Journal Club Session

Presenter:

Majid BaratiPhD student of Health Education & Promotion, School of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat

Modares University, Tehran, Iran

Special Thanks of:Dr Ghofranipour and Dr Heydarnia

Authors: Jemma Todd, Barbara Mullan

School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Australia

Journal:Addictive Behaviors 36 (2011) 980– 986

Impact Factor: 2.085

Introduction

• Alcohol can have adverse effects, and the risk of harm,

disease or injury increases both with the amount

consumed, and over time.

ص�ورت • در الکلي مق�دار مش�روبات زم�ان و اف�زايش م�دت

را ج�انبي بيماريه�اي و ه�ا آس�يب ع�وراض، اث�رات، مص�رف،

بهمراه خواهد داشت.

• Yet Australians have high rates of alcohol consumption,

with almost 83% having consumed alcohol at some stage,

and 8% consuming alcohol daily.

با این ح�ال، مص�رف الک�ل در بين اس�ترالیایی ه�ا از م�یزان ب�االیی •

مص�رف الک�ل بص�ورت كلي و ٪83برخ�وردار مي باش�د، تقریب�ا

مصرف روزانه مشروبات الکلي8٪

Introduction

• Binge drinking occurs when an excessive amount of alcohol

is consumed on a single occasion.

مص�رف بي روي�ه مش�روبات الكلي زم�اني رخ مي ده�د ك�ه ف�رد •

در يكبار مصرف مقدار زيادي مشروبات الكلي مصرف كند.

ب�راي تم�يز بين مص�رف بي روي�ه و • ي�ا اس�تانداردي آي�ا معي�ار و

معمولي وجود دارد؟

• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services

Administration takes binge drinking to mean consuming

‘five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least one

day in the past 30 days’.

در مرك�ز خ�دمات بهداش�ت رواني و س�وء مص�رف م�واد آمريك�ا، •

، ح�داقل ي�ك روز در طي ب�ار ي�ا بيش�تر در ي�ك جلس�ه5مص�رف

يك ماه گذشته را مصرف بي رويه تلقي مي شود.

Introduction

• Young adults and especially undergraduates have a

tendency towards binge drinking, thus putting themselves

at further risk of alcohol related harm.

س�مت • ب�ه گ�رایش ب�دليل دانش�جویان، خص�وص ب�ه و جوان�ان

مص�رف بي روي�ه مش�روبات الكلي، خ�ود در مع�رض خط�ر ب�االي

آسیب هاي ناشي از الکل قرار مي دهند.

• University life can provide a social setting that facilitates

excessive alcohol consumption, which appears to lead to

higher binge drinking rates in undergraduates than other

young adults.

به نظ�ر می رس�د ك�ه زن�دگی دانش�گاهی ب�ا توج�ه ب�ه محی�ط اجتم�اعی •

ب�ه منج�ر ک�ه كن�د مي تس�هیل را الک�ل ح�د از بیش مص�رف اش،

نوش�یدن م�یزان ب�االي الك�ل در بين دانش�جویان نس�بت ب�ه بزرگس�االن

دیگر مي گردد.

Introduction

• The rate of binge drinking and general alcohol consumption

in females has been on the increase, and now appears to

be similar to that of males.

از ط�رفي م�یزان پرنوش�ي الک�ل در زن�ان در ح�ال اف�زایش ب�وده •

و ب�ه نظ�ر می رس�د در ح�ال حاض�ر ش�بیه ب�ه م�يزان مص�رف در

مردان است.

• This trend suggests that for females, alcohol-related health

campaigns have been ineffective, and research is needed

to understand and reduce binge drinking in female

undergraduates.

ك�اهش • ب�ا مرتب�ط بهداش�تي م�داخالت ك�ه ده�د نش�ان مي رون�د اين

ب�ه بررس�ي و درك و ني�از نب�وده و الك�ل در بين زن�ان م�وثر مص�رف

تبيين موضوع احساس مي شود.

Introduction

• Social cognition models within health psychology focus on

understanding the cognitive determinants of social

behaviors, because they are thought to be more modifiable

than other behavioral factors.

