Journal of Archaeological Research Volume 1 Issue 3 1993 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf01326535] G. a. Clark --...

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Journal o f Archaeological Research Vo l. 1 No. 3 1993

P a r a d i g m s i n S c i e n c e a n d r c h a e o lo g y

G A C l a r k I

T h e p a r a d i g m c o n c e p t a s d e v e l o p e d i n w e ste rn p h i l o s o p h y o f s c ie n c e c o n t e x ts

i s r ev iewed a n d t h e m e t a p h y s i ca l p a r a d i g m s t h a t g o ver n r e sea rch p r o t o co l s i n

m a i n s t r e a m O l d a n d N e w W o r ld p r e h is to r ic a r c h a eo l o gy a re d e s c ri b e d a n d

c o m p a r e d . I t i s c o n c l u d e d t h a t p o s t - 1 9 7 0 N e w W o r l d a r c h a e ol o g ic a l re se ar ch

r ece ive s i t s i n t e ll e c t u a l m a n d a t e f r o m a n t h r o p o lo g y i s f o u n d e d o n p o s t p o s i t i v i s t

b iases a n d is go vern ed by a cr it ica l- rea li st on to logy a m odi f i ed -ob jec t i v i s t

ep is tem o lo g y a n d a n exp er i m en t a l -m a n i p u l a t i ve m e t h o d o l o g y . P o s t -1 9 7 0 O l d

W o r l d a r ch a eo l o g i ca l r es ea r ch i s v i ewed a s a k i n d o f h is to r y r em a i n s m o s t l y

i n t h e s tr i c t em p i r i c i s t t r a d it io n a n d i s g o ve r n ed b y a rea l is t o n t o lo g y a n

i n d u c t i v i s t ep is tem o lo g y a n d b y a n o b s er va t i o n a l m e t h o d o l o g y . Th e c l a i m s o f

v a r io u s k i n d s o f p o s t p r o c e s s u a l a r c h a e o lo g y a r e a l so e v a l u a t e d i n t e r m s o f t h e

p a r a d i g m c o n c e p t .

K E Y W O R D S : p r e h i s t o r i c a r c h a e o l o g y ; p o s t p o s i t i v i s m ; e p i s t e m o l o g y ; r e s e a r c h t r a d i t i o n s ; c r i t i -

c a l r ea l i sm.

I N T R O D U C T I O N

E a c h c o u n t r y h a s i t s o w n t r a d i t i o n s o f r e s e a r c h i n r e s p e c t t o t h e v a r i-

ous d i s c ip l ines tha t compr i se i t s in te l l ec tua l l i f e . These t r ad i t ions a re based ,

i n t h e f in a l a na l ys is , o n t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l p a r a d i g m - - a c o l -

l e c ti o n o f b i a s e s a n d p r e c o n c e p t i o n s a b o u t th e n a t u r e o f o u r k n o w l e d g e o f

t h e w o r l d o r , in t h e p r e s e n t c o n t e x t , s o m e a s p e c t o f t h e w o r l d , s u c h a s a

s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e . I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , p r e h i s t o r i c a r c h a e o l o g y i s t h e

r o u g h e q u i v a l e n t o f w h a t is k n o w n a s p r e h i s t o r y in E u r o p e b u t is c o n s i d -

e r e d a b r a n c h o f a n t h r o p o l o g y ) , i s t y p ic a ll y t a u g h t i n d e p a r t m e n t s o f an -

t h r o p o l o g y , a n d p r o c e e d s f r o m f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t s a n d a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t

1 D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t h r o p o l o g y A r i z o n a S t a te U n i v e r s it y T e m p e A r i z o n a 8 52 87 .

203

1059-0161/93/0900-0203507.00/0© 1993 PlenumPublishing

orporation



2 4 l a r k

a r e d i s t in c t f r o m t h o s e t h a t u n d e r l i e t h e t e a c h i n g o f p r e h i s t o r y i n E u r o p e .

I n E u r o p e , p r e h i s to r i c a r c h a e o l o g y is u s u a ll y c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a k i n d o f

h i s t o r y p r o j e c t e d b a c k i n t o t h e p r e l i t e r a t e p a s t . I t i s t a u g h t i n h i s t o r y d e -

p a r t m e n t s , o r i n a u t o n o m o u s d e p a r t m e n t s o f a r c h a e o lo g y , tr e a t s p r o c e s s

i n t h e r e m o t e p a s t a s a n e x t e n s i o n o f p r o c e s s i n hi s to r y , a n d is c o n c e p t u a l l y

a n d o r g a n i z a t io n a l l y s e p a r a t e d f r o m s o c ia l a n d c u l t u ra l a n t h r o p o l o g y ( C l a r k

and L ind ly , 1991) .

T h i s e s s a y r e v i e w s t h e p a r a d i g m c o n c e p t a s i t h a s b e e n u s e d i n w e s t -

e r n s c i e n c e , t h e n c o m p a r e s t h e p a r a d i g m s t h a t g o v e r n p r e h i s t o r i c a r c h a e -

o l o g y i n t h e a n g l o p h o n e N e w W o r l d w i t h th o s e t h a t g o v e r n a r c h a e o l o g y

i n t h e O l d W o r l d ( e sp e c ia l ly th o s e o f c o n ti n e n t a l E u r o p e ) . I a l so s u m m a r i z e

a n d p r o v i d e a r e a c t i o n t o t h e c l a im s o f v a r i o u s k i n d s o f p o s t p r o c e s s u a l

a r c h a e o l o g y , n o t a b l y t h o s e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h i t s B r i t i s h w i n g . I e n d e a v o r t o

p r e s e n t a sk e t c h o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t s th a t a r e i m p o r t a n t in th e

t w o r e s e a r c h t r a d it i o n s , b e c a u s e I b e l ie v e t h a t t h e s e s h a d o w y e n t i ti e s , s e l-

d o m m a d e e x p li ci t, h a v e a m a r k e d e f f e c t o n o u r c o n s t ru a l s o f p a t t e r n i n

t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d , a n d w h a t p a t t e r n m i g h t m e a n i n b e h a v i o r a l

t e r m s . I t a k e i t a s a x i o m a t i c t h a t t h e b r o a d p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l

t r a d i t i o n s t o w h i c h w e p e r t a i n a r e i d e n t i f ia b l e , a t l e a s t in g e n e r a l t e r m s

( C l a r k , 1 9 8 9 , 1 9 9 1 ) . O t h e r s , w h o c o n s i d e r t h e d i s c i p l i n e t o b e c o m p o s e d

of a co l l ec t iv i ty o f ind iv idua l s cho la r s , do no t ag ree tha t i t i s pos s ib le to

do th is (e .g . , Knf ise l , 1992) .

T H E N A T U R E O F T H E P A R A D IG M

I n t h e a n g l o p h o n e w o r l d , b o t h p r o c e s s u a l i s t s a n d p o s t p r o c e s s u a l i s t s

fo l low T ho m as K uh n (1962 , 1974 , 1977 , 1991 .) w i th r es pec t to the de f in i t ion

o f t h e p a r a d ig m . F o r h im , t h e t e rm p a r a d i g m m e a n t a p r o t o t y p i c a l m o d e

o f p r o b l e m s o lv i n g t h a t i m p l ic it ly d e f i n e d f o r s c ie n t is t s h o w t h e y m u s t s e e

t h e w o r l d . A c c o r d i n g t o K u h n , sc i e n ti s ts c o n s t r u c t c o m p l e x t h e o r e t i c a l a n d

m e t h o d o l o g i c a l s y s te m s b a s e d a l w a y s o n a p a r ti c u l ar p a r a d i g m , b u t t h e s e

s y s t e m s a r e s e l d o m , i f e v e r , m a d e e x p li ci t in a n y f o r m a l s e n s e . T h e y a r e ,

i n t h e f i n a l an a l ys is , to t a l ly s u b j e c ti v e . T h a t d o e s n o t m e a n , h o w e v e r , t h a t

t h e y c a n n o t b e s u b j e c t e d t o c r i t i c a l s c r u t i n y . I n a n t h r o p o l o g y , a m e t a p h y s i -

c a l p a r a d i g m h a s b e e n l ik e n e d t o a w o r l d v i e w - - a n a f f ir m a t i o n , o r a n a s-

s e r t i o n a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e w o r l d o f e x p e r i e n c e ( o r a p a r t o f i t, l ik e

t h e b i a s e s a n d p r e c o n c e p t i o n s t h a t u n d e r l i e a s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e ) ( B i n f o r d

a n d S a b l o f f , 1 9 8 2 ; W a t s o n e t a l . 1 9 8 4 ) . O n c e i n d o c t r i n a t e d i n t h e p a r a d i g m

( a n d t h i s o c c u r s t h r o u g h t h e f o r m a l p r o c e s s o f e d u c a t i o n ) , s c i e n ti s ts ty p i -

c a l l y d e d i c a t e t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f p r o b l e m s w h o s e s o l u t i o n s

t e n d t o r e i n f o r c e a n d a m p l i f y th e c r e d i b il i ty o f t h e p a r a d i g m , r a t h e r t h a n



Parad igms in Science and rchaeology 2 5

to ques t ion i t s va l id i ty . From Kuhn ' s per spec t ive , th i s i s how sc ience in

g e n e r a l f u n c t io n s , w i t h o u t m u c h c o n c e r n f o r t h e p r e c o n c e p t i o n s a n d b i a s e s

t ha t a r e t he f ounda t i ons o f i t s know l edge c l a i ms . T h i s i s w ha t he means

b y n o r m a l s c ie n c e , c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y m o p p i n g u p o p e r a t i o n s , t h e h a b it -

ua l ac ti v it ie s o f s c ience , t he i nvest iga t ion o f r ou t i ne ques t i ons and p r ob l em s ,

de f i n ed and l eg i ti ma t i zed by cons ens us ( K uhn , 1991 , p . 37 ).

B u t , a s eve r yone know s , i n t he cou r s e o f no r ma l s c i ence anomal i e s

a lw a y s o c c u r - - p h e n o m e n a t h a t th e p a r a d i g m c a n n o t e x pl ai n, o r th a t i t c a n

expla in on ly inadequate ly , o r tha t , in the i r impl ica t ions , con t rad ic t i t d i -

r e c t l y . G e n e r a l l y t h e s e a n o m a l i e s a r e i g n o r e d , b u t i f e n o u g h o f t h e m a c -

cumul a t e , t hey can p r ovoke a pa r ad i gm s h i f t , c aus i ng s c i en t i s t s t o abandon

t he r u l i ng pa r ad i gm a l t oge t he r and t o s ubs t i t u t e a new one f o r i t . K uhn

a r gues t ha t t he p r oces s o f pa r ad i gm s h i f t t ends t o occu r r e l a t i ve l y r ap i d l y ,

caus i ng the k i nd o f s c i en ti f ic r evo l u t i on t ha t appea r s i n the t it le o f h is

book . E xcep t du r i ng t he no r ma l s c i ence phas e , t h i s no t i on o f r ap i d and

conc l us ive chan ge n ega t e s t he poss ib il it y t ha t s c i ence can b e a g r adua l , cu -

mu l a t i ve p r oces s , and i mp l i e s t ha t change i s ep i s od i c and e s s en t i a l l y un -

p r e d i c t a b l e . T h a t is n o t t o sa y , h o w e v e r , t h a t k n o w l e d g e i ts e l f is

n o n c u m u l a t i v e . R a t h e r , a s m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e p a r a d i g m s a r e d e v i s e d a n d

co m e i n t o gen e r a l accep t ance , t he i r exp l ana t o r y r eac h is p r og r e ss i ve ly

e n l a r g e d , m o r e k n o w l e d g e i s s u b s u m e d u n d e r t h e m , a n d m o r e c a n u l t i -

m a t e l y be exp l a i ned m or e adeq ua t e l y ( C l a rk , 1987 ).

K uh n a l so t h i nks t ha t t he w or l d o f s c ience i s p r o f o und l y cons e rva t i ve ,

and becaus e o f t h i s , mos t s c i en t i s t s a r e no t d i s pos ed t o accep t a new pa r a -

d i gm o r , m or e accu r a t e l y , s imp l y do n o t un de r s t a nd it, be i ng i nd oc t r i na t e d

i n t he b i a s e s and p r econcep t i ons o f i t s p r edeces s o r . F r om a ce r t a i n ph i l o -

s oph i ca l po i n t o f v iew , d i s ti nc t me t aphys i ca l pa r ad i gm s a r e i nco m m ens u -

r a te . T h e y d o n o t s h a r e a n y c o m m o n p a t t e r n s b y w h ic h t h e y ca n b e

c o m p a r e d . T h o s e w h o s u b s c r i b e t o d i f f e r e n t m e t a p h y s i c a l p a r a d i g m s c a n

ma i n t a i n an i n t e r mi nab l e d i s cou r s e w i t hou t eve r r e s o l v i ng any t h i ng , s i nce

t h e y e m p l o y d i st in c t f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t s a n d g iv e d i f fe r e n t m e a n i n g s t o

s upe r f i c i a l l y s ha r ed concep t s . A good exampl e i n t he l i t e r a t u r e o f an t h r o -

p o l o g y is t h e c u r r e n t r e s u r g e n c e o f i n t e r e st i n t h e c e n t u r y - o ld q u e s t io n o f

moder n human o r i g i n s ( C l a r k , 1992 ) .

T h e n a t u r e o f p a ra d i g m s h if ts h a s b e e n m u c h d i s c u ss e d in t h e p h i -

l o s ophy o f s c i ence , i n a r chaeo l ogy , and i n many o t he r d i s c i p l i nes . K uhn ' s

a s s e r t ion t ha t pa r ad i gm s h if ts w e r e e s s en t i a ll y abs o lu t e , i r r a ti ona l , and un -

p r e d i c t a b l e w a s d e b a t e d in A m e r i c a n a r c h a e o l o g y d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 s , a n d

t h e r e w e r e s o m e , l i k e R a y m o n d T h o m p s o n ( 1 9 7 2 ) , w h o a r g u e d t h a t a r -

chae o l ogy cou l d bes t be v i ew ed a s a k ind o f h i st o r y and t ha t t he r e w er e

m an y a s pec t s o f con t i nu i t y w i t h r e s pec t t o pa r ad i gm a t i c chang e , e s pec ia l ly

w i t h r ega r d t o i ts me t ho do l og y . T h i s w as pu t i n t he co n t ex t o f ano t he r ,



2 6 l a r k

b r o a d e r d i s c u s s i o n , w h i c h h a d t o d o w i t h w h e t h e r o r n o t d i s t i n c t a s p e c t s

o f t h e p a r a d i g m c o u l d c h a n g e , i f i n f a c t t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l p a r a d i g m d i d n o t

cha ng e ( c f. M el tze r , 1979) . K uhn th inks tha t the con ve r s ion o f s c ien t i s t s

t o t h e e m e r g e n t p a r a d i g m i s a p r o c e s s t h a t i s a t o n c e b o t h p o l i t i c a l a n d

s u b j e c t i v e a n d t h a t s c i e n ti s ts o f t e n a d o p t a n e w p a r a d i g m b e c a u s e i t i s p r o -

p o s e d o r s u p p o r t e d b y w e l l - k n o w n s c h o l a rs , o r b e c a u s e t h e f i e ld i n g e n e r a l

h a s t a c i t l y a c c e p t e d i t a l r e a d y . B o t h p r o c e s s e s o c c u r r e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o

p r o c e s s u a l a r c h a e o l o g y , b u t t h e s o - c a ll e d r e v o l u t i o n i n f a c t t o o k p l a c e

d u r i n g m o r e t h a n a d e c a d e ( c a . 1 9 6 5 - 1 9 7 5 ) .

