Jones, K. Caring for Archaeological Sites in New Zealand. 2007

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Desired or established vegetation type, and regime forsite conservation

Grass or grass-legume-herb swards the most desirable cover for viewsof a site in its landscape context and for visitor appreciation. May requiremanagement of the soil fertility. Will require cutting, mowing, or grazingto prevent scrub invasion. In rare circumstances, periodic drought or fire may maintain the grassland. Timing of cutting is important to allow desired species to flower and set seed. Requires removal of noxious or undesirable weeds. Without clear conservation objectives, grazing andfarm management routines will override the need for site protection.

Young native trees, early several stages a good protective cover, butwill not normally allow for public appreciation of the site. Managementintervention depends on whether succession to trees is desired. If not,then occasional cutting or selective removal of potentially large trees isrequired.

Low-growing or ground-cover shrubs a stable and easily managedcover for sites where protection of subsurface remains is desired. Needsinfrequent removal of seedlings of potentially large trees to preventforest growth. This is recommended as the optimum long-term cover for sites.

Mature native forest the most stable of vegetation forms with leastpotential to disturb surface earthworks. Attractive cover for sites opento the public. Thinning of trees can be undertaken to provide a ‘gallery forest’ and canopy to prevent erosion. Planting in (or encouragement of)ground covers and replacement canopy trees can be undertaken. Wherespecies are being chosen for establishment or renewal they should begrowing locally or sourced from local provenances.

A number of species, with an indication of their form and the habitatsin which they flourish, are contained in ‘Native covers for archaeologicalsites what plant, where?’ (Appendix 3) and ‘Native grasses and other ground-hugging cover s’ (Appendix 4). Notes on the estab lishment or encouragement of some of these plants, with particular emphasis onconditions and needs as they apply to conservation of archaeological sites,are set out below. Guidelines on aspects of native plants which have someapplications in archaeological site conservation include National Water and Soil Conservation Authority (1986), Porteous (1995) and Waitakere

City Council (1997); specifically for coastal dunes are Bergin & Herbert(1998), Bergin & Kimberley (1999), and Bergin (2000).

Ecological restoration and archaeological site conservation are not thesame process. On the one hand, care should be taken in evaluatingarchaeological and historic values in all forest restoration projects. On theother hand, significant native trees such as well-established pohutukawaor historic trees growing on a site of less than outstanding importanceshould not be removed to preserve surface archaeological features. Itshould also be remembered that local people, especially tangata whenua,may have views on vegetation management that should be discussed with

them. They may wish to retain certain species, such as pohutukawa,



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totara, and ti (cabbage trees). In historic reserves or other areas wherethere are archaeological sites, any planning for vegetation restorationshould follow conservation planning for the historic site.

2.2.2 Low vegetation (less than 120 cm tall)

Pohuehue ( Muehlenbeckia spp.)

This is an adaptable genus of native ground covers which can be readily maintained so long as trees do not overshadow them. The two commonspecies are Muehlenbeckia australis and M. complexa . The former willsmother small trees and is considered by some to be a weed in somenative vegetation associations (such as treelands or shrublands with anopen canopy). Creeping pohuehue ( M. complexa ) is a smaller plant,suited to open areas and the best cover for archaeological sites. It couldbe used instead of bracken to cover steep slopes and banks of earthworkswhich should remain visible, but covered (Fig. 9A). The adult plant isintolerant of water-logging, but will grow well on a wide variety of

soils from clay to sand with some humus (Brock 1996). In good soils, itdoes not compete well with production grasses. It is common on stony or harsh ground (e.g. on banks or gravel beds or tumbling over holes).Although grazed by cattle, older plants are rarely browsed by sheep. Infenced-off ar eas, old stems running along the ground may reach 1–2 cmdiameter, forming a tough network. On Station Bay pa, Motutapu, whereanimals have been fenced out and grazing prevented for three decades,the predominant ground cover is a naturally adventive, open-texturedmat of Muehlenbeckia complexa overlying stems of cocksfoot (Jones &Simpson 1995b: 23, and fig. 14B).

Flax, harakeke ( Phormium spp.)

Phormium cookianum , the smaller and hardier of the two Phormium species, is the only flax tentatively recommended for archaeologicalsite conservation because of its smaller root system. On grassed coastal

Figure 9. Longer-term changes in vegetation cover. A. Thirty years after the cessation of grazing, there is a cover of cocksfoot (on theflat) and Muehlenbeckia on the bank of this pa at Station Bay, Motutapu. The site is stable, but the pohutukawa, which would have beenacceptable in this coastal setting, has died from possum browsing. B. Bracken covers the terraces and platform of this pa near Waikirikiri,

Whakatane district, Bay of Plenty. Fires have periodically burned up the ridge line, but have been halted by the ditch and bank at top.

A B



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sites, it is a common seral plant taking root in rotting tussock bases.On archaeological sites, suitable (and sometimes naturally adventive)locations for flax are banks and the tops of banks where the leavesdrape the earthworks. Planting of P. cookianum for archaeological siteconservation should be regarded as experimental. Massed planting of known small varieties or ecotypes of P. cookianum could be from root

trainers or from divisions, whichever is the less intrusive on the soilsof the earthwork. Care should be taken to plant in mass. If individualplants are isolated, on windy days the leaves will sweep the surface of the ground, kill grass and initiate localised erosion. Cutting of flax downto just above the ground level will reduce its vigour and a two-yearly cut of flax on sites or banks to be preserved may be satisfactory. Any cutting of flax should be aimed at reducing vigour, not extermination,and should be accompanied by sowing of grasses.

Bracken, aruhe ( Pteridium esculentum )

Bracken can be a useful plant on many sites in New Zealand. It forms adense mat on the ground surface and a woven mass of relatively small-diameter rhizomes underground. It is a common element in the early plant succession in most areas and can maintain itself on a site for along time (Fig. 9B). Bracken r esponds to fertili ser and good drainage, andcould probably be used effectively on large sites open to public viewingto cover eroding banks of earthworks without destroying their contours.It is likely to be of greatest value on steep slopes and narrow ridgeson friable soils.

In most areas of New Zealand, bracken will be succeeded by a shrublandand then forest. However, in areas with rainfall less than 800 mm p.a.,

such as throughout Central Otago, old stands can defend themselvesagainst invasion by trees. Otherwise, spraying or tree removal willmaintain the bracken stand, as will occasional burning. Bracken can bedifficult to establish. If it is to be introduced on to a site, large clodsshould be lifted in winter from areas with known rhizomes and the wholemass of soil and rhizome planted.

One disadvantage with bracken is that wild pigs will dig for the rhizomes.For this reason, on unfenced sites in localities with wild pig populations,bracken should be discouraged. It should be replaced with a grass or shrubland, instead. If it is decided to remove bracken, shading is the

most effective technique in the long term. Appropriate spray applicationsmay be able to suppress the bracken and allow manuka regeneration.Grubbing of the rhizomes would be destructive of the stratigraphy andearthworks and is not recommended. Muehlenbeckia complexa and flaxmay be effective substitutes for bracken.

In the United Kingdom, the Historic Scotland organisation has, withqualifications, recommended the removal of bracken from sites (Rees &Mills 1999). The UK bracken is a different species from New Zealandbracken; the latter remains a suitable protective cover for many sites.



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Small ground ferns

Some ferns make good ground covers. A wide range of species willestablish naturally in damp and shaded conditions. The smaller fernsPaesia scaberula , Blechnum nigra, and Blechnum penna-marina canall be grown from cuttings. They are adaptable and can survive in drier conditions. The methods of establishment are similar to those for clingingrata (described below). Crown fern ( Blechnum discolor ) is particularly strong on sour wet soils, and hard or ring fern ( Paesia scaberula ) naturally establishes itself on poor pasture in higher and wetter country.

Ground creepers

Clinging rata ( Metrosideros perforata ) can be grown from cuttings. It isespecially suited to steep or overhanging banks in moderate shade. Thisplant has been established on banks on Ruapekapeka, Bay of Islands, for the last 20 years. Vegetative material from cuttings should be planted dur-ing late autumn and winter (late May–July). They should be slotted intothe soil using a single knife or trowel cut to approximately 6 cm depth.Application of rooting hormone is not essential, but may improve cuttingstrike rate. The native bindweed ( Calystegia soldanella ) dies back inwinter but would otherwise be a good ground cover for coastal sites.

2.2.3 Grass and sedge maintenance and establishment

Grass cover on an archaeological site has several advantages over allother forms of cover and should be the preferred form of cover for most sites. However, in warm temperate New Zealand it is seldom thelong-term natura l cover. F igure 10 shows a management decision-making

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process with respect to grassland cover for archaeological sites. Mowing(Fig. 11), grazing (Fig. 12), low natural fertility, drought, severe winters,hot summers, sandy soils, and plain and ridge line topography (as opposedto gullies and valleys) are the main reasons why grass cover persistsrather than any other form of vegetation.

The objectives of grass cover management are to:

Ensure that surface features are visible•

Allow easy access for people•

Provide the best protection for sub-surface layers•

Reduce surface erosion•

Provide a stable, relatively low maintenance, cover •

Establish native grasses if practicable•

Provide economy of management, particularly if grazed•

Figure 12. Beyond the fenceon Oruaka, beside Lake

Forsythe, Canterbury, thenatural silver tussock cover (prominent in foreground)

has at some time been killedby overstocking. Silver

tussock would provide goodlow-intensity grazing cover

for this reserve. Oruaka now needs low grazing intensity

and some shelter for thestock, which otherwise willcontinue to burrow into the

banks.

Figure 11. Partly mowedgrass cover on the ditch and

bank of a redoubt at Pirongia,Waipa district, Waikato. The

banks are stable and the grassis probably weed-eaten onceor twice a year. The base of

the ditch is mown by a small

ride-on mower. The patternof varying grass heights in theditch tends to obscure the

profile of the ditch and bank,but is satisfactory.



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When decisions are made about the use of grass as the cover of choiceon an archaeological site, there is potential for conflicting objectives toarise in deciding to graze rather than to mow. It is possible to offsetthe cost of management by using the income from the sale of grazinganimals or products from those animals. This can lead to a desire for higher stocking rates and heavier animals, both of which are inimical

to archaeological preservation. Sustaining these goals requires fertilisersand high-producing varieties of grass species. Improved access for feeding-out, the need to move animals along new roads, and more fenceconstruction to better manage stock rotation are all consequences whichmay affect archaeological sites. Sometimes the archaeological site may bethe warmest or most sheltered part of a paddock or grazed area and theanimals will camp there in high numbers.

In general, more sites should be mowed than are at present. Grazingcan be a very cost-effective way of maintaining large areas, but onemust never lose sight of the primary purpose of conserving such lands.It is possible to apply a growth-limiting (‘topping’) spray, such as very dilute Roundup (glyphosate) which will kill some weeds and reduce thepotential damage from both mowing and grazing. Later sections give moreguidance on mowing and grazing.

Many sites will have an existing grass cover and will merely need semi-regular maintenance aimed at conserving the archaeological surfacefeatures. Some sites will have unsatisfactory grass cover (e.g. kikuyu,which forms deep tumbling mounds unless grazed). Weedy grassessuch as kikuyu will obscure surface features, and out-compete nativegrasses tha t would otherwise be useful (Fig. 12). I n many parts of thenorthern North Island, kikuyu is the only grass that will take sustainedgrazing. There may be a combination of grass and woody weeds on-site. An assessment should be made by a botanist/ecologist for the landmanager, and a revegetation plan (including the grass species/varietiesto be encouraged or established) should be prepared. A wide range of introduced and indigenous gras ses are ava ilable (Table 1), and s electionwill depend on management objectives, along with climate and soilconditions (including fertility and application of fertiliser). Some specieswill be more desirable than others for grazing management and thedistinction between warm temperate (northern North Island) and other regions needs to be remembered.

Introduced species are available commercially from stock and stationagents, and farm seed suppliers. Among those recommended are chewingsfescue ( Festuca rubra ) and, for immediate cover in non-grassed areas, thelegume lotus ( Lotus pedunculatus ) ‘Maku’. For dry banks (slopes steeper than 30 degrees) needing tread resistance, the following mix of seed isrecommended by S. Clunie (a garden expert, of Kerikeri, New Zealand,pers. comm. 1998): dwarf tall fescue 45%, dwarf perennial ryegrass 45%,New Zealand b rowntop 10% at 30 g per squa re metre. These mixes donot need frequent mowing.

Other possib le grasses are shown in Table 1. Seed for non-weed species

should be obtained from commercial sources after the most recent



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harvest (usually December–February). Germination test information can berequested from suppliers, or a simple test conducted. Specify to suppliersthe need to obtain amenity and turf (as opposed to production or grazing)types of grass.

Indigenous grass seed is not generally available commercially and willneed to be collected and established from either seed or root division.Suitable species include: Oplismenus imbecilis (for shady damp spots);Microlaena stipoides , meadow rice grass (very widespread in open shadeand/or on poor-fertility sites); Rytidosperma spp., danthonia (for dry banks); and Poa anceps , broadleaf poa (for dry banks, will competewith cocksfoot and Bromus spp. in ungrazed grassland). Native tussockssuch as silver tussock ( Poa cita , Poa laevis ) or hard tussock ( Festucanovae-zelandia ) (a species well adapted to poorer ground) can be usedin cool temperate areas. Native grasses are common on land retired

TABLE 1. GRASS AND LEGUME SPECIES SUITABLE FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE COVER.

SPECIES SUITED TO HIGH-FERTILITY SOILS

TEMPERATE PERENNIALS SUBTROPICAL PERENNIALS

Perennial ryegrass ( Lolium perenne )* Paspalum ( Paspalum dilatatum )†

Cocksfoot ( Dactylis glomerata )* Kikuyu ( Pennisetum clandestinum )

Tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea )* Mercer grass ( Paspalum paspaloides )Prairie grass ( Bromus willdenowii ) Limpo grass

White clover (legume) ( Trifolium repens )

Red clover (legume) ( Trifolium pratense )

TEMPERATE ANNUALS SUBTROPICAL ANNUALS

Italian ryegrass ( Lolium multiflorum ) Summer grass ( Digitaria spp.)

Annual poa ( Poa annua ) Barnyard grass ( Echinochloa spp.)

Barley grass ( Hordeum spp.) (not suitable in grazed areas) Crowfoot ( Eleusine indica )

SPECIES SUITED TO LOW-FERTILITY SOILS (e.g. tops of banks)

TEMPERATE PERENNIALS SUBTROPICAL PERENNIALS

Browntop or creeping bent ( Agrostis spp.) Kikuyu ( Pennisetum clandestinum )†

Chewings fescue, creeping red fescue ( Festuca rubra ) Ratstail ( Sporobolus africanus )

Meadow rice grass ( Microlaena stipoides ) Buffalo grass ( Stenotaphrum secundatum )

Danthonia ( Rytidosperma spp.) Indian doab ( Cynodon dactylon )

Canary grass ( Phalaris spp.) Bay grass ( Eragrostis brownii )

Lotus (legume) ( Lotus pedunculatus ) (not for grazed areas)

Poa spp., Festuca spp.

TEMPERATE ANNUALS

Goose grass ( Gallium aparine )

Crested dogstail ( Cynosurus cristatus )

Suckling clover (legume) ( Trifolium dubium )

Subterranean clover (legume) ( Trifolium subterraneum )*

Annual lotus (legume) ( Lotus pedunculatus )

* Species common in tall grasslands after 5–10 years cessation of grazing.† Needs mowing or grazing.



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from grazing for a reason they cannot withstand hardor continuous grazing. This should be remembered whendeciding what to plant, and their virtues compared withthe many varieties of ryegrass that are available.

The native species are quite common and suitable sourcesshould be easily located around most sites. Liaison withland owners may be necessary to ensure that seeds andappropriate vegetative material is available for handharvesting (Fig. 13). To ensure that material is fresh,cuttings for vegetative establishment should be obtainedon an as-required basis, immediately before planting (May–July). Appendix 2 (section A2.1) provides a specimen workplan for sowing or over-sowing a grassed site. Table 2indicates some of the advantages and disadvantages of using native grasses on low-fertility sites.

TABLE 2. USE OF NATIVE GRASSES ON LOW-FERTILITY SITES.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Lowers and reduces stocking rates Poor tillering of grasses

Opportunity for native grass restoration Poor competition with exotic grasses in full sun and if soils are fertile

Some native grasses have competitive edge over pasture Liable to have erosion patches, risk of failure of sward

grasses in shade Grasses bolt to seed

Can be left alone with little or no mowing Seed and flower heads shade legumes

Opportunity for native shrubland to succeed the grass cover Tussock forms poor for soil stability

May be combined with native shrub canopies Risk of weed and shrubland invasion; weeds may suppress grass

No fertiliser required; grasses tolerate acid soil conditions Fire risks of dry tall grass(nutrients less available) Tall grass obscures archaeological features

Local adventives (not commercial varieties) will arrive Stock camping/erosion without intensive fencing and grazing

Varieties/species will adapt to highly localised conditions management

Low palatability to stock and may slowly become Not resistant to treading

dominant in the sward if no fertiliser is applied Cattle stocking needed to reduce tall poor grass

Self-perpetuating and stable cover if flowering and seed Tall-grass tag suppresses establishment of warm-season grasses which

set is allowed to occur are needed in peak production seasons

2.2.4 Establishment of grass or sedge cover

In warm temperate regions, particularly north of the North Island centralvolcanic plateau, seed can be sown in winter. In southern regions, latesummer or spring sowing is normal. Seed should be sown by hand-broadcasting since drilling would disturb the archaeological material.Hand-broadcasting is essential for slopes. More seed will be requiredthan would be recommended for drilling the same area, and better resultswill be obtained if the seed is pelleted, at which time it is given itscoating of fertiliser and inoculum. The seed should be sown in twopasses from opposite directions and thrown down vigorously so that itgoes into cracks and small depressions in the soil and into any slopes. A

Figure 13. Stripping mature seed from broad-leavedpoa, Poa anceps .



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light raking will dislodge any seed held in the surfacevegetation. Covering the seed with up to 5 cm thicknessof straw (or hay, if potential weeds are not a problem),a germination cloth or hessian will provide protectionfor the seeds and seedlings and help the absorptionand retention of moisture by the soil (it will eventually

rot down).Where there is a well-formed topsoil, or if the site isknown to have been ploughed or cultivated, scarifyingthe surface of the soil is acceptable. In firm soil or clay on or towards the top of banks, for examplescarification by swinging a hoe may be acceptable, butcare should be taken not to dislodge too much of thesoil down-slope.

Where there is easy vehicular access to a site, it may be worth considering hydroseeding the procedure used

to grass road cuttings. This is a very fast and effectivemethod of re-grassing bare ground. Private companiesdealing in erosion control and management may offer useful advice, as well as the hydroseeding service.

As with any form of vegetation establishment, considerable forethoughtneeds to be given to organisational budgeting, planning, and approvalcycles. The biological cycle involved with seed collection and sowingdoes not fit well with normal financial year cycles, and planning may need to allow for a suitable lead-in period.

