence concerning the structure and character

of the central and southern Jurassic Levant continental margin during Cretaceous–Tertiary time. From the

beginning of the Cretaceous and until Cenomanian time, the Levant margin was strongly affected by

extensional tectonics, cyclical igneous activity and rifting coupled with thermal and vertical fluctuations. It is

suggested here that during the Senonian–Maastrichtian convergence of Afro-Arabia and the Mesotethys, and

the Tauride part of Eurasia, the Herodotus basin oceanic crust subducted along the Eratosthenes Arc, below

the short-lived abandoned Levant back-arc basin. Such a plate configuration assumes regional shear zones, as

follows: (1) between the Eratosthenes Arc from the south and the Kyrenia Arc from the north: the NW–SE

Carmel–Azraq–Sirhan fault system; (2) between the Sinai and the African plates: the Suez fault system; (3)

between the Mesotethys and the African plates: the northern Egypt–Sinai–Negev west–east transversal fault

system. Distinct tectonomagmatic quiescence between Late Maastrichtian and Late Eocene time allowed

thermal relaxation and subsidence of the Levant margin until the apparent achievement of local isostatic

compensation and the consequent development of the longest transgression over the Afro-Arabian ramp.

Supplementary material: Details on the construction of the Bouguer gravity map are available at http://

www.geolsoc.org.uk/SUP18404.

The Levant basin and rifted margin formed during a Jurassic

tectonomagmatic event related to the opening of the Mesotethys

(Garfunkel 1998; Walley 1998; Segev 2000, 2002; Fig. 1). Such

margins, often called passive margins, are always formed in pairs

on either side of the oceanic spreading centre that appears after a

continental breakup, and they are commonly tectonically or

magmatically active for tens of millions of years during their

formation and become inactive after the oceanic spreading centre

retreats from the margins. In a simple situation, after such a

retreat, the principal horizontal (plate tectonics) and vertical

forces (mainly thermal uplift or subsidence) decrease and the

margins become passive. Many passive margins undergo renewed

tectonism during their ‘passive’ phase. Such events may form

fold belts (contraction), rifting and flood volcanism associated

with extension, regional uplift or doming, all within the intraplate

continental margin, which consequently result in an isostatically

highly non-compensated nature.

Rocchi et al. (2008) described several continental margins

surrounding the Atlantic Ocean (Senegal, Newfoundland–Grand

Banks, Iberian margin along the Tore–Madeira Rise, north-

western margin of Africa, offshore northeastern Brazil) that were

subjected to ‘delayed’ alkaline magmatism on their earlier

rifted–passive margins. Those workers suggested that this

igneous activity, tens of millions of years after the onset of

spreading, was linked to reactivation of oceanic fracture zones

and named such margins, in addition to volcanic and non-

volcanic margins, ‘delayed volcanic’ passive margins.

At present, the Levant’s central and southern continental

margin is a rifted margin of long duration situated offshore Sinai,

Israel and Lebanon (Fig. 1). Its upper c. 3 km sedimentary cover

was spatially divided by Ben-Avraham & Ginzburg (1986), Ben-

Avraham et al. (2002, 2006) and Schattner & Ben-Avraham

(2007) into two distinct regions, separated by the prominent

Carmel fault. Most of the Levant basin is underlain by oceanic

crust, covered by a 10–14 km thick sedimentary sequence (Ben-

Avraham et al. 2002), of which only the upper c. 3 km have been

studied in detail. On the basis of seismic refraction, deep

boreholes, receiver function and gravity data, as well as isostatic

and gravity 3D modelling, Segev et al. (2006) constructed the

3D layered structure of the Levant region. Moreover, they

delineated a high (up to 2500 m) positive local and regional

isostatic and residual gravity anomaly in Lebanon and northern

Israel caused by an elevated mantle lithosphere. They explained

it by the compressional push-up mechanism of the Dead Sea

Transform plate boundary, which according to their results meets

the Levant continental margin in northern Israel. This evidence

led Segev et al. (2006), Schattner & Ben-Avraham (2007) and

others to suggest that the present-day Levant continental margin

is active. Schattner & Ben-Avraham (2007) suggested a model of

a transform margin to explain the formation of the Levant margin

north of the Carmel fault.

The present study compiles and analyses existing geological,

geochronological and geophysical evidence relating to the early

evolutionary stages of the Levant margin and summarizes these

stages schematically in Figure 2a–c. These early stages, which

involved the Late Triassic–Jurassic formation of the Levant

rifted volcanic margin, were followed by the Early Cretaceous

intense plume-related tectonomagmatic activity (Wilson et al.

2000; Segev 2002, 2009). Our investigation adds new evidence

for understanding the configuration and evolution of the central

and southern Levant continental margin during: (1) Cretaceous

plume activity; (2) Late Cretaceous convergence (Fig. 2d); (3)

the Late Maastrichtian–Late Eocene tectonic quiescence (Fig.

2e). The present research uses: (1) new processing and inter-

pretation of gravity and magnetic data from the eastern Mediter-

ranean; (2) the lithostratigraphic changes across the margin and

their morphotectonic significance; (3) the cyclic tectonomag-

matic activity; (4) a detailed 3D crustal structure reconstructed to

pre-Cenozoic tectonism (from Segev et al. 2010), representing its

configuration during Mesozoic time. This study leads to a new

concept of the Cretaceous and Tertiary evolution of the Levant

basin and margin during one of its most enigmatic periods, the

transition from passive to active margin, plus a new approach to

the debate concerning the nature of the Levant basin.

The central Levant crustal structure

The present-day crustal structure and its characteristics

The transition zone between the Arabian continental plate and

the Levant marine basin, whether the latter is built of oceanic

crust (e.g. Makris et al. 1983; Makris & Wang 1994; Ben-

Avraham et al. 2002; Segev et al. 2006) or of a thin continental

crust (e.g. Woodside 1977; Hirsch et al. 1995; Gardosh et al.

2008; Netzeband et al. 2006) is still debated. Most interpreta-

tions of thin continental crust were based on commercial surveys,

which obtained numerous multichannel seismic reflection pro-

files, frequently recorded to 6 s (e.g. Sage & Letouzey 1996;

Gardosh et al. 2008; Netzeband et al. 2006). These profiles

provide detailed and reliable information about most of the

sedimentary sequence but information about depth to the base-

ment and the Moho, as well as the nature of the crystalline

crust, is lacking. The oceanic nature was suggested by a long-

range refraction experiment (Makris et al. 1983) and a seismic

refraction–wide-angle reflection experiment (Ben-Avraham et al.

2002). Furthermore, comparison between gravity modelling and

observations demonstrates that most of the Levant basin is

isostatically compensated (Segev et al. 2006) and the possibility

of thin continental crust beneath the Levant basin would decrease

the average calculated crustal density by more than 50 mGal and

would elevate the whole Levant basin by more than 400 m. The

Levant continental/oceanic thickness ratio of the crystalline crust

is c. 3:1, therefore extension of c. 300% is needed to produce

this thin continental crust. None of the fault systems suggested

by the seismic reflection profiles can explain such extension.

Consequently, the oceanic nature of the Levant marine basin

crust has been adopted here.