O n c e a d o p t e d b y t h e m a j o r i t y o f th e p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f t h e d is c ip l in e ,

t h e n e w p a r a d i g m t e n d s t o g iv e t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t i t is b e t t e r a b l e t h a n

i t s p r e d e c e s s o r t o r e s o l v e c e r t a i n p r o b l e m s ( i . e . , t h o s e a n o m a l i e s w i t h w h i c h

i ts p r e d e c e s s o r c o u l d n o t s u c c e s s f u ll y c o n t e n d ) . T h e r e is a l s o t h e n o t i o n

t h a t t h e n e w p a r a d i g m i s a b e t t e r a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f r e a l i t y t h a n t h e d i s-

c a r d e d o n e . T h e l a t t e r i s s u e a l s o h a s b e e n m u c h d i s c u s s e d i n p h i l o s o p h y

o f s c i e n c e c o n t e x ts , a n d t h e r e a r e m a n y p h i l o so p h e r s w h o o p i n e t h a t t h e

r e a l w o r l d is i n i t se l f u n k n o w a b l e a n d t h a t , fr o m a c e r ta i n p h i l o s o p h i c a l

p o i n t o f vi e w , n o s in g l e r e a l it y e x is ts a p a r t f r o m o u r p e r c e p t i o n s o f i t. T h i s

p e r s p e c t i v e f o r m s p a r t o f th e c o l le c t io n o f b ia s e s e m p h a s i z e d b y c e rt a i n

e l e m e n t s o f t h e r a d i c a l c ri t iq u e , b u t it a l s o u n d e r l i e s s o m e a p p r o a c h e s t o

w h a t I t h i n k o f a s s t a n d a r d p r o c e s s u a l a r c h a e o l o g y . W i t h r e s p e c t t o th e

p a r a d i g m , i t h a s a s a c o n s e q u e n c e t h e f a c t t h a t p r o p o s i t i o n a l s t a t e m e n t s

a r e o n l y t r u e a n d f a l s e i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a g i v e n m e t a p h y s i c a l p a r a d i g m ,

b u t w i t h i n t h a t p a r a d i g m , t h e c o n c e p t s o f t r u t h a n d f a l s it y a r e p e r f e c t l y

v a l i d a n d , i n f a c t, n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f n o r m a l s c i e n c e . T h i s

p o i n t w a s v e r y b a d l y m i s u n d e r s t o o d b y p a r t i s a n s o f s t ri c t e m p i r ic i s m a n d ,

a l so , b y s o m e p o s t p r o c e s s u a l i s t s w h o s u b s c r i b e t o r e la t iv i s t b i a s e s ( s e e b e -

l o w ) . T o K u h n , t h e r o l e o f t h e p a r a d i g m w a s to p r o v i d e t h e s e c u r e i n f e r-

e n t i a l b a s e r e q u i r e d f o r s c ie n c e t o o r g a n i z e t h e c h a o s o f e x p e r ie n c e .

D I F F E R E N T K I N D S O F PA R A D I G M S

E a r l y o n , t h e n o t i o n o f t h e p a r a d i g m w a s s u b j e c t e d t o c ri ti c al s c r u ti n y ,

m a i n l y i n p h i l o s o p h y o f s c i e n c e c o n t e x t s . F i g u r e 1 s h o w s h o w t h e c o n c e p t

o f p a r a d i g m w a s v i e w e d a f t e r t h e m i d d l e 1 97 0s. I n it s b r o a d e s t c o n c e p t u -

a l iz a t io n , t h e p a r a d i g m c o n s i st s o f t h e t o t a l i t y o f b e l i e fs , v a l u e s a n d t e c h -

n i q u e s th a t l i nk t o g e t h e r a n d u n i f y a s c ie n t if ic c o m m u n i t y ( K u h n , 1 9 9 1 ).

H o w e v e r , a n d u n f o r t u n a t e ly , K u h n w a s c a r el e ss i n his u s e o f th e c o n c e p t ;

o n e o f h is c r it ic s e n u m e r a t e d n o f e w e r t h a n 2 1 d if f e re n t u s e s o f p a r a d i g m

i n t h e p a g e s o f The Structure of Scientific Revolutions A c c o r d i n g t o M a r -

g a r e t M a s t e r m a n ( 1 9 7 0 ) , w h o s e s c h e m e I a m f o l l o w i n g h e r e , t h e p a r a d i g m



P a r a d i g m s i n S c i e n c e a n d A r c h a e o l og y 2 7

c o n c e p t w a s u s e d i n a t l e a s t t h r e e d i s ti n c t w a y s . T h e m o s t i n c lu s iv e , a n d

t h e o n e m o s t r e l e v a n t t o th i s e s sa y , is t h a t o f t h e m e t a p h y s i c - - a n a f f i rm a -

t i o n o r a n a s s e r t io n a b o u t t h e c o n t e n t o f a s c i en t if ic d is c ip l in e . T h e r e i s

a l s o a n i n t e r m e d i a t e u s a g e o r l ev e l, c a l le d b y M a s t e r m a n t h e s o c i o l o g ic a l

p a r a d i g m . B y t h is s h e m e a n t p a r a d i g m s c o m p r i s e d o f d i v e r g e n t , s e l f- r e f-

e r e n c i n g s c h o o l s, t o b o r r o w t h e w o r d s o f D a v i d C l a r k e ( 19 7 3 ), t h a t o f t e n

w e r e f o u n d w i t h i n a s i n g l e m e t a p h y s i c a l p a r a d i g m . A g o o d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l

e x a m p l e i s t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e p a r t i sa n s o f d e d u c t i v e - n o m o l o g i c a l ( D -

N ) a p p r o a c h e s a n d t h o s e o f g e n e r a l s y s te m s t h e o r y ( G S T ) t h a t e x i s te d u n -

d e r t h e m e t a p h y s i c o f p r o c e s s u a l a r c h a e o l o g y in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d u ri n g

t h e 1 9 7 0 s ( F l a n n e r y , 1 9 7 3 ) . B o t h c o n s i d e r e d t h e m s e l v e s t o b e a d h e r e n t s o f

t h e n e w a r c h a e o l o g y , b u t t h e y d i s a g re e d w i th r e s p e c t t o h o w to a c h ie v e

i t s o b j e c t i v e s . N o t i c e t h a t t h e r e i s n o o v e r l a p i n t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l p a r a d i g m s

s h o w n i n th e d i a g r a m , a p o i n t t o w h i c h I r e t u r n b e l o w . T h e r e is a l s o a

t h i r d l e v e l , s u b d i v i d e d i n t o v a r i o u s s u b l e v e l s , t h a t M a s t e r m a n d e s i g n a t e d

t h e l e v e l o f t h e c o n s t r u c t p a r a d i g m . B y t h is sh e m e a n t t h a t p a r a d i g m w a s

a l s o u s e d i n i ts m e t h o d o l o g i c a l s e n s e t o d e n o t e a c o l l e c t io n o f m e t h o d s

a n d t e c h n i q u e s s h a r e d b y d is t in c t s o c i o lo g i c a l p a r a d i g m s . B e c a u s e o f th i s,

t h e r e i s o v e r l a p b e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s c o n s t r u c t p a r a d i g m s s h o w n i n F i g . 1 .

W h e n K u h n p u b l i s h e d The Structure o f Scientif ic evolution s in 1962,

h e w a s c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l p a r a d i g m w a s a c l o s e d l o g i c a l s y s -

t e m t h a t a b s o l u t e l y d e t e r m i n e d a ll t h e c h a r a c t e r is t i c s o f i ts s u b o r d i n a t e o r

c o n s t i t u e n t p a r a d i g m s . H e w a s m u c h c r i t i c i z e d f o r t h i s r i g i d a n d u n r e a l i s t i c

pos i t ion , and a f t e r 1974 , he abandoned i t ( s ee , e .g . , paper s in Kuhn , 1977) .

I t be ca m e o bv iou s tha t , in m any f i e lds, and espec ia l ly in hybr id d i s c ip l ines

s u c h a s a r c h a e o l o g y , t h e r e i s a n e n o r m o u s o v e r l a p w i t h r e s p e c t t o m e t h -

o d o l o g y ( se e , e .g ., D i b b l e a n d D 6 b e n a t h , 1 99 1). W h e t h e r t h e r e w a s o v e r l a p

wi th r espec t to soc io log ica l pa rad igms was l e s s c l ea r , and in F ig . 2 , I g ive

m y p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e s t r u c tu r e o f a r c h a eo l o g ic a l p a r a d i g m s t yp ic a l o f t h e

1980s.

S o m e a s p e c t s o f F ig . 2 d e s e r v e c o m m e n t a r y o r e m p h a s i s. F o r o n e

t h in g , t h e d i a g r a m i s b o t h h i e r a rc h i c a l a n d r e t i c u l a te i n s t ru c t u r e , a n d p r o -

c e e d s f r o m t h e m o r e t o t h e l e s s i n c l u s i v e , f r o m t h e m o r e t o t h e l e s s o b -

s e r v a b l e , a n d b a c k a g a i n. I f th e e n t r y p o i n t i s a t t h e b o t t o m , a t t h e l e ve l

o f d a t a , p h e n o m e n a t h a t a r e d i re c tl y o b s e r v a b l e in t h e r ea l w o r l d a r e

i n v o lv e d . F a c t s , h o w e v e r , a r e a b s t r a c t io n s , p e r h a p s b e s t c o n c e p t u a l i z e d

a s m e a s u r e m e n t s t a k e n o n d a ta . T e c h n i q u e s s u c h as m e a s u r e m e n t , o n c e

a p p l i e d t o d a t a , c o m e t o e m b o d y d i st in c t a s su m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e s t r u c t u r e

o f t h e p h e n o m e n a o f i n t e r e s t ( C a r r , 1 9 85 a, b ) . T h e y r e l a t e d a t a a n d f a c t s

to genera l i za t ions , wh ich a re de r ived induc t ive ly f rom da ta . Ac t iv i t i e s in -

v o l v in g d a t a a n d f a c t s a r e c o m m o n t o a ll a rc h a e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h a n d c o r -

r e s p o n d t o M a s t e r m a n ' s ( 1 9 7 0 ) c o n s t r u c t o r m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p a r a d i g m l e v e l



2 8 C l a r k

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P a r a d i g m s i n S c i e n c e a n d A r c h a e o l og y 2 9

(cf. Fig. 1). Test implications are conditions that are expected to apply to

patterns in data and are arrived at via deduction from a hypothesis, which

can be defined as any unconfirmed but testable proposition (Hempel, 1966,

p. 19). Hypotheses state that, in given circumstances, particular events are

covered by (are particularizations of and thus explained by) suspected

and/or confirmed laws or law-like generalizations (Watson e t a l , 1984, p.

7 .

Then, at the level of models and theories, things typically get

fuzzy conceptually. The main reason is that archaeology lacks the body of

confirmed, warranted, nontrivial laws or law-like generalizations that is

characteristic of more fully axiomatized disciplines. Put another way, we

do not have theories in the sense that physics has theories. There are

good reasons for this, of course--the main one being the often-remarked-

upon differences in the research protocols of experimental and observa-

tional sciences (Clark, 1982). While most workers appear to share a

perception of what a metaphysical paradigm is (although they do not nec-

essarily agree on the nature of the metaphysic), theories and models tend

to be used interchangeably by almost everybody. Although theories have

relatively precise definitions in more fully axiomatized disciplines, they are

most generally viewed as the keys to understanding the empirical world.

Hempel (1966, p. 244) writes that theories

a r e normally developed only when previous research has yielded a body of

information, including empirical generalizations, about the phenomena in question.

A theory is then intended to provide deeper understanding by presenting those

phenomena as manifestationsof certain underlying processes.

Personally, I prefer Binford's (1981, p. 25) less rigorous, common-sense

definition:

Theories are the answers to the why questions of dynamics.They are concerned

with understanding variability and how systems proceed from one state to another.

Models, on the other hand, are vague formulations that function at

a number of levels to characterize or describe patterns, not necessarily t o

provide deeper understanding of it. Few archaeologists appear to make

the distinction (and I, like many others, have often sought refuge in the

comfortable ambiguity of models ). Theories and models appear to occupy

an intermediate position between that of the metaphysic and that of the

hypothesis; in Masterman's terms, they pertain to the realm of the socio-

logical paradigm. Whatever they are, they express relationships among

nonobservables (abstractions) of various kinds and, through hypotheses, re-

late diverse phenomena of interest to underlying causal processes. It is

worth remarking that facts and data have a tenacious and debilitating

autonomy in archaeology, and observations are considered to be a better



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Parad igms in Science and Archaeology 2

s o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e p a s t t h a n t h e o r i e s. T h i s se e m s w r o n g -

h e a d e d t o m e ; m a y b e w e sh o u l d t h in k a b o u t tu r n in g i t a r o u n d . W h i l e a

c o n s t a n t i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n t h e e m p i r i c a l a n d t h e t h e o r e t i c a l is t h e h a l l m a r k

o f a l l g o o d s c i e n c e , i t s t r i k e s m e t h a t a r c h a e o l o g y h a s t e n d e d t o r e l y m u c h

t o o h e a v i l y u p o n t h e s t r ic t e m p i r i c is t n o t i o n t h a t s t r u c t u r e in d a t a is r e l a -

t ive ly s e l f - ev iden t (C ar r , 1985a , b ) .