The specimen work plan in Appendix 2 (section A2.1) gives further detailson seeding.

Sedges

Several native sedges such as Gahnia spp. or ‘hookgrass’ ( Uncinia spp.)can form good protection against erosion and some, such as the tallspecies of native sedges, may also prevent or discourage access away from approved tracks (e.g. Fig. 14). Some sedges may do well in drier areas. Sedges can be propagated by stripping seed in the appropriateseason and planting the seed, or by planting stem and root divisions of existing plants. Local advice should be sought on the appropriateness of,

and methods for, planting sedges.

2.2.5 Establishment of grasses on ground cleared of scrub or fern

Scrub- or fern-covered ground can present a major problem in establishinga suitable seedbed, especially where there is a heavy growth of nativeshrubland. Burning provides an ashy seedbed and the remaining semi-burnt woody material will provide shelter for the young seedlings. Burningwill stimulate the germination of legume seeds such as gorse or wattle.Where burning is not feasible, herbicide spraying followed by removalof most of the woody material may be the only solution. Immediately

after the death of most of the vegetation, the site may be vulnerable to

Figure 14. The tall nativesedge Gahnia sp. with itsdrooping habit provides agood protective cover on

the banks of this pa in thenorthern Urewera.



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erosion, and as much broken-down, dead vegetation as possible should beleft on the site. A temporary mulch or geosynethetic cover (see below)may be needed on some areas.

The timing of ground preparation and seed sowing is critical. In theSouth Island, late winter or early spring is the best time to oversow with grass seed, but in the North Island, over-sowing in autumn canbe successful. It is usually advisable to sow a mixture of two to four species of grass and clover. White clover and a rank ryegrass such asGrasslands Nui will be useful where gorse seedlings must be suppressed,but browntop and the finer ryegrasses may be more durable on pathswhich will have to cope with treading. In drier areas where there isnot much control on the grazing, cocksfoot and subterranean clover may be considered. On steep slopes with low fertility, browntop, cresteddogstail, and danthonia can be used to get a quickly established sward, inconjunction with a legume (e.g. white clover). Most sites will profit froma dressing of fertiliser, particularly of lime and superphosphate. On smallareas of steeper slopes (greater than 30 degrees), it will be desirable tobroadcast fertiliser by hand ensuring that it is thrown into the slope andon to the soil surface or use hydroseeding. Although costly, irrigationshould be considered for the first summer, or in dry periods within thefirst year of growth.

2.2.6 Grazing

Grazing is a potentially useful tool for archaeological site management. Itensures, among other possible objectives, that a site remains visible andaccessible at little net cost. However, cattle and high densities of smaller animals can cause rapid changes to ground surfaces (Trimble & Mendel1995). It is noticeable that grazing heavy animals on archaeological sites,especially in winter, is destructive of surface features. Stock campingcan also be a problem. Much erosion occurs on microsites (patchesof banks less than 10 m long) and, cumulati vely, these small indiv idualareas of erosion will do much damage. Stock damage over decades cancompletely wear away a si te (Fig. 15A). Th is long-term trend to almostcomplete destruction can be observed when comparing old and currentaerial photographs. It is not uncommon to find the lateral roots of treesperched up to 60 cm above the ground surface and other evidence of heavy wear, on grazed banks.

In hard hill country, hares can be important in maintaining grass cover.Rabbits will burrow and should not be tolerated on archaeologicalsites.

Grazing licences or concessions on reserves have not always protectedarchaeological conservation values and have destroyed other historically associated elements of a site or landscape such as trees. Grazing shouldbe carried out for particular site management objectives, and strictly controlled. The objectives are:

General vegetation control•

Keeping height of grass down for site visibility and lessening fire risk•

Preventing shrubland succession•



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Grazing may often be the least-cost means of maintaining and perpetuatinggrasslands, but cost-saving should never be the overriding consideration.Earthwork sites should not be grazed as high-producing grasslands.Managers of archaeological sites should monitor grazing licences or informal arrangements with neighbours, to ensure that:

The archaeological site is not used for winter run-off pasture•

Inappropriate or unapproved fencing, gateways, or water lines or •

troughs are not installed

The land is grazed only lightly •

Treeland or artificial shelter for the animals, consistent with the•

reserve setting, is in place

The archaeological conservation values of the land should be assessed,and stock numbers, animal type, and grazing levels set so as to ensureprotection of those values. For a grazing licence, these calculations willalso give an indication of the price to be charged for the licence.

A suggested guideline is to maintain a grass height of 6–10 cm. On firmsoils in the north, this will mean an average stocking of no more than 10stock units (s.u.) per ha. (Stock units are further defined in the Glossary,see Appendix 5.) A fertiliser maintenance rate of 15–25 kg per s.u. is anaccepted rule of thumb to achieve these grass heights and grazing levels.The Auckland Regional Council recommends a base r ate of 375 kg per ha which for 6–10 s.u. per ha is a somewhat higher rate of application.These rates may be contrasted with rates for a high-producing dairy farmof about 1000 kg per ha.

Any reserve that is being grazed and which shows satisfactory conservationcondition can be checked to re-affirm this guidance. Stock and pastureconsultant Ross Duder notes that Mount Eden (Auckland) is stocked at4.5–7 s.u. per ha in spring and summer. Problem microsites and theoverall archaeological values of the area will still need to be monitoredclosely. Ross Duder also recommends that young cattle used on large

Figure 15. Grazing. A. Sheepare tracking through and

camping below these karakaon Pukerangiora Historic

Reserve. An early attemptto move the sheep off using

prickly branches has workedat one spot, but has displaced

the site of erosion down tobelow the trees. B. Light setgrazing by sheep (probably

less than 10 s.u. per ha) withample shelter, has protectedthe banks of Tapui, a pa near Manutuke, Gisborne district.

BA



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sites such as the Auckland cones need to be conditioned (trained) tothe presence of people, so that they do not rush about.

Figure 15B il lustrates the maintenance of very steep banks by usingset stocking of a few sheep for a long time with few fertiliser inputs.Although set stocking is recommended, it should be possible to manageseveral larger sites or reserve areas by rotating the same stock from onearea to another. One area can have no stock for a period, while theanimals are put to use elsewhere. Seasonal fire risks and roading andfencing practices to allow for grazing are further factors to be takeninto account. These technical points are covered in more detail later inthese guidelines.

Relevant factors in stock management on archaeological sites

Stock numbers up to 10 stock units (s.u.) per ha•

Stock-type sheep (preferably not rams) or goats, yearling cattle•

(equivalent of 5 s.u.) only

Permissible grazing seasons not in winter or very wet weather •

Set stocking is preferable to intensive rotational grazing•

Keep plenty of feed available; grass should be 6–10 cm in height (in•

the north this means average stocking of 10 s.u. per ha)

Fencing should not slice across a site•

Top-dressing soils should not be fertilised to maximise production•

but to maintain even grass cover and prevent erosion

No gates or yards on a site•

Stock water and shelter should not be supplied on the features of the•

archaeological siteSpecific comments on stock type and grazing intensity are given below in section 3.2 on farming practice. Another form of intensive grasslandmanagement is in areas used for haymaking or for amenity areas, suchas city parks. Their management shares some similarities with grazing.The advantages and disadvantages of intensive management are summedup in Table 3. They may be compared with a similar range of advantagesand disadvantages for native or low-intensive grassland management inTable 2.

Sheep tracking and camping, cattle wallows some solutionsAll grazing should be monitored to identify erosion hotspots. For anexample, see Fig. 15A, where sheep are burrowing for shelter in thebanks of a pa: trees on the bank appear to exacerbate the problem, asanimals are attracted to the shelter that banks and trees provide, andcreate destructive ‘camping’ grounds (Prickett 1985: 63–70). The questionto ask is: Why are the sheep camping at this spot? The answer is probably because it is level or can be made level by trampling and provides shelter from wind and sun (e.g. under a tree, on the north side of a bank, or beside a ruined wall, or where sheep can rub against a post).

Before a solution is attempted, the area of the paddock enclosing thearchaeological site and adjacent paddocks should be surveyed to see if



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alternative shelter is available in a less damagingposition. There is no point in diverting sheep away from their camping spots unless there has beenadequate provision for shelter elsewhere withinthe paddock. The paddock configuration could bedesigned or re-arranged to allow stock access to

this shelter (e.g. by including an existing patch of trees or part of a windbreak). If there simply isnone, a means of providing it should be sought.Small patches of trees and undershrubs could beplanted inside a temporary fenced-out corner of apaddock. Within 5 years, the temporary protectivefence could be removed to allow the sheepback in. Otherwise, movable forms of shelter (e.g. wooden hurdles, constructed up to 2 m long,with slats) could be provided (Fig. 16A).

Where patches of erosion have formed, it is bestto deter sheep by piling branches with plenty of twigs on to the erosion scars (Fig. 16B). It isdifficult to get complete coverage, and ingenuity of sheep in displacing brush or slightly relocatingtheir camping should not be underestimated. Anadvantage of the branches is that grass will readily grow underneath and the branches will eventually rot away. Another method is to use short lengthsof recycled chain-link mesh fence ( say about 2 mlong, stapled on to two or three battens) placed

in a slightly elevated position over the erosionarea and its margins (Fig. 16C). Grass will grow underneath. The fenceportions can be made in a workshop and easily transported to the field.This also works well where sheep are burrowing or working their way into banks. The wire can be pulled up every 18 months, so that it doesnot become fixed beneath tall grass, and can be re-located to problemareas elsewhere.

TABLE 3. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES AND INTENSIVELY MANAGED GRASSLANDS.


Legumes supply nitrogen Cost of fertilisers and lime

Amenity grass varieties have good cover, low growth and Winter is period of peak need for grass which may lead todrought resistance undesirably high stocking in that season

Fencing and gateways may be designed to assist conservation Stock camping, tracking around ill-designed fence lines

Varieties tiller, therefore good ground cover Pugging and erosion around water troughs

Stock numbers may be kept low; grazing rotated Risk of erosion, severe erosion if overstocked

Varieties palatable Severe erosion if stocked with cattle

Reduced scope for weed and shrub erosion Water must be supplied for cattle

On flat land or easy slopes, can be combined with mowing,and hay-making

Little net cost when farming returns considered

Tread-resistant, may be used in pathways

Figure 16. Shelters andbarriers. A. Wooden hurdles

with slats to provideshelter for sheep. B. and C.‘Uncomfortable’ temporary

barriers to stop sheepcamping.



48

2.2.7 Native shrublands

Where an archaeological site is not meant for public visitation, and whereit is not in stable native treeland cover, the objective should be to createand maintain a thin-stemmed, densely canopied cover, such as a manukashrubland. Figure 17 shows a deci sion-making process for maintainingsites in a thin-stemmed native shrubland.

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� �

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�

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Many native shrublands are nurseries for large tree species. However,large trees are not a desirable cover on a site where the stratigraphy isto be preserved. (They may be acceptable on sites which are open to thepublic and where the main point of interest is in the surface earthworks.)On archaeological sites, all potentially large trees will require regular inspection. Specimens w ith the potential to grow to more than 10 cmdiameter at breast height (d.b.h.) will need to be removed. This includesolder-growth manuka, although an even-aged old stand should not befelled. The interval between inspections will depend on growth rates of the trees, and can be determined by the local land manager.

Kanuka and manuka brush

On bare soils, especially subsoils exposed in old roadways or on heavily eroded banks or ridges, manuka mats may be of use. The objective isto get the seeds of the manuka to settle on the soil surface. Branchesof manuka or kanuka are scattered and pegged down, or laid in loosely woven mats. This can be done at any time of year for manuka, but only in March or April for kanuka. Before the branches are gathered, they should be checked to ensure that seed capsules are present and that they have not released seed. The brush layer should be thin to allow plenty of light to reach the seedlings.

Figure 17. Managementissues and likely ecological

processes in nativeshrubland.



4 9

Applying brush will be most useful on any areas of bare subsoil for example, in mitigating the effect of a road or track scar or in holdingslips on the steep ground below archaeological sites in hill country.Brushwood held by short stakes driven in rows across a slip has theadvantage of applying an instant poultice to a bare surface to reduce rainwash. Brush is also useful in preventing or healing ‘desire lines’ created

by people walking outside of designated tracks.

2.2.8 Native forests and treelands issues and guidance

Many sites which were maintained in bracken and shrubland by nineteenth-century burning, and subsequently farmed, will have had littletree growth. These sites will include most ridges in populated areas inthe North Island. Regeneration of native forest on these sites will bedestructive in the long term and should be controlled.

On sites where forest is regenerating (provided significant stratigraphy hasnot already been destroyed), it is recommended that any young tree with

the potential to grow larger than 10 cm d.b.h. be felled. Destruction of stratigraphy may be supposed to have occurred in any areas where treeshave grown to a large si ze (over 30 cm d.b.h.). Inspection of parts of thestratigraphy of the site by excavation may be desirable. In any event, thefelling of stable, mature native treelands is not recommended.

On some soils, tree roots may not penetrate very deeply, particularly if there is an iron pan, stones, or indurated ash shower close below thesurface. However, most archaeological sites contain layers and pocketsof very fertile soil and are above any hardened layers, making themvulnerable to root growth.

Manuka and kanuka are often preferred as a nursery crop for larger native species whether naturally recruited or planted. On archaeologicalsites, the recruitment of potentially large tree species into manuka shouldbe monitored over a 20–50-year time period. Trees should be removed(or selectively removed) where that is prescribed for in a conservationplan. (Plans should allow for such removal.) Kanuka larger than 10 cmd.b.h. should be removed, not only because of the root growth, but alsobecause this species is prone to wind-throw.

In many situations, archaeological sites exist in areas of former pasturedestined for overall native revegetation. Examples are the reserves on

Motutapu Island, Tiritiri Matangi, and Mana Island. A conservation plan inthese circumstances will often allow for, or prescribe, a mosaic of grassover the archaeological sites and planted shrubland and developing forestin the balance of the area. Sometimes this pattern will be present in mixedshrubland/grass areas where grazing has simply been removed. Excludingan area from grazing without additional planting will also often result inan increase in weed species, some of which can grow into substantialtrees. It will be necessary to allow additional resources for weed controlwhen leaving open areas ungrazed. If not, the shrubland will come toshade the grassland, reducing the latter’s ability to compete, and theshrubland and trees will naturally encroach. In these circumstances theencroaching shrubland should be taken back to its planned or original



50

boundaries around the grassland. Native tree protection provisions indistrict plans will take precedence over any special-purpose plan suchas a conservation plan. These provisions are becoming more commonand restrictive, particularly in urban areas. Special council permissionwill be required in some circumstances to remove trees. Also, removalmay be allowed in a current land management plan, but it may not be

allowed in 20–50 years’ time. Conflicting objectives may therefore arisein such circumstances, with the risk that native vegetation protection willuniformly prevail over archaeological protection. Shrubland or gorse areasare sometimes underplanted by people interested in promoting futurenative forest regeneration areas. Managers responsible for archaeologicalsites in such areas must work to ensure that such planting is done inaccordance with the objectives of archaeological site protection.

Some trees are prone to wind-throw in the medium term (50–150 years).Examples are rewarewa or wattle, which are both trees that can grow to a large size and become unstable early in a forest succession. They should be removed if there is reason to believe that they will becomeunstable within 5–20 years, or if monitoring shows that they are causingsite damage.

Figure 18 shows the general procedures carried out at Te Koru HistoricReserve, Taranaki, to remove potentially damaging trees and to improveground visibility and ground covers (for the conservation plan, seeDepartment of Conservation 1998). In this context, where ground-levelvisibility is required, it should be remembered that some smaller species,such as whauwhaupaku (five-finger) or mahoe, coppice vigorously withprobably little slowing down in root growth when the stem is cut. Thestumps should be treated with a systemic herbicide immediately after cutting; if treatment is delayed, the application of herbicide becomesineffective.

Trees that were probably introduced to the vicinity of a site by Maori,such as ti (cabbage trees) or karaka, should be left as elements of thecultural landscape. Karaka can form dense thickets of seedlings whichthin out naturally. In particular places, such as the edges of banks or inruins, they may need to be removed. Any increase in coverage by suchspecies should only be according to a conservation plan. Generally, they should not be allowed to cover archaeological features.

In grazed grassland areas, the ground beneath individual trees or grovesof trees will be used by stock for shelter. An evaluation of the effecton the site should be made. Such trees or groves should be removed if damage is or will be severe in the long term. Alternative shelter shouldof course be provided. This may be arranged by new planting in atemporarily fenced area or by re-arranging fence alignments and paddockareas to incorporate shelter.

Principles for native shrublands and tree cover

If an earthwork site has a stable tree cover (i.e. coverage of long-•

lived species), leave it alone stable cover equals stable surfaceearthworks.



5 1

If trees are potentially unstable (e.g. rewarewa or wattle), they should•

be removed according to specifications in a conservation plan.

Allow for replacement canopy by planting in seedlings or allowing the•

growth of naturally adventive broad-canopied trees such as puriri or karaka (both culturally appropriate to sites).

Protect the existing and future canopy trees in any site operations.•

In regenerating forest, remove trees that have the potential to grow •

bigger than 10 cm d.b.h. Removal should allow for canopy replacementwith low density of stems per unit area if long-term forested cover issought.

Bare land or cleared land should not be planted in trees or shrubs,•

but suitable low ground covers should be planted either from seed or container seedlings.

2.2.9 Gallery forest and canopy maintenance

A gallery forest has wide-spaced mature trees with single boles whichsupport a closed canopy. The concept can be seen in natural forestswhere the forest floor has been immersed in silt or gravel during floods or

Figure 18. Suggestions for reducing risk from unstabletrees (rewarewa), opening-

out a gallery forest, andenhancing canopy and

ground cover at Te Koru.



52

where goats have destroyed the understorey. The closed canopy reduceslight (and hence the potential for weeds) and erosion from rainfall, whilethe widely spaced single boles allow visibility of the surface features.Figure 19 shows a good example of a naturally established beech gallery forest over the cemetery at Lyell. The canopy also suppresses muchweedy growth, but not all privet is a weed that will establish in poor

light. Where there are large trees already on a site or reserve, a carefulsurvey is needed as part of the conservation plan to decide whether they can be converted to a gallery forest, and the canopy maintained ata density which protects the site from erosion. The following questionsneed to be answered before determining a plan:

Are the trees likely to be stable in the long term?•

Do they provide a spreading dense canopy?•

If thinned, will the site be seen amongst the boles of the trees?•

Can fallen trees be easily removed without damage to the site?•

Is the canopy too dense, causing dry erosion of banks and reducing•

potential growth of desirable ground covers? What saplings can be planted to eventually replace the canopy trees•

that are cut?

Are there particular trees that are causing a problem or will cause a•

problem to particular archaeological features (e.g. trees at the headof a bank)?