روانشناس��ی • ح��وزه اجتم��اعی ش��ناختي ه��اي مدل

رفتاره�ای تب�يين عوام�ل ش�ناختی و درك در س�المت،

اجتم�اعی تمرك�ز مي كنن�د، چ�را ک�ه آنه�ا تص�ور كنن�د ك�ه

اين عوام�ل بيش از س�اير عل�ل قاب�ل تغي�ير و اص�الح مي

باشند.

مبتکران و ارائه دهندگان تئوری های عمل منطقی و

رفتار برنامه ریزی شده

آيسک آجزن

دکتراي روانشناسي دانشگاه ماساچوست

مارتين فيش بين

دکتراي روانشناسي دانشگاه ايلينویز اربانا

Theory of Planned Behavior

تئوری عمل منطقیساختارهای کلیدی

نحوه تعدیل تعریف ساختار

با ت�اثیر ب�ر باوره�ای و رفت�������اری ه���ای ارزش���یابی

پیامد

تنف�ر ی�ا تمای�ل کلی احس�اس نسبت به یک رفتار مشخص

نگ����������رش ب��ه نس��بت

رفتار

در فک�ری طوف�ان هم�����ه م�����ورد

پیامدهای ممکن

ی�ک انج�ام م�وجب ک�ه باوره�ایی ب��ه منج��ر و مش��خص رفت��ار

پیامدهای معین می گردند.

باوره��������ای رفتاری

خص��وص در بحث پیامدهای مثبت

ارزش�ی ک�ه ی�ک ف�رد ب�ر ه�ر ی�ک از انج�ام رفت�ار از ناش�ی پیام�دهای

می نهد

ارزش������یابی پیامد

تئوری عمل منطقیساختارهای کلیدی

نحوه تعدیل تعریف ساختار

ب��ر ت��اثیر بوس��یله باوره�ای هنج�اری و از اط�اعت انگ�یزه

فرد

اعتق�اد ف�رد در م�ورد اینک�ه اف�راد کنن�د می فک�ر وی زن�دگی مهم ک�ه او رفت�ار مشخص�ی را انج�ام

دهد یا خیر

هنجاره������ای انتزاعی

نقش، ایف�����ای روانی، نم����ایش

پانل، مباحثه

اینک�ه تفک�ر ف�رد در م�ورد نح�وه تمای�ل وی زن�دگی مهم اف�راد

دارند که او چگونه رفتار کند

عقای�����������د هنجاری

نقش، ایف�����ای روانی، نم����ایش

بحث

درج�ه ای از خواس�تار ف�رد جهت درک تم�ایالت ب�ا مط�ابق عم�ل

شده افراد مهم زندگی اش

انگ����������یزه از اط���اعت

فرد

تئوری رفتار برنامه ریزی ساختارهای اضافی شده

نحوه تعدیل تعریف ساختار

ب��ر گ��ذاری ت��اثیر با و کن���ترل باوره���ای

قدرت درک شده

می احس�اس ش�خص چق�در رفت��ار ب��ا مط��ابق ک��ه کن��د مش�خص وض�ع ش�ده رفت�ار می

نماید.

کن�����������ترل درک رفت�اری

شده

خص���وص در بحث کنن�ده تس�هیل عوام�ل

رفتارمشوق ها

عوام�������ل کاهش بازدارنده

باوره�ایی در خص�وص عوام�ل می ک��ه خ��ارجی ی��ا داخلی ی��ا تس��هیل م��وجب توانن��د

بازداری از انجام رفتار گردند

باوره��������ای کنترل

نقش الگوه�ای داش�تن برای مدل سازی رفتاربرطرف نمودن موانع

ب��ه رفت��ار شکس��تن مراحل کوچک

اینک�ه م�ورد در ف�رد ادراک چق�در انج�ام رفت�ار مربوط�ه در باوره�ای ه�ر ش�رایطی ک�ه در ی�ا کن�ترل تعری�ف ش�ده، س�هل

دشوار است.

