Journal of Archaeological Research Volume 1 Issue 1 1993 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf01327160] Michael E. Smith...

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Journal o f Archaeological Research Vo l. 1 No. 1 1993

N e w W o r l d C o m p l e x S o c ie tie s : R e c e n t E c o n o m i c

S o c i a l a n d P o l i ti c a l S t u d i e s

M i c h a e l E . S m i t h I

Archaeologi st s work ing on the comp lex socie ties o f La t in A m er ica have m ad e

impressive emp ir ical advan ces on a nu m be r o f f ronts during the pa s t f ive years .

Th i s ar t i c le foc use s on econom ic soc ia l and po l i t i ca l is sues us ing the

follo w ing top ics fo r organization: intensive agriculture dem ography exchange

househo lds urbanism chiefdom s an d state- level polit ies . F or each topic I

rev iew recent archaeological research and summarize per t inent theoret ical

issues. Unfortunately the heav y acc um ulation o f new archaeological results is

no t m a t ched by t he concep t ua l adv ances t ha t a r e needed t o e x p l o r e t he

ana lytical significance o f the data.

K E Y W O R D S : N e w W o r l d c o m p l e x s o c ie t ie s ; e c o n o m i c s tu d i e s ; s o c i a l s t u d i e s ; p o l i t ic a l s tu d i e s ;

Latin A m e r i c a .

I N T R O D U C T I O N

T h i s r e v i e w e x a m i n e s a n u m b e r o f e c o n o m i c , s o c i a l , a n d p o l i t i c a l t o p -

i c s c u r r e n t l y a d d r e s s e d b y a r c h a e o l o g i s t s w o r k i n g o n t h e a n c i e n t c o m p l e x

s o c i e t i e s o f L a t i n A m e r i c a , i n c l u d i n g i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e , d e m o g r a p h y , e x -

c h a n g e , h o u s e h o l d s , u r b a n i s m , c h i e f d o m s , a n d s t a t e - l e v e l p o l i t i e s . I h a v e

s e l e c te d t h e s e t o p ic s b e c a u s e o f t h e ir i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e a n a ly s is o f c o m p l e x

s o c i e t i e s a n d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f s i g n i f i c a n t b o d i e s o f r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d r e -

s e a r c h ( o t h e r r e l e v a n t i s s u e s , s u c h a s c r a f t p r o d u c t i o n , w i l l b e t h e s u b j e c t s

o f s p e c if i c a r ti c le s i n o t h e r i ss u e s o f th i s j o u r n a l ) . B y c o m p l e x s o c i e t ie s

I m e a n s o c i a l s y s t e m s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y p r o n o u n c e d a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d

l l n s t i t u t e f o r M e s o a m e r i c a n Studies Department of Anthropology S t a t e U n i v e r s i ty o f N e w

Y o r k , A l b a n y , N e w Y o r k 1 22 22 , U S A .

5

lO59-o161/93/03oo-13oo55o7.oo/o

© 1993 Plonum PublishingCorporation



m i t h

p a t t e r n s o f i n e q u a l it y a n d h e t e r o g e n e i t y J o h n s o n a n d E a r l e , 1 9 8 7 ; M a n n ,

1986 ; M cG ui r e , 1983 ) . T hes e a r e t he s oc i e t i e s t ha t a r chaeo l og i s t s t yp i ca l l y

r e f e r t o a s ch i e f doms and s t a t e s .

T h e c o v e r a g e f o c u s e s o n w o r k s p u b l i s h e d b e t w e e n 1 9 8 7 a n d e a r l y

1992 . M y emphas i s i s on a r chaeo l og i ca l s t ud i e s , a l t hough s ome e t hnoh i s -

t o r ica l ana l y s es a r e m en t i on ed a s w e l l. I n r ev i ew i ng t h is l i t e r a t u r e , I w as

s t r u c k b y tw o c o n t r a st i n g tr e n d s . O n o n e h a n d , e m p i r i c a l a d v a n c e s a r e i m -

p r e s s i ve , pa r t i cu l a r l y i n t he a r chaeo l og i ca l s t udy o f i n t ens i ve ag r i cu l t u r e ,

h o u s e h o l d s , a n d c h i e f d o m s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e o r e t i c a l a n d c o m p a r a -

t iv e w o r k l a g s b e h i n d , l im i ti ng t h e u s e f u ln e s s o f m u c h o f t h e n e w a r c h a e -

o log ica l da ta for soc ia l and cu l tu ra l ana lys i s . In the pages tha t fo l low, I

r e v i e w r e c e n t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s a n d c o m m e n t o n t h e s t a t e o f k n o w l -

edge and t heo r e t i ca l ana l y s i s i n each o f t he s ub j ec t a r ea s .

I N T E N S I V E A G R I C U L T U R E

T he s t udy o f anc i en t i n t ens i ve ag r i cu l t u r a l s y s t ems i s one o f t he s uc -

c e ss st o ri e s o f r e c e n t N e w W o r l d a r c h a e o lo g y . I u s e t h e c o m m o n d e f in i ti o n

o f i n t ens i ve ag r i cu l t u r e a s me t hods i n w h i ch cons i de r ab l e ene r gy i s app l i ed

t o f a r m i n g in o r d e r t o o b t a i n h i g h y i el ds p e r a r e a o f c u l ti v a ti o n s e e T u r n e r

and D oo l i tt l e , 1978). A r chaeo l og i s t s con t i nue t o add r e s s t he c la s si c ques -

t i ons o f i n t ens if i ca ti on t heo r y [ e.g ., t he caus es and con s eq uen ces o f ag r i-

c u l t u r a l c h a n g e a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e a n d

po l it ic a l po w e r s ee W i t tf oge l , 1957 ; B o s e r up 1965)], bu t c u r r e n t i n t e r p r e -

t a t i o n s a r e b a s e d u p o n a m u c h s t r o n g e r e m p i r i c a l b a s e . P r o g r e s s h a s b e e n

cons i de r ab l e i n t he a r ea o f t he d i s t r i bu t i on , t e chno l ogy , and s oc i a l i mp l i -

ca t i ons o f i n t ens i ve cu lt iva t i on p r ac ti ce s . T h e m od e r n r ev iva l o f r a i s ed f ie l d

cu l t i va t i on , ba s ed on anc i en t me t hods , adds s pec i a l va l ue and r e l evance t o

t h i s a r ea o f s t udy .

C ana l i r ri ga ti on , t e r rac i ng , and r a i s ed f ie l d s a r e f am i l ia r a s t he m a j o r

f o r m s o f N e w W o r l d i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e , b u t r e c e n t w o r k h a s i d e n t i f i e d

m an y va r i a t i ons w i t h i n t he s e ca t ego r i e s B r ook f i e l d , 1986 ; D a r ch , 1983 ; de

l a T o r r e a n d B u r g a , 1 9 8 6 ; D e n e v a n e t a l . 1987 ; Fa r r i ng t on , 1985 ; R o j a s

R ab i e l a and Sande r s , 1985; R . Smi t h , 1987 ; W i l ken , 1987). R es e a r c h i n

l o w l a n d M e s o a m e r i c a h a s s h o w n t h a t r a i s e d f i e l d s a r e b u t o n e t y p e o f a

b r o a d e r c la ss o f i n t e n si v e m e t h o d s o f w e t l a n d c u lt iv a t io n , m a n y o f w h i c h

w e r e u s e d b y t h e C l as si c M a y a C u l b e r t e t a l . 1990 ; H ebda e t a l . 1991;

Poh l , 1990 ; S i em ens , 1990 ; S i em ens e t a l . 1988).

T he d i s t r i bu t i on o f i n t ens i ve ag r i cu l t u r a l me t hods i n s pace and t i me

is m uc h c l ea r e r a s a r e s u l t o f r ecen t s t ud ie s . W i ll iam D o o l i t t le 1990) e s -

t ab l is hes a ch r ono l ogy f o r cana l ir r iga t i on in no r t he r n M es oa m er i ca . B e -



N e w W o r ld o m p l e x S o c i e ti e s

g i n n i n g w i t h t h e M i d d l e F o r m a t i v e d a m a n d c a n a l a t T e o p a n t e c u a n i t l a n

i n G u e r r e r o ( ca. 1200 - 1000 B . C .) , D oo l i t tl e t r aces t he evo l u t i on o f ir ri ga -

t io n t e c h n o l o g y t h r o u g h t h e s o p h is t ic a t e d a q u e d u c t s o f th e A z t e c p e r i o d .

R ec en t excava t ions p r ov i de ne w da t a o n t h e da t i ng an d s i gn i fi cance o f ir -

r ig a t io n a t T e o t i h u a c a n , l o n g a t o p ic o f d e b a t e . C a n a l s b u r i e d u n d e r E a r l y

T l am i mi l o l pa phas e ( A . D . 200 - 300 ) bu i ld i ngs i n t he me r cha n t s ba r r i o s how

t h e e x i s te n c e o f ir ri g a ti o n p r io r t o t h e m a j o r u r b a n e x p a n s io n o f T e o t i h u a -

can ( N i cho l s e t a l . 1991).

E t h n o h i s t o r i a n s c o n t i n u e t o d o c u m e n t t h e e x t e n t a n d e c o n o m i c r o l e

o f i rr ig a t io n i n c e n t ra l M e x ic o a t t h e t i m e o f S p a ni sh c o n q u e s t ( M a l d o n a d o ,

1990 ; Smi t h , 1993 ) , f o l l ow i ng up ea r l i e r w or k by A nge l Pa l e r m and Ped r o

A r m i ll as . O n t h e n o r t h c o a s t o f P e r u , M i c h a e l M o s e l e y a n d a s so c i at e s c o n -

t i nue t he i r l ong - t e r m r e s e a r ch i n t o i r r iga t ion s ys t ems and t he i r s i gn if i cance

( C l e m e n t a n d M o s e l e y , 1 9 9 1 ) . H y d r o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s b y O r t l o f f ( 1 9 8 8 ;

O r t l o f f and K o l a t a , 1989) con f i r m ea r l i e r a s se s s men t s o f t he s oph i s ti ca t ion

o f a n c i e n t A n d e a n e n g i n e e r s . T h is a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n a p p l ie d in

M es oamer i ca a s w e l l ( N a r an j o , 1989 ) .