The Levant northwestward-thinning rifted and volcanic margin

has been estimated to have evolved in late Early Jurassic time

(Garfunkel & Derin 1984; Garfunkel 1998; Segev 2002). It was

formed as part of the evolution of the Neotethys and the

Mesotethys oceans (the latter also called southern Neotethys)

during two tectonomagmatic periods, the initial Permo-Triassic

stage and the principal Jurassic stage (Segev 2000, 2002), in

which the Levant region was subjected to cycles of dynamic

uplift and denudation, as well as rifting.

Fig. 1. Location of the main structural

elements of the Middle East (data from

Walley 1998; Bosworth et al. 1999; Abdel

Aal et al. 2000; Robertson 2000; Kazmin

2002; Rybakov et al. 2005; and references

therein) on the hypsometrically shaded

bathymetric and topographic image of the

eastern Mediterranean (compiled by Hall

2005). The division of the Levant region

into three segments (north, central and

south) should be noted. BB; Baer-Basit

ophiolite; H; Hatay ophiolite; KD, Kurd

Dag ophiolite.

A. SEGEV & M. RYBAKOV732

The continental part of the present-day Levant margin has a

crustal thickness of 36 � 1 km, and that of the marine part (the

Levant basin) is c. 23 km thick (Fig. 3; Makris et al. 1983; Ben-

Avraham et al. 2006; Segev et al. 2006). Several geophysical

studies have suggested that the crustal transition in the northern

Levant region is abrupt and located beneath the continental slope

(Ginzburg et al. 1975; Ben-Avraham & Ginzburg 1986; Ben-

Avraham et al. 2002, 2006); in Lebanon it is exposed onland

(Walley 1998). Furthermore, Schattner & Ben-Avraham (2007)

suggested a tectonic framework for the formation of the Levant

margin during the Mesozoic based on the present shallow crustal

structure. However, Segev et al. (2006) suggested that the recent

high topography of Lebanon and northern Israel reflects a

prominent high positive isostatic anomaly (see Fig. 3) caused

mainly by transpressional stresses along a right step (the

Yammouneh segment) of the sinistral Dead Sea Transform. In

general, the geological and geophysical evidence for the Levant

and the eastern Mediterranean clearly indicates an active Levant

margin since Late Eocene time. This activity was synchronous,

and perhaps related to, the Afar plume centred in Ethiopia and

Yemen (c. 2000 km south of the southern Levant region; White

& McKenzie 1989; Schilling et al. 1992; Ebinger et al. 1993;

Baker et al. 1996; Hofmann et al. 1997; Zeyen et al. 1997;

George et al. 1998), caused regional uplift from the Late Eocene

or Oligocene (Cloos 1954; Cox 1989; Collet et al. 2000; Pik et

al. 2003). This plume activity strongly affected the tectonic

regime of the Afro-Arabian plate and led to: (1) the Afro-

Arabian continental breakup and spreading in the Red Sea and

the Gulf of Aden; (2) the formation of the Dead Sea Transform

plate boundary; (3) the Tertiary–Recent northward convergent

phase between Africa–Sinai and Eurasia, as well as Arabia and

Eurasia. In the Israeli coastal region the uplift was c. 1000 m

(Segev, Lyakovsky & Schattner, in prep). Tertiary tectonics has

become localized along the Dead Sea Transform plate boundary

since Early Miocene time (Burdigalian, Garfunkel 1989; Garfun-

kel & Ben-Avraham 2001; Garfunkel & Beyth 2006), when it

Fig. 2. Schematic illustration of the tectonic

evolution of the Levant continental margins.

Legend is as for Figure 10. G,

Gondwanaland; P, Palmyrides; E,

Eratosthenes Block; T, Troodos ophiolite;

M, Mamonia complex; CY, Cyprus; H,

Hatay ophiolite; BB, Baer-Basit ophiolite;

N, Niklas ophiolite; KD, Kurd Dag

ophiolite; KA, Kyrenia Arc; EA,

Eratosthenes Arc; SMB, Syrian Arc mobile

belt; ASG, Azraq–Sirhan graben; EG,

Euphrates graben; S, Sinjar Trough; AG,

Anah graben; LB, Levant basin; HB,

Herodotus basin; PB, Phoenician basin; GS,

Gulf of Suez; GE, Gulf of Elat; DST, Dead

Sea Transform.

CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN LEVANT CONTINENTAL MARGIN 733

connected with the Levant margin in northern Israel. It is also

important to note the effect of a c. 4 km load of the Nile

sedimentary cone during the Pliocene calculated by Segev et al.

(2006) in the southeastern Mediterranean. Accommodation of

this within the Levant basin caused concentric oscillatory nega-

tive and positive anomalies, up to c. 400 m high, surrounding the

Nile sedimentary cone (Segev et al. 2006, fig. 6).

Tertiary–Recent tectonism has changed the shape of the

Levant upper crust. Furthermore, the original Jurassic configura-

tion could not have survived the intensive tectonic and magmatic

processes occurring during Cretaceous time (which had a time

span of c. 100 Ma), including the Senonian–Maastrichtian con-

vergence (Guiraud & Bosworth 1997; Bosworth et al. 1999;

Robertson 2000, 2002), which could have changed the Levant

crustal arrangement.

The prominent structural element of the central Levant region

in the subsurface is the very steep inclination of the Moho

boundary from about �32 km deep east of the Sea of Galilee to

about �25 km offshore Haifa, a difference of �7 km over a

distance of 50 km (Fig. 3).

Geophysical evidence

Previous magnetic and Bouguer gravity anomaly maps of the

eastern Mediterranean have been published by, among others,

Ben-Avraham & Ginzburg (1986, 1990), Makris & Wang (1994),

Makris et al. (1994; reduced-to-pole), Rybakov et al. (1997) and

Gardosh et al. (2008). The Bouguer gravity map depicted as

background in Figure 4 was prepared in the present study. Both

magnetic and gravity fields show significant differences between

the Herodotus and the Levant basins south of the Cenozoic

Hellenic and Cyprus subduction trenches. The significant lower

positive Bouguer gravity anomalies of the Levant basin cannot

be explained by a thicker section of the Pliocene Nile sedimen-

tary cone, as suggested by Makris & Wang (1994), because it

covers only a limited region extending mainly over the SE

Herodotus basin (Fig. 4). Nevertheless, the Levant basin accom-

modates huge amounts of dominantly Oligocene and later clastic

sediments that accumulated as a result of Afar dome erosion.

The differences between the Levant and the Herodotus basins

are even more significant on the magnetic map (Fig. 5). The

Levant basin has been interpreted by Makris et al. (1994) as

comprising oceanic crust with reverse magnetization that is older

than the normally magnetized ophiolites of Cretaceous age that

are sampled in Cyprus. The lack of linear oceanic-type magnetic

anomalies in this region has been explained by Ben-Avraham &

Ginzburg (1986) by: (1) a period with no polarity reversals of

the magnetic field; (2) destruction of the magnetic anomalies by

later compressional deformation; (3) no short-wavelength mag-

netic anomalies being observable at the surface because the

depth to the crystalline crust is over 14 km.

The eastern Levant basin is typified by values of �100 to

�250 nT; however, the oceanic crust of the western Levant basin

and westward of it acquired mainly normal magnetization (�50

to +250 nT), and a sharp transitional zone separates these two

regions. Furthermore, Ben-Avraham et al. (2002) suggested a

Fig. 3. Contour lines of depth to the Moho

(white lines), which represent the present

deep crustal structure of the Levant region,

overlaid on a residual elevation image

(black contours) calculated by flexural

(Vening Meinesz) isostasy related to the

Pliocene–Recent sedimentary loading and

unloading (from Segev et al. 2006). The

very high (up to 2500 m) positive isostatic

anomaly in Lebanon and northern Israel,

where the Moho contour lines cross the

Mediterranean coastline obliquely, should

be noted.


different geomagnetic field inclination for the Israeli continental

crust, the Levant basin crust and the Eratosthenes microconti-

nent, indicating possible different genesis for these crusts.