درک قدرت شده

تئوری عمل منطقیساختارهای کلیدی

نحوه تعدیل تعریف ساختار

نگ�رش ب�ر ت�اثیر با نس�بت ب�ه ی�ک رفت�ار هنجاره������ای و

انتزاعی

انگ�یزه انج�ام ی�ک رفت�ار ک�ه تع�یین رفت�ار آنی و واس�طه بی کنن�ده

می باشد

قصد رفتاری

قص�د ب�ر ت�اثیر با رفت�اری ک�ه وابس�ته و نگ���رش ب���ه ان�تزاعی هنجاره�ای

می باشد

مش�اهده قاب�ل و منف�رد عم�ل انج�ام گرفت�ه توس�ط ی�ک ش�خص، ی�ا دس�ته ای از اعم�ال ب�ا ه�دف،

بافت و زمان مشخص

رفتار

‘Intention–Behavior gap’

• The intention– behavior gap is particularly noticeable for

health risk behaviors, where individuals may engage in

risky behaviors without ever intending to.

فاص�له قص�د و رفت�ار ب�ويژه در خص�وص رفتاره�ای پ�ر •

ب�دون اف�راد اس�ت ممکن ک�ه ج�ایی بهداش�تی، خط�ر

ش�وند درگ�ير مخ�اطره پ�ر رفتاره�ای در قبلي قص�د

بيشتر مشهود است.

كنن��دگي • بي�ني پيش ق�درت ب�ا TPBلذا رابط�ه در

خواه�د ق�رار ابه�ام از اي هال�ه در پرخط�ر رفتاره�اي

گرفت.

‘Intention–Behavior gap’

• Risk taking is often unplanned and sometimes the costs

and benefits are not weighed up. Resulting behaviors may

therefore occur despite intentions otherwise.

درگ�ير ش�دن در رفتاره�اي پرخط�ر اغلب ب�دون برنام�ه •

آن زي�ان و ب�دون در نظ�ر گ�رفتن س�ود اف�راد و ب�وده

(.تئوري انتظار ارزشعمل را انجام مي دهند. )

Intention versus Willingness

برنام�ه رفت�ار تئ�وری و منطقي عم�ل تئ�وری ق�وی تاکی�د عل�یرغم

ری�زی ش�ده نس�بت ب�ه نقش تص�میم گ�یری منطقی، ب�رای پیش بی�نی

ب�ا رویک�رد عم�ل انتق�اداتی را در رابط�ه رفت�ار، بس�یاری از محققین

منطقي ب�رای رفتاره�ای پ�ر خط�ر مانن�د س�و مص�رف م�واد، پیش�نهاد

کرده اند

تص�میم گ�یری در این زمین�ه ه�ا احتم�اال خ�ود بخ�ود و ب�دون قص�د قبلی

انجام می شود و بعبارت دیگر اتفاقی است

گیب�ونز و همک�ارانش ی�ک مفه�وم جدی�دی را ب�ا عن�وان اش�تیاق رفت�اری

را ارائه کرده اند. Prototype Willingness Modelدر قالب

Prototype Willingness Model

Prototype Willingness Model

فرض�يه مهم را ب�راي اخ�ذ تص�ميم مط�رح مي 2در این م�دل رفت�اري

گردد؛

فرض�يه اول: فرآين�د اخ�ذ تص�ميم ب�راي انج�ام ي�ك رفت�ار داراي ي�ك رون�د

اق�دام ب�ه انج�ام ك�اري بررس�ي تم�ام ج�وانب ام�ر ب�وده و ف�رد ب�ا تحليلي

( مسیر عمل منطقیمي كند)

از و داش�ته ذه�ني ح�الت بيش�تر تص�ميم اخ�ذ فرآين�د دوم: فرض�يه

تص�ورات و تم�ايالت ذه�ني ف�رد در ي�ك م�وقعيت خ�اص نش�ات مي گ�يرد

ب�ه مش�ابه اجتمHاعيي�ك ك�ه العمHل ف�رض عكس اين باش�د، مي

بيشتر بدنبال توصيف رفتارهاي بدون قصد قبلي مي باشد.

این م�دل در بعض�ی از س�ازه ه�ا مانن�د نگ�رش و هنجاره�ای اجتم�اعی ب�ا

تئ�وری عم�ل منطقي ش�ریک ب�وده و فراین�د مش�ابهی را پیش�نهاد می کن�د

داراي بن�ام 2ام�ا جدي�د س�ازه تص�ورات و رفت�اري و باوره�ا اش�تياق

است .