A l t h o u g h a n c i e n t a g r i c u l t u r a l t e r r a c e s a r e f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e

m o u n t a i n o u s a r e a s o f L a t i n A m e r i c a ( D o n k i n , 1 9 79 ), a r c h a e o l o g i c a l

r e s e a r c h o n t e r r a c e s h a s b e e n m o r e i n t e n s i v e i n t h e A n d e s t h a n i n

M e s o a m e r i c a . I n M e s o a m e r i c a , E v a n s ( 1 9 9 0 ) a n d P r i c e a n d S m i t h ( 1 9 9 2 )

r e p o r t s t u d i e s o f A z t e c p e r i o d t e r ra c i n g , S l u y t e r a n d S i e m e n s ( 1 9 92 )

des c r i be t e r r a ces i n V er ac r uz , and W i l ken s ( 1987 ) exce l len t s yn t hesi s o f

m o d e r n t ra d i t io n a l f a r m i n g m e t h o d s c o n t a in s m u c h o f re l e v a n c e t o a r c h a e -

o l ogy . I n t he A nde s , t he i n t e rd i s c i p li na r y C o l ca V a l l ey P r o j ec t , d i r ec t ed by

W i ll iam D en ev an (1987, 1988), i s p r ov i d ing cons i de r ab l e ne w da t a o n m an y

a s p e c t s o f a n c i e n t a n d m o d e r n t e r r a c e a g r i c u l t u r e . E x c a v a t i o n s r e v e a l a

l ong h i s t o r y o f t e r r ace cons t r uc t i on and u s e i n t he C o l ca a r ea , go i ng back

t o t he s ix th cen t u r y A . D . o r M i dd l e H o r i zon ( M a l pas s , 1987 ). I n s t ud i e s

o f m od e r n C o l ca t e r r ac i ng . T r e acy ( 1987 , 1989) des c r i bes t he t echn i ca l and

s oc ia l com po ne n t s o f t e r r ace co ns t r uc t i on , w h i l e Sand or ( 1987a, b ) ana l yzes

s oils and p r oduc t iv i ty . T h i s c om pr ehe ns i ve i n t e r d i s c ip l i na r y p r o j ec t p r ov i des

much c r uc i a l i n f o r ma t i on f o r a r chaeo l og i ca l ana l og i e s and i n t e r p r e t a t i ons

( see a l so de l a Tor re and Burga , 1986) .

T he ex t en t and s i gn i f i cance o f M aya r a i s ed f i e l d cu l t i va t i on con t i nue

t o be i s s ues o f con t en t i on . I n t e r d i s c i p l i na r y r e s ea r ch o r gan i zed by M ar y

Poh l ( 1990 ) dem on s t r a t e s t ha t t he Fo r m a t i ve pe r i od f i e ld s a t A l b i on I sl and ,

Bel ize (1000 B .C . o r ear l i e r ) , o r ig ina l ly in te rpre ted as r a i sed f i e lds by Den-

n i s Pu les ton , were in f ac t used for d ra ined f i e ld cu l t iva t ion , a l es s in tens ive

m e t h o d . P o p e a n d D a h l i n s (1 9 89 ) r e m o v e s e n si n g w o r k l e d t h e m t o q u e s -

t i on t he pos t u l a t ed w i des p r ead d i s t r i bu t i on o f r a i s ed f i e l d s i n t he l ow l and

M a y a a r e a , a n i n t e r p r e t a t io n d i s p u t e d b y A d a m s e t a l . (1990) . Pre l iminary



m i t h

r e p o r t s o n r e c e n t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n d e t h n o h i s t o r i c s t u d i e s o f t h e A z t e c

c h i n a m p a ( r a i s e d f i e ld ) s y s t e m i n c l u d e t h o s e b y L 6 p e z ( 1 9 9 1 ), R o j a s

R a b i e l a ( 1 9 9 1 ) , a n d P a r s o n s ( 1 9 9 1 ) .

T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n , c h r o n o l o g y , a n d f u n c t i o n s o f S o u t h A m e r i c a n r a i s e d

f ie ld s a r e g r e a t l y c la r if ie d b y r e c e n t a n d c u r r e n t f ie l d w o r k . T h e m o s t c o m -

p l e t e f i n d i n g s c o m e f r o m t h e L a k e T i t i c a c a b a s i n , w h e r e i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y

p r o j e c t s a r e u n d e r w a y o n b o t h t h e P e r u v i a n ( E r i c k s o n , 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 8 9 ; E r i c k -

s o n a n d C a n d l e r , 1 9 8 9 ) a n d t h e B o l iv i a n s i d e s o f t h e l a k e ( K o l a t a , 1 98 6,

1 99 1; K o l a t a a n d O r t l o f f , 1 98 9; O r t l o f f a n d K o l a t a , 1 9 8 9 ). B o t h p r o j e c t s

i n c l u d e t h e r e b u i l d i n g o f e x p e r i m e n t a l r a i s e d f i e l d s , p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d s o i l

s t u d i e s , a n d a n a l y s is o f t h e h y d r o l o g i c a l a n d t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e

f ie l d s. R a i s e d f ie l d s a r e a l so r e p o r t e d f r o m t h e c o a s t o f P e r u ( M o o r e , 1 9 8 8 ).

L i m n o l o g i s t s a r e e x a m i n i n g t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t o f a g r i c u l t u r a l

i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n a n d e x p a n s i o n i n M e s o a m e r i c a ( B i n f o r d

e t a l .

1 9 8 7 ; B y r n e

a n d H o r n e , 1 9 8 9 ; L e y d e n , 1 9 8 7 ; M e t c a l f e e t a l . 1 9 8 9 ; S t r e e t - P e r r o t t e t a l .

1 9 8 9 ) . T h e s e s t u d i e s p r o v i d e i m p o r t a n t n e w d a t a , a l t h o u g h t h e r o u g h c h r o -

n o l o g i e s t h e y o f t e n m u s t e m p l o y c a n l i m i t t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s f o r d i a c h r o n i c

an a l y s i s .

T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n a n d s o c i o p o l i t i -

c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n c o n t i n u e s to b e a n a r e a o f ac ti v e re s e a r c h a n d d e b a t e i n

t h e N e w W o r l d . M o r e t h a n t h r e e d e c a d e s a f t e r t h e p u b l ic a t i o n o f W i tt f o -

g e l s ( 1 9 5 7 )

O r i e n t a l D e s p o t i s m

s o m e s c h o l a r s ( e . g . , H u n t , 1 9 8 8 ) a r e s t i l l

d e s p e r a t e l y s e a r c h i n g f o r e x c e p t i o n s to h i s m o d e l . T o m e , t h i s su g g e s ts th a t

W i t t f o g e l w a s e s s e n t i a l l y c o r r e c t w h e n h e a r g u e d t h a t l a r g e c o m p l e x i r r i -

g a t i o n s y s t e m s h a v e a n i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t o n p o l i t i c a l c e n t r a l i z a t i o n . I t i s n o t

n e c e s s a ry , h o w e v e r , t o e m b r a c e t h e m o s t e x t r e m e a s p e c t s o f W i tt f o g e l s

m o d e l - - i r r i g a t i o n c a u s e d t h e r i se o f t h e s t a te , a n d a n c i e n t s ta t e g o v e r n -

m e n t s w e r e a l w a y s d e s p o t i c - - - o r t o r e s o r t t o a n i n v a r i a n t c a u s a l i n t e r p r e -

t a t io n o f h i s m o d e l . A n u m b e r o f r e c e n t s t u d i e s (e .g ., C l e m e n t a n d M o s e l e y ,

1 9 8 9 , 1 9 9 1 ; N i ch o l s

e t a l .

1 9 91 ) p o i n t t o t h e p o l i t ic a l i m p o r t a n c e o f m a j o r

i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m s , a l t h o u g h s o m e s c h o l a r s a r g u e f o r i r r i g a t i o n w i t h o u t

s t r o n g p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l ( N e t h e r l y , 1 9 8 4 ; P o z o r s k i , 1 9 8 7 ) .

I n c o n t r a s t t o l a r g e - s c a l e c a n a l i r r i g a t i o n , m o s t s c h o l a r s a g r e e t h a t

t e r r a c i n g d o e s n o t r e q u i r e c e n t r a l i z e d c o n t r o l a n d i s u s u a l l y o r g a n i z e d o n

a lo c a l l e v e l b y i n d e p e n d e n t h o u s e h o l d s ( E v a n s , 1 9 90 ; P r i c e a n d S m i t h ,

1 9 92 ; T r e a c y , 1 9 87 , 1 9 89 ; W i l k e n , 1 9 8 7) . I n f i e l d o r h o u s e g a r d e n c u l t i v a t i o n

i s a n o t h e r f o r m o f i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e s i m i l a r t o t e r r a c i n g i n i t s l a b o r r e -

q u i r e m e n t s a n d s o c i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s ( N e t t i n g , 1 9 8 9 ; W i l k e n , 1 9 8 7 ) , a n d a

n e w v o l u m e e x p l o r e s e v i d e n c e f o r t h i s m e t h o d i n a n c i e n t M e s o a m e r i c a

( K i l li o n , 1 9 9 2 ). R o b e r t N e t t i n g ( 1 9 8 9 , 19 9 0 ) d e v e l o p s t h e o r e t i c a l l i n k s

a m o n g h o u s e h o l d l a b o r o r g a n i z a ti o n , s m a l l -s c a le i n t e n s iv e c u l t iv a t io n ( s u c h

a s t e rr a c in g a n d h o u s e g a r d en s ) , a n d p o p u l a t i o n p re s s u re . R o b e r t D r e n n a n



New World omp lex Societ ies

1988) , app l y i ng a s i mi l a r app r oach t o M es oamer i can s e t t l emen t pa t t e r n s ,

a r gues f o r t he r o l e o f i n t ens i ve cu l t i va t i on i n gene r a t i ng d i s pe r s ed r u r a l

s e t t l em en t s o t ha t f a r m er s can live cl o s e t o t he i r f ie l d s) .

B e cau s e o f t he e t h nog r aph i c r a r i ty o f ra i s ed f i e ld cu l t iva t ion , t he j u r y

i s s t i l l ou t on i t s o rganiza t ion r equi rements and po l i t i ca l impl ica t ions . A lan

Ko la ta 1986 , 1991) in fer s cen t ra l i zed s t a te p lanning , an d con t ro l f ro m the

l a r ge expans e , r egu l a r l ayou t , and t echno l og i ca l s oph i s t i ca t i on o f r a i s ed

f ie l d s ne a r T i w an aku , and J e f f r ey Pa r s ons 1991) p r e s en t s pa r a l le l a r gu -

m en t s f o r t he A z t ec ch i nam pas . C l a r k E r i cks on 1988, 1989), on t he o t h e r

hand , s ugges t s t ha t t he T i t i caca r a i s ed f i e l d s cou l d have been bu i l t and

m a i n t a i n e d b y lo c a l h o u s e h o l d s a n d c o m m u n i ti e s. G e n e W i lk e n 1 9 87 )

t a k e s a s im i l ar p e r sp e c t iv e o n m o d e r n M e s o a m e r i c a n c u l ti v at io n p r a c t ic e s

s i mi la r t o r a i s ed f ie l ds . G i ven t he r a r it y o f e t hnog r aph i c ana l ogues , a r chae -

o l og i s t s mus t dev i s e mor e s y s t ema t i c me t hods f o r add r e s s i ng t h i s i s s ue be -

f o r e a n y o f t h e s e a r g u m e n t s c a n b e a c c e p t e d .

T h e r e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f r a i s e d f i e l d c u l t i v a t i o n b y m o d e r n f a r m e r s ,

i n s p i r ed by a r chaeo l og i ca l f i nd i ngs , i s an exc i t i ng deve l opmen t i n L a t i n

A m e r i c a . F o r a v a r i e ty o f p ol it ic a l a n d e c o n o m i c r e a so n s , e a r l i e r a t te m p t s

in M e x ic o G t m e z P o m p a

e t aL

1982) w ere unsu ccess fu l Ch apin , 1988).