F i n a l l y , I t h i n k t h a t t h e o v e r l a p b e t w e e n t h e o r i e s a n d m o d e l s i s d i -

r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e s e c o n c e p t s a r e s h a r e d , w h i c h i n

t u r n i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e d e g r e e o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n a c r o s s so c i o l o g ic a l p a r a -

d i g m b o u n d a r i e s , w h i ch i s a f u n c ti o n o f la n g u a g e . T h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n

s c h o o l s a r e m o r e o r le s s p e r m e a b l e a n d , d e s p i t e a ll e g a ti o n s t o t h e c o n -

t r a ry , h a v e m u c h t o d o w i th t h e i d i o m o f s c ie n t if ic c o m m u n i c a t i o n . A r -

c h a e o l o g y , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n a l s c i e n c e s , l a c k s t h e u n i v e r s a l

o p e r a t i o n a l m e t a l a n g u a g e o f m a t h e m a t i c s, t h e i n te r n at io n a l m e d i u m o f

c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n h i g hl y a x i o m a t i z e d , e x p e r i m e n t a l , b i g s c i e n c e d is c i-

p l i n e s . A s a n O l d W o r l d a r c h a e o l o g i s t t r a i n e d i n t h e n o t o r i o u s l y m o n o l i n -

g u a l A m e r i c a n r e s e a r c h t r a d it i o n , i t is e v i d e n t t o m e t h a t o n e o f th e b i g g e s t

p r o b l e m s f a c i n g t h e d i s c i p l i n e t o d a y i s s i m p l y a f a i l u r e t o c o m m u n i c a t e .

A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l p a r a d i g m s t h a t g o v e r n t h e v a r i o u s O l d

a n d N e w W o r l d r e s e a r c h t r a d i ti o n s a r e s e l d o m , i f e v e r , m a d e e x p l ic i t [ s e e

paper s in C la rk (1991) fo r an a t t empt to do th i s ] . I t i s fo r th i s r eason tha t

I h a v e a r g u e d s t ro n g l y f o r t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t ra n s l a t i o n s ( C l a r k , 1 9 9 0 ).

C R I T E R I A F O R E V A L U A T I N G P A R A D I G M S

D e s p i t e t h e i r a d m i t t e d l y su b j e c t i v e n a t u r e , a n y m e t a p h y s i c a l p a r a d i g m

c a n b e e v a l u a t e d , o r a t l e a s t c h a r a c t e r i z e d , in t e r m s o f t h r e e c r i t e ri a t h a t

a r e p e r h a p s b e s t e x p r e s s e d a s q u e s t i o n s . A c c o r d i n g t o E g o n G u b a ( 1 9 9 0 a ) ,

w h o s e s c h e m e I a m f o l l o w i n g h e r e , t h e f i r s t i s i t s ( 1 ) o n t o l o g y : A c c o r d i n g

t o t h e t e n e t s o f t h e p a r a d ig m , w h a t is t h e n a t u r e o f t h e k n o w a b l e , o r

w h a t i s t h e n a t u r e o f r e a l i t y ? T h e s e c o n d c r i t e r io n is i ts ( 2 ) e p i s t e m o l o g y :

W h a t is t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e la t io n s h ip b e t w e e n t h e k n o w e r a n d t h e

k n o w n ( o r k n o w a b l e ) ? T h e t h ir d is it s ( 3) m e t h o d o l o g y : H o w s h o u l d th e

i n v e s t i g a to r p r o c e e d i n t h e p r o c e s s o f i n v e s ti g a t io n ( G u b a , 1 9 9 0 a , b ) ? O n e

c o u l d a r g u e t h a t t h e a n s w e r s t o th e s e q u e s t i o n s o u t l i n e t h e b a s i c b e l i e f

s y s t e m s a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h i n q u i r y p r o c e e d s . I t s h o u l d b e e m p h a s i z e d t h a t

t h e s e b e l i e f sy s t e m s a r e i n n o s e n s e f o u n d a t i o n a l ( i.e ., t h e y c a n n o t b e

p r o v e n o r d i s p ro v e n ) . T h e y a r e r a t io n a l a s s e rt io n s a b o u t h o w w e m i g ht g o

a b o u t i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e w o r l d o f e x p e r i e n c e .

I n t h e l a s t t h r e e c e n t u r i e s , e s s e n t i a l l y f i v e m e t a p h y s i c a l p a r a d i g m s

h a v e e m e r g e d i n w e s t e r n s c i e n c e , a l t h o u g h t h e f i r s t , s t r i c t e m p i r i c i s m , i s



2 2 C l a r k

no t u s ua l l y r ega r ded a s pa r t o f s c i ence ( a l t hough i t i s ve r y i mpor t an t i n

t he h i s t o r y o f a r chaeo l og i ca l r e s ea r ch ) . T hes e a r e , i n a r ough ch r ono l og i ca l

ord er , (1) s t r ic t em pir icis m , (2) c lass ic pos i t ivism, (3) pos tpos i t ivism, (4)

cr i t ica l theory , and (5) cons t ruc t iv i sm (Cas t i, 1989; Gu ba , 1990b) (F ig . 3 ).

Strict mpiricism

St r i c t emp i r i c i s m p r oceeds f r om a r ea l i s t on t o l ogy i n t he s ens e t ha t

i t is he l d t ha t an ob j ec t ive rea l it y exists ou t the r e , apa r t f r om ou r pe r -

cep t ions of i t . Ep i s temologica l ly , s t r i c t empi r i c i sm i s charac te r i zed by an

i nduc t i v i s t r e s ea r ch p r o t oco l . S t r uc t u r e o r pa t t e r n i n da t a i s cons i de r ed t o

be in t r ins ic to them , and the s ign i f i cance of pa t t e rn is a r r ived a t induc t ive ly .

T h e s i gn i f icance o f pa t t e r n is con s i de r ed t o be m or e o r l e ss ev i den t to t h e

a d e q u a t e l y p r e p a r e d i n v e s t i g a t o r , a n d t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l c o m p e t e n c e o f t h e

i nves t iga t o r is t aken i n to a cco un t i n t he ev a l ua t i on o f h is o r he r conc l u s i ons

( s e e , e .g ., T h o m p s o n , 1 9 72 ). M e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y , s t r ic t e m p i r i c i s t s h a v e

a d o p t e d a n o b s e r v at io n a l r e s e a r c h p r o t o c o l , d e v o id o f a n y d e d u c t iv e c o m -

ponen t , l a ck i ng i n any f o r ma l no t i on o f a hypo t hes i s o r o f t he eva l ua t i on

of a hyp othes i s ( c f. Swar tz , 1967; Fr i t z and P log , 1970) .

W hi l e s t r i c t emp i r i c i s m d i s appea r ed f r om t he exac t s c i ences ove r 200

year s ago , i t s t i l l exh ib i t s a r emarkable t enac i ty in a rchaeologica l inves t i -

ga t i on . P r obab l y s ome t h i ng l i ke 90% o f a l l a r chaeo l og i ca l r e s ea r ch eve r

c o n d u c t e d , i n b o t h t h e O l d a n d t h e N e w W o r l d s , h a s b e e n d o n e u n d e r a

s t r i c t empi r i c i s t parad igm. I sugges t tha t s t r i c t empi r i c i sm i s a l ive and wel l

in l l t he i n t e l l ec t ua l t r ad i t i ons o f a r chaeo l ogy , and r ema i ns domi nan t i n

m os t o f t he O l d W or l d r e s ea r ch t r ad i ti ons . I n a m an ne r o f s peak i ng , st r ic t

emp i r ic i s m has no r ea l ep i st emo l ogy , beca us e t he n a t u r e o f t he r e l a t ions h i p

M E T A P H Y S I C A L

p A R A D I G M S c a n b e

ev lu ted in terms

of thei r :

S T R I C T

~ P I R I C I S M

C L A S S I C

P O S I T I V I S M

P O S T

P O S I T I V I S M

C R I T I C A L

T H E O R Y

C O N S T R U C T I V I S M

O N T O L O G Y : r ea l i s t r e a l i s t c r i t ic a l r e a l i s t c ri 0. cal r ea l i s t r e l a t i v i s t

E PI STE M O L O G Y : i n d u c t i ~ / i st d u a l i s t o b j ec t i v i s t m o d i f i ed o b j ec t i v i s t s u b j ec t i v i s t s u b j ec t i v i s t

m o d i f i e d d i a l o g ie c o m p a r a t i v e

M ~ T H OD O L O GY : o b s e r v a t i o n a l e x p e r i m e n t a l e x p e r i m e n t a l t r a n s f o r m a t i v e i n t e r a c t i v e

m a n i p u l a t i v e

F i g . 3 . T h e m e t a p h y s i c a l p a r a d i g m s o f w e s t e r n s c i e n c e fr o m t h e 1 6 t h t o t h e 2 1 s t c e n t u r y a f t e r

G u b a , 1 99 0). C l as si c p o si ti v is m p r o v i d e d t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e e m e r g e n c e o f w e s t e r n s c i e n c e

i n th e A g e o f E n l i g h t e n m e n t a n d w a s d o m i n a n t u p u n t i l a r o u n d t h e m i d d l e o f th e 1 9 th c e n -

t u r y , w h e n i t b e g a n t o b e r e p l a c e d b y p o s t p o s i t i v i s m i n t h e e x a c t a n d p r e d i c t i v e s c i e n c e s , a

p r o c e s s t h a t w a s e s s e n t i a l l y c o m p l e t e b y t h e l a t e 1 9 2 0 s . C r i t i c a l t h e o r y a n d c o n s t r u c t i v i s m

b e c a m e i m p o r t a n t i n c e r t a i n b r a n c h e s o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e a f t e r a b o u t 1 9 3 0 b u t a r e l a r g e l y i r -

r e l e v a n t i n e x p e r i m e n t a l s c i e n c e .



Para digm s in Science and Archaeology 2 3

be t w een t he i nves t i ga t o r and t he i nves t i ga t ed i s neve r s ub j ec t ed t o c r i t i c a l

scrut iny.

l a s s i c P o s i t i v i s m

Class ic pos i t iv i sm dominated wes te rn sc ience f rom i t s beg inn ings in

t he A ge o f E n l i g h t en m en t un t i l t he 1920s . I t is a ls o r oo t e d in a r ea l i st

on t o l ogy ( i . e . , i t i s he l d t ha t a r ea l i t y ex i s t s ou t t he r e , i ndependen t o f ou r

pe r cep t i ons o f i t , and t ha t i t i s gove r ned by t i me- and con t ex t - f r ee na t u r a l

l aws and mechani sms) . I t i s the bus iness o f s c ience to d i scover these l aws ,

s o m e ( m a n y ) o f w h i ch e n t a il p r e d i c ti o n a n d i m p ly o r r e q u i r e l in e a r c a u -

s a l i t y . P r obab l y t he bes t - know n exampl e i s t he me t aphys i ca l pa r ad i gm o f

N e w t o n i a n p h y s i c s ( K i t c h e n e r , 1 9 88 ; C a p r a , 1 9 8 8; C a s t i, 1 9 8 9) .

Epi s temologica t ly , c l as s ic pos i t iv i sm i s bo th dua l i s t and ob jec t iv i s t , which

m e a n s t h a t t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r m u s t a d o p t a n o n i n t e r a c t i v e p o s t u r e r e m o v e d ,

supp osedly , f rom the ob jec t o f inves t iga t ion (G ub a , 1990b , pp . 19 , 20). Th e

dua l i t y i s be t w een t he obs e r ve r and t he obs e r ved ; t he ac t i ons o f t he ob -

s e r ve r a r e n o t s up pos ed t o i n f l uence t he r e s u lt s o f obs e r va t i on i n any w ay .

V a l ues , p r econcep t i ons , and o t he r b i a s f ac t o r s a r e , i n t heo r y , p r ec l uded

f r om i n f l uenc i ng t he ou t come o f expe r i men t . I t w as he l d t ha t ob j ec t i v i t y

f r ee o f va l ues, t heo r i e s , e tc . , w as poss ib l e. F r o m a m od e r n pe r s pec t ive , t h is

i s i ngenuous . M e t hodo l og i ca l l y , pos i t i v i s m i s expe r i men t a l , w h i ch means

t h a t r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s o r h y p o t h e s e s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d b e f o r e h a n d i n p r o -

pos i t iona l fo rm, then sub jec ted to some k ind of empi r i ca l t es t ( i . e . , f a l s i f i -

ca t i on , f r om a P opp e r i an p e r s pec t i ve ) und e r ca r e f u ll y con t r o l l ed l abo r a t o r y

con di t ion s (Po ppe r , 1972) . Th e pos itiv is t parad igm ch ara c te r i z ed w es te rn

s c i ence du r i ng t he f ir s t t h r ee - qu a r t e r s o f t he 19 th cen t u r y , w hen t he b i g

sc ien ce d i sc ip l ines ( as t rono m y, phys ics , chem is t ry , e t c . ) beg an to as sum e

recognizab le form (Cas t i , 1989) .

P o s t p o s i t i v i s m

Pos t pos i t i v i s m, p r ac t i ced t oday by mos t o f t he exac t s c i ences , i s a

m odi f i e d or evolved f orm of c lass ic pos i tiv ism. On to log ica l ly , pos tpos it iv i s ts

m ove t o a pos i t ion o f c ri ti c a l r ea li sm , w h i ch m ean s t ha t , a l t hough a r ea l

wor ld governed by na tura l l aws i s he ld to ex i s t , i t i s imposs ib le to perce ive

i t d i r ec t ly , owing to imper fec t ions in our sensory and in te l l ec tua l capac i t i es .

A l t h ou gh t r u t h in an abs o l u t e s ens e is he l d t o be una t t a i nab l e , t he ob -

jec t ive of pos tpos i t iv i s t inves t iga t ion i s to a r r ive a t be t t e r and be t t e r ap-

p r o x i m a t i o n s o f it . R e a l i s m ( s o m e t i m e s c a ll ed h y p o t h e t i c a l re a l i s m )

remains the cen t ra l on to log ica l b ias . Epi s temologica l ly , pos tpos i t iv i sm i s



2 4 C l a r k

us ua l l y co ns i d e r ed a s m od i f i ed ob j ec t iv i s t ; ob j ec t iv i t y r em a i ns w h a t is

ca l led a r e gu l a t o r y i dea l and i s u s ed t o s e l ec t amo ng com pe t i ng , a l t e r na t ive

explana t ions . I t i s acknowledged tha t i t i s imposs ib le to a r r ive a t to ta l ob-

jec t iv i ty . There i s a l so expl ic i t r ecogni t ion of the ex i s tence of a c r i t i ca l in -

t e l l ec t ua l t rad i t i on , m ad e m an i f e s t i n a c r i ti c a l i n t e l lec t ua l co m m un i t y (i .e .,

one o r va r ious s choo l s ) w i t h in w h i ch the pa r ad i gm is m or e o r le ss con -

s i st en t and acc ep t e d by cons ens us , bu t ou t s i de o f w h i ch i t m i gh t be n on -

s ensi cal . M e t hod o l og i ca l l y , pos tpos it iv i st s have a do p t ed w h a t G ub a ( 1990b ,

pp . 22, 23 ) ca ll s an exp e r i m en t a l - m an i pu l a t i ve r e s ea r ch p r o t oco l , w h i ch

a i m s t o c o n s i d e r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y m u l t i p l e a l t e r n a t i v e h y p o t h e s e s , w h i c h

s eeks t o avo i d o r mi n i mi ze t he e f f ec t s o f b i a s i n na t u r a l (i.e ., non ob t r u -

s ive ) s e tt ings , and w h i ch depe nd s r a t h e r heav i ly up on g r o un de d t h eo r y ( i.e .,

a b o d y o f t h e o r y a l r e a d y w e l l t e s t e d a n d c o n f i r m e d ) .