The reverse magnetization of large parts of the eastern Levant

basin (Fig. 5) probably indicates their formation prior to the

Cretaceous Normal Polarity Superchron, which lasted between

Barremian (c. 127 Ma) and Santonian time (84 Ma; Gradstein et

al. 2004). The normally magnetized western Levant and the

Herodotus basins were probably formed during this superchron.

To shed light on this issue, we can take two examples of

subsurface magmatic causative bodies from Israel, as follows.

(1) The Late Triassic–Early Jurassic Saharonim basic intrusion

Fig. 4. Location of the main structural elements of the Middle East (see Fig. 1) on a Bouguer gravity anomaly map of the eastern Mediterranean. The

pink contour lines represent the isopach of the Nile sedimentary cone (Segev et al. 2006).


Fig. 5. Location of the main structural elements of the Middle East (see Fig. 1) on a pole- reduced total intensity magnetic map (modified by Rybakov,

after Makris et al. 1994; Rybakov et al. 1997; Gardosh et al. 2008) (for legend see Fig. 1).


in the eastern Makhtesh Ramon yielded a negligible magnetic

anomaly and a high gravity anomaly. This body is located next

to the Early Cretaceous (116–108 Ma) Arod intrusion and is

associated with volcanic bodies in the western Makhtesh Ramon

that yielded both high magnetic and high gravity anomalies

(Segev et al. 1996). Moreover, Gvirtzman & Weinberger (1994)

found that some of these volcanic rocks have remanent magneti-

zation 6–15 times stronger than the induced magnetization.

(2) The c. 2 km thick Late Triassic–Early Jurassic Asher

Volcanics (Atlit-1 borehole), west of Mt. Carmel, yielded a

negligible aeromagnetic anomaly, in contrast to the Carmel high

positive magnetic anomalies that probably belong to the younger

Cretaceous magmatism (Rybakov 2008). The absence of a

magnetic high above the Asher Volcanics was explained by

Rybakov (2008) by a sequence of tuff layers magnetized in

various directions.

High positive magnetic anomalies up to 400 nT are spread

over the Levant continental and oceanic crusts. In Israel these

prominent anomalies were interpreted as representing mainly

subsurface basic igneous and volcanic bodies of various origins

(Ben-Avraham & Hall 1977; Recanati et al. 1989; Gvirtzman et

al. 1990; Kohn et al. 1993; Rybakov et al. 2000; Segev 2000,

2002; Segev & Eshet 2003). The first Phanerozoic magmatism in

Israel predominantly includes the Hebron magnetic anomaly

(Fig. 5, below Jerusalem), interpreted by Rybakov et al. (1995)

as a large basic volcano. The 200 m thick (Helez deep borehole)

Gevim quartz porphyry probably represents this volcanic phase,

which was radiometrically dated to be of Permian age (275 �47 Ma; Segev & Eshet 2003). The main Late Triassic–Early

Jurassic Asher magmatism and the Early Cretaceous Tayasir and

younger magmatic events were identified around Mt. Carmel and

in northern Israeli regions, and probably below the Palmyra fold

belt and in NW Jordan (Segev 2009).

Over the Herodotus basin crust the most prominent high

magnetic anomalies belong to the complex of the Eratosthenes

Seamount, which was previously interpreted by Makris & Wang

(1994) and Makris et al. (1994) as consisting of continental

crust. Recently, Rybakov et al. (2005, 2009) identified two

subsurface causative bodies by magnetic and gravity modelling:

(1) Eratosthenes, a 160 km 3 100 km, SW–NE-trending, high-

magnetic (500 nT) and low-gravity (25 mGal) body, interpreted

as a volcanic source; (2) Niklas, a 75 km 3 35 km, SW–NE-

trending, high-magnetic (200 nT) and high-gravity (100 mGal)

body, interpreted to be ophiolitic, although it could also be

interpreted as a dense mafic body. Rybakov et al. (2009) consid-

ered several previous models for the formation of the Era-

tosthenes and Niklas bodies (e.g. Woodside 1977; Ben-Avraham

1989; Robertson 1990; Krasheninnikov et al. 1994; Garfunkel

1998; Kempler 1998). He suggested that the Niklas body could

belong to a remnant of the large northeastern Mediterranean

ophiolite allochthon. According to Rybakov et al. the Troodos

ophiolite and Niklas bodies were probably connected during Late

Cretaceous obduction. Extending the Late Cretaceous ophiolite

allochthons toward the present-day central Levant basin, south of

the Cyprus Arc, raises the necessity of defining the subduction

and obduction zones of the Late Cretaceous.

Intensive geophysical surveys (seismic reflection and potential

fields) in the Levant basin and margin were carried out recently.

Gardosh et al. (2008) reported an extensive graben and horst

system extending throughout the Levant basin. This system was

later subjected to inversion and the formation of extensive,

Syrian Arc-type contractional structures throughout the Levant

basin and especially at the continental margin. Gardosh et al.

modelled several highly magnetized bodies, which were sug-

gested to correspond to extrusive volcanic rocks at relatively

shallow depth within the sedimentary succession. Several small

bodies in the northwestern part of the Levant basin correspond to

the Eratosthenes high. The origin of the elongated, NE–SW-

oriented anomaly in the central part of the basin, at the top of

the Jonah Ridge (horst), was interpreted by Folkman & Ben-Gai

(2004) as magmatism that occurred concurrently with the Syrian

Arc tectonism in Israel. Gardosh et al. (2008) related the Jonah

Ridge magmatism to Late Cretaceous and Tertiary eruptive

episodes.

The reconstructed Middle–Late Eocene crustal structure

Throughout the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods the Arabian

plate had a platform character for which a passive nature was

suggested (Bein & Gvirtzman 1977; Garfunkel & Derin 1984;

Garfunkel 1998; Fig. 6). During these periods, shallow marine

carbonate facies accumulated on the Arabian platform bounded

to the west by a hinge belt roughly coinciding with the present

Mediterranean coastline. A thick prism of deep-water continental

slope deposits accumulated west of the hinge belt (Bein & Weiler

1976; Bein & Gvirtzman 1977; Ginzburg & Gvirtzman 1979;

Walley 1998). The Afro-Arabian plate became ramp-like (Fig. 6;

Ahr 1973; Sass & Bein 1982; Buchbinder et al. 1988) only since

the Late Maastrichtian and mainly during Eocene time.

The 3D layered structure of three interfaces: (1) calculated

elevation, (2) top of the basement, and (3) the Moho interface of

a limited region of the central Levant pre-Tertiary tectonism

(pre-Dead Sea Transform) has been recently established by Segev

et al. (2010) and two of them (calculated elevation and the Moho

interface) are depicted in Figure 7. Segev et al. first restored a

lateral offset of 100 km along the Dead Sea Transform. Then

they calculated the expected elevation for a local isostatically

balanced model that considers: (1) a stable, cold and isostatically

compensated crust during Middle Eocene time with no magmatic

activity during this period; (2) insignificant change in the total

thickness of the crystalline crust since the Cretaceous. This

numerical procedure resulted in the vertically restored interface

of the top of the Avedat Group, which is considered to represent

the elevation at Middle Eocene time, as well as the restored

interfaces for the top of the crystalline basement and the Moho

boundary during the same period (Fig. 7).