R e c e n t l y r e s e a r c h e r s i n t h e T i t i c a c a a r e a h a v e b e g u n s y s t e m a t i c a n d e x -

t e n si v e p r o g r a m s o f e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d d e v e l o p m e n t a l f ie ld c o n s t r u c t io n t h a t

have bee n s ucces s f u l i n t he s ho r t r un E r i cks on , 1988 , 1989 ; E r i cks on a nd

C an d l e r , 1989 ; K o l a t a , 1991). T h i s w o r k has be en f e a t u r ed i n t he po pu l a r

m ed i a e .g ., S t evens , 1988 ) and is de s c r i bed i n a r ecen t a r cha eo l og y t ex t -

bo ok R en f r ew and B ahn , 1991 , pp . 468 - 469 ) .

D E M O G R A P H Y

A r c h a e o l o g i c a l d e m o g r a p h y h a s b e e n n e g l e c t e d i n r e c e n t N e w W o r l d

a r c h a e o l o g y . O n c e a r c h a e o lo g i s ts a c k n o w l e d g e d th a t p o p u l a ti o n p r e s s u r e

a l one d i d no t caus e t he r is e o f s ta t e s o r cu lt u r a l evo lu t i on gene r a l ly e .g .,

Cowgill , 1975; Hassan , 1978), ma ny seem ed to ab an do n sys tem at ic deve lop-

m e n t o f m e t h o d s a n d t h e o r ie s o f a r c h a e ol o g ic a l d e m o g r a p h y . S u r v e y p r o -

j ec t s con t i nue t o m ake r eg i ona l popu l a t i on e s t im a t e s e .g ., K ow a l ew s k i

e t

aL 1989 ; de M on t mo l l i n , 1988 ; Fe i n m an et al . 1985 ; M er i no C a r r i t n , 1989;

Wi l son , 1988) , bu t on the whole , a rchaeologi s t s have devoted l i t t l e a t t en t ion

t o t h e a d v a n c e m e n t o f d e m o g r a p h i c m e t h o d s a n d c o n c e p t s . P e r h a p s s y m p -

t om a t i c o f t h i s is t he f ac t t ha t a r chaeo l og is t s w or k i ng i n L a t i n A m er i ca have

made v i r t ua l l y no con t r i bu t i ons t o one o f t he mos t i mpor t an t i s s ues i n N ew

w or l d cu l t u r e h i s to r y : t he po s t con t ac t popu l a t i on dec l ine . M os t L a t i n A m er i -

can s tud ies o f th is p rocess r e ly so le ly up on h i s to r i ca l da ta e .g. , Ch anc e ,



1 mi t h

1989; C ook and Lovell , 199 1; Reff , 1991; Sand ers , 1 970) , wh ile in N orth

A m erica, archaeologis ts par t ic ipate vigorously in researc h and deb ate on this

topic (e .g. , Ramenofsky, 1987; Snow and Starna, 1989; Zubrow, 1990) .

Cu lbe r t an d R ice s (1990) ed i t ed vo lume ,

Precolumbian Popula t ion

His tory in the Maya Lowlands

i s a no tab le except ion to the genera l neglec t

o f dem ograph ic me thodo logy . Th i s book b r ings t oge the r s cho la r sh ip f rom

a number of Maya s i tes and reg ions , p roducing the f i r s t sys temat ic la rge-

scale populat ion est imates for Classic Maya civi l izat ion. The chapters focus

on m ethodo logica l is sues (e .g ., hou se m ou nd counts , contem poran e i ty , d if -

fer ing phas e lengths, family s ize constants) , esc hew ing analysis o r inte rpre -

ta t ion beyond s ize es t imates . The major f ind ing of the book i s tha t the

Maya lowlands had a very h igh reg iona l popula t ion dens i ty (Culber t and

Rice s es t imate i s 180 persons/km2) , a l though indiv idua l urban centers w ere

no t very den sely set t led (500-800 persons/km2). This contrasts g reat ly with

Classic pe r iod d em ograp hic pa t te rns in the B as in of Mexico , w her e reg iona l

pop ula t ion dens i t ies in m os t a reas w ere u nd er 40 p ersons /km 1, and Teo t i -

huacan s u rba n popu la t i on dens ity was o f t he o rde r o f 7000/km 2 (Sande r s

et al. 1979, pp. 109, 217).

O t h e r r e c e n t d e m o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h i n c l u d e s t h e e x c a v a t i o n - b a s e d

s tudies by Ea r le et a l. (1987) and Smith (1992a) , the regional-scale research

b y F e i n m a n et al. (1985) , Loker (1989) , and Webster et al. (1992), the eth-

nohistor ic analyses by Wil l iams (1989, 1993) and Smith (1993) and the eth-

noarchaeologica l and compara t ive work of Kolb (1985) and Siege l (1990) .

Conceptua l i s sues in the s tudy of anc ien t popula t ion change a re d i scussed

by D ren na n (1987) and Jo hnson and E a r l e (1987). The p opu la t ion p re s su re

deba t e con t inues i n h igh land Mesoamer i ca (Fe inman and Nicho la s , 1989 ;

M arcu s, 1990; Nich ols, 1987 , 1989; Sa nd ers a nd N ichols, 1988), w ith firmly

en t r enched oppos ing v i ews l ead ing to nonproduc t ive a rgumen t s on bo th

sides ( for co m m en t see San t ley, 1990) . I t i s t ime to give up s implis tic views

and turn to more sophis t ica ted models l ink ing popula t ion , l abor , l and , ag-

r icu l ture , and hou sehold dynam ics (e.g ., D ren nan , 1987; M aclachlan , 1987;

Ne t t ing , 1989, 1990) . Th e m ethodolog ica l advances o f Hassan (1978, 1981),

Kolb (1985) , Schacht (1981) , Sumner (1989) , and others provide a f i rm

founda t ion fo r t he deve lop m en t o f a m ore p roduc t ive demo graph ic a r chae -

o logy. Demography i s fa r too impor tan t a top ic to be le f t to the rea lm of

the popula t ion pressure a rguments .

E X C H A N G E

Tra de and exchange rem ain popu lar a reas for s tudy , wi th publ ica t ions

on Mesoamer i ca f a r ou tnumber ing those on Sou th Amer i ca . Recen t r e -



N e w W o r l d o m p l e x S o c i e ti e s

s e a r c h h a s p r o d u c e d m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n b u t f ew id e as . O b s i d ia n s o u r c e

s tu d i e s , o n e o f th e e a s i e s t a n d m o s t s tr a i g h tf o r w a r d a p p r o a c h e s i n a r-

c h a e o m e t r y f o r b o t h t e c h n i c a l a n d m a t e r i a l r e a so n s , a r e e sp e c ia l ly p r o -

l i f i c -- a n e x a m p l e o f m e t h o d - d r i v e n re s e a rc h o r th e la w o f t h e h a m m e r

( M o o r e a n d K e e n e , 1 9 8 3 ) . O v e r 2 0 p u b l i s h e d s t u d i e s a r e l i s t e d i n t h e B i b -

l io g r a p h y o f R e c e n t L i t e r a tu r e . I n s p it e o f t h e v a s t a c c u m u l a t i o n o f d a t a

o n t h e s p e c i f i c p o i n t s o f o r i g i n o f t h o u s a n d s o f o b s i d i a n a r t i f a c t s , d o w e

r ea lly k n o w m u c h m o r e a b o u t a n c i e n t M e s o a m e r i c a n t r a d e t h a n w e d id 15

y e a r s a g o ? I t h i n k n o t. M o s t s o u r c e a n a l y s es a re i n d u c ti v e r a t h e r t h a n d e -

d u c t i v e i n d e s i g n a n d t h e d a t a a r e r a r e l y a n c h o r e d i n a n y e x p l i c i t t h e o r y .

S i m p l e b u t i n f o r m a t i v e q u a n t i t a t i v e m e t h o d s , s u c h a s f a l l o f f a n a l y s i s , l i n e a r

r e g r e s s i o n , a n d t r e n d s u r f a c e a n a l y s i s ( H o d d e r a n d O r t o n , 1 9 7 6 ; R e n f r e w ,

1 9 7 7 ; S i d r y s , 1 9 77 ) , a r e c o n s p i c u o u s b y th e i r r a r i ty ( f o r e x c e p t i o n s s e e

M c K i l l o p , 1 98 9; D r e i s s a n d B r o w n , 1 9 8 9 ) a n d n e w f o r m s o f o b s i d i a n q u a n -

t i f i c a t i o n ( e . g . , R o v n e r , 1 9 8 9 ; S i d r y s , 1 9 7 7 ) h a v e y e t t o t a k e h o l d .

I n a d d i t i o n t o o b s i d i a n s o u r c in g , a r c h a e o m e t r i c a n a l y se s o f e x c h a n g e

i n c l u d e t h e p e t r o g r a p h i c ( F e i n m a n e t a l . 1 9 8 9 ; G o o d f e l l o w , 1 9 9 0 ) a n d

c h e m i c a l a n a ly s is o f c e r a m i c s ( B i s h o p e t a l . 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 9 3 ; D ' A l t r o y a n d

B i s h o p , 1 9 9 0 ; L a n g e e t a l . 1 9 9 3 ; M i n c e t a l . 1 9 9 3 ; N e f f a n d B i s h o p , 1 9 8 8 ;

N e f f e t a l . 1 9 9 0) , s t u d i e s o f c o p p e r a n d b r o n z e t r a d e ( H o s l e r , 1 98 8; H o s l e r

e t a l . 1 9 9 0 ), a n d j a d e s o u r c e s t u d i e s ( L a n g e a n d B i s h o p , 1 9 8 8 ). I n c o n t r a s t

t o o b s i d ia n , c e r a m i c t r a c e - e l e m e n t s t u d ie s ( p a rt ic u l a rl y M e s o a m e r i c a n w o r k

b y R o n a l d B i s h o p a n d H e c t o r N e f f ) t e n d t o b e m o r e p r o b l e m - o r i e n t e d

a n d t h e o r e t ic a l l y m o t iv a t e d , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e o f t h e g r e a t e r d i ff ic u lt y i n

e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e p l a c e s o f o r i g i n o f c l a y s a n d t e m p e r s .

S t u d i e s o f c e r a m i c t r a d e u s i n g t y p o l o g i c a l d a t a c o n t i n u e t h e i r l o n g

h i s to r y o f p o p u l a r i ty ( C o b e a n a n d M a s t a c h e , 1 98 7; C r e a m e r , 1 99 2; F a h m e l

B e y e r , 1 9 8 8 ; F r y , 1 9 89 ; H o d g e a n d M i n c , 1 99 0; R a t t r a y , 1 98 9, 1 9 90 ; S m i t h ,

1 9 9 0 ) . M o s t o f t h e s e a u t h o r s a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t t y p o l o g i c a l a n d s t y l i s t i c d a t a

m u s t b e a u g m e n t e d w i th p e t r o g r a p h i c a n d / o r c h e m i c a l d a t a i f t h e r e s u lt s

a r e t o b e a c c e p t e d w i th c o n f i d e n c e . T h e e x c h a n g e o f c h e r t a r ti f a c ts i s r e -

c e i v i n g i n c r e a s i n g a t t e n t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n r e l a t i o n t o w o r k a t t h e m a j o r

M a y a c h e r t w o r k s h o p s a t C o l h a , B e l i z e ( S h a r e r a n d H e s t e r , 1 9 9 1 ;

M c A n a n y , 1 9 8 9 ) . E t h n o h i s t o r i c r e s e a r c h o n M e s o a m e r i c a t r a d e a n d t r i b u t e

i s a n o t h e r w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d t o p i c t h a t c o n t i n u e s t o y i e l d n e w i n s i g h t s

( B e r d a n , 1 9 8 7 a , b , 1 98 8; B r u m f i e l , 1 98 7; V o o r h i e s , 1 9 8 9 ) .