ادامه

به این نکت�ه بای�د توج�ه داش�ت ک�ه این م�دل مط�ابق تئ�وری رفت�ار برنام�ه

ریزی شده عمل نمی کند.

این م�دل قص�د دارد م�اهیت واکنش�ی و ذاتی ) عكس العم�ل اجتم�اعي(

اتخ�اذ رفت�ار ه�ای پرخط�ر از قبی�ل مص�رف م�واد مخ�در را ب�ا پرس�یدن این

ک�ه چط�ور اف�راد در ی�ک م�وقعیت اجتم�اعی در رابط�ه ب�ا رفتاره�ای س�وال

، ارزیابی نمايد. پرخطر واکنش نشان خواهند داد

پرخط�ر رفتاره�اي اغلب ك�ه اس�ت واقعيت اين گوي�اي مط�الب اين

ب�دون قص�د قبلي انج�ام مي ش�ود و اغلب جوان�ان خ�ود را در موقعي�تي

مي يابن�د ك�ه ش�رايط انج�ام رفت�ار پرخط�ر ب�راي آنه�ا تس�هيل ش�ده اس�ت و

يا شرايط براي انجام آن رفتار مهيا شده است.

مثال

پرخط�ر رفتاره�اي اغلب ك�ه اس�ت واقعيت اين گوي�اي م�دل اين

انج�ام مي ش�ود و اغلب جوان�ان خ�ود را در موقعي�تي ب�دون قص�د قبلي

آنه�ا تس�هيل ش�ده ب�راي انج�ام رفت�ار پرخط�ر يابن�د ك�ه ش�رايط مي

است و يا شرايط براي انجام آن رفتار مهيا شده است؛

براي مث�ال حض�ور ي�ك ج�وان در ي�ك پ�ارتي ب�دون نظ�ارتي ك�ه الك�ل و

اين ش�رايط در دارد، ق�رار وي دس�ترس در وف�ور ب�ه مخ�در م�واد

ف�اكتور و ب�ود نخواه�د ي�ك تص�ميم منطقي بطب�ع اخ�ذ ش�ده تص�ميم

ف�رد Willingnessتع�يين كنن�ده ب�راي انج�ام ي�ك رفت�ار در اين ش�رايط

مي باشد.

The mere measurement effect

The mere measurement effect

• Merely completing behavioral intention questions can bring

about behavioral changes)Godin, Sheeran, Conner, & Germain, 2008(.

تغی�یرات • توان�د می تنه�ايي ب�ه رفت�اری قص�د س�واالت تکمی�ل

رفتاری به ارمغان بیاورد.

• This effect is commonly known as the mere measurement effect )MME(.

ش�ناخته مي اث�ر ان�دازه گ�يري ص�رف اين اث�ر معم�وال ب�ا عن�وان •شود

The mere measurement effect

• Intention measures increase the accessibility of previously

formed attitudes relating to the behavior, leading to

behavioral outcomes that are generally more consistent

with the individual's attitudes, )Morwitz & Fitzsimons, 2004(.

ان�دازه گ�یری قص�د دسترس�ی ب�ه نگ�رش ه�ای ش�کل گرفت�ه قبلی مرتب�ط ب�ا •

رفت�ار را اف�زایش می ده�د ک�ه این مس�ئله ن�یز منج�ر ب�ه ب�روز پیام�دهای رفت�اری

مطابق با نگرش افراد می گردد.

• If individuals hold negative views of binge drinking, then completing binge drinking intention measures may result in a reduction in binge drinking

اگ�ر اف�راد دی�دگاههای منفی نس�بت مص�رف ب�ه مش�روبات الکلی •داش�ته باش�ند، تکمی�ل پرسش�نامه قص�د، ممکن اس�ت ک�ه نت�ایجی دال ب�ر ک�اهش مص�رف مش�روبات الکلی را در پی داش�ته باش�د.

The mere measurement effect

•The MME has been predominantly

studied in marketing and consumer

research, however there has been

recent research involving health

behaviors.