If the site is to be kept open for public visiting and viewing, it willbe possible to thin out the trees, while still maintaining a canopy toprotect the ground surface from erosion and reduce weed growth. Puriri,mangeao, tawa, karaka (culturally appropriate), kanuka and most treeferns are the main species that may lend themselves to management asgallery forests. On Te Kahu o Te Rangi, Kapiti Island, the shrublandsand trees along a transect from high-water mark to tawa forest (Fig. 20)are maintained to protect stone-faced terraces and archaeological features

Figure 19. A gallery forestof beech and kamahi

at the Lyell graveyard,West Coast. The ground

slopes and is vulnerable toerosion because of the highnumber of visitors who are

attracted to this notablecommemorative setting.



5 3

Figure 20. Suggestions for managing an early stage of a coastal forest succession on a sitewith ruins, on Kapiti Island. A. Plan of the area, with the location of the cross section marked.B. Cross section. On the flat, flax and akirahoshould be maintained at the sea’s edge. A littlefurther inland, karaka on the flat is thinned tocreate a gallery forest. Aged kanuka should befelled and removed before they are broken or heaved by the wind.

on the coastal strip. The karaka and kohekohe treeland is managed as agallery forest so that the archaeological features can be seen.

It seems that puriri planted and maintained so that it retains a straightbole and spreading canopy at a heigh t above about 6 m is the mostsuitable species for planting on archaeological sites. Of course this is in

B

A



54

warm temperate areas with little frost, or where puriri occurs naturally.Spacing of specimens is a matter for judgement, but one sapling per 20 m 2 may be suitable. Thinning could be carried out later. The most desirabletrees with the right bole and canopy form will manifest themselves andunsatisfactory specimens can be removed.

In moist areas, kamahi and tree fern will grow easily. Kanuka is suitableon most harsh sites, such as dry ridgelines or exposed coastal headlands,where it may form a stable forest. Generally, these are seral species;experimental trials are needed to see whether they can be re-plantedto renew cover in cycles of 30–60 years. Where tree growth with thepotential to cause deterioration of a site has been removed, care shouldbe taken to retain seedlings/saplings desirable for eventual canopy main-tenance, or to plant saplings that will fill this role. On most sites wheretrees have been removed, the rapidly establishing natural adventives atground level will provide a good degree of protection from surface ero-sion. For example, Fig. 21 shows f ireweed and broad-leaved poa on a pain the Bay of Plenty, where potentially unstable rewarewa trees have beenremoved. Figure 22 shows a satisfactory shrubland cover of five-finger and toetoe on an archaeological site on the Coromandel Peninsula.

(For tree removal/felling, see section 2.5.1, below.)

2.2.10 Weeds

Many weeds are present on archaeological sites. (The statutory expressionis ‘plant pests’, but ‘weed’ is the commonly used word.) Weeds providea reasonable stabilising cover on many sites (see discussion below ongorse and blackberry). Some can grow in deep shade (and hence prevent

establishment of native seedlings) and can be useful in preventing dry erosion. Weeds may be retained, but only where the species are already present/common and widespread in the locality. The Biosecurity Act1993 and consequent regulation require landowners to control certainplant pests. Local regulations will need to be checked with regionalcouncils.

The main risk to the site from weeds is that they reduce visibility andlead to the site’s existence being forgotten, with subsequent use of heavy machinery to clear the weeds. Careful consideration is needed tobalance weed control imperatives with the need to retain some form of

cover. Historical relevance to the site must also be considered. In many instances they will have been plants brought in by the original inhabitantsof the place. The vine Eleagnus sp., for example, was once commonly used as an ornamental hedging plant.

Any intervention in archaeological site management (including the removalof grazing animals) risks an increase in weeds. This work contains noparticular guidance on weeds since this subject is increasingly well-covered by local government and DOC weeds specialists and procedures.Data on the distribution, identification, and control of weeds can be foundin several sources including the Department of Conservation NationalWeeds Database, and publications and services from the Forest ResearchInstitute and regional councils.



5 5

Figure 21. On Te Pari PariHistoric Reserve, following

removal of rewarewa, asatisfactory initial cover of

broad-leaved poa, sedges, andfire weeds has established.

Figure 22. An excellentconservative low cover of

five-finger and toetoe onthe slopes of a coastal pa

at Onemana, CoromandelPeninsula.

Thinking about weeds are they a problem?

Almost all interventions made to protect archaeological sites run the•

risk of increasing the numbers of weeds present.

Many historic reserves have small areas, patchy ecology, are adjacent•

to settled areas and, therefore, have high numbers of weeds.

Weeds on archaeological sites should be monitored.•

Plant pests that are not controlled by national or regional regulations•

should not be removed unless another stabilising vegetative cover isavailable.

Plant pests that are controlled by national or regional regulations•

should be removed and another stabilising vegetative cover, includinggrass, should be planted.

Long-term natural successions culminating in suitable native shrubland•

or forest cover will remove many weed problems.



56

Some weed vines and shrubs will prevent or smother succession.•

Heavy machinery must never be used to clear weeds on archaeological•

sites.

Gorse and blackberry

Both gorse ( Ulex europaeus L. and U. minor Roth) and blackberry ( Rubus sp.) may provide a practical protective cover and means of erosion control on archaeological sites which are not interpreted or opento the pub lic. Gor se in New Zealand can grow up to 5 m high withproportionately large roots. The roots are highly branched, usually witha deep tap root, and roots of large specimens will destroy stratigraphy.Dwarf gorse ( U. minor ), present in the Tauranga region, may be a better cover there than U. europaeus .

Some local authorities forbid planting gorse. In areas already heavily infested with gorse or blackberry, these plants may be tolerated, if not approved of, on archaeological sites. The legality of deliberately

maintaining gorse on a site could be problematic. Fire hazard is another potential problem. A stand of gorse used to keep the public off avulnerable site could be seen as a fire hazard by local land owners.In such instances, in the interest of retaining public goodwill for theprotection of archaeological sites, the gorse should be removed.

In general, the most desirable stand form is dense small-stemmedplants, maintained by occasionally removing large bushes to allow denseregeneration of young plants. Periodic burning will, of course, return thegorse to the start of its succession.

Gorse can be a nursery for native shrublands. Gorse seedlings andplants need full sunlight, and they can be eliminated by regenerating or planted native shrublands. If a native shrubland is the desired long-termcover, then the ground beneath the gorse should be checked for nativeseedlings. They will only be there if native forest or shrubland occursin the vicinity. Otherwise planting of natives within the gorse may berequired.

If maintaining a gorse or blackberry cover is regarded as inefficient,costly, a fire risk, or a source of infestation for surrounding ‘clean’ land,then a more appropriate and lasting cover should be planned. The removalof gorse and blackberry from an archaeological site is best achieved by

spraying, using one of the proprietary chemicals available. Gorse seed willremain viable in the soil for many years and ongoing control, coupledwith alternative shrubland revegetation (in areas of the site specified ina conservation plan) will be necessary.

Bulldozing must never be used to clear gorse or blackberry or any other cover from archaeological sites. If controlled by goats, both gorse andblackberry will provide suitable cover on archaeological sites on farmswhere these animals are raised.



5 7

2 . 3 N O N - V E G E T A T I V E M E T H O D S F O R S I T EP R O T E C T I O N

In some situations on archaeological sites, it is not feasible to have avegetative cover, or any vegetative cover will be ineffective. There is arange of potentially cost-effective physical methods that can be used in

place of vegetation. They can be divided into: Civil engineering applications (e.g. retaining walls, rip-rapped slopes,•

or groynes) to prevent large-scale river or coastal erosion a topicwhich is covered briefly under general erosion earlier in section2.1.

Application of synthetic or natural geotextile covers, either exposed on•

the surface or buried beneath other cover (e.g. soil, shingle, bark).

Site burial with or without geotextile membranes.•

Other technology, including composite vegetation and geotextile•

management of slope stability.

Applying particular surfaces to paths and viewing areas so as to control•

behaviour of visitors and reduce any damage caused.

Specialist engineer’s or landscape architect’s advice and resource consentsunder the Resource Management Act 1991 may be needed for some non-vegetative methods.

2.3.1 Bunds and underground cut-off walls

Where an area containing wet archaeological sites is being drained,lowering the water table may directly threaten buried wooden materialwhich has been preserved in the wet, anaerobic conditions. Further,the shrinkage of organic soils likewise exposed by a lowered water table may change the character of a site and its vegetation. Designingdrainage ditches, dams, pumping arrangements and tide gates so thatthe site or sites is not affected is important. Building a bank (or bund)to retain water on the margins of the site may be an effective way of preventing these threats. On some wetland sites in the United Kingdom,an impermeable sheet membrane has been inserted vertically in trenchesaround the site. The trenches were then packed with clay to hold water and maintain anaerobic conditions. Deliberate introduction of water tomaintain water-table levels may be required.

2.3.2 Geotextiles and geogrids

Geotextiles are synthetic or natural fibres, woven, felted, or mouldedinto sheets, with varying porosities. Geogrids are moulded (as opposedto woven) modules which can lock together to form sheets or mouldedporous sheets. They are commonly used in soil conservation and civilengineering applications. In the United States they have been usedto protect sites in stream-banks (Thorne 1988, n.d.). They also havepotentially wide use for a number of archaeological site conservationproblems (see Koerner 1990). Geotextiles can be used in a number of

ways laid on the surface or buried (Fig. 23), or as surfaces in drainagestructures.



58

In applications where geotextiles are buried, they take effect throughone of two different mechanisms. One is where the geotextile hassmall openings which filter soil particles, preventing smaller soil grainsfrom migrating into a coarser medium on the other side of the cloth.Puncture resistance is an important feature of filtering cloths because tobe effective, they need to be put into position without damage. The other geotextile mechanism is the strengthening and reinforcing of weaker soilmaterials.

For surface applications, some geogrids offer three-dimensional box-likeor honeycomb structures made up of many small moulded units that canbe locked together on the site. Some geotextiles designed for surface usehave biodegradable media as part of their structure so that they preventweeds (by excluding light) and can be used as a seedbed for grasses.Such textiles have a light steel open weave, sandwiched in or packedaround with organic material such as coconut husks. The material can belaid directly on eroded areas and is strong enough to withstand stretchingor being pinned down on slopes. The organic surface can be directly planted with grass seed and fertilised. It rots away quickly and the steelweave eventually rusts (Berry & Brown 1994: 34, 47).

Materials designed and sold as weed mats and shade cloths are sometimesrepresented as geotextiles; their utility outside their specific purpose islimited.

Geotextiles can also be used to reinforce slopes, thus taking the placeof gabions, sandbags, or other structural reinforcing devices. Laid onarchaeological surfaces, geotextiles can provide erosion control, improvethe efficacy of drainage, and protect against root damage by restrictingthe size of roots that can penetrate the layer. Sites can be protected by covering them with a geotextile topped over with soil brought in fromelsewhere (see deliberate site burial in section 2.3.3 following). Wheretrees or shrubs are planted on such a sacrificial layer of soil, a suitably tough moulded geotextile should assist in preventing penetration of rootsinto the site.

Figure 23. Open-poredmoulded geogrid provides a

base for well-bedded angular gravel protecting a middenon this track in the Ohope

Scenic Reserve, Whakatane.



5 9

Properties and uses

Surface uses for geotextiles and geogrids:

Protect against the erosive effects of raindrops and runnels•

Reduce the volume of runoff by retaining moisture on or within the•

textile

Reduce wind-erosion and modify the microclimate of the soil surface•

(Coppin & Richards 1990: 84)

Geogrids provide a hard surface for tracks•

Subsurface uses for geotextiles:

Separate archaeological layers and excavation surfaces from fill placed•

to protect them

Strengthen layers in tension across the plane of the fabric•

Allow air/water vapour/moisture to percolate so that layers are not•

sealed in an anaerobic state

Reduce growth of roots into an archaeological site•

Prevent the migration of fine particles into coarse aggregates (e.g.•

when used in drains or under paths)

Minimise the thickness of fill/aggregate needed to surface a buried•

site or a walking/vehicle track

A covering layer of soil protects a geotextile from sunlight and surfacetraffic. When planted over, the geotextile is bound into the soil by theplant roots. Buried beneath layers of soil as thin as 10 cm, planted-over geotextiles can:

Reinforce the soil surface layers in a similar way to plant roots•

Create preferential root-growth paths, and improve the lateral continuity •

of the root network

Reduce penetration of roots•

Form a soil-root-geotextile composite layer which acts as a surface mat•

protecting the site beneath

Reduce the risk of soil compaction•

Absorb part of the impact of foot or even wheeled traffic, thereby •

reducing compaction in areas of heavy traffic (Coppin & Richards1990: 84)

For tracks, or other high-use areas (e.g. around an interpretation sign),a filter cloth will minimise the thickness of surface gravel needed. If not used, the fine material (sand and silt) will work its way up intothe gravels (and vice versa), and the value of the gravel is soon lost.For almost all applications, joint and edge detailing is most important,otherwise applications will fail from the edges, even when the textile isperforming satisfactorily in the centre of the areas to which it has beenapplied. Turning the edges of a textile in and down into the ground andcovering them with soil is one minimal precaution to take. Geogrids canbe left on the surface, but again, the treatment of edges is important. They should be well feathered into or slightly buried under the surrounding

soil, bearing in mind any potential future erosion there.



60

Weaknesses of surface-laid geotextiles are:

They are prone to vandalism or pilfering•

UV degradation is inevitable, even with UV-resistant compounds•

By design, they are permeable to water, and when laid on slopes may •

trap silt or sand within the lower inside surfaces (facing the bank),leading to stress and failure of the textile

Good suppliers of professionally used geotextiles are Permathene(Auckland) or Maccaferri (Australia) (www.maccaferri.com.au).

2.3.3 Deliberate site burial

The objective of deliberate burial is to seal the site from damage suchas surface tracking, root growth, ploughing, etc. In New Zealand, afew sites have been buried, but without the benefit of an intermediary geotextile membrane. It is not known how satisfactory the longer-termresults of this will be. Examples are the midden at Tairua, covered by acar park; and pits covered at Port Underwood, Marlborough Sounds. Inaddition, there are many sites that have been buried by natural processesor engineering works, but again no systematic consideration has beengiven to their condition. The technique has considerable potential inengineering works programmes, and routine domestic house-building. Itsutility on steep ridge-top sites seems less certain.

Roots particularly large tree roots must be prevented from damagingthe stratigraphy of archaeological sites. The introduction of layers of soilor gravel over a site to take up surface wear and root growth may beworthwhile on valuable sites, although the measure is unlikely to be of any use if large vigorous trees are planted. This protective layer shouldalso be considered in the protection of sites from other uses. Sites couldbe buried under roads, car parks, and buildings and building yards.

Deliberate burial of archaeological sites

How deep to bury?

No more than 1 m•

Advantages of burial

Can provide good protection for underlying features•

Sites are protected from all damage caused by activity on the•

surfaceDisadvantages of burial

Site becomes less visible and its plan area will need to be clearly •

documented

Can cause changes to the physical, chemical, and drainage properties•

of the site

Increased pressure on the site and compaction of fill•

May break solid foundations or artefacts or displace their position in•

relation to site stratigraphy

On steep country, will increase loads at heads of slopes, leading to•

failure



6 1

Until examples of deliberately buried sites have been excavated andfurther investigated, the procedure should be regarded as experimental.As a general rul e, no more than 1 m thickness of soi l (estimated to apply a pressure of 10 psi) should be laid over a site, or the minimum depthto protect the site in relation to the likely depth of future disturbanceshould be used. This will minimise the risk of compression of the site

but still give a good protective cover. Consideration should be given tothe thickness of the existing topsoil which will have developed sincesite abandonment. Although it is an integral part of the site, it can besacrificed and provide some protection for the main layers of the sitebeneath. A thin layer of added soil (30 cm) will reduce or res trict topsoilformation and incorporate the existing topsoil as part of the protectivelayer.

Small amounts of fill may be added over areas where midden may beexposed, preferably over a geotextile. There should be no risk of further erosion leading to exposure of the geotextile. If not carried out withcare, the process of spreading the cover soil could be very damagingand offset any protection that it may offer. The surfaces and soil shouldnot be wet, and friable soils will need particular care. Wheeled machinesshould not be allowed onto the surface to be covered. Tracked machinesare generally preferable, and hydraulic diggers are likely to be the best.They should extend the area covered in one pass, working from thefilled area, so that they track over and consolidate the full depth of newly deposited soil. Tracks should not be turned or slewed over thesite surface. Trucks bringing material to the site should unload outsidethe area to be covered and the material then lifted or pushed into placeby the digger. If the area to be covered is large, self-propelled scrapers

may be acceptable to pass over the uncovered surface, but some trialsadjacent to the site would be a wise investigatory step to take first.

Unintentional effects of burial (from Thorne 1989) may include:

Physical changes such as changes in drainage and water table;•

compression, especially of softer layers or voids, or creation of discontinuities in stratigraphy; crushing or breaking up of artefacts,solid foundations, or delicate floors.

Chemical changes such as more acidic conditions will damage shell,•

bone, iron, and other metals; more basic (alkaline) conditions willlead to deterioration of wood, plant remains, some glass and ceramic

glazes, and metals; drier conditions will enhance protection (unlessthe deposits were previously wet anaerobic); wet anaerobic conditionswill enhance the preservation of plant remains but, if accompanied by increases in acidity, will damage most other site contents; increasedwet conditions will create more plastic stratigraphy.

These effects will be difficult to judge. A rule of thumb would be toexercise caution if the burial will:

Be deeper than the equiva lent of 1 m thickness of soil cover •

Change drainage factors to create drier or wetter conditions•

Differentially affect soft or plastic parts of stratigraphy •



62

Lead to greater stresses on hard or longer components (such as solid•

foundations) which are in more plastic surrounds or stratigraphy

Increase pressures at slope margins or at the head of scarps, increasing•

risk of slope failure

Also, be careful where ceramics, glass, or other readily broken artefactsare likely to be present at the site.

Protection of a site from activities such as backyard play or gardeningwill requir e no more than 30 cm depth of fill. If there is an existingtopsoil over the site , the fill could be as th in as 20 cm on level surfaces.Fill other than soil may be used with care. A geotextile and a layer of sand should be in place before using demolition fill. Large boulders (over 60 cm diameter) should not be used in landscape s chemes over sites.Gravels laid over geotex tiles should be no more than 30 cm thick.

2.3.4 Building platforms/eng ineering applications on sites

In recent years, the Museum of London, working in that urbanenvironment, has investigated a number of issues: fill stability and usingfill as a foundation; the utility of reinforced concrete slab foundations;and the practice of piles being inserted through a preliminary concreteslab foundation (Nixon 2004).

Foundations are best seated on rock or deep into the subsoil, so currentpractice in excavation and setting of foundations invariably does greatdamage to archaeological sites where they occur. However, it is possibleto test the load-bearing capability and the consistency of archaeologicaldeposits with a view to designing suitable slab foundations to be emplacedon the surface of the site. One method is to set a waterproof skip onthe site and to fill it with water while observing the degree of settlingusing theodolite observations of marks on the four corners of the skip.Obviously, minimal and even settling of the archaeological deposits isdesirable. (A skip full of water 1.2 m deep is exerting a pressure of justover one tenth of an atmosphere: 4 psi.)