I s e e t h r e e p r o m i s in g r e s e a r c h d i r e c ti o n s in t h e s t u d y o f e x c h a n g e

a m o n g t h e c o m p l e x s o c i e t i e s o f t h e N e w W o r l d . T h e f i r s t i s a c l o s e r i n t e -

g r a t i o n o f s tu d i e s o f p r o d u c t i o n a n d e x c h a n g e . W h i l e j u s t a b o u t e v e r y o n e

p a y s li p s e r v ic e t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f i n t e g r a t i n g s t u d i e s o f b o t h s p h e r e s ,

o n l y a f e w a u t h o r s a c t u a l l y e x a m i n e t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p i n d e t a i l ( e . g . ,

B r u m f i e l , 1 9 8 7 ; C l a r k , 1 9 8 6 , 1 9 8 8 ; M c A n a n y , 1 9 8 9 ; M c S w a i n , 1 9 9 1 ) . T h e



2 Sm i t h

s e c o n d p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n i s a f o c u s o n t h e m e c h a n i c s a n d e n e r g e t i c s o f

t r a n s p o r t . A l t h o u g h t h e i m p o r t a n t a n d i n n o v a t i v e w o r k o f t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s

o n t r a n s p o r t e n e r g e t i c s a n d e f fi c ie n c y ( e.g ., D r e n n a n , 1 9 8 4 ; S a n d e r s a n d

San t l ey , 1983 ; San t l ey , 1984) has n o t bee n d eve l o ped m uch f u r t he r in r e -

cen t pub l i ca t ions ( e .g . , San de r s and W ebs t e r , 1988), t h i s li ne o f r e s ea r ch

h a s m u c h t o o f f e r a n d s h o u l d c o n t i n u e t o g e n e r a t e n e w i d e a s a n d i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n s . T h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f

A n c i e n t R o a d N e t w o r k s a n d S e t tl e m e n t H i er -

a r c h ie s i n t h e N e w W o r l d

( T r ombo l d , 1991 ) s i gna l s an advance i n r e s ea r ch

o n N e w W o r l d t r a n s p o rt , b u t l ik e m a n y s tu d i e s o f e x c h a n g e , t h e s e p a p e r s

a r e l ong on da t a and s ho r t on mode l s ( s ee a l s o H ys l op , 1984 ) . O t he r r ecen t

r e s e a r c h o n t ra v e l ro u t e s i n c l u d e s t h a t b y M a c K i n n o n ( 19 8 9) a n d M c K i l lo p

and J acks on ( 1989) .

T he t h i r d pos i t i ve r e s ea r ch d i r ec t i on i nvo l ves a concep t ua l expans i on

b e y o n d t r a d e o r e x c h a n g e t o c o n s id e r t h e b r o a d e r r e a lm o f s o ci o ec o -

n o m i c i n t e r a c t i o n a m o n g p o p u l a t i o n s . E d w a r d S c h o r t m a n a n d P a t r i c i a

U r b a n h a v e b e e n p a r t ic u l a r ly c o n c e r n e d w it h p r o m o t i n g a m o r e i nc lu s iv e

t r e a t m e n t o f i n t e r re g i o n a l i n t e r a c t io n i n a r c h a e o l o g y ( S c h o r t m a n , 1 98 9;

Scho r t man and U r ban , 1987 , 1992 ) , i l l u s t r a t i ng t he i r app r oach w i t h s eve r a l

c a s e s t u d i e s ( S c h o r t m a n a n d N a k a m u r a , 1 9 9 1 ; S c h o r t m a n et a l . 1986).

R o s em ar y J oyce ' s ( 1991 ) app l i ca ti on o f R . N . A da m s ' ( 1975 ) t heo r y o f s o -

c ia l p o w e r t o a r c h a e o lo g i c a l e v id e n c e f o r i n t e r a c ti o n i s a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f

t h i s t r e n d . G a r y F e i n m a n a n d L i n d a N i c h o l a s ( 1 9 9 0 ) a l s o t a k e a b r o a d

v i ew o f in t e r ac t i on i n t he i r s t udy o f E j u t l a , O ax aca ( s ee a ls o K ow a l ew s k i

et a l .

1989). B a r ba r a S t a r k ' s ( 1990 ) com par i s on o f C l a ss ic and L a t e Po s t -

c l a s s i c p a t t e r n s o f l o n g - d i s t a n c e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e M e x i c a n G u l f

C o a s t a n d t h e B a s in o f M e x i co is o n e o f th e m o s t s o p h is t ic a t e d s t u d ie s o f

t h is t ype . She co ns t r uc t s ma t e r i a l cu l t u r e m ode l s f o r a va r i e t y o f i n t e r ac t i on

p r o c e s s e s ( f r o m s im p l e e x c h a n g e t h r o u g h i m p e r ia l c o n q u e s t ) a n d u s e s t h e s e

t o eva l ua t e h e r f i e ld da t a . M or e s t ud i e s o f th i s na t u r e , e s t ab l is h i ng t he m a-

t e ri a l c u l t u r e m a n i f e st a t io n s o f s o c i o e c o n o m i c p r o c e ss e s , a r e d e s p e r a t e l y

n e e d e d . W o r l d -s y s t e m s an a ly s is is a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f t h e t r e n d t o w a r d a

b r o a d e r c o n c e p t i o n o f i n t e ra c t i o n ( B l a n to n a n d F e i n m a n , 1 98 4), a n d a f e w

app l i ca t i ons t o M es oamer i ca a r e ava i l ab l e ( e . g . , Fe i nman and N i cho l a s ,

1991a , b ; Fowler , 1989 , pp . 249-276) . O ther r e levant d i scuss ions on ex-

c h a n g e a n d i n t e r a c t i o n i n c l u d e t h o s e b y B r u m f i e l a n d E a r l e ( 1 9 8 7 ) a n d

Helms (1988) .

H O U S E H O L D S

H o u s e h o l d a r c h a e o l o g y is a h o t t o p i c a m o n g M e s o a m e r i c a n i st s , a n d

i t is r ece iv i ng i nc r easi ng a t t en t i on am on g A n dea n i s t s a s w e ll . A r ch aeo l og i s t s



New W orld om plex Societies 3

a c k n o w l e d g e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f th e h o u s e h o l d a s a s o ci al u n it i n a g r a ri a n

s o c ie t ie s , a n d t h e r e c e n t f o c u s o n h o u s e e x c a v a ti o n h e l p s t o c o u n t e r t h e

e l i te / c e r e m o n i a l b i a s t h a t c o n t i n u e s t o p l a g u e t h e a r c h a e o l o g y o f N e w

W o r l d c o m p l e x s o c ie t ie s . T h e e m p h a s i s o n t h e h o u s e a s a l e v e l o f a n a ly s is

h a s l e d t o a n e x p l o s i o n o f r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c h a p t e r s

e d i te d b y M a c E a c h e r n

e t a l .

( 1 9 8 9) , M a n z a n i l l a ( 1 9 8 6 ), S a n t l e y a n d H i r t h

( 1 9 9 3 ) , a n d W i l k a n d A s h m o r e ( 1 9 8 8 ) , l i s t e d u n d e r R e f e r e n c e s C i t e d , t h e

B i b l i o g ra p h y o f R e c e n t L i t e r a t u r e li st s o v e r 3 0 r e c e n t a r c h a e o l o g ic a l s t u d i es

o f h o u s e s .

C o u n t e r a c t i n g t h e b e n e f i t s o f l a rg e a m o u n t s o f n e w d a t a is a c o n c e p -

t u a l c o n f u s i o n a b o u t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s ig n i fi c a n c e o f h o u s e h o l d s a n d t h e i r

i d e n t i f ic a t i o n i n t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d . F e w a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s o f

h o u s e s c i t e c o m p a r a t i v e o r t h e o r e t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e o n h o u s e h o l d s a n d d o m e s -

t ic o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e r e is c o n s i d e r a b l e p o t e n t i a l h e r e f o r te s t in g s o c i a l m o d -

e l s w i t h t h e r e s u l t s o f h o u s e e x c a v a t i o n s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , m o s t h o u s e

e x c a v a t i o n i s c a r r i e d o u t w i th a n i n d u c t i v e a p p r o a c h , a n d i t a p p e a r s t h a t

m a n y s t u d i e s a r e d o n e s i m p l y b e c a u s e h o u s e s a r e c o n v e n i e n t c h u n k s o f

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d . L i t tl e th o u g h t i s g i v e n t o e x a c t ly h o w a h o u s e h o l d

( a s a s o c ia l u n it ) m a y b e i d e n t i f i e d a r c h a e o l o g i c a ll y , a n d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l

d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n a r t i f a c t s a n d b e h a v i o r , b e t w e e n d a t a a n d i n f e r e n c e , b e -

c o m e s b lu r r e d . T h u s s o m e a r c h a e o lo g i s ts c l ai m t o m a p a n d e x c a v a t e

h o u s e h o l d s ( e .g ., C a r m e a n , 1 99 1; S h e e t s

e t a l .

1 9 9 0 ) , w h e n i n f a c t t h e y

s t u d y h o u s e s ( a r t i f a c t s ) i n o r d e r t o i n f e r h o u s e h o l d s ( b e h a v i o r ) . S u c h i m -

p r e c i s e u s e o f te r m i n o l o g y o n l y c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e c o n c e p t u a l p r o b l e m s t h a t

n o w h o l d b a c k t h e a r c h a e o l o g y o f h o u s e s . O t h e r a r c h a e o l o g is t s a t t e m p t t o

a n a l y z e s o c i a l c h a n g e u s i n g e t h n o g r a p h i c m o d e l s s u c h a s t h e h o u s e h o l d

d e v e l o p m e n t a l c y c le w h e n s u c h g e n e r a t i o n - le n g t h s o ci al p r o c e s s e s c a n n o t

p o s s i b l y b e i s o l a t e d t e m p o r a l l y i n t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d g i v e n c e r a m i c

p h a s e s o f s e v e r a l h u n d r e d y e a r s ' d u r a t i o n ( e .g ., S h e e h y , 1 9 91 ; T o u r t e l l o t ,

1 9 88 ). S o m e o f t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t t im e a n d t e m p o r a l r e s o l u t i o n p o s e f o r

s o c ia l a r c h a e o l o g y a r e d i s c u s s e d b y B i n f o r d ( 1 9 8 6 ) a n d S m i t h ( 1 9 9 2 b ) .

T h e s e p r o b l e m s a r i s e i n p a r t f r o m o u r f a i l u r e t o i n c o r p o r a t e t h e a d -

v a n c e s o f t h e h o u s e h o l d a r c h a e o l o g y a p p r o a c h o f t h e e a r ly 19 80 s. R i c h -

a r d W i l k , W i l l i a m R a t h j e , a n d o t h e r s c a l l e d f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n

e x p li ci t a r c h a e o l o g y o f t h e h o u s e h o l d ( R a t h j e , 19 83 ; W i l k a n d R a t h j e ,

1 9 8 2 ), m o d e l e d a f t e r r e c e n t w o r k o n h o u s e h o l d s b y e t h n o l o g i s ts , h i s to r i a n s ,

and soc io log i s t s ( e .g . , Ne t t ing

e t a l .