I n c l a s s i c pos i t i v i s m, t he r e w as a t endency t o concen t r a t e any t e s t on

a s i ng le hypo t hes is , w h i ch au t oma t i ca l ly e l im i na t ed t h e s i m u l t aneo us eva l u -

a t i on o f o t he r a l t e r na t i ve hypo t hes es . In pos t posi ti v is m, t he hypo t hes i s ha s

b e c o m e a m o r e s o p h i st ic a t e d c o n c e p t , a n d t h e p r o c e ss o f e v a lu a t i o n h a s

bee n e xpa nde d i n t o t he s i m u l t aneo us eva l ua t ion o f a s e ri e s o f a l t e r na t ive ,

c o m p e t i n g h y p o t h e s e s . I n b i g s c i e n c e c o n t e x t s , t h i s p r o c e s s h a s b e c o m e

s t rongly quant i f i ed . I t i s r ecognized tha t b ias i s inev i t ab le , bu t in pure ly

exp e r i m en t a l con t ex t s , eve r y e f f o r t is m ad e t o p r ed i c t and c on t r o l t he e f -

f ec t s o f b i a s w i t h t he g r ea t e s t p r ec i s ion pos s ib l e. S i nce t he H e i s enb e r g U n-

ce r t a i n t y P r i nc ip l e w as a r t i cu l a t ed and w i de l y accep t ed in t h e t heo r e t i ca l

phys ic s o f t he 1930s , t he r e has b een a gene r a l r eco gn i t i on t ha t b i a s is in -

e s capab l e , even i n t i gh t l y con t r o l l ed l abo r a t o r y con t ex t s , and expe r i men t a l

ou t comes a r e a l w ays exp r e s s ed i n t e r ms o f p r obab i l i t i e s ( Feynman , 1985 ;

K i t ch ene r , 1988). P r oces s ua l a r chaeo l ogy in bo t h t he U n i t ed S t a t e s and

t he U n i t e d K i ngd om t yp ica ll y p r oc eed s f r om a pos tpos it iv i st m e t aphys i ca l

p a r a d i g m a n d t h e p r e c o n c e p t i o n s a n d b i a s e s t h a t u n d e r l i e i t ( W a t s o n

e t

aL 1984).

C r i t i c a l T h e o r y

Th e fo ur t h parad ig m , c r it ica l theo ry , r ea l ly s ign if ies ideo log ica l ly or i -

en t ed i nves t i ga t ion ( G ub a 1990b , p . 23). H e r e a r e i nc l uded t he va r i ous

f o r ms o f M ar x i s m, s ome k i nds o f ma t e r i a l i s m , f emi n i s t i nqu i r y , e t c . , w he r e

i t i s exp l i c i t ly r ecognized tha t par t i c ipa t ion in the process o f inves t iga t ion

w ill b ia s t he r e su l ts . F r o m a c r it ic a l theo r y pe r spec t i ve , na t u r e can n eve r

be pe r ce i ved a s i t r ea l ly i s o r r ea l ly w or ks , excep t t h r ou gh a l ens o r

f i lt e r o f va l ues. H ow eve r , mo s t c r it ic a l theo r i s t s s ubs c r ibe t o t he s am e on -

to log ica l pos i t ion as the p os tpo s i t iv i s t s - - tha t o f c r i ti ca l r ea l i sm. In o t he r



aradigmsi n S c i en c e a n d A r c h a e o l o g y 2 5

w o r d s , t h e y r e c o g n i z e t h a t a r e a l i t y e x i s t s o u t t h e r e b u t a r g u e t h a t w e c a n

c o m p r e h e n d i t o n l y t h r o u g h t h e i m p e r f e c t i n t e l le c t u a l f il t er s o f o u r p r e -

c o n c e p t i o n s a n d b i a s e s . B u t t h e r e i s a p a r a d o x h e r e , o r a t l e a s t a t r o u b l i n g

i n c o n s i st e n c y , a n d t h a t is t h a t a r e a li s t o n t o l o g y w o u l d s e e m t o i m p l y o r

d e m a n d a n o b j e c t iv i s t e p i s t e m o l o g y in o r d e r t o d i sc o v e r th e n a t u r e o f r e-

a l ity . Cr i t ica l theo r i s t s , ho we ver , a lm os t exc lus ive ly ad op t a sub jec t iv i s t ep i s -

t e m o l o g y , w h i c h b a s i c a l l y s p e c i f i e s t h a t v a l u e s m e d i a t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d

t h a t i n v e s t i g a t i o n c a n n o t b e a t t e m p t e d a t all w i t h o u t t h e v a l u e s o f t h e i n -

v e s t i g a t o r p l a y i n g a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e. I n o t h e r w o r d s , a s u b j e c ti v i st e p i s t e -

m o l o g y i s r e c r u i t e d i n t h e s e r v i c e o f a r e a l i s t o n t o l o g y , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t

m u c h c r i t i c a l t h e o r y i s n o t v e r y c r e d i b l e o u t s i d e o f a p a r t i c u l a r , a n d o f t e n

v e r y r e s t r i c t e d , m e t a p h y s i c .

M ethodo log ica l ly , c r it ica l theo ry is s a id to be d ia log ic - t r ans fom at ive ,

w h i c h m e a n s t h a t , w i th i n t h e c o n f i n e s o f t h e p a r a d i g m , c r it ic a l t h e o r is t s s e e k

t o e l i m i n a t e f a l s e c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d t r a n s f o r m t h e w o r l d , s e l e c t i n g e l e m e n t s

o f t h e r e l e v a n t d o m a i n t h a t c a n b e c o m p r e h e n d e d , a n d d e c i d in g w h i ch o f

t h e m c a n b e a l t e re d . B e c a u s e o f i ts m e t h o d o l o g y , t h e n , t h e r e is a s t ro n g

p r o s e ly t i z in g o r p r o p a g a n d i s t ic a s p e c t t o m u c h c ri ti ca l t h e o r y , t o w h i c h m a n y

p o s t p o s i t i v i s t s o b j e c t . I n a r c h a e o l o g y , t h e b e s t a n d m o s t o b v i o u s e x a m p l e s

o f c r it ic a l t h e o r y a r e t h e w o r k s o f M i c h a e l S h a n k s a n d C h r i s t o p h e r T i ll e y

(1987 , 1988); i t is a l so ev iden t , a l though l e ss m arked , in som e o f the pub -

licatio ns o f Ian H o d d e r (e.g. , 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, cf . 1991).

on s t ruc t i v i sm

C o n s t r u c t iv i s m is t h e l a s t o f t h e s e p a r a d i g m s . I n c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e

r e s t , w h i c h a r e e s s e n t i a l l y d i s p o s e d t o b e e c l e c t i c i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y c a n

a c c o m m o d a t e a s p e c t s a n d e l e m e n t s o f o t h e r m e t a ph y s ic s , c o n s tr u c ti v is ts

c o n s i d e r t h a t p o s i t i v i s m a n d p o s t p o s i t i v i s m a r e s o d e f e c t i v e t h a t t h e y m u s t

be r ep laced a l toge the r . On to log ica l ly , cons t ruc t iv i s t s a r e r e la t iv i s t s . They

e m p h a s i z e t h e t h e o r y - l a d e n n a t u r e o f f a ct s, t h e u n d e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e -

o r y a n d t h e d i ff i cu l ty o f a rr iv i n g a t a g e n u i n e t e s t o f a t h e o r y , a n d t h e

v a l u e - l a d e n n a t u r e o f fa c ts ( G u b a , 1 9 90 b , p p . 2 5 - 2 7 ). T h e y a r g u e t h a t t h e

r e s u l ts o f a n y in v e s t i g a ti o n a r e a l w a y s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e

i n v e s t i g a to r a n d t h e i n v e s t i g a t e d a n d t h a t m u l t ip l e r e a l it i e s e x is t i n t h e

f o r m o f m u l t ip l e m e n t a l c o n s t r u c t io n s . T h e l a t t e r a r e g r o u n d e d i n t h e s o -

c i o lo g i c a l p a r a d i g m a n d i n th e r e a l m o f e x p e r i e n c e , l o c a l a n d s p e c if ic , t h e

f o r m a n d c o n t e n t o f w h i c h a r e e s se n t ia l ly d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e lif e e x p e ri -

e n c e s o f t h e p e r s o n i n te r n a li z in g t h e m .

Ep is temolog ica l ly , cons t ruc t iv i s t s a r e sub jec t iv i s t s - - - - the inves t iga to r

a n d t h e i n v e s t i g a t e d a r e f u s e d i n to a s in g l e e n t it y , a n d t h e r e s u l ts o f t h e



2 6 l a r k

p r o c e s s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n a r e l i t e r a l l y t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s o f i n t e r a c -

t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o . F r o m a c o n s t r u c t iv i s t p o i n t o f v i e w , s u b j e c t iv i t y i s

n o t o n l y f o r c e d u p o n u s b y t h e h u m a n c o n d i t io n ( a s p o s tp o s it iv i st s w o u l d

a l s o a r g u e ) , i t i s t h e o n l y m e a n s t o r e v e a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s h e l d i n t h e m i n d s

o f in d i v i d u al h u m a n s . P u t a n o t h e r w a y , i f r e a l it i e s e x is t o n l y in t h e m i n d s

o f p e o p l e , s u b j e c t iv e e p i s te m o l o g i e s w o u l d a p p e a r t o b e t h e o n l y w a y w e

c a n a c c e s s th e m . A t t hi s j u n c t u r e , t h e q u e s t i o n a r is e s w h e t h e r t h e s e m u l -

t i p le r e a l i t ie s a r e i d i o s y n c ra t i c o r w h e t h e r t h e r e a r e d e g r e e s o f o v e r l a p o r

s h a r i n g a m o n g t h e m . T h e a n s w e r is t h a t t h e r e is t y p ic a l ly a r e s t r i c te d n u m -

b e r o f o v e r l a p p i n g o r s h a r e d r e al it ie s -- -a k i nd o f p o l y th e t i c s e t - - w i t h f e w e r

r e a l i ti e s t h a n t h e n u m b e r o f in d i v id u a l s a n d w i t h o n l y a p a rt ia l o v e r l a p

b e t w e e n a n y p a i r o f in d i v id u a ls . O n e c a n s u p p o s e d l y a rr i v e a t th i s c i r c u m -

s c r i b e d s e t o f re a l i ti e s b y m e a n s o f th i c k d e s c r i p t io n , f o l l o w e d b y c a r e f u l

a n d c o n t r o l l e d c o m p a r i s o n .

M e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y , c o n s t r u c t i v i s t s ( 1 ) s e e k t o c o l l e c t o r c o m p i l e i n d i -

v i d u a l c o n s t r u c t io n s , ( 2) d e s c r i b e t h e s e in a s c o m p l e t e a n d p r e c i s e a m a n -

n e r a s p o s s i b l e , a n d ( 3 ) c o m p a r e a n d c o n t r a s t t h e m d i a le c t ic a l ly , w i t h t h e

o b j e c t i v e o f g e n e r a t i n g o n e ( o r a f e w ) c o n s t r u c t i o n s a b o u t w h i c h t h e r e is

s u b s t a n t i a l c o n s e n s u s . C o n s t r u c t i v i s t s d o n o t s e e k t o p r e d i c t o r c o n t r o l a

r e a l w o r l d t h a t e x i s t s a p a r t f r o m p e r c e p t i o n , n o r t o t r a n s f o r m i t ( a s c r i t i c a l

t h e o r i s t s w o u l d d o ) , b u t r a t h e r t o c o n s t r u c t ( o r , a r g u a b l y , r e c o n s t r u c t ) t h e

w o r l d a t t h e o n l y p o i n t i n w h i c h i t e x i s t s - - i n t h e h u m a n m i n d ( G u b a ,

1990b, c) .

T h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n c r i t i c a l t h e o r y a n d c o n s t r u c t i v i s m i n a r c h a e -

o l o g y is a b l u r ry o n e , d u e t o t h e r a p i d l y e v o l v in g a n d i n c o h e r e n t n a t u r e o f

t h e r a d i c a l c r i ti q u e a s a w h o l e a n d t o t h e n e a r - im p o s s i b il i ty o f n e a t l y c a t e -

g o r iz i n g i t s d o m i n a n t p e r s o n a l i ti e s . P r a c t ic a l l y t h e o n l y e x a m p l e o f a n a r -

c h a e o l o g y t h a t c o u l d , w it h s o m e d e g r e e o f j u s t i f ic a t io n , b e l a b e l e d

c o n s t ru c t i v is t is t h e w o r k o f M a r k L e o n e , w h o h a s b e e n e n g a g e d f o r y e a r s

do in g h i s to r i ca l a r c hae o lo gy in the c i ty o f An nap o l i s , M ary la nd [ (e .g . , 1981 ,

1 9 8 4 ; L e o n e

e t a l .