If the ground at the site is stable, a slab can be poured. Piles for wallsor other core elements of the building can be excavated through the floor of the slab with a minimum of disturbance to the archaeological site.

All these techniques would require authority under the Historic Places

Act.

2 . 4 F I R E

2.4.1 Preventing fire

In areas with dry summers where visitors to a site could cause fires, a sitecovering which has low flammability is desirable. Uncut, long grass couldbe disastrous in areas where people might get trapped. Spraying, mowing,or grazing may be needed late in spring to make a fire break around a

site that is predominantly grassed. Large sites could be segmented withmown strips, the exact position of which should be determined by a fire



6 3

control management plan. Care should always be taken to avoid creatingbare ground that might erode.

Some changes in vegetation cover may be desirable. Fire-resistant speciescould be planted at key locations such as a car park, or planted or allowedto grow in areas that provide a key to slowing or stopping the spread of fire. Shrubs or trees with low flammability such as five-finger, taupata,karaka, kawakawa or poroporo can be planted in ‘green breaks’ (densebands) to form a moderate fire break where needed. Flax is regardedas a species of moderate flammability. The Forest Research Institute hasrecently published a pamphlet and a report on the flammability of variousspecies (Fogarty 2001).

On coastal sites, ice plant (the New Zealand native horokaka, Disphymaaustrale ) or other succulents such as the native spinach ( Tetragonia tetra- goides ) may be satisfactory. Near urban areas and where already present,the introduced ice plant Carpobrotus edulis may be propagated. Localspecies will usually be found that can be adapted to protective use.

2.4.2 Fire for site conservat ion

Managed fire has some potential for maintaining archaeological sites.Continued wild fires have had the effect of maintaining sites in goodcondition in some areas (e.g. around the margins of the UreweraRanges; Fig. 9B). The use of fir e is under consideration for certainnature conservation purposes also. These include grassland maintenance,generally to prevent natural succession for particular purposes, and toreduce fuel loads and minimise the effect of accidental fires. Problemsinclude technicalities such as when and how often to burn, fire control,

and the potential for undesirable weeds to increase (Allen et al. 1996). Atthe Richmond National Battlefield National Park, United States, prescribedburning is used to promote the regeneration of native grasses and tocontrol woody plants. Problems recognised there include ‘the inherentrisk of fire escape’, ‘the unpredictability of good burning days’, andincreased surface erosion (Aust et al. 2003).

Archaeological conservation objectives where fire might be useful are:

Where a site needs to be maintained in early successional stages such•

as grassland or young manuka

Where the character of a historic landscape needs to be maintained•

(e.g. grassed ridges and faces with open treelands in valleys) Where low impact on surface profiles is important, compared with other •

methods of grass or shrub control such as line-trimming or grazing

Factors which may suggest that fire should not be used are:

Community attitudes, public safety factors•

Potential for certain weeds to grow vigorously after the fire, especially •

legumes such as broom, gorse, or wattle

The management costs of a fire controlled or not which may be•

high

The presence of some desirable plants (such as cabbage trees or flax),•

or desirable animal species, which may be killed



64

Wooden structural remains, and possibly metal and glass, on nineteenth•

and twentieth century sites, which will be destroyed by fire

Exposed artefacts (such as stone flakes on stone quarries), which may •

be altered by fire

Reserve boundaries, which may not be designed to allow the fire•

to be easily or effectively managed (some small islands and narrow peninsulas excepted)

2.4.3 Fire control management plans

Management plans must have provisions that prevent bulldozing as•

a fire control measure, even where this may increase the cost or difficulty of putting out the fire

Management plans must be written so that the potential historic•

conservation benefits can be realised; a greater area could be left toburn to more manageable boundaries than for other classes of reserve,if life and property are not at risk

All managed fires require a written prescribed burn plan and a fire•

permit approved by a Rural Fire Officer (Department of ConservationFire Control SOP QD Code: C/1022).

2 . 5 S P E C I F I C S I T E M A N A G E M E N T T E C H N I Q U E S

2.5.1 Problem trees

Some trees pose particular problems for archaeological sites. Trees thatare rapid-growing, or that form an intermediate stage in forest succession,or both, are especially difficult. Mature rewarewa on Taranaki reserves,for example, is prone to wind throw and can cause damage if growingon an archaeological site. Wattle, a typical tree of early coastal hardwoodsuccession in the Bay of Plenty, is another tree that is prone to windthrow.

In the last 40 years, before legislative site protection measures werefully in place, a number of archaeological sites were planted in pineforest. Although these trees may have protected the surface features of the site, their roots will have damaged stratigraphy. In addition, their eventual felling, hauling and log staging puts the site at risk of complete

destruction. There are, however, methods of removing the trees thatminimise the risk of site damage.

One approach is to cut trees down while they are small (perhaps atfence post size). At the other end of the harvesting cycle, it is not anoption to leave isolated patches of trees unfelled on the archaeologicalsite area, because they will be prone to wind damage.

The following procedures should only be executed by professionalharvest planners and tree-felling specialists. They are detailed here so thatarchaeologists advising on forest harvest have a grasp of the techniquesthat have potential for use.



6 5

When a tree is cut down, its head hits the ground with considerableforce and it is worth taking steps to ensure that it does not damagefeatures of an archaeological site (Fig. 24). It is possible to fell a treewell away from the falling position indicated by its natural lean. Winchingthe tree, orientation of the scarfing cut, and wedging the back cut or a combination of all three can be used to fell a tree quite accurately in a desired direction. The direction of felling can be as precise as an

arc measuring ± 2 degrees in plan, measured from the stump , particular ly for trees of symmetrical form and with vertical trunks. This is sufficientprecision to be able to plan to avoid archaeological features or desiredcanopy replacement species. The ability to fell trees directionally shouldbe used to avoid upstanding earthworks and to get the tree to fall onprotective layers (Fig. 24; see also the section on Corduroy, below). Other factors to be considered are the disposition of neighbouring trees, andwhether there are high branches that may come down separately in thecourse of the tree falling.

Generally, the sequence of felling is the key to successful protection of the site. Trees around and outside the site perimeter should be felled firstso that trees on the site itself can be felled outwards. When felling trees,care needs to be taken to avoid them hanging up on the neighbouringtrees and to avoid problems with rotten trees or branches suspendedaloft (Figs 25 and 26).

Procedures for tree felling on archaeological sites

Direction and sequence of felling is the key to successful protection•

of the site

Safety of personnel is the paramount consideration and should be•

entirely at the discretion of the logging supervisor

Figure 24. Heavy branches come down with great destructive force on earth works.A. On the pa Te Rau o Te Huia, Taranaki, a log corduroy has been laid to receiveone branch. (The logs forming the corduroy should be longer than those used here.) B. Another smaller branch has come down on a corduroy with no damage to thesite.

A B



66

Initial cutting of limbs can be carried out to change the natural lean•

of the tree and reduce its mass

Large horizontal limbs which would spear into the site should also be•

removed before the tree is felled

If resources permit, piecemeal cutting and lowering of sections from•

the top down can reduce damage

Branches or small trees may be placed on or near the areas to be•

protected so as to cushion the impact from felling of large trees

‘Sacrificial’ felling of small trees to protect archaeological features is•

best done at the earliest stages of felling

Felling along the line of existing features, e.g. ditches and banks, rather •

than across them will assist to preserve the form of these features

In some circumstances, it will be necessary to decide whether to extractthe trees, to poison them, or to fell them to waste. Hauling may not bepossible or, in the interests of site protection, they may be best felledinto ground that may be too difficult for recovery (e.g. over a cliff).

In other instances, where both archaeological site valuesand wood values are high, helicopter removal of fallentrees could avoid damage from hauling logs through asite. Slash should generally be moved as little as possible,but cut finely so that it is in contact with the groundand rots quickly.

Because many sites are on friable ground, not only machine and log movement, but also unnecessary foottraffic needs to be avoided.

After trees are felled, consideration should be givento the vegetation succession on the site. Native shrubspecies, tree ferns, ferns, grasses, and sedges will alsoprovide useful successional cover after felling. The riskof damaging weeds (e.g. pampas grass, seedling pines)becoming established should be considered. Control mustbe planned for, and indicated in any management plans for the site, including new forest compartment managementdocuments. Weeds and wilding pines will need to bemonitored and sprayed with a herbicide or cut downbefore they become too dominant in the succession.

Corduroy and its use

Corduroy is a protective layer formed from branches/timbers (no less•

than 10 cm in diameter), up to 2–3 m long. It is placed at right anglesto the line of tree fall, particularly where the upper part of the treeis expected to land.

It is needed at especially vulnerable places, such as the edges or tops•

of banks.

The head of a felled tree comes down with considerable force and•

the corduroy should ensure that it does not impact on upstandingearthwork features.

Figure 25. On Te KoruHistoric Reserve, a rewarewagrowing in an unsatisfactory

position at the top of arevetted bank has just been

felled. It has caught in somehigh branches of the other

trees and the base has sprungto the right, missing the

corduroy (visible just above

the cut of the new stump).



6 7

Figure 26. Felling problem trees within the gallery forest of Te Koru Historic Reserve. A and B show two different procedures for successfultree removal without damage to the site. (See also Fig. 25.)

Old car tyres, tied together, can be used instead of timber.•

The minimum extent of a patch of corduroy should be three logs/ •

branches placed side by side, with their length spanning an arc of 10–15 degrees in the line of intended fall.

Corduroy will be difficult to place if the tree to be felled will fall•

across the line of a bank. Felling of smaller trees along the line of the ditch, to form a tangled mat on which the big trees will fall, may be easier to implement.

Corduroy may also be used as a temporary track for hauling logs across•

a site.

An alternative to fell ing trees is to poison and leave them to die (Fig. 27).

Ring-barking is effective on most species provided it is accompaniedby application of a poison solution to the cut. The main advantage of

this method is that the dead trees will drop branchesgradually and the trunks will be much lighter when they eventually break or fall down. Impact on the site willbe minimised and it is also a cheap method. However,ring-barking and poisoning of large trees should not beundertaken lightly. Dead upper branches may fall onvisitors, especially during heavy rain or wind. If, for some reason, a dead standing tree is subsequently felled,the upper branches are likely to fall unpredictably.

The best practice would be to close off an areacompletely for the duration from shortly after ring-barking/poisoning (no later than three months) to theeventual fall of the trees. Poisoning and ring-barking istherefore recommended only for sites not open to thepublic, where few management operations are neededfor the subsequent 3–5 years.

Where large trees have been felled, land owners or managers will be faced with the issue of whether or notto remove the logs. Hauling logs can be very destructiveand, if the public are not likely to visit the site, it may

Figure 27. A selection of young (c. 20 years) closely

spaced Douglas firs has beenpoisoned on gunfighter

pa Hinamoki I, WhirinakiValley. Scrub and ferns

grow in the improved lightcoming through holes in theotherwise closed canopy of

the Douglas fir trees.



68

be possible to leave logs to rot naturally, or to cut them up on the siteand leave them there. Piles of slash, logging debris, or logs too difficultto move should be stacked so that they keep contact with the ground.This will assist the material to rot quickly and minimise problems withclimbing or scrambling weeds establishing. If logs have to be hauled off a site, an archaeologist should be consulted as to the best route to take.

If feasible, corduroy or a causeway of spoil should be built to buffer any destructive effects. If they are not to be salvaged for timber, cut logsinto smaller sections to make their size more manageable.

When very large trees are removed in amenity areas, the stumps shouldalways be cut at, or close to ground level. This is cosmetically satisfactory in the short term. Small tree stumps can be easily removed by a stumpgrinder if access for the machinery is readily available. The temptation willbe to leave larger tree stumps. As they rot, they may leave sharp-endedribs of harder stump wood and cavities these are extremely dangerous,especially if visibility is obscured by long grass. Before this stage isreached, the partly rotted stumps should be ground or smashed with asledge hammer to as much a s 30 cm below g round surface. The cavitiesshould be filled with a suitable fill marked at its bottom by a geosyntheticcloth. The hole should be overfilled and left with a convex surface sothat the soil settles over time. However, if the site is to be mowed, thefill may need to be topped up from time to time as it settles.

2.5.2 Control of burrowing animals, pigs, petrels

The burrowing animals most likely to affect archaeological sites arerabbits. Well-meaning interventions, such as opening an area in shrublandso that the archaeological features are more visible to visitors, may provide the conditions that pigs and rabbits enjoy such as warmth andgrass and bracken growth. Rabbits and cattle can make a destructivecombination. If rabbits are concentrated on the archaeological site itself,then poisoning is likely to be effective. If they are widespread in thedistrict, then rabbit-proof fences may be desirable, to control populationmovement within manageable areas, followed by gassing, poisoning,ferreting, and night shooting in the site area (see also Jones 1993: 25).Good planning, persisting until the job is done, and making use of themost effective poisons available seem to be the key. Historic Scotland hasrecently published advice on ridding sites of burrowing animals (Dunwell

& Trout 1999). Gassing of warrens is the preferred method there.Pigs may be kept out by fences (Fig. 28; see also Aviss & Roberts n.d.).The design may be adapted for rabbit control by using smaller mesh sizes,but localised extermination and keeping numbers down in the districtwill be better.

Petrels burrow in many coastal headlands and offshore islands, and oninland mountain ranges. Their range is also becoming extended. Thereis no acceptable means of removing them from such areas. Any decisionto re-introduce petrels and other seabirds to areas with archaeologicalsites needs to be a balanced one, and will be subject to the authority

provisions of the Historic Places Act 1993.



6 9

2 . 6 E A R T H W O R K S R E S T O R A T I O N O R

R E C O N S T R U C T I O N

A conservation plan should determine whether restoration or reconstructionof surface earthworks is warranted. An authority under the Historic PlacesAct 1993 will be required.

2.6.1 Restoration

Restoration is most likely to be carried out where there has been recentdamage to a bank, or infilling of a ditch, or both (see Furey 1984).Cuts with faces more than 1 m high will need ca reful attenti on to the

soil used, drainage at the base, and reinforcement to prevent slippage.Reinforcement could be temporary (layers of brush, bracken, or hessianlaid in or knitted into the horizontal plane), or permanent (layers of geotextile or ‘bags’ made of geotextile) (Fig. 29). The brush or brackenlayer should be as thin as possible once compacted. Hessian can bedoubled over to increase strength. With geotextiles, the layers shouldbe positioned so that the edges of the geotextile are not visible on thesurface of the restored bank.

Geotextile or hessian bags are made by laying the geotextile on thesurface and filling over it. The geotextile is pulled back up over the fillat the intended line of the face and filling again on that surface, and soon. The face of restoration done in this manner will be unsightly unlesshessian, which will rot away rapidly, is used. Jute sacks could also beused.

New earth surfaces on slopes should be well-compacted. Grass and lotusseed should be applied before compaction. Rapid grass establishment isdesirable and watering may be needed. Annual ryegrass will establishquickly, but overall it is better to apply a mix of rapidly establishingand perennial grasses. (See Table 1; also Appendix 2, section A2.1, andAppendix 4 for more detail.) In many instances, it will make sense toobtain turfs from a local source. The base of an adjacent ditch may beone source, provided it is well filled with topsoil, and a note or other

Figure 28. Concept for pig-or rabbit-proof fencing for

archaeological sites.



70

Figure 29. A suggested procedure for restorationof minor breaks or slumps in earthwork banks;successive details of the cross-section A–B areshown below.

record is made of what has been done. The record of management actioncould be filed with the archaeological site record.

Fill is not always readily available; moreover, many New Zealand soilsare friable and will not compact readily. These techniques, therefore,need to be supplemented and varied. ‘Instant lawn’ or any commercially available turfs of firm consistency have sufficient strength to enable themto be stacked (flats horizontal) up a steep face (but not a vertical one)

in a form of revetting. Sufficient of the outwards-facing live grass willsurvive to establish a new cover. Rotting of the roots from the buriedparts of turf revetments may lead to a loss of strength and to collapse.Soil placed behind the turfs may force bulges at the base of the stack andthe soil can wash out with rain. Careful compacting is necessary. Theseare potential applications for the strengthening and filtering properties of geotextiles, used in combination with the turfs. Instant lawn is rich infertiliser and well watered when supplied. It is a potentially good cover where subsoil is exposed in banks or at the crest of banks. It was usedsuccessfully in restoration of parts of the standing redoubt at Pirongia(Ritchie 1995).



7 1

2.6.2 Reconstruction of archaeologica l features

There have been a few examples of reconstruction in New Zealand (seeJones 1989). The wish to reconstruct the original features of buildingsor other structures on their surviving archaeological remains is oftenexpressed, usually when tourist development or interpretation is inprospect. Reconstruction is a particularly difficult subject in heritageconservation. It is doubly difficult with archaeological sites, since theoriginal fabric is much decayed and it may be argued that it is only useful as a source of information.

The fashions and the ethics with respect to reconstruction have changedin recent decades. Something of the problem can be appreciated from theparadox that reconstructions are argued to be more ‘authentic’ when they are built on the original site irrevocably destroying that site. Generally,this practice is opposed by the ICOMOS charters (e.g. the InternationalCharter on Archaeological Heritage Management, Article 7), and also by other significant sources of published policy such as the US National Park

Service. The latter’s policy in 1983 was as follows.

‘A vanished structure may be reconstructed if:

‘Reconstruction is essential to permit understanding of the cultural•

associations of the park established for that purpose.

‘Sufficient data exist to permit reconstruction on the original site with•

minimal conjecture.

‘Significant archaeological resources will be preserved in situ or their •

research values realised through data recovery.

‘A vanished structure will not be reconstructed to appear damaged or

ruined. Generalised representations of typical structures will not beattempted.’ (United States National Park Service 1983, 44738; also Jones1993: 111–113).

This policy reflects NPS dissatisfaction with questionable reconstructionswhich were often designed to present a ‘typical’ representation and whichmight not have been on the site originally. A redoubt not sited on itsoriginal vantage point on the top of a hill is unlikely to feel correct. A broader ethical problem also arises where the reconstruction work is usedas the rationale or motivating factor in gaining resources to investigatethe archaeological site. The site may not be well investigated, because of time constraints, or for want of close consideration of precise researchgoals formulated in the light of the most advanced state of knowledge.These are broadly ethical problems. The problem may be summed up by the following sequence:

It is better to stabilise than repair •

It is better to repair than restore•

It is better to restore than reconstruct.•

In New Zealand, there are few reconstructions, so the ethical problemsrelating to authenticity and the destruction of original fabric have notbeen fully debated. Table 4 (next page) lists some of the advantages and

disadvantages of reconstruction of archaeological features.



72

TABLE 4. RECONSTRUCTION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL FEATURES.