The computed Middle–Late Eocene elevation matches the

SW–NE strike of the Moho and both interfaces define a ramp-

shaped structure with a significant structural high east of Mt.

Hermon (Fig. 7), similar to the geological observations of Sneh

(1988). The common inclination of this Middle–Late Eocene

elevation was between c. 28 (shelf) and c. 68 (slope), and during

the maximal transgression most parts of central Israel were

covered by c. 200 m (Jerusalem region) to c. 1800 m (Haifa

region) of seawater, according to a datum near the Dead Sea in

the elevation map of Figure 7.

Tectonics of the central and southern Levantcontinental margin

Vertical motions resulting from mantle plume activity;lithostratigraphy, morphotectonics and thermal history

When the Levant continental margin became close to isostatic

compensation it formed a ramp-shaped plate that was moderately

inclined toward the NW. This margin experienced pelagic deposi-

tion and was covered by chalk and fine clastic rocks of the Early


Tertiary Taqiye, Adulam, Maresha and lower Bet Guvrin Forma-

tions (Flexer 1968; Sneh 1988; Buchbinder et al. 1988; Fig. 8).

The Mesozoic central Levant continental margin (Fig. 7),

which obliquely crosses central and northern Israel, allows an

examination of the lithostratigraphic transitions from continental

to oceanic crust along an onshore south–north cross-section. The

lithostratigraphic changes across Israel (Fig. 8) indicate a variety

of environments of deposition and provide evidence of tectono-

magmatic events and regional unconformities associated with

denudation events. The geological history of northern Israel can

therefore be used to determine the morphotectonic events of the

upper part of the Levant continental margin since its formation

during Jurassic time.

In most parts of Israel the upper Jurassic succession (down to

the Oxfordian in the north and Bathonian in the south) was

truncated before the deposition of either basalt flows related to

the Tayasir Volcanics or younger Early Cretaceous siliciclastic

rock units (Hirsch et al. 1998; Fig. 8). The Lower Cretaceous

alternating sequence of siliciclastic and carbonate rocks forms a

belt along the northern margins of the Arabo-Nubian Shield.

The stratigraphic correlations suggest two principal regional

denudation events during the Cretaceous period (Segev et al.

2005; Segev 2009): (1) at the time of the pre-Tayasir Volcanics,

when the Upper Jurassic sequence was truncated; (2) in pre-

Aptian time, when most of the Berriasian–Barremian section,

including the Tayasir Volcanics, was eroded (see also Garfunkel

1989, 1998; in central Africa Guiraud et al. 2005 called this the

‘Austrian’ unconformity). These two regional Early Cretaceous

truncation episodes indicate the existence of a regional dome

structure (Fig. 6) that is probably centred close to northern Israel,

Lebanon and Syria, where it meets the Levant continental

margin. Coexisting regional unconformities were reported from

the African continent (Guiraud et al. 2005, and references

therein) in the framework of similar tectonic events (Levant–

Nubia plume, Segev 2002).

The geological record of the Berriasian–Barremian period

(Tayasir Volcanics and Helez Fm.) is preserved mainly in

coexisting grabens that survived the Late Barremian regional

truncation episode. The subaerial Tayasir volcanism and the later

Helez Formation siliciclastic deposits of central and northern

Israel represent a continental to shallow marine environment with

a strong influence from the nearby land (Blake 1936; Karcz

1965; Estes et al. 1978; Rosenfeld & Raab 1984; Rosenfeld et

al. 1995). At those times lagoons, swamps and dense vegetation

characterized the coastal region of Israel (Conway 1991; Nissen-

baum & Horowitz 1992). Moreover, sandstone intercalations up

to 15–20 m thick were encountered in the Yam-2, Yam West-1

and Yam West-2 wells offshore Israel. They are referred to as

‘Lower Sand’ of Hauterivian age and ‘Upper Sand’ of Barremian

age (Isramco Internal Report), and Gardosh et al. (2008)

interpreted these offshore sand beds, suggesting that the basin

floor should have been located westward of the offshore Yam

wells. Rosenfeld et al. (1998) and Rosenfeld & Hirsch (2005),

who used ostracode data, suggested that the mixed shallow

marine and continental Early Cretaceous environments also

typified the Israel offshore. This evidence demonstrates intensive

igneous and contemporaneous tectonic activity at the Levant

continental margin that uplifted it high above its isostatic

compensation state (c. �2000 m, in Fig. 7). It is reasonable to

assume even subaerial conditions for some parts of the Levant

basin during these Early Cretaceous uplift episodes.

Alkaline magmatism associated with sandstone of the same

age (140.7 � 0.4 Ma) as the Tayasir Volcanics has been reported

from the Mamonia Complex, SW Cyprus, by Chan et al. (2008).

Those workers suggested a possible expansion of the Levant

Early Cretaceous magmatism associated with alternating shallow

marine and subaerial environments far toward the NW.

The Aptian–Albian time interval was typified by cyclical

oscillations of continental clastic rock units (Amir, Avrona,

Malhata and Samar Formations) and shallow marine tongues

(Zuweira, Deragot and Uza Formations; see Fig. 8), becoming

mostly carbonates and marl of shallow marine environments

toward the NW to open marine deposits in the coastal plain and

offshore Israel. During this period, as in the Jurassic period, the

Arabian plate was a platform (Fig. 6), where shallow marine

carbonate facies accumulated as far as a hinge belt and deep-

Fig. 6. Schematic section across the Levant

continental margin (for location see A–A’

in Fig. 7). The crystalline crust (grey)

between the continuous brown lines

represents isostatically compensated crust

having ramp-shape elevation. The dashed

green lines delineating platform-shape crust

were estimated assuming similar crustal

thicknesses along its uplift by presumable

mantle upwelling. The dotted red lines

outline dome-shape crust typifying the

Early Cretaceous uplifts.


water, continental slope deposits accumulated offshore from this

hinge belt (Bein & Gvirtzman 1977; Ginzburg & Gvirtzman

1979; Walley 1998).

During the Cenomanian, part of the study area was stable. The

Mount Carmel region, as well as sites in Lebanon, which were

located above the continental margin, were volcanically active,

and four phases of cyclical eruptions and local erosion episodes

have been identified (Ferry et al. 2007; Segev 2009; Segev &

Sass 2009).

Regional emergence of Israel during the Middle to Late

Turonian reflects an episode of subaerial exposure that produced

sandstone, conglomerate and karst (Weiler & Sass 1972;

Buchbinder et al. 1983; Kafri & Sandler 1992). Even more

extensive erosion occurred in the coastal mountains in Syria at

the same time (Filak et al. 2001).