1 9 8 7 ) b u t s e e b e l o w , f o r L e o n e i s n o t a r e l a t i v i s t ] . H e

h a s b e e n c o n c e r n e d t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e v a r io u s a r c h a e o l o g i e s o f t h e d i v e r se

s o c i o e c o n o m i c cl a ss e s, et h n i c , r a c ia l, a n d l in g u is ti c g r o u p s t h a t c o m p r i s e d

the c i ty du r ing va r ious pe r iods in i t s long h i s to ry . H is inves t iga t ions , a s

m u c h h i s to r i ca l a s a rc h a e o l o g i c a l , h a v e a n i m p o r t a n t p u b l i c a s p e c t in t h a t

h e h a s b e e n c h a r g e d b y t h e m u n i c i p a li t y w i th t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s e ri e s

o f sm a l l m u s e u m s , e a c h o n e o f w h i c h i l l u st r a te s a s p e c t s o f t h e c i t y f r o m

t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e v a r i o u s s o c ia l g r o u p s t h a t c o m p r i s e d it. A c c o r d i n g

t o L e o n e , t h e n , A n n a p o l i s d o e s n o t h a v e a s i n g l e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d b u t

v a r i o u s o n e s - - - t h e a r c h a e o l o g y o f th e s l a v es , t h e a r c h a e o l o g y o f t h e m a r i -

t i m e t r a d e r s, t h e a r c h a e o l o g y o f th e s o u t h e r n a r is t oc r a cy , o f m e r c a n t i l e

c a p i ta l is m , e t c . W h i l e t h e s e e f f o r t s a r e a r g u a b l y s u c c e s s f u l g i v e n t h e h i s -



Parad igms in Science and rchaeology 2 7

t o r i ca l r eac h o f do cu m en t a t i on ( bu t c f. Y o ung , 1988 ), i t s hou l d be bo r ne

i n mi nd t ha t , i n de f au l t o f w r i t t en r eco r ds , t he r e w ou l d be n o w ay to eva l u -

a t e i ndependen t l y t he c r ed i b i l i t y o f L eone ' s r econs t r uc t i ons . Pa r ad i gm b i a s

i s a lways more problemat ic when i t i s impl ic i t , as i t i s in the case of a l l

p r eh i s t o r i c a r chaeo l og i ca l r e s ea r ch .

B e c a u s e m a n y p r o b l e m s a n d q u e s t io n s r e g a r d e d as s ig n i fi c a n t a r e

h e l d i n c o m m o n b y d i s t i n c t r e g i o n a l o r n a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h t r a d i t i o n s ( e . g . ,

mode r n human o r i g i n s , emer gence o f s oc i a l compl ex i t y , e t c . ) , i t i s i l l u -

m i n a t i n g t o t r y t o c a t c h a g l im p s e o f t h e m e t a p h y s i c s t h a t a p p e a r t o u n -

de r l i e t he i r w o r l dv i ew s . T h i s is w h a t is a t t e m p t e d i n t he nex t s ec t i on .

I a r g u e t h e r e t h a t p r e h i s t o r ic a r c h a e o l o g y in t h e O l d a n d N e w W o r l d s

p r o c e e d s f r o m f u n d a m e n t a l l y d if f e r e n t v ie w o f t h e p a s t, f o u n d e d o n f u n -

d a m e n t a l l y d i f fe r e n t m e t a p h y s ic a l p a ra d i gm s . U n d e r l y i n g m a n y C o n t i n e n -

t a l a p p r o a c h e s i s t h e p r e c o n c e p t i o n t h a t p r e h i s t o r y i s h i s t o r y p r o j e c t e d

b a c k i n t o t h e p r e l i t e r a t e p a s t a n d t h a t p r o c e s s i n t h e r e m o t e p a s t c a n b e

t r ea t ed a s ana l ogous t o , and an ex t ens i on o f , p r oces s i n h i s t o r y ( s ee , e . g . ,

O t t e and K ee l ey , 1990). T h i s con t r a s t s s ha r p l y w i t h the a n t h r o po l o g i ca l

b i a s e s t h a t u n d e r l i e A m e r i c a n r e s e a r c h t r a d i t i o n s ( s e e , e . g . , D u n n e l l ,

1986; Mel tzer , 1979; Mel tzer e t a l . 1 9 8 6 ) . M e t a p h y s i c a l p a r a d i g m s a r e

t yp i ca l l y no t s ub j ec t ed t o much c r i t i c a l s c r u t i ny w i t h i n r e s e a r c h t r a d i t i o n s

a n d , a s n o t e d , h a v e n o o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y b e y o n d t h a t c o n c e d e d t h e m b y

t h e i r a d h e r e n t s . S o , f r o m o n e p o i n t o f v ie w , o n e m e t a p h y s i c a l p a r a d i g m

is a s g o o d a s a n o t h e r . H o w e v e r , b e c a u s e t h e a s s u m p t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g

t h e m e t a p h y s ic a l p a r a d i g m c a n d e t e r m i n e t h e c h a r a c t e r o f its s u b o r d i n a t e

p a r a d i g m s ( w h ic h in t u r n d e t e r m i n e r e s e a r c h p r o t o c o ls i n a n y p r o b l e m

c o n t e x t ) , c o n f li c ts a r is e w i th r e s p e c t t o t h e n a t u r e o f e x p l a n a t i o n a n d

w h a t k i n d s o f e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e r e g a r d e d , a p r io r i, a s p l a u si b le . F r o m a n

A m e r i c a n p e r s p e c t iv e , t h e r e a r e m a j o r p r o b l e m s w i th t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t

p r eh i s t o r y i s an ex t ens i on o f h i s t o r y , and t hes e have f a r - r each i ng i mp l i -

c a t i o n s fo r E u r o p e a n c o n s t r u a ls o f t h e n a t u r e o f p a t t e r n a n d w h a t it

m i g h t m e a n .

O L D A N D N E W W O R L D A R C H A E O L O G I C A L P A R A D I G M S

T he f i r s t , and p r ac t i ca l l y t he on l y , s y s t ema t i c a t t emp t a t compar i ng

t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l p a r a d i g m s o f p r e h i st o r ic a r c h a e o l o g y in b o t h h e m i s p h e r e s

is t he e s s ay by L ew i s B i n f o r d a nd J e r e m y Sab lo f f, pub l i s hed m or e t han a

dec ad e ago (1982; s e e a l so pape r s i n C la r k , 1991). T h ey beg i n by r em i nd i ng

us o f s om e o f t he con t r i bu t i ons o f c l as si c pos it iv is m, e s pec i a ll y the r e j ec t i on

o f t he s t r ic t emp i r i c is t no t i on t ha t t he f ac ts can s peak f o r t hem s e l ves .

F o r m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y , i t h a s b e e n e v i d e n t t h a t a n o b j e c t i v e o b s e r v e r



2 8 l a r k

doe s no t ex i st w h o is capab l e o f obs e r v i ng na t u r e d i r ec tl y and , t hus , d i s-

cove r i ng f ac t s o r s t r uc t u r e l a t en t in na t u r e . Fac t s o r s t r uc t u r e i n da t a is

t he c r ea t i on o f pa r ad i g m a t i c b ia s, e ss en t ia l ly i nve n t ed by t he i nves ti ga t o r

i n o r d e r t o a s s is t in p r ob l em so lv ing. B i n f o r d an d Sab l o f f ado p t K uhn ' s

de f i n i ti ons o f pa r ad i g m and t heo r y (i.e ., t he pa r ad i gm is an a s s e r t ion

o f w h a t t he w or l d i s l ike ; a t h eo r y is an a r g um en t i nvoked t o exp l a i n w h y

the wor ld i s as i t appear s to be) . The s ign i f i can t d i f f e rence , o f course , i s

t h a t t h e f a ct s n o l o n g e r sp e a k f o r t h e m s e lv e s . M e a n i n g c o m e s f ro m h u m a n s ,

a n d n o t f r o m n a t u r e .

I n a n e f f o r t t o i l l u st r a te t he e f f ec t s o f pa r ad i gm a t i c b i a s on s ys t ema t i c s

and a r chaeo l og i ca l in t e r p r e t a t i on , B i n f o rd and Sab l o f f de s c r i be t he cha r -

ac t e r i s t i c s o f t w o pa r ad i gms t ha t , i n t he i r op i n i on , have gove r ned a r chae -

o l og ica l r e s ea r c h t rad i t i ons in t he U n i t ed S t a t e s and in C on t i nen t a l E u r o pe ,

respec t ive ly , f rom ca . 1 .940 to ca . 1970 (Table I ). Acc ord ing to th em , the

t w o d is ti n c t m e t a p h y s i c a l p a r a d i g m s o f t h e O l d a n d N e w W o r l d s a r e

f o u n d e d u p o n t w o d is ti nc t c o n c e p t i o n s o f c u l t u r e , w h i c h i n f lu e n c e n o t

o n l y m e t h o d o l o g y b u t a l so t h e m e a n i n g t h a t w e g iv e to p a t t e r n in a n a r-

chaeo l og i ca l r eco r d . I t s hou l d be kep t i n mi nd t ha t t hey a r e r e f e r r i ng he r e

t o p r e h i s t o r i c a r c h a e o l o g y ( i . e . , p o r t i o n s o f t h e t i m e - s p a c e c o n t i n u u m

w her e no w r i t t en r eco r ds ex i s t and w her e t he d i r ec t h i s t o r i ca l app r oach i s

no t an op t i on ) .

The N e w W o r ld a rad i gm

I n t h e N e w W o r ld ( o r, m o r e a c c u r a te l y , t h e a n g l o p h o n e N e w W o r l d ),

t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f c u l t u r e a d o p t e d b y a r c h a e o l o g i s t s o r i g i n a t e d i n c u l t u r e

a r ea s t ud i e s and w as deve l oped p r i nc i pa l l y by cu l t u r a l an t h r opo l og i s t s s uch

a s A l f r e d K r o e b e r ( B e r k e l e y ) a n d C l a rk W i s sl er ( C o l u m b i a ) , b e g in n i n g d u r -

i n g t h e 1 9 20 s. T h i s c o n c e p t o f c u l t u r e w a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e p r e s u m p t i o n

o f much con t i nu i t y ac r os s ex t ens i ve geog r aph i ca l a r ea s and w as man i f e s t

i n t he f o r m and d i s t r i bu t i on o f i t s ma t e r i a l r e s i dues . M or eove r , con t i nu i t y

w as pe r ce i ve d t o be ve r y s t ab le i n space a nd t ime , s o l ong a s t he na t u r a l

e n v i r o n m e n t d i d n o t c h a n g e v e r y m u c h . B e c a u s e o f t h e s e b i a s e s , m a r k e d

d i s con t i nu i t i e s i n pa t t e r n w er e r ega r ded a s excep t i ona l .

T h i s c o l le c t io n o f p r e c o n c e p t i o n s a n d b i as e s r e g a rd i n g t h e n a t u r e o f

c u l t u r e in a n t h r o p o l o g y h a d a m a j o r e f fe c t o n N o r t h A m e r i c a n a r c h a e o l o g y ,

o f c o u rs e , an d , b y a b o u t t h e 1 9 4 0s , r e s u lt e d in t h e n o r m a t i v e c o n c e p t i o n

o f c u l t u r e - - t h e d o m i n a n t p a r a d i g m in t h e d is ci pl in e u p u n t il t h e e n d o f

the 1960s (Wi l l ey and Sablof f , 1980) . The bas ic a rchaeologica l ana ly t i ca l

un i t s ( po t t e r y t ypes , p r o j ec t i le po i n t t ypes , e t c . - - t yp es i n t he gen e r i c s ens e )

w e r e s een a s ana l og ous t o t he un i t s emp l oyed by cu l t u r a l an t h r opo l og i s t s



Parad igms in Science and Archaeology 2 9

Table I. Metaphy sical Paradigms in Prehistoric Archaeology (1940-197 0): Major Bia ses an d

Preconceptions o f the Ang lophone New W orld (Canad a, Un ited States) and Continental O ld

W orld (especially France, B elgium, Sp ain , Italy) Conceptions o f Culture (based o n Binford

and Sabloff, 1982)

New World Paradigm Old W orld Paradigm

The defini t ion of cul ture

Developed ou t of cul ture area studies Developed out of Eu rope an history and

nationalism

Received i ts m and ate from socia l and Received i ts mandate from natural science

cultural anthropology (esp. geology, paleontology)

Essentially gradualist, emp hasized continuity Characterized by punctuated equilibrium ;

ov er space and time emp hasized discontinuity in that traits

Led to normative (i.e. , variety-minimizing)

views of cul ture

Recognizes some vectored change within

analytical units

Coh erent; cu ltures equated w ith trait

were believed to be cong ruent w ith social,

ethnic groups

Also normative; cultures equal differentiated

packages of traits over space and time

Essentially static within analytical units

Incoherent; when cultures changed, they

complexes that cohere over space and time changed en bloc and abruptly (because

of population replacement)

Existed at a level bove that o f social, Existed t the level of social, ethnic, and

ethnic, an d linguistic groups linguistic groups

M any definitions of culture; some Definition of culture essentially ideational

phenom enological, others ideational (i.e. , norm s, values in people's heads)

l i k e K r o e b e r a n d W i s s l er . T h e p u r p o s e o f a n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l t y p e w a s t o

p r o v i d e t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r w i th a n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s y s t e m t h a t w o u l d a l l o w h i m

t o g r o u p s p e c i m e n s in s u ch a w a y t h a t t h e y w o u l d e x h ib i t d e m o n s t r a b l e

h i s to r i c al c o n t i n u i t y a n d t h a t c o u l d b e i n t e r p r e t e d a n d u n d e r s t o o d i n t e r m s

o f h u m a n b e h a v i o r . T o t h e s c h o l a r s o f t h a t e r a , a t y p e s h o u l d e x h i b i t t e m -

p o r a l a n d s p a t i a l c o h e s i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o i t s a t t r ib u t e s , a n d i f i t w a s a

g o o d t y p e (i .e ., u s e f u l , r e l ia b l e , d i a g n o s t i c ) , it s a t t r i b u t e s s h o u l d h a v e

b e e n t o t a l ly c o h e r e n t ( i.e ., t h e b e s t ty p e s w e r e i n f a c t m o n o t h e t i c , o r n e a r l y

s o ). U n d e r t h is p a r a d i g m , c u l t u r e i t se l f w a s v i e w e d a s a c o h e s i o n o f c h a r -

a c t e r i s ti c s o r tr a i ts a n d w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o e xi st

bove

t h e l e v e l o f t h e s o c i a l ,

e t h n i c , r a c i a l , a n d l i n g u i s ti c u n i t s t h a t c r e a t e d it ( i. e. , i t e x i s t e d a t a m o r e

i n c l u s iv e l e v el t h a n s p e c i f ic e t h n i c , r a ci a l, l i n g u is t ic g r o u p s ) . I n m y o p i n i o n ,

t hi s is t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t d i s t in c t io n b e t w e e n t h e O l d a n d t h e N e w W o r l d

p a r a d i g m s o f t h e 1 9 4 0 - 1 9 7 0 e r a .