1 9 8 4 ) . T h i s w a s t o b e a c o m p a r a t i v e

s o ci al a r c h a e o l o g y i n f o r m e d b y t h e o r y a n d c a r r ie d o u t w i t h a t t e n t io n t o

m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i s s u e s s u c h a s f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s e s ( S c h i f f e r , 1 9 8 7 ) a n d e t h -

n o a r c h a e o l o g y ( W i l k , 19 83 ). U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h is a p p r o a c h h a s y e t t o t a k e

h o l d ; a s a r e s u l t , m a n y s t u d i e s f a i l t o c o n s i d e r s u c h c r u c i a l m e t h o d o l o g i c a l

i s s u e s a s c u l t u r a l f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s e s ( e . g . , B r y a n t , 1 9 8 8 ; H e n d o n , 1 9 9 1 ) .



4 mi t h

A par t f rom t he shee r num ber o f house excava t i on p ro j ec t s , I s ee t w o

pos i t ive d i rec t ions in La t in Amer ican household s tud ies : research on soc ia l

i nequa li ty and e t hnoa rchaeo log i ca l re sea rch o n hou seho l d dynam i cs. Wea l t h

var i a t ion ha s im po r tan t socia l conseq uences , bo th be tw een and wi th in soc ia l

c l asses , and weal th l eve l s can be measured wi th a rchaeologica l da ta on do-

m est i c a rch i t ec ture an d a r ti fac ts (e.g ., Braudel , 1981; Ra th je and M cG ui re ,

1982; Sm i th , 1987b; Th om as a nd Rob bins , 1985 ) . S tudies meas ur ing the s ize,

cons t ruc t ion cos t s , and ornamenta t ion of res idences have been par t i cu la r ly

successfu l i n d oc um ent in g pa t t e rn s of inequa l ity and s t ra t if i ca tion wi th in se t-

t l eme nt s (Ab rams, 1989; Ca rme an, 1991; Evans , 198 8; H en do n, 1991; Joyce ,

1991; Smith, 1992a; Webster , 1989), and several s tudies have looked at ar t i -

f ac tua l and d i e ta ry m e asu re s o f i nequa li ty am ong houses (Cos ti n and Ea r l e ,

1989; Len tz , 1991; Sm ith, 1992a) . Ho us eh old s tud ies (e .g ., Eva ns, 1988; Sm ith

and Be rdan , 1992; W ebster , 1989) a l so cont r ibu te to a grow ing in t e res t in

e l it e dynamics and in t e rac t ion in the N ew W orld (Brum fie l and Ear l e , 1987;

Cu lbert , 1991b; Eva ns, 1991 ; H ay de n an d Ga rget t , 1 990; Pol lard, 1987).

A nu m be r o f i m pres s ive e t hnoa rch aeo l og i ca l s tud i e s add re s s i ng is sues

o f hou seho l d ana lys is have bee n ca r r i ed o u t i n r ecen t yea r s . Th e m os t com -

prehe ns i ve s t udy is the Cox oh M aya p ro j ec t d i r ec t ed by Br i an H ayden . Sev-

e r a l p u b l i c a t i o n s f r o m t h i s p r o j e c t h a v e a p p e a r e d r e c e n t l y ( L e e a n d

Ha yd en , 1988; H ayd en , 1987; Ne l son , 1991) , adding to prev ious ly pub l i shed

w o rk by H a yde n and C an no n (1983 , 1984) and D ea l (1983). A no t he r no -

t a b le g r o u p o f r e l a te d p r o j e c ts o n l ow l a n d M e s o a m e r i c a n c o m m u n i t ie s h a s

b e e n c a r r i e d o u t b y s t u d e n t s o f R o b e r t S a n t l e y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N e w

Mexico . These pro jec t s , i n f luenced by Lewis Binford ' s (1982) v i ews on s i t e

s t ruc t u re and spa t i a l o rgan i za t i on , i nc l ude s t ud i e s o f ce ram i c p roduc t i on

and use (Arnold , 1988 , 1991) , s to rage behavior and fac i l i t i es (Smyth , 1990 ,

1991), and agricul tural pract ices (Ki l l ion, 1990).

H o u s e h o l d e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t i e s a r e r e c e i v i n g e t h n o a r c h a e o l o g i c a l

a t t e n t io n i n b o t h M e s o a m e r i c a ( L o k e r , 1 9 8 9 ; P a r s o n s, 1 9 9 3 ; P a r s o n s a n d

Par sons , 1990 ; Sug i u ra and Se r ra Puche , 1990) and t h e A nde s (H ag s t rum ,

1988; Moore , 1989) . A few smal l - sca le e thnoarchaeologica l i nves t iga t ions

o f h o u s i n g a n d h o u s e c o n s t r u c t i o n h a v e b e e n i m p l e m e n t e d ( M o o r e a n d

Ga sco , 1990; S iege l, 1990; Sm i th e t a l . 1992), and Di l lehay (1990) examines

t h e c o n s t r u c t io n a n d u s e o f m o n u m e n t s in t h e A n d e s . A n i n n ov a ti ve e t h -

noa rch aeo l og i ca l app roach t o hou seh o l d ana lys is is s i gna led by Ba rba and

Ort i z 's (1992) chem ica l ana lyses of mo de rn l iv ing a reas . Unf or tu na te ly , few

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s o f h o u s e s a n d d o m e s t i c c o n t e x t s i n c o r p o r a t e t h e

f i nd i ngs o f t he se and o t he r e t hnoa rchaeo l og i ca l p ro j ec t s i n t o t he i r i n t e r -

p r e t i v e f r a m e w o r k . W i t h o u t t h e b e n e f i t s o f m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e m o d e l s f r o m

e t hnoa rchaeo l ogy , soc ia l t heo ry f rom com para t i ve w ork , and exp li ci t a t t en -



N e w W o r l d o m p l e x S o c i e ti e s 5

t io n t o f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s e s , h o u s e h o l d a r c h a e o l o g y w ill r e m a i n a n i n d u c t i v e

f i e l d l i k e o b s i d i a n e x c h a n g e s t u d i e s .

C I T IE S A N D U R B A N I S M

T h e a n c i e n t c i v i li z at io n s o f L a t i n A m e r i c a w e r e u r b a n s o c i e t ie s , y e t

s c h o l a rs c a n n o t s e e m t o a g r e e o n w h a t t h a t m e a n s . W i t h i n M e s o a m e r i c a n

a r c h a e o l o g y , t h e l o n g -s ta n d i n g d e b a t e b e t w e e n t h e d e m o g r a p h i c a n d t h e

f u n c t i o n a l v i ew s o f u r b a n i s m c o n t i n u e s ( B a l l a n d T a s c h e k , 1 99 1; C h a s e e t

a L

1990 ; Kowalewsk i , 1990 ; Marcus , 1983a ; Sander s and San t l ey , 1983 ;

S a n d e r s a n d W e b s t e r , 1 9 88 ; S m i t h , 1 9 8 9 ), a l t h o u g h n o n e o f t h e s e s c h o l a r s

h a v e p r e s e n t e d a c o m p r e h e n s i v e c o m p a r a t i v e a n al y si s o f M e s o a m e r i c a n u r -

b a n c e n t e r s [ M a r c u s ( 1 9 8 3 a ) c o m e s c l o s e s t ] . I n S o u t h A m e r i c a , e x p l i c i t d i s -

c u s s i o n s o f u r b a n i s m a s a p r o c e s s a r e m u c h r a r e r ( s e e K o l a t a , 1 9 90 ;

S i lv e r m a n , 1 9 88 ); in fa c t, t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t r e c e n t t r e a t m e n t o f A n d e a n

c i ti e s a n d t o w n s a v o i d s e x p li c it d i s c u s si o n o f u r b a n i s m e n t ir e ly : T h e w o r d s

c i t y a n d u r b a n a r e u s u a l ly a v o i d e d i n th is b o o k b e c a u s e o f th e d i v e rs e m e a n -

i n g s t h a t h a v e a c c r u e d t o t h e m i n s p e c i a li z e d l i te r a t u r e ( H y s l o p , 19 90 , p .

xii).

A s i n t h e c a s e o f h o u s e h o l d a r c h a e o l o g y , t h e c o n c e p t u a l p r o b l e m s

s u r r o u n d i n g a n c i e n t u r b a n i s m h a v e n o t p r e v e n t e d a n e x p l os io n o f f i e ld w o r k

o n u r b a n c e n t e rs . I n M e s o a m e r i c a , f i el d w o r k a n d a n a l y si s p r o j e c t s c o n t i n u e

a t c i t i e s s u c h a s C a r a c o l , C o p a n , D o s P i l a s , H u e x o t l a , M i r a d o r , N o h m u l ,

O t u m b a , R i o A z u l , S a yi l, T e o t i h u a c a n , T u l a , T z i n t z u n t z a n , X a l t o c a n ,

X o c h i c a l c o , X u n a n t u n i c h , Y a u t e p e c , a n d Y a x u n a . I n S o u t h A m e r i c a , r e -

c e n t p r o j e c t s w e r e c o n d u c t e d a t C a h u a c h i , C e r r o A z u l , C h a n C h a n , P a c a t -

n a m u , T i w a n a k u , a n d W a r i a n d a t n u m e r o u s I n k a c e n t e r s d e s c r i b e d b y

H y s l o p ( 1 9 9 0) . T h e B i b l i o g r a p h y o f R e c e n t L i t e r a t u r e i n c lu d e s s e l e c te d

c i t a t i o n s f o r t h e s e s i t e s , a n d m o r e e x t e n s i v e b i b l i o g r a p h i e s w i l l b e s u p p l i e d

in the r eg iona l a r t i c l e s in th i s jou rna l .

T w o n o t a b l e t o p i c s o f a c t iv e r e s e a r c h a r e t h e r e g i o n a l c o n t e x t o f c i ti e s

a n d u r b a n f u n c ti o n s . O n e o f th e b e s t e x a m p l e s o f th e r e g i o n a l a p p r o a c h

is th e s u r v e y r e s e a r c h in t h e V a l le y o f O a x a c a . T h e V a l l e y o f O a x a c a

S e t t l e m e n t P a t t e r n P r o j e c t ( K o w a l e w s k i e t a l . 1 9 8 9 ) i s n o t e w o r t h y f o r i t s

e x p li c it th e o r e t i c a l a p p r o a c h t o u r b a n i s m a n d r e g i o n a l a n a l y s is a n d t h e h i g h

q u a l i ty o f i ts d a t a p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d a n a ly s is [ a l th o u g h s e e O ' B r i e n a n d

L e w a r c h ( 1 9 9 2 ) f o r a c r i ti q u e o f f i e l d w o r k a n d a n a l y t ic a l m e t h o d s ] . A u s e -

f u l s y n t h e t i c a r t i c l e r e v i e w s t h e O a x a c a s u r v e y r e s u l t s a s t h e y r e l a t e t o

u r b a n i s m i n a r e g i o n a l f r a m e w o r k ( K o w a l e w s k i , 1 9 9 0 ) . O t h e r n o t a b l e s t u d -

i e s o f t h e r e g i o n a l c o n t e x t o f c i ti e s in c l u d e K o l a t a ' s ( 1 98 6 , 1 9 9 1 ) r e s e a r c h

o n T i w a n a k u ' s a g r ic u l tu r a l b a s e a n d t h e s u r v e y w o r k o f t h e P r o y e c t o



6 m i t h

A r q u e o l 6 g i c o C o p ~ n ( W e b s t e r a n d G o n l i n , 1 9 8 8 ; W e b s t e r a n d F r e t e r ,

1 9 9 0 ) . T h e w o r k o n C l a s s i c l o w l a n d M a y a i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e a n d r e g i o n a l

d e m o g r a p h y c i t e d a b o v e is v e r y r e le v a n t f o r s t u d ie s o f t h e r e g i o n a l c o n t e x t

o f M a y a c i ti e s, b u t t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p h a s y e t t o r e c e i v e m u c h e x p l i c it an a ly s is .