After the Middle to Late Turonian short uplift episode,

regional subsidence caused deepening of the shallow marine

setting to an open marine and to a pelagic setting. This setting

characterized most of the Senonian to about Middle–Late

Eocene time (c. 40 Ma). This period is typified by the deposition

Fig. 7. Reconstructed Moho interface prior

to Tertiary deformation (red contour lines;

kilometres below mean sea level)

considered to represent the deep crustal

structure during Cretaceous time with the

calculated coexisting elevation (pink

contour lines; metres below mean sea

level). The vertical reconstruction is from

Segev, Lyakhovsky & Schattner (in prep),

who considered an isostatically

compensated crust during Middle–Late

Eocene time and insignificant changes in

the total thickness of the crystalline crust

since then. Both interfaces form a ramp-

shape plate margin (see Fig. 6). The

extension of Cretaceous magmatism over

the central and southern Levant continental

margin and the assumed location of the

Cretaceous Levant–Nubia plume (after

Segev et al. 2005) should be noted.


Fig. 8. Stratigraphic table of Israel since the Early Permian period depicting the lithology of the continental and offshore parts of Israel with the

radiometric ages of the magmatic events, the main tectonic and thermal events and the suggested state of the Levant continental margin.


of chalk, marl, shale and chert, which are included in the Mount

Scopus and Avedat groups, with a common thickness in Israel of

c. 750 m (Segev, Lyakhovsky & Schattner, in prep).

Analysis of the subsidence history of the Levant region, as

well as studies of its thermal history, can be used as independent

tools for identifying vertical movements. Seven representative

columnar sections from southern Israel (Fig. 7) were used by

Gvirtzman (2003) to generate subsidence curves (Fig. 9). These

curves demonstrate three periods of rapid subsidence: (1) Middle

Triassic; (2) Middle Jurassic; (3) Cenomanian–Senonian. The

first event was associated with extensional faulting (Garfunkel

1989) during the formation of the Palmyra–Galilee graben. The

second represents extensional faulting during the formation of

the Levant volcanic continental margin, and the third represents

thermal subsidence after the Cretaceous tectonomagmatic activ-

ity (Segev 2009).

K-feldspar 40Ar/39Ar, zircon fission-track (ZFT), apatite fis-

sion-track (AFT) and apatite (U–Th)/He thermochronology were

conducted by Vermeesch et al. (2009) on detritus from Middle

Cambrian sandstones of the Shehoret Formation, southern Israel.

Their Phanerozoic thermal history identifies distinct thermal

events at c. 300 km south of the Levant margin, as follows.

Detrital ZFT ages are clustered around 380 Ma, consistent with

previous ZFT results (Kohn et al. 1993) and sediments of the

region (Segev et al. 1995), revealing that the Cambrian platform

sequence experienced a Middle Devonian thermal event and low-

grade metamorphism. All these studies suggested that the ob-

served Devonian ages represent a regional tectonothermal event.

Sixty single-grain detrital AFT ages are grouped at c. 270 Ma

with significant dispersion. This age fits well with the Early

Permian Gevim quartz porphyry (275 � 47 Ma; Segev & Eshet

2003) that overlies the crystalline basement of Central Israel,

which was totally exhumed at that time.

Inverse modelling of the AFT data suggests an episodic

burial–erosion history during the Mesozoic caused by low-

amplitude vertical motions. Seven detrital apatite (U–Th)/He

ages scatter between 33 and 77 Ma, whereas the c. 70 Ma age is

more likely to be accurate. This Campanian age marks the end

of the Cretaceous tectonomagmatic activity, whereas the Palaeo-

gene age marks the beginning of the Afar plume activity.

The first convergence phase between the Afro-Arabian andthe Mesotethys plates

The central and southern Levant region was submerged during

the Late Turonian–Early Santonian, when major regional com-

pressional tectonics initiated and resulted in the first stage of the

Syrian Arc deformation belt (Krenkel 1924; Bartov et al. 1980;

Honigstein et al. 1988; Guiraud & Bosworth 1997; Walley 1998;

Bosworth et al. 1999; Figs 1, 4 and 10). This belt consists of

NE–SW-trending asymmetric synclines and monoclines that

overlie deep-seated reverse faults (De Sitter 1962; Freund 1965;

Mimran 1976; Reches et al. 1981). Bosworth et al. (1999)

suggested the existence of Late Santonian (c. 84 Ma) far-field

compressional stress in central Egypt (Figs 4 and 10). The Syrian

Arc fold system demonstrates the formation of a tectonic mobile

belt above and along the central Levant continental margin

contemporaneously with the beginning of its subsidence. The

NW–SE contraction, which formed large folds with emergent

crests (Bartov et al. 1980; Cohen et al. 1990), slowed the speed

of the Levant northwestward drowning.

Contemporaneously with the NE–SW-trending folding and

deep-seated fault inversion, an east–west-trending Negev–

Central Sinai shear zone was activated (Bartov et al. 1980) with

a possible dextral motion. Bosworth et al. (1999) reported a

broad east–west-trending zone of dextral transpression, mostly as

inverted half-grabens, en echelon anticlines and strike-slip faults

crossing northern Egypt. The best documented strike-slip fault of

this system is the east–west Ragabet el-Naam (near Suez)–

Themed–Wadi Dana (Jordan) Fault (Fig. 1).

During the Campanian–Maastrichtian period the northern

Levant margin underwent intra-oceanic convergence (subduction,

obduction and collision) between the Tauride plate (Eurasia), or

Tethyan plate, and the NW Arabian plate (reviewed by Robertson

2000, 2002; Kazmin 2002). This convergence formed the major

structures of the northwestern Arabian plate, such as the SW–

NE Late Cretaceous thrust front in southern Turkey and the

Palmyra fold belt of the same direction (Salel & Seguret 1994).

During the same convergence the exposed Baer-Basit, Hatay,

Kurd Dagh and Amanos ophiolites (among others) were ob-

ducted onto the northwestern Arabian continental margin (e.g.

Al-Riyami et al. 2000; Al-Riyami & Robertson 2002) and the

Troodos ophiolite (e.g. Robertson 2000, 2002) was obducted over

the Cyprus microcontinent (Makris & Wang 1994; Makris et al.

1994).

The tectonic map of the continental parts of the Levant clearly

shows the consequences of the SE to NW convergence of the

northwestern Arabian plate with the Tethyan oceanic crust.

Although the thrust belts, fold belts and ophiolites are evidently

located in the northern Levant region, the geological and

geophysical observations in the central and southern Levant

region show the southwestward continuation of the Syrian Arc

mobile belt from the Palmyrides to Israel, Sinai (e.g. De Sitter

1962; Freund 1965; Mimran 1976; Reches et al. 1981) and its

further continuation in Egypt (Guiraud & Bosworth 1997; Bos-

worth et al. 1999). Bosworth et al. (1999) reported that this

compression event affects the entire African plate, in which pre-

Senonian sedimentary basins, mostly ENE–WSW-trending, were

folded and inverted, some of them along the Mesotethyan margin

from Morocco to Egypt. Bosworth et al. also described a

Fig. 9. Subsidence curves of seven composite columnar sections

(modified after Gvirtzman 2003, location shown in Fig. 7). The three

periods of rapid subsidence should be noted: (1) Middle Triassic;

(2) Middle Jurassic; (3) Aptian–Turonian (Cretaceous).


Campanian to Maastrichtian or Palaeocene extensive phase of

rifting in central and north Africa and northern Arabia (see

below).

Evidence from the continental regions makes re-examination

of the deeply buried tectonic setting of the eastern Mediterranean

by using geophysical data an interesting prospect. However, the

recent structural architecture of the Middle East (Fig. 1) is highly

modified by the later Cenozoic subduction along the Cyprus and

the Hellenic arcs, as well as the sinistral motion along the Dead

Sea Transform. These processes consumed important parts of the

eastern Mediterranean, thus making the present interpretation

much more difficult.