For example

Study aims and hypotheses

• With female binge drinking on the rise, research is

needed to better understand the reasons for binge

drinking amongst females.

• Whilst the TPB can explain the planned aspects of

decisions surrounding binge drinking, the PWM may

help to explain the unplanned or heuristic elements

of such a decision.

Study aims and hypotheses

The current study also attempted to reduce binge drinking

by utilizing both a TPB-based MME, and binge drinker

prototypes. Whether the MME is sufficient to reduce binge

drinking in female undergraduates was explored.

Those who completed TPB questions relating to binge

drinking were expected to

▫ (a) be less likely to binge drink, and

▫ (b) consume less alcohol 2 weeks later compared to those who

did not complete such questions.

Study aims and hypotheses

In addition, the effects of a novel prototype manipulation

were tested.

Those who participated in a brief manipulation to increase

negative binge drinker prototype perceptions were

expected to

▫ (a) be less likely to engage in binge drinking, and

▫ (b) consume less alcohol 2 weeks later than those who only

completed TPB questions relating to binge drinking.

Elicitation survey

An elicitation survey was conducted to:

• (a) gauge understanding of both the standard drink

measure and the concept of binge drinking to be utilized in

the main study;

• (b) develop a manipulation that would be likely to change

binge drinker prototypes within the target population.

Elicitation survey

Although the majority of participants were aware of the

standard drink measure, they tended to find this measure

confusing to apply to their own alcohol consumption.

There fore, to increase the accuracy of reported alcohol

consumption, the main study included a standard drink

definition and a diagram of standard drink units contained in

common alcoholic drinks, adapted from the NHMRC

guidelines.

Elicitation survey

• The binge drinker image appeared to be very salient, as

ten out of eleven participants were aware of what binge

drinking involved.

• However, there appeared to be slight confusion between

binge drinking and drinking frequently.

Elicitation survey

• Participants described the type of person who engages in

binge drinking, for example, as ‘messy ’, ‘bad hygiene’,

‘young teenagers’, ‘uneducated’, ‘ out of control’,

‘immature’, and ‘low in self esteem’.

• These findings suggest that the typical binge drinker is

perceived negatively. Words were chosen from these

descriptions to create the negatively framed binge drinker

prototype manipulation that was relevant to the sample.

Method

Design

ب�ر • نه�ایی مش�تمل ه�ای دخ�تر 122نمون�ه دانش�جوی

س�ال و انح�راف 19 س�ال ب�ود)می�انگین 25 ت�ا 17س�نین

وال�دین خ�ود 82س�ال( و 1/5معی�ار ب�ا آنه�ا از درص�د

زندگی می کردند.

ت�ا 2شرکت کنن�دگان دو پرسش�نامه آنالین را ب�ه فاص�له •

هفته از هم تكميل نمودند. 3

Measures

شرکت کنن�دگان ب�ه ط�ور تص�ادفی در یکی از س�ه گ�روه •

زير قرار گرفته بودند:

الف( گروه مداخله،

(،MMEب( گروه اثر اندازه گیری صرف)

ج( گروه كنترل

رفت��اري • و دم��وگرافيكي اطالع��ات گ��روه س��ه هر

مش�ابهي را تكمي�ل ك�رده بودن�د. ام�ا مقي�اس ه�اي ديگ�ر

متفاوت بود.

Measures

در سه گروه:•

و تص�ورات دس�تكاري TPBپرسش�نامه ال�ف( گ�روه مداخل�ه:

شده مصرف كنندگان الكل را تكميل كرده بودند.

و TPBپرسش�نامه (: MMEب( گ�روه اث�ر ان�دازه گ�یری ص�رف)

الكل كنندگان مصرف شده جايگزين bottled water)تصورات

consumption) .را تكميل كرده بودند

(bottled water consumption)تص�ورات غ�ير مرتب�ط ج( گ�روه كن�ترل:

را تكميل كرده بودند.

Prototype component

• The manipulation and mere measurement groups completed prototype questions about either the ‘type of person who engages in binge drinking’ or the ‘type of person who consumes bottled water’.