T h e f u n c t i o n s o f u r b a n c e n t e r s, i n t h e s e n s e o f u r b a n i n s ti tu t io n s a n d

a c ti v it ie s t h a t w e r e s ig n if ic a n t f o r p o p u l a t i o n s i n b o t h u r b a n a n d h i n t e r l a n d

a r e a s, h a v e b e e n a t o p i c o f ac ti v e re s e a r c h , p a r ti c u la r ly f o r A z t e c a n d M a y a

c i ti e s. I n t h e A z t e c c a s e , o n e l i n e o f r e s e a r c h f o c u s e s o n t h e r i tu a l a n d

c o s m o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n o f th e i m p e r i a l c a p it al T e n o c h t i t la n ( A v e n i e t a l .

1 9 8 8 ; B r o d a e t a l . 1 9 8 7 ; C a r r a s c o , 1 9 9 0 ; M a t o s M o c t e z u m a , 1 9 8 8 ) , a n d

a n o t h e r a p p r o a c h d e a l s w i t h t h e e x t e n t a n d s i g n if ic a n c e o f c r a ft p r o d u c t i o n

i n s m a l l e r A z t e c c it ie s . E l i z a b e t h B r u m f i e l ( 1 9 87 ) a r g u e s f o r a l o w le v e l o f

u t i l i t a r i a n c r a f t p r o d u c t i o n i n c i t i e s , b a s e d u p o n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a f r o m

H u e x o t l a a n d e t h n o h is t o ry , w h i le T h o m a s C h a r l t o n , D e b o r a h N i c ho ls , a n d

C y n t h i a O t i s C h a r l t o n ( C h a r l t o n e t a l . 1 9 9 1 ; N i c h o l s , 1 9 9 3 ; O t i s C h a r l t o n ,

1 9 9 3 ) r e p o r t e x t e n s i v e w o r k s h o p p r o d u c t i o n a t O t u m b a . I t i s n o t y e t c l e a r

w h e t h e r t h i s d i s c r e p a n c y d e r i v e s f r o m d i f f e r i n g f i e l d m e t h o d s o r r e g i o n a l

v a r i a ti o n i n A z t e c c i ti es ; c o n t i n u i n g f ie l d w o r k a t O t u m b a , X a l t o c a n ( B r u m -

f i e l ) , C h a l c o ( H o d g e ) , a n d Y a u t e p e c ( S m i t h ) s h o u l d h e l p c l a r i f y t h e s i t u -

a t i o n .

I n t h e p a r a l l e l c a s e o f C l as s ic M a y a c i t ie s , a n u m b e r o f s c h o l a r s a r g u e

f o r a l o w le v e l o f u r b a n u t i li t a r ia n c r a f t p r o d u c t i o n ( B a l l a n d T a s c h e k , 1 99 1;

S a n d e r s a n d W e b s t e r , 1 9 88 ), li n k in g th i s p a t t e r n t o R . G . F o x s m o d e l

( 1 9 7 7 ) o f t h e r e g a l - r i t u a l c i t y . T h e p o l i t i c a l f u n c t i o n o f M a y a c i t i e s i s a

t o p i c o f re s e a r c h a n d d e b a t e b y e p i g r a p h e r s a n d a r c h a e o lo g i st s ; th i s i ss u e

is d is c u s s e d b e l o w . O t h e r M e s o a m e r i c a n c i ti es e x h ib i t a r a n g e o f v a r i a ti o n

i n t h e e x t e n t a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f c r a f t p r o d u c t i o n ( e . g . , S a n t l e y e t a l . 1989;

H i r t h , 1 99 3; W i d m e r , 1 9 91 ), m a k i n g g e n e r a l iz a t i o n s p r e m a t u r e .

A n o t h e r t o p i c r e c e iv i n g a t te n t i o n i s u r b a n p l a n n i n g a n d l a y o u t, a l-

t h o u g h c o m p r e h e n s i v e s tu d i e s a re r a re . I m p o r t a n t r e c e n t s t u d ie s in c l u d e

B l a n t o n s ( 1 9 8 9 ) a n a ly s is o f a r c h i t e c t u r a l f o r m a l i ty in O a x a c a , f o c u s i n g o n

t h e s p a t i a l e x p r e s si o n o f p o w e r a n d c o n t r o l, A s h m o r e s ( 19 9 1) c o n s i d e r a -

t i o n o f t h e r o l e o f M a y a c o s m o l o g y i n a r c h it e c tu r a l p l a n n i n g a t C o p a n ,

C h a r l t o n s ( 19 9 1 ) d i sc u s s io n o f t h e e x p r e s s io n o f T e o t i h u a c a n s p r i n c ip l e s

o f c i ty p l a n n i n g a t o t h e r C l as s ic s it e s i n c e n t r a l M e x i c o , a n d A r a n c 6 n

G a r c f a s ( 1 99 2 ) a n a l ys is o f M e s o a m e r i c a n p la z a s. H y s l o p s ( 19 9 0 ) c o m p r e -

h e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t o f I n k a s e t t l e m e n t s a n a l y z e s u ti li ta r ia n , p o l it ic a l, a n d

s y m b o l i c a s p e c t s o f si te p l a n n i n g u s i n g b o t h a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n d e t h n o h i s -

t o r i c d a t a ( s e e a l s o A g u r t o C a l v o , 1 9 8 7 ) . A r c h a e o a s t r o n o m e r s c o n t i n u e t o

f i n d a s t r o n o m i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i n s i t e l o c a t i o n s , o r i e n t a t i o n s , a n d l a y o u t s

( A v e n i , 1 9 9 1 ; A v e n i e t a l . 1 98 8; A v e n i a n d H a r t u n g , 1 98 7; C a r r a s c o , 1 9 90 ;

H y s l o p , 1 9 9 0 ; Z u i d e m a , 1 9 9 0 ) .



N e w W o r l d C o m p l e x S o c i e t ie s 7

HIEFDOMS

C h i e f d o m s h a v e b e c o m e b ig b u s in e s s in N e w W o r l d a r c h a e o l o g y d u r -

i ng t he pas t d eca de . E ve r yb ody is t a l k ing abo u t c h i e f dom s and s eve r a l sig -

n i fi c a n t a n th o l o g i e s h a v e a p p e a r e d r e c e n t l y ( B a r k e r a n d P a u k e t a t , 1 9 92 ;

D r en na n and U r i b e , 1987 ; E a r l e , 1991a ; L ange , 1992). A cyn i ca l exp l ana -

t i on f o r t he exp l os i on o f i n t e r e s t w ou l d be t ha t t h i s i s ano t he r man i f e s t a -

t i o n s o f a w i d e r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n f a t u a t i o n w i t h s o c i al c o m p l e x i t y .

A r c h a e o l o g i s ts h a v e d e c i d e d t h a t c o m p l e x it y is a g o o d t h in g a n d s h o u l d

no t be l i m i t ed t o s t a t e s . T hey a r e t he r e f o r e t r y i ng t o pus h i t f a r t he r back

i n t o t he pa s t an d m ove i t dow n t he e vo l u t i ona r y s ca l e (e .g ., L i gh t f oo t and

U pham, 1989) , even t o i nc l ude hun t e r / ga t he r e r s ( P r i ce and B r ow n , 1985 ) .

A m o r e p o s it iv e a n d h o p e f u l ly m o r e a c c u r a t e e x p l a n a ti o n f o r c h i e f d o m f e -

ve r i s t ha t i t s i gna l s an e s cape f r om t he ea r l i e r s i mp l i s t i c compar a t i ve and

t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k p r o v id e d b y e t h n o g r a p h i c a n d e t h n o h i s t o r i c an a l og y .

T h e r e is si mp l y m or e s oci al va r i a t i on in t he a r chaeo l og i ca l r eco r d t h an p r i o r

evo l u t i ona r y mode l s pos i t ed .

T h e S c h o o l o f A m e r i c a n R e s e a r c h 1988 a d v a n c e d s e m i n a r o n

ch i e f doms ( E a r l e , 1991a ) s i gna l ed a ma j o r concep t ua l and emp i r i ca l ad -

v a n c e i n c h i e f d o m s t u d i e s . A s s u m m a r i z e d b y E a r l e ( 1 9 9 1 b ) , c h i e f d o m s

w e r e d i s cus sed i n t e r m s o f s i mp l e v s. compl ex o r gan i za t i on , s t ap l e v s. w e a l t h

f i nance , and g r oup - o r i en t ed v s . i nd i v i dua l i z i ng o r i en t a t i ons . I mpor t an t i s -

s u e s r e c e iv i n g a tt e n t i o n i n c lu d e d t h e r o le o f p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h i n c h i e f d o m

evo l u t i on , t he po l i t i c a l s t r a t eg i e s o f ch i e f s , and t he r e l a t i ve i mpor t ance o f

e c o n o m i c s , id e o lo g y , a n d w a r f a r e a s t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f c h ie f ly p o w e r a n d

con t r o l . In add i t i on t o t ha t by E a r l e ( 1991b), o t h e r i m por t an t t heo r e t i ca l

w o r ks on ch i e f dom s i nc l ude t hos e by D r e nn an (1987, 1991), E a r l e ( 1987 ),

J o h n s o n a n d E a r l e ( 19 8 7) , a n d M a r c u s (1 9 89 a) . A n u m b e r o f r e c e n t c a se

s t u d ie s o f a n c i e n t L a t i n A m e r i c a n c h i e f d o m s a r e l is te d i n t h e B i b li o g ra p h y

o f R e c e n t L i t e r a t u r e . S o m e o f t h e s p ec if ic is su e s th a t h a v e r e c e i v e d t r e a t -

men t i nc l ude t r ade ( K i pp and Scho r t man , 1989 ) , w ea l t h ( L ange , 1992 ) ,

monumen t bu i l d i ng ( D i l l ehay , 1990 ; R oos eve l t , 1991 ) , and c l a s s i f i ca t i on

( C r ea m er and H aa s , 1985 ; E a r l e , 1991b).