Synchronously with the above-mentioned convergence, two

parallel well-known graben systems, trending normal to the

Syrian mobile belt, developed on the northwestern Arabian plate

(Fig. 1): (1) the Euphrates graben in Syria and Iraq (EG in Fig.

2); (2) the Azraq–Sirhan graben (ASG in Fig. 2) in Saudi

Arabia, Jordan and northwestward toward Galilee, northern

Israel. This structure is bordered on the south by the Carmel

fault system with contemporaneous tectonic basins (grabens?) in

the north Samaria region (Rosenthal et al. 2000).

Although many researchers (e.g. Al-Riyami et al. 2000;

Robertson 2000, 2002; Al-Riyami & Robertson 2002; Robertson

et al. 2009) reported and discussed the Late Cretaceous subduc-

tion and obduction over the northern Levant region, most of

them did not consider the southwestward continuation of this

subduction complex. The Syrian Arc mobile belt over the central

and southern Levant margin represents the southwestward con-

Fig. 10. Three principal palaeotectonic alternatives for the Senonian–Late Maastrichtian. Abbreviations are as in the caption to Figure 2.


tinuation of the convergent regime to Egypt (Bosworth et al.

1999). As this convergence represents the relative motion of the

Afro-Arabia and the Mesotethys plates, it is necessary to under-

stand the entire plate architecture of the eastern Mediterranean.

The significant differences between the northern (north of the

Carmel fault) and central–southern Levant tectonism during the

Late Cretaceous, as well as geological and geophysical evidence

from these regions, allow three alternative explanations (Fig. 10),

as follows.

(1) There was convergence in the northern Levant (Fig. 10a) at

the Kyrenia Arc only, and perhaps additional arcs, separated from

the central and southern Levant by strike-slip motion.

(2) There was convergence in both the northern and central–

southern Levant (Fig. 10b) with two arcs (Kyrenia and, herein

suggested, Eratosthenes) subducting in a similar NW direction as

suggested for the northern Levant, but separated by a different

rate of strike-slip motion (Kazmin (2002) suggested a similar

palaeotectonic scheme).

(3) There was convergence in both the northern and the

central–southern Levant (Fig. 10c) with two arcs (Kyrenia and

Eratosthenes) subducting in opposite directions, separated by a

strike-slip fault system. This configuration of the Eratosthenes

Arc requires additional strike-slip plate boundaries between

Africa and the Mesotethys, as well as between Africa and Sinai

(see also Rybakov et al. 1996). Accordingly, the Levant basin

was a short-lived abandoned back-arc basin.

The present Herodotus basin is deeper than the Levant basin

by c. 1000 m. Thus, at the end of the Turonian before deposition

of several thousands of metres of sediment in the Levant basin

and before the cooling of the Levant crust, it is more likely that

the Levant basin was higher and hotter than the Herodotus basin.

The simple observation of Doglioni et al. (1999) indicates that of

two plates the denser one subducts. This observation supports the

third alternative. Other supporting factors are as follows.

(1) A sharp magnetic transitional zone exists between the

Levant and the Herodotus oceanic crusts.

(2) Onland pre-Miocene fault systems occur between the Sinai

and the African plates along the present Suez fault system, which

can be seen by different magnetic patterns (Fig. 5). Similarly, a

c. 80 km southward reconstruction of the Sinai plate has been

suggested by Rybakov et al. (1996), who matched the east–west

magnetic anomalies on both sides of the Suez fault system.

Furthermore, the faults parallel to and above the African

continental margin (Figs 1, 4 and 5) were between Africa and the

Mesotethys crusts.

(3) Senonian volcanism occurred within the Levant basin

(Jonah Ridge; Figs 1, 4 and 5), which is located above the

suggested eastward subducting plate and on Mt. Carmel (Bat

Shelomo Volcanics) close to the Carmel fault system.

Period of tectonic quiescence associated with thermalsubsidence

During the Late Maastrichtian the Baer-Basit and Hatay ophio-

lites, located in the most active part of the northern Levant

region, were drowned and covered by marine calcareous sedi-

ments (Al-Riyami et al. 2000, 2002). Contemporaneously, the

Arabian plate was covered by mainly pelagic sediments. The

sedimentary sequence of the shallow marine Senonian restricted

basins, which are typified by cherts, chalk and phosphorites

(Reiss 1988; Soudry et al. 2006), was replaced by a deeper

Maastrichtian and Palaeocene shale, marl and chalk (all included

within the Mount Scopus Group, Fig. 8). These formations were

overlain mainly by the Early and Middle Eocene pelagic chalk of

the Avedat Group. The Syrian Arc folds were gradually covered

by the Avedat Group; however, the highest structures, such as the

Ramon anticline and the Golan Heights in northern Israel,

remained above sea level during most of this period.

Widespread intraformational Eocene to Early Oligocene con-

glomerates have been found in Sinai, the Eastern Desert of

Egypt, southern Jordan and southern Israel (Avni et al. 2007). In

places these conglomerates are overlain by and interfingered with

marine Eocene to Early Oligocene carbonate intercalations.

Generally, the deep marine Eocene sequences, including these

intraformational conglomerates, were preserved within down-

faulted blocks of Oligocene age having vertical movements up to

several hundred metres. These Eocene conglomerates indicate

tectonic activity synchronous with sedimentary instability. Avni

et al. (2007) suggested that the Eocene tectonics reactivated pre-

existing, east–west-, NW–SE- and north–south-trending fault

systems, representing an early stage of regional extensional

deformation. The Late Maastrichtian Palaeogene (c. 65–40 Ma)

lithostratigraphy, palaeogeography and tectonism suggest contin-

uous northwestward drowning, associated with fracturing, of the

study area as a result of thermal relaxation following the Early–

Middle Cretaceous plume activity.

Using this Palaeogene c. 25 Ma period of thermal relaxation

and tectonic quiescence, Segev et al. (2010) calculated the local

isostatic compensation of the crust in northern Israel and its

close vicinity. Their results suggest that the central and southern

Levant continental margin thermally subsided c. 2000 m offshore

Israel during this period (Fig. 7). It is therefore reasonable to

genetically connect the Early Tertiary normal faulting of the

central and southern Levant region to this thermal subsidence.

It is important to note that after the Jurassic establishment of

the Levant continental margin, the c. 25 Ma period between the

Late Maastrichtian (c. 65 Ma) and the Late Eocene (c. 40 Ma)

was a unique time of tectonomagmatic quiescence. Therefore

strictly speaking, only during this period was the Levant margin

passive (Segev et al. 2010).

Evolution of the Levant continental margin; discussion

The proposed scenario for the evolution of the Levant margin is

focused on the Cretaceous tectonomagmatic events (Table 1).

Initial setting and phase 1: Permian–Late Triassic (Fig. 2a)

The beginning of the Pangaea supercontinent dispersion led to

the opening of the Permo-Triassic Neotethys by northward

drifting of the Cimmeride microcontinent (Sengor et al. 1984;

Guiraud 1998; Stampfli 2000) and rifting towards the Levant

region (Ziegler 1990; Guiraud 1998; Segev 2002). The Palmyra

rift is one of the rifts (Brew et al. 1999) associated with regional

uplift and magmatism (Gevim Volcanics). This uplift caused

regional denudation of large areas in central and northern Israel

down to the crystalline basement. In these areas the sedimentary

succession begins with Permian rocks.