22 l a r k

T h e O l d

W o r l d a r a d i g m

I n t h e O l d W o r l d , c u l t u re w a s c o n s id e r e d t o b e a k in d o f m a t e r i a l

exp res s ion o f d i s t inc t e thn ic , soc ia l, lingu is t ic , e t c . , g ro ups tha t ex i s ted

a t

t h e l e v e l

o f s u c h g r o u p s , a n d n o t a b o v e t h e m . B e c a u s e o f t h is b i a s, a g i v e n

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a s s e m b l a g e w a s e q u a t e d w i t h a g i v e n e t h n i c o r s o c i a l e n t i t y ,

a l t h o u g h t h i s e q u a t i o n w a s s e l d o m m a d e e x p l i c i t . F r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e ,

c u l t u r e s w e r e s e e n ( a n d , in m y o p in i o n , c o n t i n u e t o b e s e e n ) a s p a c k a g e s

o f t r a it s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s , b u t n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n te r n a ll y .

I n t h is s e n s e , t h e y w e r e a s n o r m a t i v e ( v a ri e ty - m i n i m i z in g ) a s t h e i r A m e r i -

c a n c o u n t e r p a r t s , i f n o t m o r e s o. T h i s e q u a t i o n o f c u l t u re s w i th p a c k a g e s

o f i n d ex f o ss il t o o l t y p e s w a s t h e p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f o r t h e F r e n c h p a r a -

d ig m , e x e m p l if i ed b y F ra n c o i s B o r d e s , b u t a ls o a d o p t e d b y b r a c k e t i n g g e n -

e r a t i o n s o f F r e n c h p r e h i s t o r i a n s , a t le a s t u p u n t il t h e e a r l y - m i d 1 98 0s.

A c c o r d i n g t o i t s t e n e t s , i t w o u l d b e p o s s i b l e t o d e t e c t e i t h e r c u l t u r a l c o n -

t i n u it y o r t h e l a c k o f i t in a n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d , d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e

t i m e - s p a c e d i s tr i b u ti o n o f th e foss i les d i rec teurs , i n t e r p r e t e d m o r e o r le s s

d i r e c t ly a s t h e r e m a i n s o f t h e p a s s in g o f lo n g - g o n e e t h n i c o r s o c i al e n t i t ie s

a n a l o g o u s t o t h e t r i b e s , n a t i o n s , a n d c u l t u r e s o f h i s t o r y .

B i n f o r d a n d S a b l o f f ( 1 98 2 ) e m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h e t w o c o n c e p t i o n s o f

c u l t u r e w e r e m e t a p h y s i c a l p a r a d i g m s r e c a p i t u l a t i n g o u r e x p e c t a t i o n s i n r e -

g a r d t o w h a t c u l t u r e is l i k e . B o t h w e r e b a s e d o n e m p i r ic a l g e n e r a l iz a -

t io n s , b u t t h e y p r o c e e d e d f r o m d i f fe r e n t s e t s o f p re s u p p o s i t i o n s a n d b i a se s .

B o t h c o n s i st e d o f c o n s c i o u s a t t e m p t s t o d e s c r ib e t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l

w o r l d o f c u l t u r e , b u t g i v e n t h a t t h e t w o r ea l i ti e s w e r e d i f f e r e n t , t h e d e -

s c r ip t i o n s a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e p a t t e r n s p e r c e i v e d i n e a c h c a s e w e r e a l s o

d i f fe r e n t. T h e N e w W o r l d p a r a d i g m p r o v i d e s u s w i th a p o r t r a it o f g e o -

g raph ica l and t em por a l con t inu i ty , bu t it is a limi ted k ind o f con t inu i ty in

c o m p a r i s o n w i th t h e t i m e - s p a c e f r a m e w o r k o f th e O l d W o r ld . M o r e o v e r ,

t h e N e w W o r l d p a r a d i g m v i ew s t h e a r c h a e o l o g ic a l r e c o r d , a l m o s t i n e vi ta -

b l y , a s a s e r i e s o f b i r t h s a n d g r o w t h s , f o l l o w e d b y a s e r i e s o f c o l l a p s e s o r

d e c l i n e s, a n d t h e c y c l e is r e p e a t e d o v e r a n d o v e r a g a in . T h i s p r e c o n c e p t i o n

a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f c h a n g e c a n b e s e e n v e r y c le a rl y w i th r e s p e c t t o

M e s o a m e r i c a n a r c h a e o l o g y , w i t h it s F o r m a t i v e , P r e - C l a ss i c , C la s si c, P o s t -

C l a s s i c , a n d P r o t o - H i s t o r i c e p o c h s a n d s t a g e s .

T h e O l d W o r l d p a r a d i g m p r o v i d e s u s w i th a n i d e a ti o n a l p o r t r a i t o f

c u l t u r e i n w h i c h a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a s s e m b l a g e s ( a s d e f i n e d b y t h e i r

f o s s i l e s

d i r ec t eu r s

a r e e q u a t e d w i t h d is t in c t e t h n i c o r s o c ia l e n t i ti e s o f s o m e k i n d .

I t i s a v iew o f cu l tu re cha rac te r i z ed by a l ack o f con t inu i ty ac ros s t ime-- --by

a s e ri e s o f t im e - s u c c e s s iv e r e p l a c e m e n t s - - a n d a l so b y a l a c k o f g e o g r a p h i c a l

c o n t i n u i ty , e a c h c u l t u r e b e i n g d e f i n e d s p a t ia l ly b y i ts o w n a s s e m b l a g e o f

d i a g n o s t i c a r ti f a ct s . T h e r e a r e a l s o d i f f e r e n c e s o f s c a le . C u l t u r e i s s e e n



l a r k

is f u n d a m e n t a l l y a c c u r a t e b u t a l it tl e o u t o f d a t e . O t h e r t h a n c o n t i n u e d

app l i ca t ion o f t r ad i ti ona l , t ypo l og ica l ly bas ed t i m e- s p ace s y s tema t i c s , no t

m u c h h a p p e n e d o n t h e C o n t i n e n t d u r in g t h e 1 9 7 0s . T h e 1 98 0s h av e s e e n

i nc r eas ed emphas i s on t echno l ogy , r aw ma t e r i a l d i s t r i bu t i ons , p r oduc t i on

s e q u e n c e s - - - t h e cha tne op ratoire of Fre nc h p reh i s tor i an s ( e .g . , Bof ida , 1988;

G ene s t e , 1988 ; M e i gnen , 1988 )---in pa r t , a t l e as t, beca us e o f pe ne t r a t i o n

o f t h e E u r o p e a n i n te l le c tu a l m a r k e t b y A m e r i c a n a p p r o a c h e s a n d i d ea s

t h r ough pa r t i a l ( and de l ayed ) ove r l ap a t t he s oc i o l og i ca l pa r ad i gm l eve l .

V e r y l it tl e h a s c o m e t h e o t h e r w a y , a n d w h a t h a s c r o s se d t h e A t l a n t i c

t e n d s t o c o m e f r o m t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m ( s e e b e l o w ) . I b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e

a r e t w o r e a s o n s f o r t hi s. O n e i s t h e n e a r - t o t a l m o n o l i n g u a l i s m o f t h e

A mer i can a r chaeo l og i ca l r e s ea r ch t r ad i t i on t ha t , a s a cons equence , i s s e l -

dom expos ed t o C on t i nen t a l l i t e r a t u r e i n any s i gn i f i can t o r s u s t a i ned w ay .

T h e o t he r is t he n ea r - t o t a l abs en ce in C on t i nen t a l un i ve r s it y cu r r i cu l a o f

w h a t cou l d be ca l led an exp li ci t con ce r n w i t h a r chaeo l og i ca l t he o r y bu i ld -

ing . One does no t have to be a rocke t s c ien t i s t to see why th i s i s so . I f , in

f ac t , a r chaeo l ogy i s pe r ce i ved t o be h i s t o r y p r o j ec t ed back i n t o t he p r e l i t -

c r a t e pas t, exp l ana t i on i n a r chaeo l ogy is t aken t o be an a l ogou s to exp l a -

na t i on i n h is t o ry and i s pa r ti cu la r is t ic , con ce r n ed w i t h t he un i q ue ou t co m e

o f a n e q u a l l y u n i q u e s e q u e n c e o f e v e n t s . P u t a n o t h e r w a y , E u r o p e a n p r e -

h i s to r i ans t end to be the s t r i c t es t o f empi r i c i s t s , l i t t l e in f luenced by the

c o n s t a n t s o u l - s e a r c h i n g t h a t h a s b e e n a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e A m e r i c a n

ques t f o r exp l ana t i on s i nce t he mi d - 1960s . W hi l e E u r opean p r eh i s t o r i c a r -

c h a e o l o g y h as c h a n g e d a l o t o v e r t h e p a s t d e c a d e , m u c h o f t h a t c h a n g e

h a s b e e n m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a n d h a s h a d n o i m p a c t w h a t s o e v e r o n t h e m e t a -

phys ic . And i t i s a t the l eve l o f the metaphys ic tha t exp lana t ion l i es . I be-

l ieve the B i n f o r d and Sab l o f f cha r ac t e r i za t i on r em a i ns accu r a t e w it h r ega r d

t o ( 1 ) t he con t i nu i ng abs ence o f a s y s t emi c pe r s pec t i ve , ( 2 ) t he ove r em-

phas i s on typologica l sys temat ics and i t s impl ica t ions , and (3) the t endency

t o equa t e p r eh i s t o r i an - de f i ned ana l y t i ca l un i t s w i t h t he e t hn i c o r s oc i a l en -

t i ti es know n to u s f rom h i s tory ( see , e .g . , O t te and Kee ley , 1990; c f . C lark

an d L indly , 1991). I t has no t esc aped the a t t e n t io n o f i ts c r i ti cs tha t th e

O l d W o r l d p a r a d i g m m i g h t b e l a r g e l y a p r o d u c t o f t h e c h a o t i c r e c e n t h i s -

t o r y o f E u r ope i t s e l f , mar ked , a s i t con t i nues t o be , by w ar f a r e , popu l a t i on

d i s p l acemen t s , and e t hn i c and s oc i a l un r e s t .

I n t he N ew W or l d , t he B i n f o r d and Sab l o f f v i ew o f t he 1940 - 1970

era was litt le no te d n or m uch re m arke d upon , es sen t ia l ly becau se f ew Am er i -

cans took i s s ue w i t h t he i r p i c t u r e o f t he t r ad i ti ona l cu l t u r e - h i st o r i ca l pa r a -

d i gm ( d r aw n l a rge l y f r om W i l ley and Sab l o f f, 1980) an d becau s e t he r e w as

a n o n g o i n g d i a l e c t i c a b o u t t h e e v o l v i n g n a t u r e o f t h e A m e r i c a n i s t m e t a -

phys ic , anyway,

within

t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h a t r e s e a r c h t r a d it io n . R o b e r t

Dunnel l (1984 , 1986) ques t ioned cer ta in aspec t s o f i t , espec ia l ly the i r con-



Parad igms in Science and rchaeology 3

s t ru a l o f t h e e p i s t e m o l o g y a n d m e t h o d o l o g y o f t ra d i ti o n a l N e w W o r l d a r -

c h a e o l o g y , w i t h w h i c h h e h a s lo n g d is a g re e d . H e m a d e a n a r g u m e n t t h a t

c u l t u r e - h i s to r i c a l i n q u i r y w a s n o t t h e m i n d l e ss p a t t e r n - s e a r c h i n g e n t e r p r i s e

tha t i t wa s som et im es c la im ed to be ( e .g . , Swar tz , 1967) and tha t i t was ,

i n f a c t , a h i g hl y p r o d u c t i v e n o r m a l s c i e n c e p h a s e i n t h e h i st o r y o f t h e

d i sc i p li n e . H e w e n t o n t o m a k e t h e m o r e p r o b l e m a t i c a s s e r t io n t h a t i t w a s

f o u n d e d in d e d u c t i v e r e a s o n in g , t h a t i t c o n s t i t u te d a c o l le c t io n o f m e t h o d s

no t exp li c it ly r a t iona l i zed in theo re t i ca l t e rm s , and tha t i t s co nc ep tua l s t ruc -

t u r e , i n c lu d i n g i ts e x p e c t a t i o n s a b o u t p a t t e r n a n d t h e m e a n i n g o f p a t t e r n ,

w a s w i d e l y b u t i m p l ic it ly h e l d o n a c o n s e n s u a l b a s i s t h a t a r o s e f r o m t h e

fac t tha t i t s p rac t i t ioner s w ere a l l p ro du c t s o f a s ing le in te l lec tua l t r ad i t ion .

O f t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s , p e r h a p s t h e m o s t c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s i t s a l l e g e d l y d e -

d u c t i v e c h a r a c t e r .

W ats on (1986) , in a k ind o f r ebu t t a l , r ea c ted to th i s v iew . She l ab e led

D u n n e l l a s t r i c t e m p i r i c i s t b e c a u s e h e t h i n k s h e c a n a v o i d t h e i n f e r e n t i a l

l in k s i n v o lv e d i n r e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e p a s t b y re s o r t i n g t o w h a t s h e c a l l e d

a r ti f ac t p h y si cs . . . t h e h a r d p h e n o m e n a o f th e a r c h a e o l o g ic a l r e c o r d

(Dunnel l , 1978, p . 195) . This i s na ' ive , she c la ims , adding (cor rect ly , in my

v i e w ) t h a t a l l o u r s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e p a s t a r e i n f e r e n t i a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s

o f it, v a r io u s l y c r e d i b l e ( d e p e n d i n g u p o n o u r p r e c o n c e p t i o n s a n d b i a se s ) ,

b u t j u s t as p a r a d i g m - b o u n d a n d t h e o r y - d e p e n d e n t a s w e r e t h e i n t e r p re t a -

t ions o f the 1940-1970 e ra .

I d o n o t i n t e n d t o c o m m e n t a t l e n g t h u p o n m a j o r t r e n d s i n p o s t - 1 9 7 0

A m e r i c a n i s t a r c h a e o l o g y ( f o r c u r r e n t r e v ie w s , s e e W a t s o n , 1 9 86 , 19 91 ;

Dunnel l , 1984, 1986, 1991; the annual

dvances

v o l u m e s e d i t e d b y M i k e

S c h i f f e r , e t c . ) . I t s e e m s e v i d e n t t o m e t h a t m a i n s t r e a m A m e r i c a n i s t a r c h a e -

o l o g y is f ir m l y g r o u n d e d i n a p o s tp o s i ti v i st m e t a p h y s i c t h a t v i e w s t h e p a s t

a s r e a l i n s o m e f u n d a m e n t a l s e n s e , a n d a c c e s s ib l e t o s c ru t in y . T h e r e a r e ,

o f c o u r s e , m a n y a n d d i v e rs e a s p e c ts to w h a t I t h in k o f as m a i n s t r e a m

A m e r i c a n i st a r c h a e o l o g y . W h i le t h e y s h a r e a n u m b e r o f d i st in c t b u t o v e r -

l a p p i n g s o c i o l o g i c a l p a r a d i g m s , t h e y a l l p r o c e e d f r o m t h e s a m e m e t a -

p h y s i c - t h a t o f a n t h r o p o lo g i c a l a r c h a e o l o g y ( M e l tz e r , 1 97 9). I w a n t in s t e a d

t o c o n c e n t r a t e u p o n t h e p r e c o n c e p t i o n s a n d b i a s e s o f w h a t I t h in k o f a s

t h e ra d i c a l c r i t i q u e t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l m i n o r it y t h a t d e f i n e s i ts e l f i n o p -

p o s i t i o n t o t h e m a i n s t r e a m .