( س�واالتي MMEشركت كنن�دگان در گ�روه مداخل�ه و اثران�دازه گ�يري ص�رف)•

و الكلي كنن�ده مش�روبات اف�راد مص�رف ويژگيه�اي شخص�يتي در خص�وص

افراد مصرف كننده آب معدني را تكميل كرده بودند.

• The descriptive words and reference group used for the manipulation were developed from the responses of an elicitation survey.

واژه ه�اي توص�يفي جهت اس�تفاده در گ�روه مداخل�ه از پاس�خ ه�اي اس�تخراج •

شده از مطالعه كيفي بكاررفته بود.

Willingness component

▫ three typical willingness items were used that have successfully assessed

willingness to consume alcohol in undergraduates in previous research.

▫ These items were based on a hypothetical scenario (Suppose you were with

some friends at a party and one of them offered you some kind of alcoholic

drink. How willing would you be to:

take it and try it?

say “no thanks”?

leave the situation?

Theory of planned behavior component

• TPB variables were measured directly on a seven-point Likert scale:▫ Attitudes: Five semantic differentials were used to assess attitudes (engaging in

a binge drinking session in the next 2 weeks would be: e.g. bad/good, harmful/beneficial, α=.815).

▫ Subjective norms: were assessed with two items (e.g. most people who are important to me would approve/disapprove of me engaging in a binge drinking session in the next 2 weeks, α=.628).

▫ PBC: Two PBC items were included (e.g. whether or not I engage in a binge drinking session in the next 2 weeks is under my control: strongly disagree/strongly agree, α=.185).

Theory of planned behavior component

• TPB variables were measured directly on a seven-point Likert scale:

▫ Two self-efficacy measures were included to increase the internal reliability of

PBC, as recommended by Ajzen (2002) (e.g. if I wanted to, I could easily engage

in a binge drinking session in the next 2 weeks: strongly disagree/strongly

agree, α=.927).

▫ Intention was also measured with two items (e.g. do you intend to engage in

binge drinking in the next 2 weeks? definitely/definitely not, α=.833).

Behavior component

• Behavior was measured for all groups, as the sole component of the

follow-up.

• Participants were provided with a pictorial representation of the standard

drinks contained in common alcoholic beverages.

• Participants indicated whether or not they had consumed any alcohol in

the past 14 days, and if so on how many occasions.

• For each occasion that alcohol was consumed, participants then indicated

how many standard drinks they had consumed on that occasion.

• The behavior component included items about bottled water

consumption to mask the experimental design.

Result

Results

• Participants were divided into two groups;

▫ those who had consumed five or more standard drinks on at least one occasion

in the 14 days prior to the follow-up, and

▫ those who had consumed at most four standard drinks

• At the baseline, 29.5% of participants had engaged in binge drinking at

least once in the previous14 days, although 41% had not consumed any

alcohol.

• A measure of total alcohol consumption at the follow-up was therefore

created as an additional outcome variable for determining MME and

manipulation effects.

Predicting binge drinking intentions

• A simultaneous multiple regression was conducted with subjective norms,

attitude and PBC as predictors of intention.

• these variables significantly accounted for 55.2% of the variance in

intention.

• Subjective norms accounted for the highest proportion of variance in

intention.

Predicting binge drinking behavior

Two steps in a hierarchical logistic regression were used to predict

whether or not participants engaged in binge drinking from

▫ (a) intention and PBC, and

▫ (b) willingness

(see Table 1)

Manipulation and mere measurement effects

The manipulation and control groups became the first and second

comparison groups respectively.

Firstly, the effects of the MME and manipulation on the proportion of

binge drinkers were analyzed using hierarchical logistic regression.

Secondly, the MME and manipulation effects on the total number of

standard drinks consumed were analyzed using a hierarchical multiple

regression.

Manipulation and mere measurement effects

A one-way ANOVA showed that at the baseline,

total alcohol consumption did not significantly differ

between groups, F(2, 69) = 0.469, p = .627.

Experimental effects on proportion of binge drinkers

Past binge drinking was entered in the first block of a hierarchical logistic

regression, and significantly explained 18.2% of the variance in whether

participants engaged in binge drinking.

Adding the experimental dummy variables in the second block did not

significantly add to the variance explained.