Assists with interpretation of a place Will almost certainly damage original fabric

Gives a tangible result to archaeological research excavations Will be expensive, require maintenance and may fail

Original fabric may have been destroyed or greatly modified Has no patina, appearance of age or the accrual of change thatby excavation is part of heritage

May be able to incorporate and display elements of the originalfabric and offer vantage points



7 3

3. Ma a m t of it , fa mi , a fo t

a

A cha o o ica it ma fo mo t a . Thi pa t of th i i i p cific a ic to a am it ma a ,fa m , a fo t . It th mai ctio ho a to ai p t , t th ctio a to th i p o i a i top actica it co atio .

I a mo t a ca , p cia i t a ic i to t mi th xi t cof a cha o o ica it , th i t xt t, a th i a . Co ti afo o i th i i i ot a tit t fo t mi i h th a tho iti to mo if a q i th Hi to ic P ac Act 1993. A

ta ti poi t i th Hi to ic P ac T t it ( .hi to ic.o . z). A ai , p cia i t a ic i oft . Oth p cia i ta a h a itio a p of io a a ic ma o a ca -

-ca a i i c : co atio p a fo pa tic a a a , a capa a i iti to a cha o o ica it co atio , i i i ,

oca o m t q i m t , tat to a ma a m t p oc aco t , pa t a a a , fi i k, a t f i a fo t op atio .

3 . 1 A M e n I T y A r e A s O r r e s e r v e l A n d s w I T HP u b l I C v I s I T I n g

O a ma m of ct a acc i it , a ma a ma i h to ca o t a mo i t i fo m of ma a m t hich a o

fo hi h m of i ito . A f a 20 p op p a ca c ata patch o i fo ma t ack o a a a . A a a ,

a ith mo tha 5000 i ito p a m i ca fp a i of i ito t ack a oth faci iti .

Pic ic o ha t o ma a cha o o ica it , i c mo -

a pic ick ik th am h t pot that fa o Mao i a a e op a tt . wh a a cha o o ica it i to p t to th p ic, it ho a m that th i pa tic a pa t hich i com to ha m ch fami i ith ma chi .A thi hich co a o fo ma chi , ch a omt p of h ici p a , o ho co c a tatio , i hato a oi . e a k of a o oo p mic , hich chi ma t i to hi a t a pic icki , ca p t a .

Fi 30 ho t pica p o m a po i o tio fo a a a a co tai i a cha o o ica it a to hich th p ic ha



74

Fi 30. P o m a o tio i th ma a m t of a hi top pa it , at a a cap ca .

acc . b i th to o tai a tho iti th Hi to ic P acAct 1993, impo ta t p actica i a :

u ta i ho th p ic t acc f om th oa , a th•

ha io a of th p ic i a , hi th a o footo th it

Mai tai i a a , h a , a t a , a th i o i•

i it p ot ctio

d i i a ti i i i a oth t ct , ch a oa a k ,•

i i a a , a a i

3.1.1 Public access and use

Mo ito i a ho a th p op mak of th a ho faci iti co imp o . d i i a a commo

ph om o : t ack ma p op a th fo o hat i p c ito th t o mo t i t ti a a o th it . Th ho

t i q it c o fo t o a o : fi t, to ai a ta i of p op ’ a i t tio , a co , to i t th t affic i a a i tic

a o to imp o th t ack a i m t a co t ctio (Fi . 31).

A ctio of t ct i q i co t th r o cMa a m t Act a th b i i Act f om th t ito ia a tho it . som

a th o k ( . . fo t ack a oa i ) ma a o q i co t

th r o c Ma a m t Act f om io a co ci . Th n Z a aha ook: t ack a o t oo i ito t ct ( sta a n

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7 5

Z a a 2004) i co po at th b i i Co a ho fo o .It i h a oca o m t a ci a th d pa tm t

of Co atio .

Tracks and roads/car parks

b ch t ack to o t ca f o th o ot t o a cha o o ica f at ch a a k , i , o mi . A t ack oa cha o o ica it ho ai fo matio a o if c a

i ht c t i to th fac . Th ho ha a o th tic c otht th top oi fac a a t ack- faci mat ia ch aa . Thi mi imi ot o i t a c of th it , t a o th

amo t of a . Ca i a o ith ai a of t ack .

A o th tic ca ai o th i t oi fac a aai o th fac of th o th tic. Thi c at a a t ack

fac ith a mi im m thick of a a o i k of th ai a o i to th oi fac . u - o c o -t ack ai a ca p o i ot xti ‘t ’ i ath th fac a ,

a i ac o th t ack a fi ith a coa a . Th a of tht ho o o th o t i of th t ack.

n a i o f oo of i , a ho t ict o that itca ot kick o to p a t , a th, oft to o ick fac .C h ha m ta ith a a ho a oi . If a o

m ta t o to oft fac , it i o k i to th m a caama . I a , oft i a a of ach o i a itho ho fa o , p o i it i o tai a f . whoft ock ch a c h t ff, im to , m to o ath

ack a a ai a , th i ho co i . loca fa ma a a oo o c of a ic o hat oca a ai a mat iamak oo ch ap fac fo i ht t affic.

Structures towers, boardwalks, toilets, signs

I h a i a a , th i a i mo t p ac i p o a a to h aa ith i t- p a path a /o oa a k hich i ith ta

i a at o io a i ito acti iti . O t p op , a a ta

Fi 31. st p aai i ( i t to a acc pt

i i ta a ) oa o t ack

a i to a i poi t o thxpo p atfo m of a pa oMot a ohia, ba of I a .



76

ma tak of xi ti o o t , atio a i i th i m , ata i i i tho that a ct fo co ti i . Th maxim m

comm a o a a ki t ack i 15 ( sta a n Z a a 2004: ctio 2.5). I om it atio ( . . o a t p f i

a k), th o omic fo t ack ca ot ma to o k. rath tha i t o c a i a i t i t ct , om at a thi ki (q it

it a ) i q i . It ma po i to i t th t ack a t p toa a i a h .

Th f ctio of oa a k a /o t p i p ot cti f a i o o io -p o o - fac (Fi . 31) i f- i t. s t p a tai ca m t

p op i . Th a o omic fo th im ioa p opo tio of f i ht of t p hich ho fo o i a i t

t ct ( sta a n Z a a 2004: ctio 3.18). Th ho fo o h th i a a a fa i a path at tha 15 a

h th a ha to imp o o ma p at p cific i t a . If thi i a ot fo o , i ito i fi th t p comfo ta ,

a i co ti to ook fo a mak t ack a a f om th m.

wa ki o top of a t o k o a k ho i co a . b a a , th f at i a a th o k it it cha act , a th ca a too a i i . O o t , th t o - i i oft o tai f om a a ta poi t o th a t o k o at th topof th a k. P op t to a k a o th a k to o tai th i .vi i to co t ct a th it a o a tt o iq i tha a o tai a o th it ; i a ki i ito to ta off aa xp ai i h , a o io o tio to thi p o m. Th i ito co t ct at T Po ( o t ith f - ta i a ), oth c t a no th I a o ca ic p at a , ha co i a c th

m of p op a ki o th a th .

Toi t a fi p ac , ik tock f c , ho p ac c a of th it . siti ch f at q i a ic f om a a cha o o i tfami ia ith th ocatio . It i a i a to a k a a cha o o i tto ch ck th am it p a i o th act a o a to i t t-pitto th i o a cha o o ica mat ia p t.

A pa of a , oi , o c a , 15–50 cm thick, ma a f ic fo p ot cti pa t of a it h a o io i t i to occ . A

i c i ctio 2.3 no - tati m tho fo it p ot ctio thpa ma o ma ot ai a mo ot xti hich i

c th iz of oot p t ati to th it . d pth of th pa hoot mo tha 60 cm.

O i th a t of ci c m ta c ho oa o ca pa k i to a cha o o ica it . wh i ita , th ca f co atiop a i ith th o j cti of i at it ia ( ctio 2.3.3).

Barriers

Ma hi to ic p ac ha i h t i k (to a mo i ito ) that apa t of th i h ita cha act pa a oft o c iff , ict

t ct ha p ot ct fa o fai t ct a m t . Th of i k to i ito to ca f a a c a ai t th comp t c



7 7

a ca that mi ht x ci i ito , th i a i it of p o i iacc , a th i t i a xp of a i a oth t cto th h ita fa ic of th p ac .

da o o pa tic a a pa t of a it ma q i a i ,i c i tatio . Ho , tatio ch a o h /f ax ho

a a a i t i ito to a it , a a ch ac iff o i . Th ca a k th o h itho t i th a o ma o ha th a a th o ot off th ppo t to a t a fa . ba i t ct ho p of io a i ai ta t a m ( sta a n Z a a 2004: ctio 3.3.19–3.22).

Signs

si a i of a a commo i ma a a , t coa o mo tha at p t to h p co t o pot tia ama i

i ito ha io . vi ito ma a k ot to a k o o c im p

a k . O ca tak a oom i of th fficac of i , hp at fac ith i c of th ama that th a m a t to

p t. y t, th p o a ha a am io ati i f c tho hth ma ot p t th o t ha io . si ca a o toa i t ta i of th co atio p actic i at a itfo xamp , th of ta a , h a c a a c , t f i , o

t ictio o acc to c tai a a .

3.1.2 Vegetation management

Analysis of overall pattern of vegetation

Mo t i ha a a a c of a a i a , h a ( hichma a impo ta t m t of co t o ) a t a . Pa t of apa tic a it ma ha i t i ma a a to a o fo acc ,

oo i i i it of th it , a i f om th it . At th ma i of th a th ma a k o th a a po i p o m f ompa t a o to ma ip at th tatio th . Oth pa t of th

it ma ha p cim o i t , ch a a a poh t ka a. Ho ca th a co mai tai i th i o m t ? Th o -t mp oc hich aff ct a cha o o ica it co atio , th jo m t of

i ito , o oi co t , a oth a t facto to ca f

t i .Th co omica ma a m t of it i q i a mi im m of mo

a i a a that a impo ta t fo i ito acc , th mai t a cof i a c tai ki of co t o ( . . h oom i ap o m).

Roundup topping as a growth retardant

Thi t atm t i app i to kik i a t m , a oth a ip i . Th a a ta of ch t atm t a :

r c o th of •

Imp o a•



78

r c p i o th f h a fo f q t mo i /h a •

azi

r c tock m•

Imp o a pa ata i it •

Ki kik ( ik a f o t)•

r c fi i k•

Th i a a ta of ro p t atm t a :

P ic o j ctio to ch mica •

Po i pa tic a c t a o j ctio to o it•

A ia p a ift a a ia i it •

Mowing and line-trimming

Mo ho mo o i -t imm tha i th ca atp t. Th fo o i app i to it hich a ta i hmo i im . I th mo a a tti , a that a p ta ta i hm t m tho fo i p ci i p o c imat .Mo i it f i a t th compo itio of a a . O - o i of

a o app icatio of f ti i ma a a t i om a a .Thi ca a a t of tim a mo ca i o t o th a icof a a a p cia i t, ho ma i h to mak oi t t . Th p c ia f at of a cha o o ica it to co i . ba k ma ha

t i oi (th o p f om th a of th itch), ith itt top oi( ca of o io ). g a o f ti i ma t m to th a of th a k o th itch h it i ot . (F th ot o thi

j ct a fo i ctio 2.2.3.)

M ch mo i i too c o to th o a i om tim too f q t(Fi . 32A). Thi ‘ ca p ’ co x fac , ci th p ofi of a k ,a a o ki th a , a i a op i fo . Mo i h i ht

ho a mi im m of 7–10 cm o o a 10–15 cm oco x fac . no mo tha 2/ 3 of th xi ti a h i ht ho

c t. Fo t p a k hich ca ot ach af ith a mo ,a i -t imm i t (Fi . 32b).

If a it i to mai tai mo i o i -t immi , p a i to tak to t mi th app op iat f q c a to that acc fo th mo o mi ima ama to th a cha o o ica

it f at . T acto - a mo capa of i i o ac tti h i ht ma ha o oa a a , p o i th i

oo acc .

wh mo i i to i tit t , att tio to pai to i iacc o t . A majo a ack of mo , a i -o mo ipa tic a , i that th i a q i a moothi of fac aacc a a o th it . Th ma q i i acc a thaa a a p t. wh po i , p - xi ti t ack o oth acc

a ho , if th a ot th mo t co i t o t .Mo ificatio of th o i i a fa ic ( fac p ofi ) of th it i ot

j tifi , xc pt fo af t a o . If i -o hic af t i a i ,th ith ha -p h mo o i -t immi ho .



7 9

Mo i o i -t immi ho tim o that i a ati ach a Microlaena o oa - a poa ha a oppo t it to f o

a t . g a , thi i m a o mo i f om at p ith o h to mi - to at - mm .

If mo i f q c i c , th xi ti mo i q ipm t ma ot po f o o t o h to tack th o a hich ha

o i th i c a i t a . uti i i a mo i a o hak ock-o p o m ch a a acc a a h ama to th

it fac . Th o tio to thi t p of p o m, a a ci i f q tmo i ith a , mo o t machi , to th j ct of p a i a a j tm t i th co of th a .

T a - i ta c i a i a cha act i tic of th a i oma a of it hich c i hi h m of i ito . exi ti pattof a a ho a a . I a a o o o t h p opt to c at t ack , ma a to ci h th thi foot t affici to a o to co ti o ot. If it i to co ti , th a a o t ack co c i a a t m o p i o - o i of a f aa a f ta f c .

Mo i i a a f a of co t o i . I a a i hichmo i i iffic t a i hich ta a a i , ma

to co t o i a cti h ici . H ici ch aro p at f t th i ki a p a t a ho ot a p ac m t tati co i p a .

App ix 2 ( ctio A2.2) p o i a p cim o k p a fo mo io a a cha o o ica it .

What is needed for sward maintenance plans?

Mowing

A p a of th it ho i a a to mo / i -t imm•

P a acc a a c a i t ctio o th i a /o •

c atio

Fi 32. Th a a th oo i a -co ma a m t. A. ri -o mooft c at ca pi h th i a i i th o fac . b. ba k ho c t ith a - at .

BA



80

saf t co i atio fo mai t a c p op /co t acto a th•

p ic

sp cific mo i a i -t immi i t ctio tha•

7–10 cm, o 10–15 cm o a k a ot tha 2/ 3 of th xi tia h i ht

I t ctio to mai t a c p op to a oi ca pi a mo i too•

c o , a i k p cia h i mo ith ota a

A p a mo i ch hich tak p cia ca to a o fo •

i of ati a a ctio of fi i k th t o iha to a a c

Ensuring healthy grass growth and shrublands

O - o i p a a ca i o t a c a •

s i i atio , f ti i a im fo mic o it a app a•

c a

sp cif t atm t of ma i a a a a a a to ft to t•

T atm t of p cim t / o of t ithi th mo i•

im i -t imm o c a ho ith ca , toa oi ama i t / h

sp a i fo , p cia i of mi o t o h•

( o ) a a ch a kik

Mo ito i a i p ctio om o k o a a o t th•

a cha o o ica it a

Shrublands in amenity areas

I a , am it p a ti ho ha mo i ith th at a tatioof th a a a of th it it f. Th ho a a cap p a ip ac a pa t of th o a co atio o ma a m t p a to that th tatio hich i p a t o mai tai i i k pi ith thhi to ic a cap tti , to mai tai i i co i o a c i

a t i ht ( ch a mo ho i o a ca pa k) a jac t to a.

Th a m o fa t- o i ati that i q ick p o i h t .Th pitto po m , p cia P. eugenioides , mak api h o th atfi t a att acti ma t aft 20 a .Olearia arborescens

i a i ac fo c t h i f f o a , ith om p i , fo m

h o th. Pomaderris kumeraho fo m mo op ama h , t p o i a ma of oft o oom o a o

p io . A th p ci a to a t of ama a , mix ith f axa th t ati to to ( Cortaderia pp.), o fo m oo att acti

h t o ma it .

P a ti a o pic ic o i p -e op a it i a ook m ch mo app op iat if ati p ci a . Th i o

to p i t a o t ati tatio o -fi ht pa, e op a o t ,o ha i tatio . Hi to ic t o p ci i th ici it ch apop a co tai a pp m t ith t- i ta t fo m . O

fo m of h a am o commo ta i h at a a



8 1

at a o e op a tt m t a a a a i o o am io ch a ‘F icit t P p t ’ co f co , p cia

o a a k h th aim i to k p p op off. Oth i , a fo aa cha o o ica it , p a ti of t a h ho k pt at ami im m. s tai a xotic a co ho th aim.

wh p a ti h t to p ot ct a a i ito , . . apic ic a a , th po i i it of th p a t t p ci i o toth it ho co i a ch p ci a oi ka aka o ka o( Pittosporum crassifolium ) a xamp . O a o , h t fo p op ca a o i to p o i h t f om i o io .

3.1.3 Case study 1 Historic landscape

Wider setting

Thi ca t comp i a a i t (o 100 ha) p ot ct a a c ica c atio a . It ha ma i c t it a th majo pa.It i ocat i th o th no th I a , ith th a o o i a

o th oth . A Mao i r co tai i a pa o o too co . Th Mao i r i i ati fo t ith om a aof o a az a a .

Site description and condition

Th th pa it a of i - itch fo m ith iffic t acc to thp atfo m. Th a o oz t ack o to th p atfo m of t o of th m. Th t o a co i o . Th thi ha ot amaa ha a co of ma ka a h a , ith t f i th itch.v tatio o th t of th i patch ith a a of az

a a o , a om poh t ka a o th coa ta c iff . I th i ,th i ati ta a fo t. Catt a occa io a t i to azi i t . Th aim of th azi i to k p th a o a to k p

o tatio c a i th h a t a a a . Th t atof th it i f ia o ca ic c a a t ff.

Identification of management issues

Th i fo c atio a acti iti . som pa t of om it aimpact th a of ho . I th t a , th a m o

h hich ha cap f om th a a .

Problems Th i o op ati ma a m t p a•

Ta ata h a a co c a o t o io of t o ahi tap at•

p cific p ac o th it

Kik i p a i api th o h th a a a a•

Catt a o i th a k a campi i th h a a th•

t a

Mo tai ik i i i xac ati foot o io i om p ac•

Th t ack t o k i th i a i fo ma a p a•



82

Particular management issues v hic a ot a to t acc , t a a ca pa k i a jac t•

to th o a

r i h i i mp•

Th t ack t o k tho o h i a atio a i atio•

F ci tho o h i a imp o m t•

Th oca comm it i h to mai tai p t ia acc a op•

a a fo c atio a p po , a of th fo acc tofi hi pot a fo c ic ooko t

Management options

Th a ma a m t a ith om imp ati ch a thmai t a c of c atio oppo t iti a co-op atio ith i h o .To a at o xt t th fo o i optio a op :

Imp o co atio of th a cha o o ica a hi to ic f at•

r i c a ificatio•

d fi c t c atio acti iti a t o t th imitatio ,•

oppo t iti a p ac fo tho acti iti

I c a th at of p a ti to tat th a a hi k pi•

t ack a i poi t op

Co ti azi at th p t o i c a it•

do mo a o -i t i ma a m t i c i mo i of ct•

pa t

Management objective

Th ma a m t o j cti i to mai tai c atio oppo t iti aco th hi to ic f at o that th ca app ciat . Th

p cific o j cti ho to achi a o a co of taa a a t a that o a o p ic i itatio a t ict

th oppo t it fo i a io oo .