R G G I N G T H E

R A D I C A L C R I T I Q U E : A R C H A E O L O G Y A S A L M O S T

A N Y T H I N G B U T S C I E N C E

A s is w e l l - k n o w n , t h e p o s t p o s it i v is t l e g a c y o f w e s t e r n s c i e n c e t h a t u n -

d e r l i e s p r o c e s s u a l a r c h a e o l o g y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s b e e n a t t a c k e d i n



4 Clark

r e c e n t y e a r s b y c e rt a i n e l e m e n t s o f t h e r a di ca l c r it iq u e . A r g u i n g f r o m b o t h

re la t iv i s t and rea l i s t per spec t ives , c r i t i ca l theor i s t s have c la imed (1) tha t

p r oces s ua l a r chae o l og y has been a f a il u r e , i n tha t i t ha s no t i mp r oved un -

d e r s t a n d i n g o r g e n e r a t e d n e w k n o w l e d g e o f t h e p a s t t h a t i s m o r e s e c u r e

i n f e r en t i a l ly t han t ha t p r o du ced by t rad i t iona l , p r e - 1970 a r ch aeo l ogy ; ( 2 )

t ha t p r oces s ua l a r chaeo l ogy i s mos t l y uncons c i ous o f i t s ow n b i a s e s , e s pe -

c ia lly w i th r e ga rd to the l imi ta t ions o f func t ion a l i sm an d i ts der iva t ives tha t

under l i e i t s g rounding theor ies ; (3 ) tha t log ica l pos i t iv i sm has been mis in-

t e r p r e t e d a s an t iem p i r ic i s t and is no t , in any ca se , an ap p r op r i a t e ph i l o -

s oph i ca l ba s e f o r a hu m an s c i ence ( w h a t eve r t ha t is ); (4 ) t ha t posi ti v is m

is a p r odu c t o f t he i ndus t ri a li zed , cap i ta l is t W es t, and o t h e r ( an d by i m-

p l i ca t i on , be t t e r ) pa r ad i gms a r e ava i l ab l e ( e s pec i a l l y t he va r i ous f o r ms o f

M ar x i s m) ; ( 5 ) t ha t s c i ence canno t be ex t r ac t ed f r om i t s b r oade r s oc i a l con -

tex t and wi l l a lways be in f luenced by preva i l ing soc ia l , po l i t i ca l , and eco-

n o m i c b i a s e s ; ( 6 ) t h a t p r o c e s s u a l i s t s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e p a s t i s d i r e c t l y

acces s i b l e and i s s ome t h i ng t ha t ex i s t s i ndependen t l y f r om ou r pe r cep t i ons

of i t ( i. e ., i t is ob je c t i f i ed ) ; (7 ) tha t the p rocessua l i s t s acc ep t the ex i s tenc e

o f a p e r m a n e n t f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e ( t h a t o f n a t u r a l s c i e n c e ) i n o r d e r t o

d e t e r m i n e t h e n a t u r e o f a n o b j e c ti fi e d re a li ty ; (8 ) t h a t t h e y e m p l o y a m o d e l

o f economi c r a t i ona l i t y de r i ved f r om w es t e r n cap i t a l i s m; ( 9 ) t ha t t hey s ub -

s c r i be t o adap t a t i on i s t b i a s e s g r ounded i n b i o s oc i a l evo l u t i on ; ( 10 ) t ha t

proc essua l a rc ha eo log y is no t , in f ac t , p roc essu a l ( i. e ., i t doe s a po or job

o f con f r on t i ng p r oces s ques t ions bo t h in t he pas t and i n t he p r e s en t ) ; and

( 11 ) t ha t , w i t h i t s emphas i s on cu l t u r a l ma t e r i a l i s m , t he i dea t i ona l r ea l m

is i g n o r e d o r d e e m p h a s i z e d ( a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y d i s c a rd e d a s u n a t t a in a b l e )

(Sh ank s an d T i l ley , 19 87 , 1988 ; Bell, 1987 ; B inford , 1 987; H od de r , 1985 ,

1986 , 1987, 1991; Ea r le and Preu ce l , 1987; Preu ce l , 1991).

T h e i a s e s o f t h e R a d i c a l C r i t i q u e

I t is no t ea s y t o un t an g l e t h e va r i ous s ke in s o f thou gh t i n t he l i t e r a t u r e

o f the r ad i ca l c r it i que , a l t houg h Pa t t e r s on has r ecen t l y a t t em p t e d t o do s o

(1989, 1990). W ha t em erg es f rom th is is a k ind of poo r ly def in ed , po ly th e t i c

se t c o m p r i s i n g t h r e e p a r tl y c o m p l e m e n t a r y , p a r tl y c o n t r a s t in g , p o s i ti o n s

g r ounded i n t e l l ec t ua l l y i n F r ench pos t s t r uc t u r a l i s m , va r i ous a s pec t s o f s o -

c ia l Marx i s t thought , and , to a cer t a in , very l imi ted ex ten t , symbol ic an-

t h r opo l ogy . Pa t t e r s on i den t i f i e s a r ap i d l y evo l v i ng va r i an t , headed by I an

H o d d e r (e .g . , 1985, 1986) , th at i s real is t ye t ant ipos i t ivis t , ma ter ial i s t , an d

s t r uc t u r a l M ar x i s t and t ha t , i n i t s mos t r ecen t i nca r na t i on ( 1991 ) , a r gues

t ha t s oc ia l h i st o r y a f f ec t s ou r cons t r ua l o f pa t t e r n i n t he pas t , p r e s en t , a nd

f u t u r e ; t ha t d i f f e r en t s oc i a l s egmen t s have d i s t i nc t concep t i ons o f t he pas t



Para digm s in Science and rchaeology 5

( and , bec aus e o f th i s, t hey r ep r e s en t t he pas t i n d i f f e r en t w ays ) ; t ha t o u r

p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e p a s t r e f l e c t s c o n t e m p o r a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d s t r u c t u r e s

o f p o w e r a n d a u t h o r i t y ( a n d , m o r e b r o ad l y , th e p r e s e n t - d a y s oc ia l c o n t e x t) ;

t ha t t he a r chaeo l og i ca l r eco r d ha s an ob j ec t if i ed r eal it y bu t is, neve r t he l e s s ,

a l s o a " t e x t t o b e d e c o d e d " ; a n d t h a t m i d d l e - r a n g e t h e o r y

s e n s u

Binford ,

1981 ; Sch i f f e r , 1987 ) i s i nadequa t e t o mode l p r oces s e s o f any conce i vab l e

i n t e r e s t t o anyone .

A s e c o n d l i n e o f t h o u g h t i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e w o r k o f M i c h a e l

Sh ank s and Ch r i s to ph er T i l ley (1987 , 1988) and rec e ives i ts in te l l ec tua l

manda t e f r om F r ench s t r uc t u r a l i s m , pos t s t r uc t u r a l i s m , and M ar x i s m. O f -

f e r e d a s pa r t o f a c r i ti c al exam i na t i on o f t he b i a s e s o f va r i ous p r oces s ua l

t heo r i s ts , t he i r ow n po i n t o f v i ew r ecogn i zes a r ea l is t pe r s pec t i ve on t he

pas t ( bu t , aga i n , one t ha t i s a cces s i b l e on l y t h r ough r ead i ng t he cu l t u r a l

m a t e r i a l r e co r d a s a tex t ana l ogue ) . T h ey a ls o a s s e r t tha t a r cha eo l o gy is

an i n t e r p r e t i ve e f f o r t and i s i n f l uenced by t he s oc i opo l i t i c a l and s oc i oeco -

nomi c i deo l og i e s o f t he p r e s en t , a r gu i ng t ha t a l t e r na t i ve and equ i va l en t

" u n d e r s t a n d i n g s " o f t h e p a s t e xis t t h a t r e fl e c t c o n t e m p o r a r y r e l a ti o n s h ip s

o f pow er and au t ho r i t y . T h ey t ake t he p r oces s ua li s ts t o t a s k f o r t he i r e f f o r t s

t o deve l op me t hods t ha t s eek t o ex t r ac t s c i ence f r om i t s s oc i a l con t ex t ,

s i nce t hey be l i eve t ha t t h i s i s i mpos s i b l e t o do . T hey advoca t e a k i nd o f

ac t i v i s t a r chaeo l ogy i n w h i ch a r chaeo l og i s t s un i t e w i t h o t he r i n t e l l ec t ua l s

i n t he s t r ugg l e aga i n s t t he e s t ab l i s hed s oc i a l o r de r and a l l f o r ms o f know l -

edge and pow er u s ed t o " r ep r e s s . " A r chaeo l og i ca l know l edge i s t o be mar -

s ha l l ed t o em po w er t he econom i ca l ly and s oci al ly d is advan t aged v i c ti ms o f

w e s t e r n i mper i a li s m . A n ex t ens i on o f t h is i mpe r i al is m is t he he gem on y ( one

cou l d a l mos t r ead t y r anny ) o f t he p r oces s ua l i s t ve r s i on o f t he s c i en t i f i c

m e t ho d . M e t aph o r i ca l M ao i st s, t hey w i sh to " l e t a t hous an d f l ow er s b l oo m "

w hi l e , a t t he s ame t i me , e r ad i ca t i ng a f ew nox i ous cap i t a l i s t w eeds f r om

t he i n t e l l ec t ua l ga r den .

T h e t h i r d pos i ti on is r ep r e s en t ed by M ar k L e on e ( e .g ., 1981 , 1984 ,

1991 ; L eone

e t a L ,

1987) , who argues tha t , whi le a rchaeologica l p rac t i ce

and i deo l ogy a r e pa r t o f t he p r e s en t , t hey a r e neve r t he l e s s b i a s ed i n t e r ms

of par t i cu la r h i s to r ica l spec i fi cs (e .g ., ana ly t i ca l f r am ew orks , f r am ew ork s for

t he j u s t i f i ca t i on o f know l edge c l a i ms ) . L i ke H odde r , L eone c l a i ms t ha t t he

p r oces s u a l i s t s hav e n o t be en s u f f ic i en t ly c r it ic a l o f the i r ow n an a l y t ica l

f r a m e w o r k s a n d k n o w l e d g e c l a i m s a n d t h a t o n e c a n n o t i g n o r e i d e o l o g y ,

s ince it r es tr i c t s hu m an ac t ion in the pas t and a f fec t s soc ia l consc iou sness

( and many o t he r t h i ngs ) i n t he p r e s en t . I deo l ogy i t s e l f ha s a h i s t o r y , and

i t i s ne ces sary to e xam ine i t bec ause , by do ing so, a rcha eolog i s t s w i ll be in

a pos i t i on t o choos e a l t e r na t i ve i n t e r p r e t a t i ons t ha t a r e be t t e r f ounded i n

a r a n g e o f a l t e r n a t i v e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e p a s t ( L e o n e e t a L , 1987).



6 Clark

Reac t i on

C o n f r o n t e d w i th t h is a t t a c k b a s e d o n w h a t m a n y o f u s w o u l d c o n s i d e r

t o be ve r si ons o f p r oces s ua i a r chae o l ogy t ha t a r e d a t ed , m i s i n t e r p r e t ed , o r

mu t ua l l y con t r ad i c t o r y , i t i s no t s u r p r i s i ng t ha t a cohe r en t r e s pons e has s o

f a r no t been f o r t hcomi ng . T he a t t ack i t s e l f i s i ncohe r en t . A s Pa t t e r s on ' s

ove r v i ew s how s ve r y c l ea rl y , t he r e is cons i de r ab l e d i s o r de r i n t he pos t p r oc -

e s s ua l i s t c amp , w i t h a s much i n t e l l ec t ua l ene r gy expended on i n t e r na l d i s -

pu t e s a s is d i r ec t ed a t t he oppos i t i on ( s ee a l so P . W a t s on , 1991 ; R . W a t s on ,

1991a , b ) . In f ac t , a t t imes i t i s d i f f i cu l t to de te rmine who the oppos i t ion

i s . However , there has been a r eac t ion , and a l though i t i s s t i l l a par t i a l

o n e , i t c o n t a i n s s o m e r e c u r r e n t e l e m e n t s .

P e r h a p s t h e m o s t d a m a g i n g o b s e r v a t i o n t o e m e r g e f r o m r e a c t i o n s t o

va r i ous c r i t i c a l t heo r y books ( and I have not r ead a l l o f t hem ) i s t ha t t he

pos t p r oces s ua l i s t exp l i ca t i on o f t he me t hodo l ogy , i n f e r en t i a l s t r uc t u r e , and

pos it iv i st f oun da t i on s o f p r oces s ua l a r chae o l ogy a r e o f t en d i s t o r t ed , i mp r e -

c is e , and / o r w ho l l y o r p a r t ly i nco r r ec t . T h e r e is a gene r a l t en den cy t o ca r i-

ca t u r e p r oce s s ua l a r c haeo l ogy a s g r o un de d i n cl as si c pos it iv i sm, w hen i n

f ac t i t rece i ves it s i n te l l ec tua l m an da t e f r om pos tpos it iv i sm. T h ey a l s o t en d

t o con f ound t he r o l e o f deduc t i on i n ve r i f i ca t i on w i t h t he i nduc t i ve con t ex t

of d i scovery as i f , in some way, the induct ive , deduct ive , and abduct ive as -

p e c t s o f p r o b l e m s olv in g c o u ld b e n e a t l y a n d a b s o lu t e ly s e p a r a t e d f r o m

o n e a n o t h e r .