T h e e a r ly ( p r e c e r a m i c ) a p p e a r a n c e o f so c ia l c o m p l e x i ty o n t h e P e r u -

v i a n c o a s t h a s b e e n a t o p i c f o r d e b a t e f o r n e a r l y t w o d e c a d e s , w i t h o n e

s i de a r gu i ng f o r nonag r i cu l t u r a l compl ex s oc i e t y ( M os e l ey , 1975 ) and t he

o t h e r s t r e ss ing t he i m por t a nce o f ea r l y cu l t igens ( W i ls on , 1981 ). T h e deb a t e

i s n o w f r a m e d i n c h i e f d o m t e r m s , w i t h F e l d m a n ( 1 9 8 7 ) a r g u i n g f o r n o n -

ag r i cu l t u r a l ch i e f doms , a v i ew ques t i oned by Q u i l t e r ( 1991 ) . R ecen t f i e l d -

w o r k b y t h e N e w W o r l d A r c h a e o l o g i c a l F o u n d a t i o n i n S o c o n u s c o h a s

un co ve r ed poss i b le ev i dence f o r a pa r a l le l s i tua t i on i n M e s oam er i ca : ea r l y

c h i e f d o m s o c i e t i e s w i t h a p r e d o m i n a n t l y m a r i n e - b a s e d s u b s i s t e n c e . L a r g e



8 S m i t h

h o u s e s a n d a d i f fe r e n t ia l d i st ri b u ti o n o f t r a d e i te m s a n d o r n a m e n t s a t P a s o

d e l a A m a d a a n d o t h e r E a r l y F o r m a t i v e s it es l e a d B l a k e ( 1 99 1 ) a n d C l a rk

( 19 9 1) t o i n f e r t h a t t h e s e w e r e t h e s e a t s o f c h i e f d o m s ( s e e a l so B l a k e a n d

Fe dd em a , 1991). S t ab l e i s o t ope ana ly s is o f hu m an b on e s ugges t s t ha t t he s e

c h i e f d o m s ev o l v e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a l ar g e ly h u n t i n g -f i sh i n g - g a th e r i n g

e c o n o m y , w i t h o n ly m i n o r r e l i a n c e o n m a i z e , b e a n s , a n d o t h e r c u l t i g e n s

( B l ake e t a l . 1992, pp . 91-92) . As in the case of coas ta l Peru , i t i s poss ib le

t ha t t he s e i n t e r p r e t a t i ons w i l l be cha l l enged by s cho l a r s w ho r e s i s t t he no -

t i on o f ea r l y compl ex i t y . I n t he A mazon bas i n , a s i mi l a r l ong - s t and i ng de -

b a t e h a s n o w t i p p e d t o w a r d t h e s i de o f e a rl y c o m p l e x i ty t h r o u g h t h e

a p p l ic a t io n o f a p r o g r a m o f g eo p h y s ic a l a r c h a e o l o g y c o o r d i n a t e d b y A n n a

R o o s e v e l t ( 1 9 9 1 ) . T h i s p r o j e c t p r o v i d e s o n e o f t h e b e s t e x a m p l e s o f t h e

us e o f new s c i en t i f i c f i e l d me t hods w i t h i n an exp l i c i t , p r ob l em- o r i en t ed ,

r e s e a r c h d es ig n ; t hi s is t h e o p p o si te o f t h e l a w o f t h e h a m m e r a p p r o a c h

t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s s o m u c h o f t h e f i e l d o f a r c h a e o m e t r y .

S T A T E -L E V E L P O L I T I E S

I n r e c e n t r e s e a r c h o n a n c i e n t N e w W o r l d s t a t e s , t w o m a j o r i s s u e s

s t and o u t : t he s ize and s ca l e o f po li ti e s and t he n a t u r e o f em p i r e s . T h e

f o r m er i s s ue is r a i s ed a l mo s t exc lu s ive l y f o r M es oa m er i ca , w h i l e t he l a t t e r

i ss u e h a s b e e n a d d r e s s e d m o r e f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e A n d e s . I n M e s o a m e r i c a n

s tud i e s , l a rge t e r r i to r i a l s t a t e s have l o s t f avo r and m os t s cho l a r s now a r g ue

f o r t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s m a l l p o l i t i e s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e A z t e c e m p i r e d o e s

no t s eem as mono l i t h i c o r a s pow er f u l a s ea r l i e r s cho l a r s s ugges t ed , and

cu r r en t a r chaeo l og i ca l and e t hnoh i s t o r i c r e s ea r ch i s r evea l i ng t he po l i t i c a l

a n d e c o n o m i c i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e m a n y s m a l l c i t y - s t a t e s t h a t c o n t i n u e d i n

e x i s te n c e u n d e r a n i m p e r i a l v e n e e r ( S m i t h a n d H o d g e , 1 99 3). R e c e n t s t u d -

i e s o f A z t ec c i t y -s t a te s inc l ude t ho s e b y B r um f i e l (1987 ), C ha r l t on ( 1993 ),

C h a r l t o n

e t a L

( 1 9 9 1 ) , H i c k s ( 1 9 9 2 ) , H o d g e ( 1 9 9 3 ) , H o d g e a n d M i n c

(1990) , N ichol s (1993) , Schroeder (1991) , and Smi th (1993) .

T he s i ze and s ca l e o f po l i t i e s a r e among t he mos t ac t i ve r e s ea r ch

i ss ues f o r C l a ss ic M aya c iv i li za ti on, and bo t h a r chaeo l og i s t s and ep i g r ap he r s

a r e i n v o lv e d in a n u m b e r o f d e b a t e s in t hi s a re a . T h e e p i g r a p h ic e v i d e n c e

is s u m m a r i z e d i n t h e c h a p t e r s e d i t e d b y C u l b e r t ( 19 9 1 b) . M a n y e p i g r a p h e r s

be l i eve t ha t s i t e s pos s e s s i ng emb l em g l yphs [ s i t e i den t i f i e r s ( s ee M a t hew s ,

1991)] w e r e i n de pe nd en t po l it ie s , in w h i ch ca s e t he l ow l and M aya a r ea w as

d i v i ded in t o m an y t iny s t a t e s ( H ous t o n , 1989 ; M a t hew s , 1991). A n um be r

o f a r c h a e o l o g i st s d is a g r e e , h o w e v e r , a r g u in g f r o m e p i g r a p h y a n d a r c h a e o l -

o g y f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a s m a l le r n u m b e r o f l a r g e r e g i o n a l s ta t e s ( C u l b e r t ,

1991a; Marcus , 1976 , 1983b) . Nei ther s ide has ye t to cons t ruc t , l e t a lone



N e w W o r l d o m p l e x S o c i e ti e s

9

t es t , s p e c if ic m a t e r ia l c u l t u r e m o d e l s o f th e t w o c o n t r a s t in g f o r m s o f p o -

li t ic a l o r g a n i z a ti o n . A s ta r t w o u l d b e R e n f r e w ' s X - T E N T s p a ti a l m o d e l ,

w h i c h w a s d e s i g n e d t o i n v e s ti g a te j u s t th i s ty p e o f s i tu a t i o n ( R e n f r e w a n d

L e v e l , 1 9 7 9 ; C h e r r y , 1 9 8 7 ) .

T h e r e i s n o l a c k o f c o m p a r a t i v e p o l i t i c a l m o d e l s f o r C l a s s i c M a y a

s o c ie ty . A d a m s a n d S m i t h ( 19 8 1) p r o p o s e d a n e x p li ci t f e u d a l m o d e l f o r t h e

M a y a , b u t m o s t s c h o l a r s t o d a y f e e l c o m p e l l e d t o c r i t i c i z e t h i s m o d e l ( B a l l

a n d T a s c h e k , 1 9 9 1 ; C u l b e r t , 1 9 9 1 a ; H a m m o n d , 1 9 9 1 ; M a r c u s , 1 9 8 3 b , 1 9 8 9 b ;

S a b l o f f e t a L 1 9 8 7) . W h i l e t h e r e is l it tl e d o u b t t h a t t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o f E u r o -

p e a n f e u d a l i s m d o n o t f i t t h e C l a s s i c M a y a , I f i n d t h a t f e u d a l i s m , a s a

w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d e x a m p l e o f a d e c e n t r a l i z e d p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m , p r o v i d e s i n -

s i g h t i n t o a n c i e n t N e w W o r l d s t a t e s o n a m o r e g e n e r a l l e v e l ; t h u s t h e s e

c r i t iq u e s m a y b e t h r o w i n g o u t t h e b a b y w i th t h e b a t h w a t e r . R e n f r e w a n d

C h e r r y ' s ( 1 9 8 6 ) p e e r - p o l i ty i n t e r a c t i o n m o d e l h a s b e e n d i s c u s s e d v e r y b r ie f ly

b u t n o t a p p l i e d s y s t e m a t i c a ll y t o t h e d a t a ( F r e i d e l , 1 9 86 ; H a m m o n d , 1 9 91 ;

S a b l o f f, 1 9 8 6) . R . N . A d a m s ' ( 1 9 7 5 ) s i m i la r b u t m o r e i n c lu s iv e

m o d e l o f

p o w e r a n d i n t e r a c t i o n h a s b e e n a p p l i e d b y J o y c e ( 19 9 1) t o t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n

M a y a p e r i p h e r y . A f e w sc h o l a rs h a v e m e n t i o n e d T a m b i a h ' s ( 1 9 7 7) galac t i c

p o l i t y m o d e l a s a p o s s i b l e a n a l o g u e f o r t h e M a y a ( B a l l a n d T a s c h e k , 1 9 9 1 ;

H a m m o n d , 1 9 9 1 ) .

B y f a r t h e m o s t e x t e n s i v e l y d i s c u s s e d m o d e l ( a m o n g a r c h a e o l o g i s t s )

i s t h e s e g m e n t a r y s t a t e m o d e l f r o m A f ri c an e t h n o g r a p h y , w h i c h h a s b e c o m e

s o m e t h i n g o f a f a d l a t e l y ( B a l l a n d T a s c h e k , 1 9 9 1 ; d e M o n t m o l l i n , 1 9 8 9 ;

D u n h a m , 1 9 9 0 ; F o x , 1 9 8 7 , 1 9 8 9 ; H o u s t o n , 1 9 8 9 ; S a n d e r s , 1 9 8 9 ) . T h e city-

s t a t e co n cep t w h i c h I b e l ie v e m a y b e t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e m o d e l fo r t h e

C l a s s i c M a y a , h a s n o t y e t b e e n a p p l i e d i n a d e t a i l e d f a s h i o n b y a r c h a e o l o -

g is ts o r e p i g r a p h e r s ( a l t h o u g h s e e M a r c u s , 1 98 9b ; H a m m o n d , 1 9 91 ). O t h e r

s c h o l a r s p r e s e n t p o l i t i c a l m o d e l s t h a t d o n o t f i t e a s i l y i n o n e o f t h e a b o v e

c a t e g o r i e s ( e . g . , B o e h m d e L a m e i r a s , 1 9 8 6 ; d e M o n t m o l l i n , 1 9 8 9 ) .