The third block tested interaction effects between the dummy coded

variables and past binge drinking, which although close was also not

significant.

Experimental effects on total alcohol consumption

Multiple regression analysis was used to determine whether

the manipulation or MME had any influence on the total

number of drinks consumed in the 14 days prior to the follow-

up, whilst controlling for past consumption.

(see Table 2)

Discussion

Discussion

• The MME was supported in the current study. Although there was no

reduction in the proportion of binge drinkers , there was a significant

reduction in total alcohol consumption, especially for those who

previously consumed more alcohol.

• This is in contrast to Sandberg, …….

• However, MME research in relation to health behaviors has been limited.

Discussion

• The MME occurs when measuring behavioral intention results

in behavioral changes.

• Measuring intentions increases the accessibility of previously

formed attitudes towards a behavior, which then leads to

changes in behavior that are more consistent with these

attitudes (Morwitz & Fitzsimons, 2004).

• It therefore appears that individuals in the current study held

negative attitudes towards binge drinking.

Discussion

• The prototype manipulation was unsuccessful at reducing the proportion

of binge drinkers and the total amount of alcohol consumed, controlling

for possible MME.

• Binge drinking is very common amongst undergraduates and young

adults, and adolescents have been reported to have very strong binge

drinker stereotypes.

• It is therefore possible that binge drinking is less flexible than other health

behaviors.

Discussion

• Prototype manipulations may not be relevant for female binge drinkers.

Given that willingness did not help to explain binge drinking in the current

study.

• It is possible that female undergraduate binge drinkers do not consider

the binge drinker prototypes when choosing to binge drink.

• Further research could investigate whether the manipulation used

effectively reduces binge drinking in a male population.

Discussion

• There may be other aspects of prototype perceptions that

have more influence over behavior.

• Future studies could focus on decreasing perceptions of

similarity to the binge drinker prototype, as prototype

similarity may be more influential on behavior than

favorability.

Discussion

• The current study may have been targeting binge drinker

prototypes that were not relevant to the target population,

and studies should build on the current study and the work of

Zimmermann to develop a way to reduce excessive drinking

amongst undergraduates.

Discussion

• Attitudes, PBC and subjective norms were all significant in dependent

predictors of binge drinking intentions, explaining 55.2% of the variance in

intentions, which was more than reported in Armitag(2001) meta-

analysis, but less than other studies investigating binge drinking.

• The strongest independent predictor of intentions was subjective norms.

Quine et al. (1998) noted that subjective norms to predict intentions…..

• The social nature of binge drinking may make it more susceptible to social

influences, and the individual's personal attitudes may play a less

important role when forming binge drinking intentions.

Discussion

• PBC unexpectedly did not predict binge drinking behavior, Ajzen (2010)

note that PBC is not relevant when the behavior is under volitional

control.

• In addition, Gibbons et al. (2009) argue against the relevance of PBC to

health risk behaviors, given that these behaviors don't often represent

goals.

• Gibbons et al. noted that health risk behaviors depend more on

opportunity than a sense of control over behavior.

Discussion

• Willingness was not a significant independent predictor of behavior.

• If binge drinking is better explained by the TPB than the PWM, then this

implies that for females, binge drinking is a reasoned rather than

unplanned behavior.

• Future studies may wish to focus on TPB variables to attempt to reduce

binge drinking in female undergraduates.

Discussion

• why willingness was not predictive of binge drinking over the TPB

variables.

• Zimmermann recently found that willingness was predictive of social

drinking for males, but not for females.

• Zimmermann suggest may be the result of either gender differences in

alcohol consumption, or the traditional social drinker images that are

masculine and of a risk-taking nature.

Discussion

• Despite the limitations, the current study was an important and novel

investigation into binge drinking in undergraduates, and has identified

possible avenues for interventions.

• It was found that brief prototype manipulations are ineffective for

reducing binge drinking and future research could utilize perceived

similarity instead of favorability.

Discussion

• The current study showed that alcohol consumption can be reduced

quickly and efficiently in those who consume large amounts of alcohol

merely by completing TPB questionnaires about binge drinking.

• further emphasizes the importance of MME interventions. However, more

research is needed to confirm both the robustness and cause of this

effect.

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