Recommendations/guidelines

Co tatio ho tak ith ta ata h a, a ith•

oca comm it i t t a oth tak ho .

Landscape/site evaluation r - a cha o o ica f at to t mi hich ho •

tai i a a fo it co atio , a cap i i i it , ai i i it to th p ic.

A a i to mai tai i a o a mi imi i t io of •

i a o .

Co ct a tai a atio of a cha o o ica f at a th i •

i a of i i i it to i ito .

d i a tatio p a aim at ci ati f at ch•

a i fo ma t ack o oth o io ‘hot pot ’ ( oca i f tti ) atock p if a .



8 3

e a at p actica mo i a azi im a t mi th•

app op iat amo t a at of mo i .

Map a i t a c i c i a oi a i ifica t a a of •

i a io .

Devise an infrastructure plan la o t i /acc pta fo iff t pa t of th it / •

a cap .

r i th xi ti i f a t ct a m t (path , ai , tc.)•

i c i i fo ma t ack a ‘ i i ’ o th it .

d i a f ci patt that a o co t o of tock i t a a a ,•

o that ati a ca ta i h, a i ta th f c .

d i fo imp o path , ooko t , ati , mo i acc a•

ai a .

Devise a vegetation management plan Th a q ac of xi ti f ci to a at . C o •

i i io ma to mi imi m of tock a p tacc to th i p f campi a a .

g azi ho t ict to th i c t ( f ci ), a o•

o i c tai a o (i. . o at p i a a t m ), aco t o i i t it .

wh p t, kik a co mo p a i ith•

pho at (ro p), a ati a ch a m a o ic a( Microlaena stipoides ), o a o - o i h ch a Muehlenbeckiacomplexa co co a i t a .

l o a - a a , hich ha fi i th a cap•

a atio a i to k pt c a , ho mo .

O a a to k pt i a a , mo i ho i tit t , ith•

a tti at a mi im m of 10 cm, o hi h p i o h th fac a co x o ot. A att mpt ho ma to ta i h

ati a hich i a apt oth to th a i i , a toth mi- ha of th a a of op fo t.

Th o a patt of th facto ho t mi to a o •

fo p ic a mo i -machi acc , a p o i a acc ptaacci ta -fi co t o p oc .

soi f ti it of mic o it ho ca i o t to t mi•

h th cti f ti i app icatio a i th p i aa t m a o .

A ic ho o ht o m a to ha c th ta i hm t of •

th ati a mo i o azi at th o tim ma makta i hm t iffic t ( ctio 3.3).

Shrubland and treeland I tho a a ot to k pt i a , a mix of h a a•

t a o co i t t ith o i i a tatio , Mao i a ,oi p ot ctio a am it f .

d fi a a i to hich app op iat ati t ma p a t to•

c at a fai op t a t o ot j ct to i a io .



8 5

Mo i ha too c o a i ca pi th top of a k .•

Management options

C a mo i a a o it to t to o a i th•

xp ctatio that atio of fo t i occ i xt 100 a .r t ict p ic acc .

r c co t azi th it ith o m of h p o a i•

catt . la catt a ot a optio if o ca of ack of at o c . sh p a ik to to off th it .

d i c a mo i a i -t immi p a that i a o oo•

co atio of xi ti it a a o a o fo co t o . somimp o m t to a co a th o co of th a k .

I tit t mo ito i to fi -t mo i a oth ma a m t.•

Imp o i to i fo m i ito a to co a th m to k p off •

a k a o t of pit .

Management objectives A mo i a i -t immi p a that i a o oo co atio•

of xi ti it a a o a o fo co t o .

Imp o m t to a co a th o co of th a k •

t mi i th t tim to mo to a o fo i , ci fii k, tc.

Recommendations/guidelines

P pa a co atio p a , i co po ati th fo o i poi t : ri -o mo ho ot o thi pa tic a it . O ha•

mo , th a ho t at a h i ht of 7–10 cm a o tho fo a a , a 10–15 cm o op o co x a a ch

a top of a k .

P o i o - it a i ta c h tti p a mo i co t act,•

a k th it ith th co t acto .

l m a oa af ho co t o .•

I tit t ro p ‘toppi ’ ( 3.1.2 a o ) a a m a of ci•

a o i a o th.

st p a k that ca ot af mo ho i -t imm .•

A h o th i th a a ho c t ith a c a a

a ith a t mic h ici to p t o th. u mo i patt to a i t i th co t o of i ito ha io ,•

. . k p o h o a o a k to t a ki th .

w - it i t p tatio i ho ct a ki i ito to ta •

off a k .

I a a h th a o patch , app op iat - i of •

a ho tak . C i i ata a f ho p a to th t p ha op of a k .

r a mo ito i ho i tit t .•



86

3 . 2 s I T e s M A n A g e d w I T H I n F A r M l A n d

la ith a m mic oc imat a ith o c of f h at p im pot fo Mao i tt m t i th p io f om c. A.d. 1400 to 1830.O ma a a of ch a i ithi n Z a a ’ fo ma p ot cta a t o k. Th t to ma a a of coa ta fo t . A

majo it of p -e op a a cha o o ica it xi t o p i at ofa m a ith imit o o p ic i iti . Th ma occ p o a

ma p opo tio of th a a of a fa m, t a oft f at hicha p omi t i a cap i a p ic app ciatio . O t i th

a m io , th a ti om it of Mao i o i i . I mo t a a ,th a oth impo ta t it ati to pa t i t ia o fa miacti it . s ch it o p ac a oft az o p o h . som f at

mai a th o i i m t of a a ci t pa t i th a cap .Th a impo ta t to Mao i a oth n Z a a a a a o

po ito i of xca at a cha o o ica ata. Th i p ot ctio i aimpo ta t o i atio of t t o p i at a o .

Th a ma a m t o j cti fo a cha o o ica it i fa m aho a t-co t i tificatio , p ot ctio , a ma a m t of th

a cha o o ica it , ith th a t po i t ictio o fa m acti it . Iti po i to i t at om a o a fa m acti iti o mo t it ,

t ot a . Fo xamp , ma a cha o o ica it o hi co t hoot fo c o i t azi , o fo th ta i hm t of

pa ock o fo fa m fo t patch . A co a o j cti hich mi ht xp i i t ict p a co to mai tai a cap i , om

of hich a a p ct of th pa t.

Fi 33 a 34 ho om t pica fa m a p o m a po io tio . sit co i ti mo t of fac a th o k a pa tic a

a to a i a of - a fa m acti iti oa i , p pa atiofo f ci , f ci , tock t acki a tock o io a , c a a c , a p o hi . O azi o f ia oi ma a p o m

Fi 33. e o io o a pai no th Ta a aki. Th mai

ca a f ia oi ao tocki ith h p.

sh p o ot ha acc toth ma h a t ock-

co k o i th i ta chich i i oo co itio .

A it ch a thi ho f c -off a mo ito .



8 7

(Fi . 33). s - fac it i mo tha 20 cm o a top oi o o a - o ma a o at i k f om p o hi o oa o at a co t ctio . Th p i cipa fa mi acti iti that om ca hca i o t o o a a cha o o ica it a : azi , fa m i f a t ct(f c , pa ock i , i i atio cha , oa a t ack ), a p o hia i ki (i c i o ki ). Fi 34 ho a t oo

f c patt , a o a act a xamp i th waikato.

3.2.1 Grazing and pasture care

Co t o of th ha io a it of azi a ima i th k tomai t a c of fac - a th o k a cha o o ica it ch a pa (tha 6000 i n Z a a ), a th o k fo tificatio i a (th aa o t 600 i t th-c t fo tificatio ) a th i of e op a

t ct a i t . r a t facto i azi a i c xt.

Stock type and numbers

limit tock m to o mo tha 10 tock it /ha•

Co t o tock-t p : h p o oat , a i catt o , ot o •

ai co

Mo tocki i ot comm , t if it ho o •

ca i o t i f q t a fo a ho t p ( tha 7 a )

Fi 34. goo a af c i a at po itio

o a t pica pa it .

�

�

�

�

�



88

Grazing season and format limit th azi a o : ot i i t o t ath •

eith otatio a azi ( t k pi azi p io ho t ith•

p t of f a ai a ), o t tocki (at o mo tha10 . . p ha)

Best form of sward to maintainF ti i to app i to mai tai a co a ot fo •

p o ctio

Mai tai a i a a h i ht of 6–10 cm ( ot : thi h i ht i a o•

co i t t ith ati facto of p o ctio a pa t co t o )

Paddock design and stock water sit ho f c i to th i o ma pa ock•

Thi pa ock ho c i imit tocki , t oth i •

i t at ith a f azi t at fo th fa m

stock at ho pp i at a poi t a a f om th act a it ,•

ca a ima i c at oi ama at th at t o h

Th o j cti of azi a pa t -ca o a cha o o ica it ho to mai tai th fac a o that oi o io i p t . withi

i i i a pa ock , a a ‘mic o it ’ ( ch a th top of a ko p ac of h t ) to mo ito . s t azi to mai tai a

a h i ht of 6–10 cm i th mo t p f a a c t pa tp o ctio a co t o o th o ha , a a cha o o ica itp ot ctio o th oth . Th ctio o g azi ( o ) ho p f

tocki a t of o mo tha 10 . . p ha. O f ia oi a icoo t mp at o a a , tocki at i p o a to

o tha thi , t it i iffic t to p cif at fo tho co itio .Th k p i cip i : if ama i i o , th f th i i

. Omata stocka Hi to ic r i Ta a aki i t- az at o tock m a th a i mm i ta a a k. I i t

o so th I a hi co t , tocki at 10 . . p ha i too hi h.Th h p i ch p ac to ha . Occa io a otatio ma

i a . Thi i a o a ma a a of o io ( . . i campip ac ) to h a o .

s t optim m maxim m tocki at ( . . p ha) fo a cha o o icait o o a ( . . waikato a i ) a a m coa ta hi co t a

ho o .

Grazing Sheep and goats

s t- tocki ith h p i th t t p of azi fo a cha o o icait ; it ho ma a o a to a oi th fo catt o p io ic

mo tocki to az o coa a .

w th a th p f a ima fo azi . Th ho •

at o tocki at (6–10 . . p ha) to mai tai a pa t h i htof 6–10 cm.

stock it p h cta i to a i i th a to a oi•

i i mm a poo a i a i th a t m .



90

ta i h. T o ca i a a : k p tocki it o ( o motha 10 . . p ha) a t th pa t o az . limitf i a to a ima oami th f c i ooki fo ‘ pa t ’. wh f c i th o h th it , thi ha io ip o c t cti o io .

lo i t it of tocki i ht a ima i o a a c th mo t i ap actic to mai tai a cha o o ica f at . It mi imi th i k of

o io , t k p th it i i a c a of pot tia i t i ta h a oot .

Weed control

do ot oz to c a ch a o if th i a•

po i i it of a cha o o ica it th

w ma p a•

som a a ( . . t p op ) ma mo ffici t f c•

o t a ft to at

di t a c of a co ( . . catt p i , o mo a of •

h a ) i commo a to i f tatio i mo t fa m aa a

Drought

d o ht i a pa tic a p o m fo h a a a i . Th oftha th mo t o t ta i a cha o o ica f at , a th fi t to

of a co i o ht, a a th xpo to io io . I moi t p io fo o i a o ht, t o i fac

a ik to op ati facto a a co .

Particular problems associated with dry periods

stock i p io com ti a oam a o th f c•

c ati t ack

Mo t a i o t to a o catt i at th coa fo a•

o c at

stock t amp i a ti i t o ca a ama i•

a o t o

stock ho mo f om it a i a p o p cti a o•

o that a o o ma t a co i mai

Reversion to shrubland or forest

Ta a a o a h a i th t o -t m ta i i i co . Thp f co fo mo t it i , th fo , i f q t az a

hich i t a t to ta a , ati a a /o h a .

wh a a it i f c off f om tock to i a p ot ctio , iti p t a ho t-t m p o m i mo t fa m a . Thi co

t at ho t p of azi o app icatio of a cti h icihich o k o th , ot th a . Thi i mo a pot tia

p o m f om ha i a o c of oxio o a p op t . Aa q at -f ta a a ca a patchi a o io

ca p ith f c o cock foot o oth a i ti of a p ci a aptto ati o f ti it a a o a co itio . Th it a a co



9 1

tock o a f occa io fo fi a xc io of a tock, o tha a co tock o a t a i i a mm o a a t m .e t a , p o i th i a oca h a o c ( ithi , a ,2 ki om t ), mo t a a that a f c o t a p ma t tif om azi i com h a . Fi ca of i f c o tf om azi i o o ha m to mo t a cha o o ica it , th

i a p o m ith a i t .O th p i cip that o -t m ta tatio co i th t co ,

ati fo t o a cha o o ica it ho ft a o a it hoot fo h t , azi , o i f azi .

Farm roads, fencing, paddock design

Fa m oa a th ozi of f c i ha ama ma a cha o o ica it o th a . Th co t ctio of oa a f ca po i th i at t ca of ha m to a cha o o ica it .

Pa oft i t o a o i i hich co t o acc f omi o th coa ta t ip to th hi co t . To tak a a ta of oo

ai a , pit a o i t o i a a commo oth o hi hpoi t a a ; th fo , th too a a to oa i tato i acc to mot pa t of a fa m. Fo a t pica it o a fa m,

ita a a m t fo f ci a ho i Fi 34 a 35. I thpa t, a commo patt i ozi ha fo pa t of th p im t

itch of a pa to fi i a a a oa . Th f i itcha o fo m a a i to tock ( i t th-c t itch a a k f c

om tim ctio of pa f c ), o that o h t ack om tim p h th o h to p o i acc fo tock a o th i

o o to th p atfo m of th pa.Fa m oa , at a , a oz f ci i ho ot p tth o h o o a cha o o ica it . If th a tia fo om a o ,

ch co t ctio i q i a a tho it o co t f om th ocao o a a tho it f om th Hi to ic P ac T t th Hi to ic

P ac Act 1993. wh th i o a t ati t to a p ma tf c th o h a it , ama to fac f at ca mi imi

i i a atah o p op i ta ‘stap ok’ f c t p hich ma footp i t a a i t po t .

exi ti oa th o h it ho ot i ith a tho it

o a co t. A fa a po i , c t o f t ho ti ixi ti oa a th oa ho ot xt . A t ati o tho o ht fo o i oa , if it m a a ati facto , i i o t .

I i i opm t , it i o th co i i th o -t m i o that k it a p ot ct . Pa ock ho i ,a fa a po i , o that th f c ac o , ath tha a o th

i i . stock i a a o f c i a o xt i amaa o i . F c ho ot i t ct o a cha o o ica it fo th

am a o (Fi 34, 35). Fo xamp , if a it i o a hi h poi t it

co i -f c , p hap ith o at fo p io ic acc fo tock



92

a ot h . Th i of pa ock co a iat o t f om thc t a i f c a o th hi h poi t.

P ma t, - it f c hich a o h p th o h, t ot catta th t. Thi ca achi mo i o ot i ta i th

ottom i of a f c . b ca th a t mpo a a of a i ht co t ctio , ct ic f c ho a o co i fo h a it to az fo ho t p io o .

Coa ta a ca a pa tic a p o m fo azi , h p i at o a a t a ai t ach a a . Catt ma ha accto th a f om th a jac t fa m , tho h th ma

C o p op t . Mi a commo i a a th a aa om f c .

Roads and fences

sit a p cia at i k h c ati acc oa o f c i .b fo ozi oa o f c i , a o o ma a hoch ck fi t fo th xi t c of pit , pa o oth a cha o o ica it ,a ca i a a cha o o i t h th i o t. It ho po ii mo t i ta c to i oa a f c i that o ot impact o

it . A mo ificatio o ama that i c a to a it to ta i ha ati facto i ho th j ct of a a tho it f om th Hi to icP ac T t.

n oa o imp o m t i c i at a , at ta k a at t o h ho ot p ac o a cha o o ica it . wh ama toa it xi t a a , thi a a ma a a f c i o fo tockacc .

Fi 35. T pica p o mo a az it , itht o tio (ibold ).

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9 3

F ci ca ama a cha o o ica it . F ci ho ot th o hit , o ho at p ac o it . Ch ck fo it , p cia pit ,

fo ozi to c at mooth f c i .

u p cia t ch iq ( ch a xt a- o att o ctio of oop a k ) to c f c p io ch a pit . P a f c o tipa ock t a i a cha o o ica it , to a o ff cti ma a m tof t tocki .

Ploughing and disking in hill country

Th fi t p o hi o o ki of a a cha o o ica it i oimm ama a comp t t o ha o f at . I th pa tit ma ha p c i at i of a th o k o

p ooti of fo atio . s ch ama i ati a to a ao o ma co t o th fo a a tho it th

Hi to ic P ac Act 1993 a , p hap , th i t ict p a . A aith it that mi ht ti a to p o hi o oth t cti

acti iti i c i o at coa ta t ac a f at o a o i mo th ; a o, hi h co t t ac a h th a i t that ti th-c t it ch a o mi i ac , am , tc.

s q t p o hi p o a o ama , p o i it i o p tha th fi t. Ho , th i of q t p o hi i omo tha th pth of p t atio of th p o h. r p at p o hii c a i i p a cha o o ica mat ia a , o opi o ,t to i p ac oi o op o that oi a a p t at

ith ach p o hi .

I om hi co t h ‘ha a ’ ta i h, oz p ia t of i k a om tim to ha i itat pa t . Thi i

pa tic a t cti of it ch a pit hich i o mi op o i . Th am app i a fo p o hi o .

sit ho ot p o h o o p o h a a i a pp o hi itho t a a tho it f om th Hi to ic P ac T t thHi to ic P ac Act 1993. Ho , o f at o a -f at a , a it that ha

p o h ma p o h a ai to th am pth. O p io p o h it , p o hi ma ti t p a cha o o ica

i c a a t fact .

A ma i of 5 m t o mo of p o h a ho ft a oa cha o o ica it h th o i a i i p o h . F ci

it off mak acci ta p o hi impo i .

Plantation trees on farmland

T ho ot p a t o a cha o o ica it . Th mo a of p a tatio t a a o a it ma ft to th p a c oppip io , t p ca tio to p ot ct th it to ca i o t a

tai h i th i i . sit ho ot p a t iati t .



96

Stock water

wat o t t ho po itio th f c a it •

mi imi app op iat tocki

I p io of a o ma o ai fa , a i ho k pt o t of •

th pa ock, t th ma k pt th

bi i k ik catt a ai co ho ot a o i to th•

pa ock i a a o

Shelter

At om poi t, p f a h th f c a i i ta , th•

t ho f . Ca ho tak to that th tockha oth a q at h t f om a co i ithi th pa ock.