Phase 2: Late Triassic–Jurassic (the late stage asdescribed in Fig. 2b)

Deep erosion of Upper Triassic units and the absence of Lower

Jurassic rocks in the Levant, NE Africa and the Tauride block

indicate a major uplift and denudation of the Afro-Arabian

region (reviewed by Segev 2000, 2002) accompanied by alkaline

magmatism (Asher Volcanics). This Late Triassic–Early Jurassic

magmatism initiated at c. 207–205 Ma and continued in the


Early Jurassic during 191–189 Ma. The third Middle–Late

Jurassic magmatic event (Bhannes (Lebanon)–Devora (Israel)

Volcanics) took place during c. 160–170 Ma contemporaneously

with a large stratigraphic hiatus. The widespread Late Triassic–

Early Jurassic magmatism in the eastern Mediterranean and NE

Africa suggests that the main rift–drift event between the Afro-

Arabian plate and the Tauride block occurred mainly during the

Jurassic tectonomagmatic period. Throughout this period the

Mesotethys (or southern Neotethys, or present eastern Mediterra-

nean) began to open.

The predominantly reverse magnetization of large parts of the

eastern Levant basin (Fig. 5) is indicative of their pre-Barremian

(c. 127 Ma) formation, followed by the Cretaceous Normal

Polarity Superchron, which lasted until 84 Ma and which prob-

ably influenced the normal magnetized western Levant basin and

the Herodotus basin.

The original pre-Cenozoic orientation of the Levant margin

was east–west in the Egyptian part and SW–NE in Israel,

Lebanon and northeastward, as indicated by the reconstructed

Moho contour lines. This trend significantly differs from the

Miocene–Recent active transform margins. The thick (up to

.3000 m) Jurassic carbonate belt above the Levant margin

(Hirsch et al. 1998) indicates a platform profile of the NW

Arabian plate.

Phase 3: Early Cretaceous (Fig. 2c)

During the Berriasian–Barremian period the entire eastern

Mediterranean region was subjected to intensive updoming,

truncation and magmatism (the Tayasir Volcanics) with minor

and discontinued continental and shallow marine sedimentation.

Geological evidence strongly supports previous interpretations

that postulate a weak mantle plume (Levant–Nubian plume)

emplaced below the Levant continental margin (Garfunkel

1989; Stein & Hofmann 1992, 1994; Laws & Wilson 1997;

Wilson & Guiraud 1998; Segev 2000, 2002; Wilson et al. 2000;

Segev et al. 2005). Segev et al. (2005) centred the plume head

below northern Israel (Fig. 7). Igneous rocks are distributed

mainly over an area of c. 800 km 3 200 km in outcrops and in

the subsurface of Israel, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Sinai and the

Eastern Desert of Egypt, comprising various volcanic sequences

and small hypabyssal intrusions. Predictions based on the

mantle plume theory (Crough 1983; Cox 1989; White &

McKenzie 1989; Schubert et al. 2001), as well as geological

observations (Kent 1991; Sengor 2001), suggest that wide

regions, up to 2000 km, of the Earth’s lithosphere are uplifted

to the extent of 2000 m in response to a dynamic mantle

upwelling. According to Sengor (2001), there is no other

process on Earth that creates such domes of lithospheric flexure

within several million years. The sedimentary record of such

dome uplifts should be considerable, providing an independent

geologically based tool for observing plume activity, even if

much of the magmatic products has been removed (Rainbird &

Ernst 2001).

After Aptian time the Levant continental margin underwent

cyclical uplift and subsidence, whereas the Levant basin was

drowned and mainly covered by deep marine sediments. This

indicates that the Levant rifted margin was only partially cooled

and subsided during the Jurassic. In contrast, it was reactivated

during the c. 55 Ma duration of the Cretaceous plume activity.

The persistence of platform conditions until the Turonian, rather

than ramp-shape conditions (Fig. 6), is indicative of continuous

dynamic uplifting of the Levant margin during most of Cretac-

eous time.

Extensional tectonics and cyclical alkaline plume-related

magmatism typify the Berriasian–Cenomanian, although the

subsurface tectonic setting of these structures on both the

Arabian continental crust and the Levant oceanic crust is not yet

known. During this period the NW Arabian plate was subjected

to vertical changes from dome to platform shapes and vice versa

(Fig. 6). The continued opening of the Mesotethys during most

of Cretaceous time caused the formation of new oceanic crust

that predominantly acquired normal polarity, such as that of the

western Levant basin and the Herodotus basin.

Table 1. Summary of the Cretaceous tectonomagmatic events in the Levant region

Tectonomagmatic event, symboland name

Location Age (Ma) Sources

First, C.V.-1, Tayasir Volcanics Exposed: northern Israel: Mt. Hermon; Wadi El Malih, (Samaria).southern Israel: Makhtesh Ramon (Negev)

Berriasian–Hauterivian,141 � 1.6–133.5 � 1.5

1–11

Subsurface: Mt. Carmel; Samaria; GalileeMardin Plateau; Palmyrides of Syria; Euphrates graben, Iraq;Northeastern Desert, Egypt; Sirt, Libya; Mamonia Complex, SWCyprus

12–17

Second, C.V.-2, Shen Ramon–Gavnunim Exposed: southern Israel: Makhtesh Ramon, Har Arif (Negev) Basal Aptian 125–123 11, 18–22Subsurface: Mt. Carmel; northern IsraelCoastal Range, Jebel Ansariye, Syria; Wadi Al Karn, Lebanon 23–24

Third, C.V.-3, Ramon Volcanics Exposed: southern Israel: Makhtesh Ramon, Har Arif (Negev),Timna Valley; Arif en-Naqa, Sinai

Aptian–Albian 116.4 �3.4–108.8 � 1.2

25–30

Subsurface: Mt. Carmel, northern IsraelCoastal Range, Syria; Wadi Araba, Egypt 23, 39

Fourth, C.V.-4a, 4b, 4c, 4d, CarmelVolcanics

Northern Israel: Mt. Carmel; northern Lebanon; Coastal Range,Syria; Eastern Desert, Egypt

Cenomanian 99 � 1;98.2 � 1;

31–34, 11,

96.7 � 0.5; 95.4 � 0.5 23, 34–38Fifth, C.V.-5, Bat Shelomo Volcanics Northern Israel: Mt. Carmel Campanian 82 � 1 32, 34

1, Shimron & Lang 1989; 2, Shimron & Peltz 1993; 3, Mimran 1972; 4, Lang & Mimran 1985; 5, Garfunkel 1989; 6, Baer 1989; 7, Rophe et al. 1989; 8, Teutsch et al. 1996;9, Bonen 1980; 10, Katz & Eppelbaum 1999; 11, Segev 2000, 2009; 12, Wilson & Guiraud 1998; 13, Meneisy 1990; 14, Cahen et al. 1984; 15, Massa 1988; 16, Rossi et al.1992; 17, Chan et al. 2008; 18, Itamar & Steinitz 1988; 19, Lang et al. 1988; 20, Lang & Steinitz 1994; 21, Segev 2000; 22, Derin 1981; 23, Mouty et al. 1992; 24, Sharkov et

al. 1989; 25, Eyal 1996; 26, Segev et al. 2005; 27, Zemel et al. 1956; 28, Zak 1964; 29, Weissbrod et al. 1990; 30, Weissbrod & Segev 2003; 31, Picard & Kashai 1958;32, Sass 1980; 33, Sass & Bein 1982; 34, Segev et al. 2002; 35, Mouty & Saint-Marc 1982; 36, Meneisy & Kreuzer 1974; 37, Serencsits et al. 1981; 38, Ferry et al. 2007;39, Filak et al. 2001.