W h i le t h e u s e o f th e o r e t i c a l a n d c o m p a r a t i v e m o d e l s i s a p o s it iv e

s ig n , n o t o n e o f t h e s e m o d e l s h a s b e e n f u ll y o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d i n a r c h a e -

o l o g i c a l t e r m s . N e a r l y a l l o f t h e a r g u m e n t s f o r a n d a g a i n s t t h e s e m o d e l s

r e s t u p o n a s s e r t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n e x p l i c i t q u a n t i t a t i v e c o m p a r i s o n s o f a r -

c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a . T h e i m p r e s s io n i s ti c a n d s p e c u la t iv e t o n e o f a r c h a e o l o g i -

c a l d i s c u s s io n s o f so c i a l m o d e l s f o r M a y a p o l i ti e s is i n d a n g e r o f d i s c r e d i ti n g

t h e w h o l e s o c i a l a p p r o a c h , s in c e t h e s t r o n g h i s to r ic a l t e n d e n c y t o w a r d p a r -

t i c u l a r i s t i c , a n t i - t h e o r e t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s i n M a y a a r c h a e o l o g y ( f o r c o m m e n t

s e e D r e n n a n , 1 9 8 0 ; M a r c u s , 1 9 8 3 b ) s t i l l r e m a i n s a p o w e r f u l s t r a i n i n t h e

f i e l d t o d ay ( e .g . , Sh a re r , 1 9 9 1 , p . 1 9 6 ) .

S o u t h A m e r i c a n e m p i r e s a n d i m p e r ia l i sm h a v e r e c e iv e d c o n s i d e ra b l e

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a t t e n t i o n i n r e c e n t y e a r s . S t u d i e s h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d o n

t h e W a r i ( I s b e l l a n d M c E w a n , 1 9 9 1 ; M c E w a n , 1 9 8 7 , 1 9 9 0 ; S c h r e i b e r , 1 9 8 7 a ,



N e w W o r ld o m p l e x S o c i e ti e s

2

Cher ry , 1992) , a s i tua t ion which l imi t s the i r exp lana tory power and usefu l -

nes s bey on d a n a r r ow geog r aph i ca l focus [ s ee B l an t o n (1993) f o r a s i gni fi -

can t excep t i on ] .

D I S C U S S I O N

N ear l y a l l o f t he t op i c s cove r ed i n t h i s r ev i ew a r e i n des pe r a t e need

o f s yn t hes i s and t heo r e t i ca l ana l y s i s . A r chaeo l og i s t s s t udy i ng t he compl ex

s oc i e t i e s o f t he N ew W or l d a r e l ong on da t a bu t s ho r t on ve r i f i ab l e exp l a -

na t i ons . T h e r e a r e t heo r e t i ca l m ode l s w a i t ing to be app l i ed , bu t a r cha e -

o l og i s t s need t o ope r a t i ona l i ze t he s e mode l s i n ma t e r i a l t e r ms be f o r e r ea l

p r o g r e s s c a n b e m a d e . F o r t u n a t e l y , m u c h o f t h e e x is ti ng d a t a c a n b e m a d e

t o y i e l d new i n s igh t s t h r ou gh s ys t ema t i c com par a t i ve ana ly s is . Fo r exam pl e ,

quan t i t a t i ve d i s t ance mode l s can be app l i ed t o obs i d i an s ou r c i ng r e s u l t s ,

po l i t i e s can be ana l yzed i n s pa t i a l t e r ms , and t he accumul a t i on o f hous e

p l ans i n man y a r eas can be s u b j ec t ed to s pat ia l, ene r ge t i c , and dem ogr a ph i c

ana l y ses . N eve r t he l e s s , w e s hou l d n o t l o s e s igh t o f t he i m por t an ce o f p r ob -

l em o r i en t a t i on i n a r chaeo l og i ca l r e s ea r ch des i gn . D a t a co l l ec t ed t o ans w er

a pa r t i cu l a r qu es t i on can no t neces s a r il y be u s ed e f f ic i en t ly t o a dd r e s s d i f -

f e r en t ques t i ons . T h i s i s an e l emen t a r y p r ecep t o f s c i en t i f i c me t hodo l ogy ,

ye t a s Sab l o f f

e t a l .

(1987) a rgue , La t in Amer ican i s t s s t i l l need to be r e -

m i n d e d o f i t s i m p o r t a n c e .

T o o m u c h o f L a t in A m e r i c a n a r c h a e o l o g y is c a r ri e d o u t f o ll o w in g a

t r ad i t i ona l s t and a r d i ze d m e t ho do l og y t ha t is app l i ed t o s i te s o r r eg i ons

w i t h o u t m u c h c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h o b j e c t i v e s ( f o r c o m m e n t

see M arcu s , 1983b; Pa t t e r so n , 1986; Ro oseve l t , 1991 , pp . 19-125) . F or ex-

amp l e , B l ack s (1990) h i s to r ica l ana l y si s s how s t ha t m any o f t he m e t ho ds

a n d a p p r o a c h e s c o n s i d e r e d s t a n d a r d i n M a y a a r c h a e o l o g y t o d a y d a t e b a c k

t o f i e l d w o r k a t U axa c t un i n t he 1920s and 1930s, a l t hou gh t he o r i e s , goa ls ,

and p r ob l em s ha ve ch ang ed r ad i ca ll y s ince t ha t t ime . R oo s eve l t s ( 1991 )

c al l f o r m o r e s o p h is t ic a t e d m e t h o d s i n A m a z o n i a n a r c h a e o l o g y a pp l ie s t o

a ll o f L a t i n A m er i ca . R an do m s ampl i ng is t oo r a r e l y app li ed , s it e f o r ma t i on

p r oces s e s a r e t r ea t e d i mpr es si on is ti ca ll y i f a t a ll, geoa r chaeo l og i ca l me t h od s

a r e n o t a b l e f o r t h e i r a b s e n c e in m o s t a re a s , a n d a r c h a e o m e t r i c t e c h n i q u e s

are appl i ed oppor tun i s t i ca l ly , as a f t e r thoughts .

Never the les s , a l l o f the t echnica l and sc ien t i f i c sophi s t i ca t ion in the

w or l d w ill no t he l p ve r y muc h i n t he abs ence o f ade qu a t e r e s ea r c h desi gns.

A r ch aeo l og i s t s m us t deve l op and app l y a r chaeo l og i ca ll y t e s t ab l e mo de l s o f

t he s oc ia l and cu l t u r a l p r oces s e s w e w i sh t o s t udy ( B i n f o r d , 1986 ; D r en na n ,

1980; F lanne ry , 1 976; Sab lof f e t a l . 1987) . We need expl ic i t mater i a l cu l tu re

m o d e l s o f p h e n o m e n a a t a ll le v els , f r o m m e a l p r e p a r a t i o n t h r o u g h e m p i r e



2 2

m i t h

e x p a n s i o n . T h e e t h n o a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s r e v ie w e d a b o v e a r e p a r t i c u la r ly

i m p o r t a n t i n t h i s r e g a r d , s i n c e m o s t w e r e d e s i g n e d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o g a t h e r

i n f o r m a t i o n o n t o p i c s i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f c o m p l e x s o c i e t i e s . S t r i c t l y a r c h a e -

o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s t h a t p r e s e n t u s e f u l m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e m o d e l s i n c l u d e t h o s e

b y A b r a m s ( 1 9 8 9 ) , B r u m f i e l (1 9 9 1 ), C l a r k ( 1 9 8 9 ), C o s t i n ( 1 9 9 1 ) , C o s t i n

a n d E a r l e ( 1 9 8 9 ) , d e M o n t m o l l i n ( 1 9 8 9 ) , S m i t h ( 1 9 8 7 b ) , a n d S t a r k ( 1 9 9 0 ) .

W h e n o u r c o n c e p t u a l a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l s o p h is t i c at io n b e g in s to c a t c h u p

w i t h o u r i m p r e s s iv e e m p i r ic a l r e s u lt s , a r c h a e o l o g y s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e u n -

d e r s t a n d i n g a n d e x p l a n a t i o n o f th e a n c i e n t c o m p l e x so c i e ti e s o f t h e N e w

W o r l d w i l l i n c r e a s e d r a m a t i c a l l y .

A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S

I w o u l d l ik e t o t h a n k t h e f o l lo w i n g p e r s o n s f o r r e s p o n d i n g t o m y r e -

q u e s t f o r re p r i n t s a n d p a p e r s u s e d i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h is ar t i c le :

M i c h a e l B l a k e , T o m D i l l e h a y , G a r y F e i n m a n , A l a n K o l a t a , H e l a i n e S i l v e r -

m a n , a n d C h a r l e s S t a n i s h . I a m a l s o g r a t e f u l f o r u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n a n d

s u g g e s t i o n s f r o m W e n d y A s h m o r e , T i m o t h y E a r l e , C l a r k E r i c k s o n , D o n

R i c e , S i l v i a S a l g a d o , a n d G i l S t e i n . G a r y F e i n m a n , C y n t h i a H e a t h - S m i t h ,

P a t r ic i a M c A n a n y , Jo y c e M a r c u s , a n d T h e o d o r e P e f ia p r o v i d e d h e l p f u l

c o m m e n t s o n a n e a r ly d ra f t . I th a n k t h e s t u d e n t s in m y g r a d u a t e s e m i n a r

o n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h d e s i g n ( F a ll , 1 9 9 1) fo r d is c u s s i o n s t h a t h e l p e d

c l ar if y m y t h i n k i n g o n s o m e o f t h e i s su e s d i s c u s s e d i n th i s a r ti c le . C y n t h i a

H e a t h - S m i t h s e d i ti n g c o n t r i b u te d g r e at ly t o t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f m y p r o s e .

R E F E R E N C E S C I T E D

A b r a m s , E . M . 1 9 8 9 ). A r c h i t e c t u r e a n d e n e r g y : A n e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r s p e c ti v e . I n S c h i ff e r, M .

B . ed . ) , Archaeological Method and Theory Vol. 1 U n i v e r s i t y o f A r i z o n a P r e s s, T u c s o n ,

p p . 4 7 - 8 6 .

A d a m s , R . E . W . , a n d S m i th , W . P . 1 9 8 1 ). F e u d a l m o d e l s f o r C l a ss ic M a y a s e t tl e m e n t s . I n

A s h m o r e , W . e d .) , Lowland Maya Settlement Patterns U n i v e r s i ty o f N e w M e x i c o P r e ss ,

A l b u q u e r q u e , p p . 3 3 5 - 3 4 9 .

A d a m s , R . E . W . , C u l b e r t , J . P . , B r o w n , W . E . , H a r r i s o n , P . D ., a n d L e v i , L . J . 1 9 9 0 ) . R e b u t t a l

t o P o p e a n d D a h l i n . Journal of FieM Archaeology 17: 241-244 .

A d a m s , R . N . 1 9 7 5 ) , Energy and Structure: A Theory of Social Power U n i v e r s i t y o f T e x a s

P r e s s , A u s t i n .

A g u r t o C a l v o , S . 1 9 8 7 ) . Estudios Acerca de la Construcci6n Arquitectura y Planeamiento Inca

C a m a r a P e r u a n a d e l a C o n s t r u c c i 6 n , L i m a .

A r a n c 6 n G a r c f a, R . 1 9 9 2 ). L a p l az a , g e n e r a d o r a d e l e s p ac i o i u r b a n o M e s o a m e r i c an o .

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A r n o l d , P . J ., I II 1 9 8 8 ) . H o u s e h o l d c e r a m i c a s s e m b l a g e s in t h e S i e rr a d e lo s T u x t la s ,

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