Sh ank s and T i l l ey (1987 , 1988) a lso c la im to r e jec t quan t i f i ed r ese arc h

p r o t oco l s ow i ng t o t he e r r oneous be l i e f t ha t t he p r oces s ua l i s t s u s e quan t i -

f i c a t i o n t o p r o d u c e " v a l u e - f r e e d a t a . " S i n c e t h e y d e n y t h e e x i s t e n c e o f

va l ue - f r ee da t a ( a s , o f cou r s e , do p r oces s ua l i s t s ) , Shanks and T i l l ey a l s o

a r e i l l d i s pos ed t ow ar d p r ec i s i on , p r ed i c t i on , and con t r o l . H ow eve r , t hey

unde r mi ne t he c r ed i b i l i t y o f t he i r ow n pos i t i on w i t h t he i r s t r ong depend -

ence on s t a t i s t i cs in the f amous beer can s tudy tha t , as P . Watson (1990 ,

p . 2 2 0 ) p o i n t s o u t , c o m p r i s e s a b o u t 3 0 % o f

Reconstr~tcting rchaeology

( 1987 ) . B as ed on o t he r quan t i f i ed pa t t e r n s ea r ches , t hey a r r i ve a t o t he r

p o s t h o c a c c o m m o d a t i v e a r g u m e n t s - - -a r g u m e n t s c o o k e d u p a f t e r th e f a c t

in order to expla in pa t t e rns in da ta (B inford , 1981) .

Shanks and T i l l ey a l so r e jec t in i t s to ta l i ty the concept o f soc ia l evo-

l u ti on . T i me - t r ans g r e s s ive da t a pa t t e r n s a r e a t t r i bu t e d exc lu s ive ly t o t he op -

e r a t i on o f h i s t o r i ca l f ac t o r s , and h i s t o r y , f o r t hem as f o r many o t he r s , i s

pa r t i cu l a r i s t i c and nongene r a l i z i ng . T he on l y exp l ana t i on o f change t hey

p r op os e t o o f f e r is " a f u ll a ccoun t o f cha nge " ( O a kes h o t t , 1933 , p . 43) ,

w h i ch by de f i n i t i on mus t be pa r t i cu l a r i s t i c . H ow eve r , t hey ac t ua l l y do gen -

e r a l ize . T h e i r " co m pl e t e exp l ana t i ons o f ch ang e" a r e no t , in fac t , com pr i s ed

o f h i s t o r ica l s e que nce s o f eve n t s bu t , i n s t ead , cons i s t a l mos t exc lu s ive l y o f



Para digm s in Science and rchaeology 7

empi r i ca l genera l i za t ions , thus cont rad ic t ing the i r own expl ic i t ly s t a ted b i -

a s e s abo u t w h a t i s caus i ng pa t t e r n i n m a t e r i a l cu l t u r e . A nd s o i t goes . E v en

i gno r i ng t he s o - ca l led c ri si s o f h i s to r i c it y [ t he p r ob l em a t i c na t u r e o f h is -

to r i ca l f ac t s (Young, 1988) ] , the problems for

prehistori

a r c h a e o l o g y a r e

f o r m i d a b l e a n d o b v i o u s o n e s .

A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e c l e a r d i f fe r e n c e s b e t w e e n H o d d e r , o n t h e o n e

hand , and Shanks and T i l l ey , on t he o t he r , t he B r i t i s h w i ng o f t he r ad i ca l

c r i ti que s eem s t o be w ho l ly lack i ng i n a c oh e r e n t i nves ti ga ti on s t r a t egy t ha t

w o u l d p e r m i t a n y k i n d o f i n d e p e n d e n t e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e c r e d i b i l i t y o f i t s

un de r s t a nd i n gs and i n t e r p r e t a t i on s . I n s ho r t , you e i t he r buy i t ( by

accep t i ng t he i r b i a se s ) o r yo u don ' t . T h e r e is no t h i ng i n be t w e en t ha t

w o u l d p e r m i t o n e t o c o n n e c t a n a s se r ti o n a b o u t th e n a t u r e o f t h e w o r l d

t o a b o d y o f e v i d e n c e a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f th e ( o r a ) p as t. T h e y n e v e r m a k e

c l ea r

how

on e exp l ai n s soc ia l t r ans f o r ma t i on s i n the pa r t i cu l a r ca s e ( excep t

a s t he un i que r e s u l t o f an equa l l y un i que s e r i e s o f h i s t o r i ca l even t s ) o r i n

g e n e r a l , o r why s oc i a l t r ans f o r ma t i ons a r e t hough t t o have occu r r ed i n t he

f i r s t p l ace . T hey exp l i c i t l y r e j ec t any no t i on o f a gene r a l i z i ng mode o f ex -

p l ana t i on and , w i t h it, any p r e t ens i on t o ob j ec ti v it y i n t he ev a l ua t i on o f

t he c r ed ib i li ty o f t he i r know l edge c la i ms . T h e w ho l e i s co uch ed in a s t r iden t ,

1960s- sty le rhe tor ic tha t advoc a tes a r ad ica l , va lue- co m m i t ted a rch aeo l -

ogy (Sha nk s and T i l l ey , 1988 , p . 206) in which a rchaeolo gi s t s a re to em plo y

t he i r expe r t i se in t he f igh t aga i n s t t he p r eva i li ng r eg i me fo r t he p r oduc t i on

of t ru th (1988 , p. 20 4) - - pre sum ab ly the we s te rn , cap i t al i st , pos it iv i st t r a -

d i t i on . N onw es t e r n , noncap i t a l i s t , an t i pos i t i v i s t a l t e r na t i ve a r chaeo l og i e s

are advoca ted (Marx i s t , pos t s t ruc tura l i s t , symbol ic , e t c . ) , bu t no compel l ing

r e a s o n i s a r t i c u l a t e d f o r c h o o s i n g a n y o n e o f t h e m o r f o r c h o o s i n g t h e m

ov er the i r pos it iv i s t com pet i to r s (P . W atson , 1990; R . W atson , 1991a, b ) .

I n r ev i ew s gen e r a l l y s ym pa t h e t i c t o t he r ad i ca l c r i ti que , Pa t t e r s on

(1989, 1990) cr i t ic izes proc essu al arch ae olo gy for i ts largely imp l icit , em -

pir ic is t , behavior is t , funct ional is t , and logical pos i t ivis t grounding theor ies

(1989, p . 556) , i t s obsess ion wi th technique, and i t s c laims to object ivi ty .

I n con t r a s t , pos t p r oces s ua l i s t s a r e s uppos ed l y mor e c r i t i c a l l y s e l f - aw ar e ,

emp l oy b r oade r concep t i ons o f bo t h h i s t o r y and cu l t u r e , and v i ew h i s t o r y

a s a c o n t e x t - d e p e n d e n t h u m a n c o n s t r u c ti o n a n d a r c h a e o l o g y a s a s e r ie s

o f t ex ts , a l so s oc ia l ly cons t r uc t ed , t ha t can no t be r ea d ( in f ac t, do no t

ex i s t ) apa r t f r om t he c i r cums t ances i n w h i ch i n t e r p r e t a t i ons occu r ( 1989 ,

p . 561). H e ca l ls fo r a d ia lec t ic be tw ee n proce ssua l an d p os tpro cessu a l a r -

c h a e o l o g y in o r d e r t o i d e n ti fy e l e m e n t s i n c o m p a t i b le w i th t h e d i f f e r e n t

t heo r e t i ca l pe r s pec t i ves o f each ( 1990 , p . 197 ) . T he ec l ec t i c i s m cha r ac -

te r i s t i c o f bo th s ides i s dep lored (because i t s t ands in the way of syn thes i s ) ,

and an appea l i s s ounded f o r c r i t i c a l a s s e s s men t o f t he i r s t r eng t hs , w eak -

nes s e s, and i mp l i ca ti ons f o r t he s t udy o f p roces s . W h a t ev e r t he d i f f e r ences



228 Clark

a m o n g t h e m , t h e t h r e e k in d s o f p o s tp r o c e s s u a l a r c h a e o l o g y h e o u t l in e s s up -

pos ed l y ( 1 ) con f r on t t he emp i r i c i s t , pos i t i v i s t b i a s e s o f p r oces s ua l a r chae -

o l ogy conce r n i ng s t r uc t u r e , h i s t o r y , and change , ( 2 ) r e j ec t t he no t i on t ha t

t he pas t i s d i r ec t l y know ab l e ( i . e . , ha s an ob j ec t i ve r ea l i t y apa r t f r om ou r

pe r c ep t i on s o f it ), ( 3 ) v i ew h i s to r y a s a hu m an cons t r uc t i on , r a t h e r t han

s o m e t h i n g h a n d e d d o w n b y n a t u re , a n d ( 4) a c k n o w l e d g e t h e i m p o r t a n c e

o f c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i o p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e s i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f h i s t o r y

(Pat terson, 1989, p . 562) .

S o m e F i n a l T h o u g h t s ( a s o f F e b r u a r y 1 5 , 1 9 9 3 )

I s it pos si b le t o r eco nc i l e t he s e a l lega t i ons w i t h t he t ene t s o f p r oces -

s ua l is m? I w o u l d s ugges t ( 1 ) t ha t s om e pos t p r oces s ua li s ts ( e .g . , L e on e ) h ave

i n f a c t c o n f r o n t e d t h e s u b j e c t i v e e l e m e n t i n h i s t o r y w i t h o u t a b a n d o n i n g

i ndependen t ve r i f i ca t i on o f know l edge c l a i ms ; ( 2 ) t ha t mos t p r oces s ua l i s t s

w o u l d a g r ee w i t h t he pos t p r oces s ua l i st a s s e r t i on t ha t t he pas t i s no t d i r ec t l y

know ab l e ; ( 3 ) t ha t p r oces s ua li s ts a l so s ee h i s to r y ( and a r chae o l ogy ) a s hu -

m a n c o n s t r u c t io n s ( b u t n e v e r th e l e s s a d o p t a r e a li st st a n c e ); a n d ( 4) t h a t

t hey w ou l d r ead i l y ackn ow l edge t he s ub j ec ti ve e l em en t in h i st o ry . In s ho r t ,

i t s eem s t o m e t ha t Pa t t e r s on ' s po i n t s o f a ll eged con t r a s t a r e , i n f ac t, w ho l l y

o r m os t l y com pa t i b l e w i th t he pos i ti on o f p r oces s ua l a r c haeo l ogy t oday .

T h e p r oces s ua l a r cha eo l og y t ha t is t he t a r ge t o f t he r ad i cal c r i t ique i s l it tl e

m or e t han a ca r i ca t u r e o f t he p r oces s ua l a r ch aeo l o gy o f t he 1990s.

I w ou l d a l s o con t en d , de s p i t e a s s e r t i ons to t h e con t r a r y , t ha t t he B r i t -

i sh wing o f c r i ti ca l theo ry is , in l a rge par t , a r e la t iv i s t a rch aeo log y be cau se

t r u t h i t se l f chan ges acco r d i ng t o t he s oc iopo l it ic a l pe r s uas i on o f t he a r -

cha eolo gi s t (Sha nks and T i l ley , 1987 , 1988; bu t c f. H od de r , 1991). No t so ,

o f c o u r s e , f o r t h e p r o c e s s u a l i s t s , o r f o r t h e A m e r i c a n p o s t p r o c e s s u a l i s t

M ar k L eo ne (1981, 1984 , 1991 ; L e on e

et al.

1987) , who, whi le he acknow-

l edges t he i mpor t ance o f t he s ub j ec t i ve e l emen t i n t he cons t r uc t i on o f h i s -

t o r y , a l so e ndo r s e s a r ea li s t a r chaeo l ogy and t he ana l y t i ca l s t r a t egy tha t

goes a l ong w i t h it. Pe r h aps t he m os t p r oces s u a l o f p r oces s ua l a r cha eo l o -

g i s t s , L ew i s B i n f o r d , ha s r ecen t l y obs e r ved t ha t ou r know l edge o f t he pas t

i s cons t r uc t ed

i n t he pre se n t

ou t o f (1 ) t he s t a t ic m a t e r i a l r e s i dues o f once -

dyn am i c p r oces s e s now f ou nd i n geo log i ca l con t ex t s ( i.e ., t he a r chaeo l og i ca l

r e c o r d ) , ( 2 ) t h e o b s e r v a t io n s w e c h o o s e t o m a k e o n t h e a r c h a e o l o g i ca l re -

c o r d ( i n t u r n , d e t e r m i n e d b y o u r b i a s e s a n d t h e p r e c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e r e -

s e a r c h t r a d i ti o n s t o w h i c h w e p e r t a in ) , a n d ( 3) g e n e r a l c o n t e m p o r a r y

k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e w o r l d i n t h e w a n i n g y e a r s o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y th a t

gu i des ou r cho i ces o f obs e r va t i ons and ou r i n t e r p r e t a t i ons o f t hem ( 1989 ,

p . 13) . I sugges t tha t many pos tprocessua l i s t s would f ind th i s ou t l ine for a



P a r a d i g m s i n S c i e n c e a n d A r c h a e o l o gy 9

r e s e a r c h a g e n d a t o b e m o r e o r l e s s c o m p a t i b l e w i th t h e i r o w n . I f t h e r e i s

a p a r t i n g o f t h e w a y s , i t i s b e c a u s e s o m e o f t h e m o r e e x t r e m e e l e m e n t s o f

t h e r a d i c a l c r i ti q u e h a v e a b a n d o n e d a n y d i s i n t e r e s te d a t t e m p t a t o b j e c t i v e

v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e i r k n o w l e d g e c l a i m s .

A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S

M u c h o f t h e r e s e a r c h t h a t e v e n t u a l l y r e s u l t e d i n t h i s e s s a y w a s a c t u -

a lly d o n e i n S p a i n d u r in g t w o v is it s i n M a y - S e p t e m b e r 1 99 1 U n i v e r s i d a d

d e C a n t a b r ia , S a n t a n d e r ) a n d O c t o b e r 1 9 9 2 U n i v e r s i d a d I n t e r n a c io n a l

M e n 6 n d e z P e l a y o , V a l e n c i a ). I w i s h t o th a n k t h e M i n is te r io d e E d u c a c i 6 n

y C i e n c i a G r a n t S A B 9 1 - 0 2 4 7 ) , c o l l e a g u e s a t t h e U n i v e r s it i e s o f C a n t a b r i a ,

V a l e n c i a , a n d O v i e d o , a n d t h e G e n e r a l i t a t V a l e n c i a ) f o r u n d e r w r i ti n g m y

w o r k . A s p e c i a l agradec imien to y un abr azo g o e s t o m y l o n g - t i m e f r i e n d

a n d c o l le a g u e , P r o f . M a n u e l R . G o n z f i le z M o r a l e s, D e p a r t m e n t o f A r c h a e -

o l o g y a n d H i s t o r y , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a n t a b r i a .

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