T that a a a f om th it co tai if th a•

p o i i h t , o th pa ock f ci a a m t co i to i co po at t o oth o c of h t ch a a

h a .

A a tificia h t co i ta fo th h p, o a ma•

p ot ct p a ti co f c o t f om tock a t a ma a ai a to p o i h t . If p op i , th a io h p i h t th , ath tha o th pa.

Pasture and grass cover

g a , o h p ho o tai a tai fo thi pa tic a it . If th i m a k pt o , th i p i p of ahich i o to a p o c a co of coa a . yo catt ,

a i a h if , t ot f o catt , co t i o o occa io h th a ha com too coa fo th h p.I p io of o o ht ( hich i ot xp ct i thi i t ict), th

h p co tak f om th pa ock a az o tt pa tithi th fa m. som pai o acc at a i of o io pot i

i a at that tim i a ticipatio of tt ai fa .

Th optio of ta a co ho xp o . If tock a mo ,a i o a k fo a m of a , t i t a ta i i

i a co of p ia a , cock foot, om xotic ach a om , a ati a ch a m a o ic a (patiti,

Microlaena stipoides ). Th po i i it of acci ta fi to co i i c thi o t of a k co ca com a fi i k. If th

o fac i ok ( . . p i ), th i h o hoo ,p cia oo m , i tak ho . go a att , i pa tic a ,

i api ta i h. Th ca co t o occa io a azi , ta ik t a to tak ho f tocki i -i tit t . with

itt o o azi , th oo m i to pot- p a o p ha .

som c oachm t of i ch a ha o i f , ackf , i k , a thi t mi ht to at i a a to i i ht

azi .



9 7

Condition of archaeological features

It i o th maki a co of th a cha o o ica f at a tha ma a ho i p ct th p ac fo acti o io at a t t ic a

a i i t a at mm . Th ma a i ta c a ai a f omth d pa tm t of Co atio , Hi to ic P ac T t o th i t ictco ci to ca o t th ta k . A pa tic a p o m ith o io

ho a . som mi ima to atio ma c a .

3.2.3 Case study 4 Midden in eroding foredunes

Wider setting

d a a th p o ct of hi h i a coa ta fo c , a ai t i ica ta . Fo a a a j ct to xt m co itioi c i xc i mm i , hifti a ith itt o o o a icmatt , a xpo to a t a a - a i . e ta i hm t of

ati facto tati ta i i i i th fo iffic t. I thi ca , thfo a acti hi i a th ha o ta i i

ith ma am a a q t pi t o kik a .

It i o th hi i mo t ca to a at h th th o atti a a ma a m t i th ici it of th it i a o fo

o -t m cc a ma a m t of a fac t atm t ot tota i i atio . Th a a ci fac of o o t mo th o h a a a, ai ak p xi ti tati co . I o at o o t i fa m a

a fo t a i o th co c t ati o , a i a a i ack. wh th i h a a om oi fo matio o ack-

a a , co c t at ffo t ma mo o th hi .

Mi co fo i a of th zo : xt m coa ta ma ia hi h ti (pi ao p t), i a a zo , a op a a

of hifti a .

Site description and condition

Th mi a i p a catt of h a o to o thop of th . som of th a o op f om cap of i it

mi hich a p ot cti th c t of th . Th mi ao op of 15–20 a i a f om a poi t a o t 10 m a oh. .m. Ma am a i fo mi c mp i p ac i a ociatio ith

i a a , t th o a a p ct i that of a a ithocca io a patch of i ht tatio p i o i t a c ia p opa atio f om to o .

Identification of management issues

r c atio a hic i a i t p op a th c t of •

i to ai th i . Catt f om th fa m a f th i a haacc to th fo ca th i o f ci . ra it ap t.

sit a a xpo i - o a fac , ith itt o •

op tatio . Mi ima p pa atio i c a fo o i .



9 9

fo p i hm t of a . Co i atio ho i to of af c to co c t at th acc m atio of a at iti a a .

Fencing and pest management

T mpo a f c o f to xc tock a a -t aihic , t thi i ik to p actica . Th f c i to o

t o i ma a a . no th a Co a c ha t ia i ch apf c i t o t a of ct ic f c tap t itho t th ct icacha . v a a a ca f c . Th tap i c t at i t a a

-k ott , hich c th i k of th tap i to a imp oit i i i it . lik i , th ta a ca c i a .

Mo ito a pai f c at i t a . Aft a tim , a a p io of pai , oth catt a th 4wd p ic ha com to acc pt th

f c .

P a t ama f om a it a catt ot i th f c t iaa a i no th a . ra it co t o ma a a t i om i t ict .dama to th i i ik to a p o m.

O t i th p ot ct a a, it i c a to xp ai th p ot ctim a a to fi oth a a that a mo it to c atio a

of 4wd .

Silvery sand grass

Seed collection si a a ( Spinifex sericeus ) ho co ct i at Ja a a a F a , p f a f om p a t i th

am oca it to h th i to o . O th f ma h aho co ct , a ma f o o ot p o c ( b i

& Kim 1999). I om io , th ma i f ti o it io th hi ch cki that f ma a ma p a t a i t p ithach oth , a that th m a ot ff i f om f o a m t.

Establishment so i of th h ho occ aft a t m ai comm c ( . . f om Ap i to s pt m ). P o o po t-ha t o ma c o ot m to a p o m, a f th t atm t i c a . Fo a of p a ti , h a ho

ok p, t f th hi i ot . Co itio at o i to t o h to that a i ot ik to a comp o to i o io fo i mi at a ta i h.

Longer term management A i ht at of it o a a (50 ka p ha) ho app i 6–8 k aft i ha m .

nit o app icatio ho ot ma i i co itio . nit oapp icatio ma a o a a t i a a h i t i a

a i to co a . r ti i c a to o a hizom o thf om i t p a t ma a i t it co a .

Pingao

Pi ao t to jo p at i t a c a it a i it to i icomp titio ith oth p a t p o thi i t a c . It i q itcommo to pi ao ta i h o fo j ct to i a



100

to m a , t i o t oth p a t ch a ma am a omo ta a fac a . It fo ta i i i a cha o o ica

it i a a a i ot comm . P a ti f om tocki ot comm fo a cha o o ica it ta i i atio ca too m ch

i t a c i ca to th mi .

Marram/yellow lupinMa am i ot a n Z a a ati , t it p i t o i ta i i

. Ma am q i ph ica i t a c tha pi ao to mai taia ta co a to p opa at it f. It ho th fo p f aa ta i i i p a t. Ma am i oft a a i itia ta i i i co a , h ta , p a t i o pi . Thi i fo m oi hich

i oo a o p a ti of a apta ati p a t ch a po opo o.I comm cia fo t , a ac ificia zo of pi t ca p a ta c o a 150 m f om th h. .m. Ho , th t ho ot p a t o a cha o o ica it . It i po i to ta i h ati

h a i pi co ( . . po opo o,Solanum laciniatum ). If ot m ph ica ta i it a oi opm t i a , th oth atih a coa ta t ch a ka ka o ak ak ma p a t o

com ta i h at a .

3 . 3 s I T e s M A n A g e d I n P l A n T A T I O n F O r e s T

P a tatio fo t , ith imit o o p ic i iti , a oft ta i hi a a h th ha pa t h ma tt m t a h atco atio a ha h a i mo ifi that tt m t. bothth fo t ta i hm t pha ( hich ach a p ak i th 1970a 1980 ) a fo t op atio ch a fi co t o a ha t co i atio . e ta i hm t a op atio ch a ha t a i

pac (a mi im m of 30 a ), o co to k pt a taff (ma a , fi p i o a co t acto ) to app ai

th m of it

It i impo ta t to a at a p opo p a ti a , maoo ot , fo th p o a i it of a cha o o ica it i p t. A

a m t of k o co of it a co ti a cha o o i t ho a to t mi th p o a i it of o . Thi ma q i

of a a p opo fo affo tatio ot o fo a ama a m t i tak , t a o th of th p a ti a o .la c a a c a p a ti i a ma it that co ot ha

t ct fo ha . Fi 36 ho a ci io -maki p oc fo a cha o o ica it ma a m t i a p a tatio fo t o h p a tatiofo t i p a .

Land evaluation

I th a oo of th a a mapp at a ca of a o t 1:10 000•

ita fo fo t a tai co of a cha o o ica it ocatio

a xt t?



10 1

Fo t ma a ho i i t o ca f tai a atio , a•

a cha o o i t, of it fo a p cha o -p a ti . stat to p o i io ho fo o a th i imp icatio fo th ma a m tof th it i .

Th a cha o o i t ho c i it a co it ocatio a•

xt t o fo t ma a m t co /map .

Th ho - a atio a a m t of th co itio a•

i ifica c of it fo ach p a ti a ha t pha .

Th fo t compa ho ha tai ma a m t o j cti fo •

th a a a of th it . A tho h pa a oft i a ha it o a i ta , th ca ot a ch.

Th ff ct of a i a cha o o ica it op o i h a co •

i th o a ma a m t of th fo t m t a . Thh a i mo t at i k f om fi a of i a a t ai i a

fi m c .

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10 3

At th tim of f i , th p o at th t mp m t a a of thh a o t of a a cha o o i t p t i a mo ito i o . Th o

i o th a cha o o i t o ki i a ha t it atio to a a of p cific it af t a occ patio a af t a h a th i i .

ext a co t ma i c a f i i i ma c a .di t ict p a ma a o fo ch a i ta c . A tho iti fo f i i

f om th Hi to ic P ac T t. som compa i ha t

ma a m t p actic fo th acti iti a th i i fo c th co itio co tai i th a tho it .

If it ha p a t i a a i otatio , it i tia that th f at th am tim o oo aft th t of th fo t. Thi i

ot o mo co t- ffici t, t a o mo th i k of i th o of xpo t ft i i o at patch (Fi . 38). Fo o i ha t,

ock that ha a m of it o p c i i k of a mof it ho ta p a t . sit a ik ma a m t p ca tiothat i i to - a at .

App ix 2 ( ctio A2 .3) p o i a p cim o k p a fo t f ia mo a .

Archaeological site management for forestry companies

Compa i ho a opt a i t a i a cha o o ica it ma a m t•

p oc .

T ho ot p a t o a cha o o ica it .•

e oa i , fi aki a fi co t o op atio o ot impact•

o th it .

Ha t a fi co t o p a ho co i tificatio a p ot ctio•

of it .

Fi 37. s tha ti q c fo a

t pica pa it that ha i a t t p a t .



104

sit that a i p a t o -p a t a a , o i a a that•

ha ha t a ft p a t , i op to i a io i i pi .

w co t o q i a a a i it a mo a of ma i i i•

th fi t 5 a a 5- a i p ctio a ma a m t aft that.

sit ma a m t ca o i co j ctio ith oth op atio .•

b oz o a h a - h o t ack machi ho ot

a o o a cha o o ica it . H a ic i ma a kth o h a it , oi a p cia f ia , t thi ho o

ith ca tio a ith a mi im m of t i . som t ack machi ,p cia m cha ica ha ti machi ch a h a ic xca ato -

a app , hich ha a fai o ach, off a a to mot f om it ith mi ima impact. Th t i ha ha -fo to ach oth i a q c a th app i mo th m moo i q c . F - ch co t o th tt of a t ath p of fa of th pp pa t . A tho h ot o t p op(a o 15–20 ), it i po i to a k th machi i to a ita to co t o th ha mf ff ct of o i . li ht a h ma ai oth t ack a to ch hic . Th of ch machi i pa tic a ca to p a ith co tatio ta cha o o i t a fo t ma a , a i j ct to a tho iti th a t a tho it p o i io of th Hi to ic P ac Act 1993.

wi chi to co t o th i -of-fa of t o to a mat of p io f a ch o p ac co o ma ( ctio 2.5.1o p o m t ). Ha t ack o th o t of ca o i ho

ot pa th o h it . Moto i ca ia o th ha i ma af a t fo c a i o i ith it o th m.

A cha o o ica it that ha i a t t p a t , a i tifiom a at , ma ha t ( ith p cia p ca tio to p ot ct

Fi 38. O thifo t ock i n o ,

a cha o o ica it ha ft i ta t . Th

patch of fo t i j ct to i -th o ,

c ati mo amatha o ha ti th

t . Th t q t f .



10 5

th it ) at th am tim a th i ha ti p o amm . If i tifii tim , it ho po i to poi o o t that ha i a t t p a t fo (mo tha 10 a fo ) ha t.Fi 39 ho a xamp of poi o t o a pa i th whi i aki

a .

3.3.3 Ongoing forest management for protected sites

A cha o o ica it ft p a t ithi a p a tatio fo t i a a

a to hic t affic, ith o ti o i m ci ch afi . I th co of th fi a i t i p ctio o of a p a ta a, o io i acc a ho ha a mi im m of o o t o

hit po t 1.2 m a o o at th 20 m p im t ma k. Th po tma ha i tif i tai fo th it o it, ch a a ta a i thatit i a a cha o o ica it a i i th it m o compa tm tp a tai . A tho h o ma ki i ot pa tic a ff cti (it ca

o c o tatio a ma ot otic a oz i ), it i a f a j ct to ma ki o fo t p a i /compa tm t

map .

Fi ak a oa ho ha p a a co t ct to a oia cha o o ica it i th i t p a ti a o o fo . If thi o ki ot o th , it i at i k ot o f om a hoc fi - ak ,if a c a a c fi t o t of co t o , t a o f om oa i co t ctj t p io to ha t.

Compa tm t p a o ta co ho ha th a cha o o icait a th i xt t a i tificatio ma k o th m i aft th

a cha o o i t a i ‘p i h ’ fo m th compa aft ma . P a tio a i a o th it ma fi iff tia g.P.s. a

p ott i ct i to fo t p a i /compa tm t map . Th it hoha th am p omi c a oth ma a m t tai a it ho a p ma t co h a a ai a fo a a -to- a a o -t m

Fi 39. O th paHi amoki II, om do a

fi poi o a o t 20a a o. Th poi o i ai t to p o ia i th t ot a of

th t poi o . Tht to th ft a i th

i ta c i ha to fa a f om th it . Poi o atthi ta i ot p actica

ca th i t ach fo ha ti a

poi o t i th i mi to c at a haza fo th

o i a .



106

ma a m t p po . At 1:10 000 ca it ho po i to ho thxt t of th a cha o o ica it a a o t i a a. A tho h thi ma

a p actic o th capacit of ma oo ot o , co i aa otatio of co a i c io of th m ith co t acto fami ia

ith th a a a i c a .

ro ti mai t a c of a cha o o ica it ho ca i o t ico j ctio ith a fo t ma a m t op atio . Fo xamp ,

h t a thi o p , i i pi o oth t co c t o t f om a a o p ot ct it . I th a ta of fo tta i hm t, i pi ( hich ma ha i a t t p a t

o a it ) ho ha p . b oa ca t co t o ( . . fo pampa a ) ma c a . A t ati , a f h p ma

t oo i th ock o c th t a ta i h . sh p t toco c t at o th c a a a a h th p ot ct it i .Ho , i i pi i ot co t o ith oa ca t co t o m tho o azi , o a co c t ffo t at app op iat i t ai to mo th m.

A thi - t mm h a co , o of th p f co fo a cha o o ica it co atio ( ctio 2.2.7 a 2.2.8), i ik to

ta i h i om a a (Fi . 40). C a a c of fi ak ho o o fo o i f c to th compa tm t p a , a ho ot

ft to th i c tio of oz i . b oz a oth op atoho f i f o k o it a ho po t a ama

i a t t o , o if oth it p io k o a i t .

Fi 40. A i a thi -t mm h a co

o th a k of Hi amoki I,whi i aki va . do a fi

ch a th p cim at ftha poi o o foff th pa i th p io 15

a . F t ma a m tho that i ido a fi a f a a

f om th a k a thath ith a p op it to

o a tha 10 cm . .h.a mo o that th thi -

t mm h a co imai tai .

Risks to sites in forestry blocks

b ozi of oa , fi ak , a fi co t o op atio•

Th f xt t of it ha ot p op co i th•

compa ’ compa tm t map ; o t of at oc m tatio

Ha ti , p cia ha i , ki i , a a i co t ctio•



10 7

wi i pi a ta i hi o o -p a t a a•

Pi ooti•

Solutions

no p a ti o -p a ti of it•

lo t m, o - o i tificatio of it ma k po t•

P a tatio ta i hm t a o i p a that p ot ct it•

Fi ma a m t p a a op atio ma a m t that a ith th•

to p ot ct it

d i f i op atio , it a c a ma k ith po t /•

p a tic i o

no f i o to it , o ha i ac o it•

r a h ti ho a o i ock•

3.3.4 Case study 4 Sub-surface site (midden) in coastal plantationforest

Wider setting

Th it i i a p a tatio fo t ( Pinus radiata ) o a , a o t3 km i a f om th t coa t of th no th I a . Th fo ha

o ta i i ma am a a a zo of ac ificia a t- ai - t t pi t . Th io a co ci i co c a o t th ack

of co t o of om p a t p t ( ).

Site conditions

Th a cha o o ica it i a mi ocat o a o fac ith

i ht a oi . Th mi i xpo a pi i o to a i o pa oo P i toc fac . Th mi ha ot p a t a i

o 15- a -o pi a o t 10 m ta . Th a of mi co a o t 50 m 2 . Th i o pa ha a io p io c t i to it hich app a to th o t i of to a pit . Th o i pi t a 10 m f omth p im t of th it a i o ha o it a th com to mat it .Pampa a a om 3-m t ta i pi ha ta i h ipock t of mo c t a oi o th it a o th pit p io .Th it ha o t of a a a of th fo m tat fo t a

t a a ahi tap ith oca Mao i t t .

Management options/issues

l a a o . wi i pi t i o a a a pampa a•

ma ka h a i o op o th it ith om apatch . Thi i acc pta to th fo t compa a th io aco ci ca th a t to o c of pampa a icat

fo ha ti a -p a ti . A o, mi ima i t tio a o i ha c th co atio tat of th it .

r mo i i pi a p a pampa a a t t that o •

oi fo matio a ift a top oi p pi , p ommoi t ha o a a , i a to a co of ta i i i a a

ati h . b ack a ma ka i t a ha o t



108

th o i , mat i pi , t i com a a a ai o f iof th o i fo t.

exca at pa t of th it to a at i ifica c a th ci•

o tota xca atio o f th ta i i atio m a . If th it ia a , co xpo a a ith fi t c oth a it ith a

co of a a / a top oi p to 50 cm p. A tota of p to

50 m 3 of a / oi ma ha to mo to co th it a a. Thfac of th i a a co i at -p a t p aci

ma ka a h, tc., t oth i ft to at a tat .

Management objective

I c th a t po i co t a i it a o , a ca i o tocca io a mo ito i to ch ck o th at a ta i hm t of ati

h a a to mo pi .