Phase 4: Late Cretaceous (Fig. 2d)

Major regional convergence initiated during Late Turonian time,

when the first stage of the Syrian Arc deformation belt developed

at the central and southern Levant margin that had synchronously

begun to drown (Bartov et al. 1980; Honigstein et al. 1988). The

most intense convergence occurred between the Campanian and

Late Maastrichtian, when there was intra-oceanic subduction and

obduction at the northern Levant margin, as a result of collision

between the Mesotethys plate and the NW Arabian plate.

This SE–NW-trending collision resulted in the obduction of

ophiolites in the northern Levant margin and southern Turkey

and along a parallel westward trend in southern Turkey (Robert-

son 2000, 2002). Within the northeastern Mediterranean region

the Troodos ophiolite in Cyprus and perhaps the Niklas ophiolite

west of the Eratosthenes Seamount were related to the same

events (Rybakov et al. 2009). The Late Cretaceous plate-tectonic

regime reveals the convergence between the African–Arabian

plate from the SE and the Mesotethys and the Tauride plates

from the NW. The geological and geophysical evidence suggests

the existence of a convergent (subduction) plate boundary in the

present-day southeastern Mediterranean, called the Eratosthenes

Arc. It is also suggested that the available information points to

the possibility that the western Herodotus oceanic plate had

subducted southeastward, and thus the Levant basin was a short-

lived, abandoned back-arc basin.

Phase 5: Late Maastrichtian to Middle–Late Eocene(Fig. 2e)

After c. 15 Ma of Late Cretaceous convergence and before the

newly formed Cenozoic plate-tectonic regime, the entire Middle

East region experienced tectonomagmatic quiescence, a period

that lasted c. 25 Ma. Because the Cenozoic tectonism was most

probably genetically influenced by the Afar plume activity, it is

reasonable to search there for reasons why the short-lived Late

Cretaceous convergence terminated. However, during phase 5 the

Levant margin cooled and subsided until the NW Arabian plate

became a moderately inclined ramp. This tectonic quiescence

and thermal relaxation of the Levant continental margin reveal

the unique episode of its isostatic compensation.

Final setting, phase 6: Late Eocene–Recent (Fig. 2f)

The updoming of NE Africa and Arabia since the Late Eocene

terminated the previous tectonic quiescence and caused the

regression of the Mesotethys Ocean from the Afro-Arabian

continental margin. This uplift is probably related to the

dynamics of the Afar mantle plume, which resulted in rifting and

breakup between the African, Sinai and the Arabian plates. The

resulting Neogene rift–rift at the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea

as well as the continuous opening of the southern Atlantic Ocean

caused the formation of a new plate-tectonic regime with a new

convergent pattern between the African and the Arabian plates

from the south and the Eurasian plate from the north. As part of

the new tectonic regime, the Dead Sea Transform plate boundary

connected with the Levant continental margin during the Early

Miocene (Burdigalian, Garfunkel 1989; Garfunkel & Ben-Avra-

ham 2001; Garfunkel & Beyth 2006) and then uplifted Lebanon

and northern Israel to c. 2500 m above their level of compensa-

tion. Moreover, since the Oligocene the area studied was

subjected to intensive flood volcanism over large regions. During

this tectonic period the Levant margin was reactivated, making it

an active transform margin (Dead Sea Transform).

Summary

This study focuses on the central and southern Levant continental

margin and synthesizes the relevant information from adjacent

continental and marine regions. A variety of geological evidence

relating to the shallow crust of the study area, and gravity and

magnetic anomaly maps of the eastern Mediterranean allow (1)

characterization and division of the eastern Mediterranean into

various regions, (2) better location of the basic Phanerozoic

igneous bodies, and (3) the suggestion of a new concept for the

Late Cretaceous convergence event. These, together with the

newly restored 3D crustal structure of the central Levant (after

Segev et al. 2010) clarify the Late Maastrichtian–Late Eocene

tectonic quiescence period and help in understanding the geo-

dynamic processes involved.

The geological record of the Levant region reveals the

complex effects of major tectomagmatic events that mainly

caused intensive vertical motion, deep truncation, rifting, inten-

sive magmatism, breakup and formation of new oceanic crusts.

However, it also exposed convergent episodes that led to

subduction, obduction, collision, thrusting, folding and strike-slip

motions. All these events significantly affect the region where

the Levant continental margin formed and developed. The

following summary traces the evolutionary geological scenario

of the formation and development of the Levant continental

margin through time.

(1) The Permo-Triassic breakup of the Pangaea supercontinent

led to the opening of the Neotethys north of the Tauride block

and to intensive rifting toward the northern part of the Gondwana

supercontinent, including the Levant region.

(2) The Late Triassic–Jurassic tectomagmatic event reveals the

breakup of the Tauride and other blocks from northern Gondwana

and the formation of the Levant rifted volcanic margin in the

southeastern part of the newly formed Mesotethys Ocean.

(3) The onland subsurface magmatic and volcanic rocks of the

Jurassic were found to have negligible magnetic anomalies

similar to the very low and mostly reverse magnetization of large

oceanic parts of the eastern Levant basin.

(4) The strike of the Levant margin was SW–NE in the

northwestern Arabian part and east–west in the northern African

part. The approximately south–north outline of the Levant coast-

line during part of the Cretaceous and at present is due to

tectonic activity and/or thermal uplifts.

(5) A Cretaceous mantle plume controlled the tectonomag-

matic tensional regime up to Late Turonian time. It is interpreted

as the cause for the Mesotethys oceanic crust change from

average negative magnetization of the eastern Levant basin to an

average positive magnetization westward.

(6) The Senonian–Maastrichtian (c. 15 Ma) convergence as a

result of the Kyrenia Arc is evident from the ophiolites and the

thrust zone in the northern Levant region. The continuation of

the Syrian Arc fold belt from the Palmyrides to Israel, Sinai and

Egypt therefore suggests the existence of another arc (Era-

tosthenes) in the central and southern Levant region. Accord-

ingly, the Levant basin was a short-lived abandoned back-arc

basin that accumulated a relatively thick sedimentary succession.

(7) A distinct tectonomagmatic quiescent period in the Middle

East, between Late Maastrichtian and Late Eocene time (c.

25 Ma), allowed the Afro-Arabian plate to thermally subside

until it approached its isostatic compensation and became a

moderately inclined ramp.

The authors wish to thank E. Sass for his collaboration on the geological

studies in the Mt. Carmel region and his productive discussions. The


paper benefited greatly from reviews by V. Lyakhovsky, S. Folkman and

J. Steinberg. Thanks are also due to T. Needham (editor), M. Gardosh

and an anonymous reviewer for their constructive reviews, and to B. Katz

and S. Shaiak for editing. This research was partially funded by the Israel

Science Foundation (ISF 753/08), and partially supported by grants from

the Earth Science Research Administration of the Ministry of National

Infrastructures, Israel (25-17-028; 25-17-048).

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Received 7 August 2009; revised typescript accepted 12 February 2010.

Scientific editing by Tim Needham.


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