Recommendations

e th fo t co co tai a p-to- at f c to th it•

a a i to fi i it a ai .

wi i pi ta i h o th it to mo a th it•

ho ft to tat at a a mo ito th i i’a cha o o i t 2 a .

O ha t, t ho f a ha o a to mi imi ama•

to th a cha o o ica f at .

A actio o co atio to tak th fo t ma a •

a pa t of it a fo t op atio , a i ta ata h aa a cha o o i t . Ma a m t optio /i o p o a

co i th i i t t fo o i a comm atio aa cha o o i t a i i c io ith th fo t compa ith c tti

i ht .

what ma a m t i cho , a q at co of th ocatio•

tai ho k pt. Th xt t a co itio of th it hoa o ot i th fo t compa ’ co . Th it ho ma k o th o .

wh th fo t ock com to f , th a a of th it ho•

ot to f t i to o a a a i o o ta ia a.

A mi ch a thi ho o i ti at f th o th a i•

of a c a a ch p a , a o h that p a i i p ac .



10 9

4. Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to the following for comment and assistance: Ton Walton,Dr Aidan Challis, Mar O’Keeffe, Paul Dingwall, Brian Dobbie, Bronek

Kazmierow, Fiona McKa , Garr Law, Kerr Hilliard, L nette Clelland,Dr Rod Clough, Jann e Freeman, Cathr n Barr, Sarah Macread , Mar O’Keeffe, the East Coast and Wellington Conservation Boards, Andrew Dodd, Auckland Regional Council, Sue Mavor of Environment Ba of Plent , Dave Veart, Ross Duder, Te Runanga o Otakou and the late Peter Bristow, Dr Rachel Darmod , Stuart Park, Emma Gibbs, Pat Campbell, EruManuera, Anne Geelen, David Re nolds, Joe Harawira, Peter Adds, DaveRobson, Te Kenehi Teira and other staff of the Maori Heritage Division of the New Zealand Historic Places Trust. Kevin L. Jones, Derek Gosling andDianne Harlow were joint authors of the first draft (published 2002) usedfor the consultation process in 2002–2003. Theresa Cooper collated man of the submissions into a paste-up version. Peter Woods, agriculturalconsultant, has done much trial work on suitable grass covers for sitesin Auckland and Northland and his sound practical advice on farming hasbeen much appreciated over the ears. Dr Philip Simpson has been animportant influence on ecological and ethical matters. Special thanks toHerb Spannagl and the Taranaki Area Office, Department of Conservation,for leading the wa in practical site management operations. Finall ,thanks to Chris Edkins for his work on the illustrations.



110

5. References

Allen, R.B.; Basher, L.R.; Comrie, J. 1996: The use of fire for conservation management in New Zealand. Science for Conservation 23 . Department of Conservation, Wellington. 49 p.

Andropogon Associates Ltd n.d.: Earthworks Landscape Management Manual. Report preparedfor National Park Service, Mid-Atlantic Regional Office, Philadelphia, PA.

Andropogon Associates Ltd 1988: Earthworks Landscape Management Action Plan for thePetersburg National Battlefield. National Park Service, Mid-Atlantic Regional Office,Philadelphia, PA.

Aust, W.M.; Azola, A.; Johnson, J.E. 2003: Management effects on erosion of Civil War militar earthworks. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 58 (1) : 13–20.

Australia ICOMOS 1999: The Burra Charter. ICOMOS, Burwood, Australia.

Aviss, M.; Roberts, A. n.d.: Pest fences: notes and comments. Threatened Species Occasional Publication 5 . Department of Conservation, Wellington. 39 p.

Bergin, D.O. 2000: Sand tussock on coastal dunes: guidelines for seed collection, propagationand establishment. CDVN Technical Bulletin 3 . New Zealand Forest Research Institute,Rotorua.

Bergin, D.O.; Herbert, J.W. 1998: Pingao on coastal sand dunes: guidelines for seed collection,propagation, and establishment. CDVN Technical Bulletin 1 . New Zealand ForestResearch Institute, Rotorua.

Bergin, D.O.; Kimberle , M.O. 1999: Rehabilitation of coastal foredunes in New Zealandusing indigenous sand-binding species. Science for Conservation 122 . Department of Conservation, Wellington. 52 p.

Berr , A.Q.; Brown, I.W. 1995: Managing ancient monuments: an integrated approach. Clw dCount Council, Mold.

Brock, J.L. 1966: The autecolog of Muehlenbeckia complexa Meusin. Unpubl. MSc thesis,Universit of Auckland.

Coppin, N.J.; Richards, I.G. (Eds) 1990: Use of vegetation in civil engineering. Butterworths,London.

Crow, P.; Moffat, A.J. 2005: The management of the archaeological resource in UK woodedlandscapes: an environmental perspective. Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites 7 : 101–116.

Darvill, T.; Fulton, A.K. 1998: MARS: The monuments at risk surve of England, 1995, main report.School of Conservation Sciences and English Heritage, Bournemoth and London.

Department of Conservation 1998: Te Koru Pä Historic Reserve, Taranaki, Conservation Plan.Wanganui Conservanc , Department of Conservation, Wanganui.

Department of Conservation 2000: Pukerangiora Pä Historic Reserve Conservation Plan.Wanganui Conservanc , Department of Conservation, Wanganui.

Dunwell, A.J.; Trout, R.C. 1999: Burrowing animals and archaeolog . Historic Scotland Technical Advice Note 16 . Historic Scotland, Edinburgh.

English Heritage 1999: Model brief for a conservation plan. Appendix in Kate Clark (Ed.):Conservation plans in action. English Heritage, London.

Evans, B. 1983: Revegetation manual. Queen Elizabeth II National Trust, Wellington.

Fogart , L.G. 2001: A flammabilit guide for some common New Zealand native tree and shrubspecies. Published variousl as: Forest Research Bulletin 197 ; Forest and Rural FireScientific and Technical Series Report 6; and New Zealand Fire Service Commissionresearch report 20. Forest Research Institute, in association with the New Zealand FireService Commission, and National Rural Fire Authorit , Rotorua and Wellington.



11 1

Fure , L. 1984: The restoration of N40/586, Opito. New Zealand Archaeological AssociationNewsletter 27(4) : 221–231

Hamel, G.; Jones, K. 1982: Vegetation management on archaeological sites. New ZealandHistoric Places Trust, Wellington.

ICOMOS New Zealand 1992: The Aotearoa Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites. ICOMOS, Auckland, New Zealand.

Jones, K.L. 1989: Re-constructing earthwork fortifications: an example from the westernUreweras, New Zealand. Science and Research Series 7 . Department of Conservation,Wellington. 17 p.

Jones, K.L. 1993: Archaeological site stabilisation and reconstruction in the United States:Winston Churchill Memorial Fellowship Report 1993. Science and Research Internal Report 145 . Department of Conservation, Wellington. 141 p.

Jones, K.L. 1998: The state of large earthworks in the United Kingdom. Antiquity 72(276) :293–307.

Jones, K.L.; Simpson, P.G. 1995a: Archaeological site stabilisation and vegetation management.Case studies I: Coromandel, Ba of Plent and Hawkes Ba , Central Volcanic Plateau, andTaranaki. Science and Research Series 84 . Department of Conservation, Wellington.

Jones, K.L.; Simpson, P.G. 1995b: Archaeological site stabilisation and vegetation management.Case studies II: Auckland and Northland, Otago and Canterbur , and Wellington. Scienceand Research Series 90. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 112 p.

Kerr, J.S. 1996: The Conservation Plan: a guide to the preparation of conservation plansfor places of European cultural significance. 4th (Australian & New Zealand) edition.National Trust of Australia, S dne .

Koerner, R.M. 1990: Designing with geos nthetics. 2nd edition. Prentice Hall, Upper SaddleRiver, N.J.

National Water & Soil Conservation Authorit 1986: Plant materials handbook for soilconservation: Vol. 3. Native plants. Water & Soil Miscellaneous Publication 95 .

Nixon, T. (Ed.) 2004: Preserving archaeological remains in situ. Proceedings of the 2ndconference 12–14th September 2001. Museum of London, London.

Porteous, T. 1995: Native forest restoration: a practical guide for landowners. Queen ElizabethII National Trust, Wellington.

Prickett, N.J. 1985: Site damage and destruction in a rural New Zealand landscape. New Zealand Journal of Archaeology 7 : 61–76.

Rees, T.; Mills, C. 1999: Bracken and archaeolog . Historic Scotland Technical Advice Note17 . Historic Scotland, Edinburgh.

Ritchie, N. 1995: Earthworks restoration using instant turf based on experience at AlexandraRedoubt, a former armed constabular fortification at Pirongia. Archaeology in NewZealand 38 (1): 21–31

Standards New Zealand 2004: New Zealand handbook: tracks and outdoor structures. (SNZ HB8630: 2004.) Standards New Zealand, Wellington.

Thorne, R.M. 1988: Guidelines for the organization of archaeological site stabilization projects:a modelled approach. Technical Report EL-88-8. U.S. Arm Engineer Waterwa sExperiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi.

Thorne, R.M. 1989: Intentional site burial: a technique to protect against natural or mechanicalloss. Archaeological Assistance Program Technical Brief 5 . U.S. National Park Service,Washington, D.C.

Thorne, R.M. 1990: Revegetation: the soft approach to archaeological site stabilization.[Archaeological Assistance Program ] Technical Brief 8 . U.S. National Park Service,Washington, D.C.

Thorne, R.M. n.d.: Filter fabric: a technique for short-term stabilization. [ Archaeological Assistance Program ] Technical Brief 1 . U.S. National Park Service, Washington, D.C.



112

Trimble, S.W.; Mendel, A.C. 1995: The cow as a geomorphic agent a critical review.Geomorphology 13 : 233–253.

United States National Park Service 1983: Secretar of the Interior’s standards and guidelines.(Federal Register Sept 29 1983.)

Waitakere Cit Council 1997: A guide for planting and restoring the nature of Waitakere Cit .Waitakere Cit Council, Waitakere.

Walton, T. 2003: Methods for monitoring the condition of historic places. Department of Conservation Technical Series 27 . Department of Conservation, Wellington. 41 p.

Woods, P. 1993: Ruapekapeka Pä management. Conservation Advisory Science Note 22 .Department of Conservation, Wellington. 16 p.

Woods, P. 1999: Ground covers for archaeological sites. Unpublished final report for theNorthland Conservanc , Department of Conservation, Whangarei.

6. Additional readingBerr , A.Q.; Brown, I.W. 1994: Erosion on archaeological earthworks: its prevention, control,

and repair. Clw d Count Council, Mold.

Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites (1, 1–1995). James & James, London.

Department of Conservation 2000: Pukerangiora Pa Historic Reserve conservation plan. WanganuiConservanc , Department of Conservation, Wanganui.

English Heritage. Managing earthwork monuments: a guidance manual for the care of archaeological earthworks under grassland management. London, English Heritage. www.helm.org.uk/server/show/nav.005004003001001

Feilden, B.M.; Jokilehto, J. 1993: Management guidelines for World Cultural Heritage Sites.International Centre for the Stud of the Preservation and the Restoration of CulturalPropert (ICCROM), Rome.

Harlow, D. 1997: The conservation of archaeological sites through the use of vegetation.Unpubl. MA thesis, Anthropolog Department, Universit of Auckland, Auckland.

ICOMOS New Zealand 1992: The Aotearoa Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites. ICOMOS, Auckland.

ICOMOS. International Committee on Archaeological Heritage Management. The InternationalCharter for Archaeological Heritage Management. www.icomos.org/icahm/charter.html

Jones, K.L. 2002: Condition reporting and monitoring of archaeological sites: the use of large-scale vertical aerial photograph in New Zealand. Conservation and management of archaeological sites 5(3) : 131–140.

Lambert, D. 1989: Conserving Australian rock art: a manual for site managers. Edited b : Ward,

G.K. for Aboriginal Studies Press, Canberra.McGlade, D. (Ed.) 2001: Erosion control on archaeological earthworks and recreational paths.

Seminar papers Hexham 23rd March 2000. Northumberland Count Council, Morpeth.

Petersburg National Battlefield Park 2000: Earthwork management at Petersburg NationalBattlefield. [National Park Service], Petersburg, VA.

Qualit Planning Historic Heritage. www.qp.org.nz/plan-topics/historic-heritage.php

Sullivan, S.; Pearson, M. 1999: Looking after heritage places: the basics of heritage planning for managers, landowners, and administrators. Melbourne Universit Press, Melbourne.

US National Park Service. Documents can be found at www.cr.nps.gov/

Walton, A. 1999: Assessing the archaeological values of historic places: procedures, methods,and field techniques. Science and Research Internal Report 167 . Department of Conservation, Wellington. 30 p.



11 3

Appendix 1

T y P E S O F A R C H A E O L O G I C A L S I T E I NN E W Z E A L A N D

The list of categories of site given below cannot be comprehensive. A site with features on the surface will almost alwa s have a structure of underground la ers.

A1.1 Surface-vis ible sites

Pre-European period

Earthworks such as pa are readil recognised on the New Zealandlandscape. This categor ma also include:

Ditches and banks, dug for defence across ridges or enclosing cliff •

edges

Scarps, created b cut-and-fill methods to steepen slopes for defence•

Terraces, created b cut and fill methods to make flat areas for •

gardening or house sites

Pits, usuall dug for the storage of horticultural crops, but sometimes•

quarr pits

Drains, ditches associated with house floors, pits or gardening•

Also from the pre-European period: Urupa, cemeteries, burials•

Middens•

Stone quarr floors and outcrops; places where stone for adzes or •

other purposes has been extracted

Stone revetted (i.e. stone-faced) earthworks such as earth mounds, or •

terrace-edges

Stone alignments, single placed-stone rows, stone heaps, stones placed•

to enclose a hearth

Surviving wooden features, such as palisade posts, or trees from which•

bark has been removed or on which the bark has been carved

Artworks either engraved into or painted on to rock surfaces•

Semi-cultivated vegetation which survives next to sites (e.g. karaka or •

ti: cabbage trees).

European period

The range of surface features includes:

Earthworks, such as ditch and bank fences, terraces, pits, ring ditches,•

ditches, including stone-revetted earthworks such as water races

Plough or other cultivation marks from old fields•

Foundations in stone or concrete, often in unstable ground•

conditions



114

Ruined stone or concrete walls (i.e. upright, but without a capping•

or roof)

Stone fences or stone clearance mounds•

Other structures in a ruinous state (e.g. stone fireplaces)•

Structural metal or portable metal artefacts, including engines,•

vehicles full exposed, or partl buried

Rubbish dumps (e.g. on eroding slopes below the site of now-•

disappeared buildings)

Asphalt, stone or brick paving, or other artificial flat surfaces, such•

as hardened earth floors within ruined walls; gravelled surfaces

Historic tree plantings, orchards, or formal gardens, house gardens•

(terraces, paving, drains, kerb and channelling)

Unless erosion and infilling have been ver marked, the earthworksor stone sites are often visible on modern ground surfaces. The other t pes of surface-visible sites are often ver fragile, and ma warrantquite specialised conservation attention including in situ stabilisation andrevegetation.

Some buildings and other structures in a ruinous state, for example thefoundations of a dam, that are no longer capable of use or refurbishment,ma also be regarded as archaeological sites. Architectural, engineering,and archaeological techniques ma be relevant to their conservation.

A1.2 Sub-surface sites

Stratified archaeological la ers will usuall be detected either b accidentalexposure in the course of earthmoving, deliberate test-pitting in the

course of an archaeological surve , controlled excavation over wider areas, or b the examination of non-vegetated scarps such as road cuttingsor those created b erosion. Since the are often concealed beneath morerecent soils, this important class of site can often be neglected when themanagement or use of an area is first considered.

This class of site includes the following: La ers of debris, occupation floors, with wooden materials preserved•

in the anaerobic conditions of a swamp

Quarries for stone or sand•

Living or working floors, surfaces modified b the debris of tool-•

making, house construction, fires and other activities, and which havebeen subsequentl sealed b infilling, and other soil processes

Midden, refuse from food preparation and consumption, t picall shell•

and bone

Hearths, concentrations of charcoal and burnt earth with or without•

enclosing stones

Ovens, concentrations of charcoal and burnt stones and earth in•

scooped hollows

Graves•

Earthwork fill, disturbed and mixed earth, sometimes sealing earlier •

soils and la ers



116

Appendix 2

S P E C I M E N W O R K P L A N S

The following specimen work plans are modified from AndropogonAssociates: Petersburg National Battlefield Action Plan, Petersburg, Virginia,USA. (Seasonal advice has been adapted to the Southern Hemisphere.)

A2.1 Sowing and over-sowing grassed site

The requirements for the sowing or over-sowing of bare areas or thinl grassed areas to repair existing turf.

Staff needed

Conservation officer, archaeologist or historic resources specialist plus•

volunteers

Equipment needed

Transport, rakes, spades, plastic bags, site plans, recording equipment,•

safet equipment as identified in OSH plans

Work considerations

Identification of seed source sites for the required native grasses•

(e.g. Microlaena stipoides , Rytidosperma spp., Poa anceps ).

Manual seed collecting. It will be necessar to observe the intended•

harvest area at least weekl , to ensure seed is collected when it ismature and before it drops (timing: from November to Januar ).

Assemble commercial seed lines (e.g.• Festuca rubra and Lotuspedunculatus ).

Store seed for use 3–6 months later. Seed should be stored awa from•

mice in paper bags, cartons or sacks, not plastic. Hand threshing isnot necessar when sowing will occur during favourable periods for germination and establishment.

Prepare planting plan, including evaluation of zones of soil fertilit •

and shade factors.

Prepare site (timing: March). Do initial soil test, appl herbicide•

(if necessar ), clear ground with line-trimmer (if necessar ), appl basal fertiliser, identif planting zones (timing: March and April),establishment of seed, weigh seed lots, construct exclusion fence.

Establishment of vegetative material (timing: from late April to Jul ).•

Identif local sources of Oplismenus imbecillus , Paesia scaberula ,Blechnum penna-marina and Metrosideros perforate .

Plant grass seed (timing: from April to Jul ) depending on local•

knowledge. Lightl rake surface areas, add soil to make grade or repairs, spread seed at recommended rate, OR oversow and rake inseed of: Microlaena stipoides , Rytidosperma spp., Festuca rubra and



11 9

Fell on to a mat or corduro of logs, or smaller trees felled to form•

a protective cover

Avoid damage to trees that will eventuall form a new canop •

Skidders and bulldozers should not be used on sites•

In most instances trees will be felled to waste•

Where both archaeological site values and wood values are high,•

helicopter removal of fallen trees ma be needed to avoid damagefrom hauling logs through the site

Slash should not be moved, but cut finel so that it is on the ground•

and rots quickl

Some trees or shrubs will sucker and cut stumps need immediate swab•

with a brushweed killer (Tordon)

Plant ke areas of site with ground cover plants or selected canop -•

replacement seedlings

A2.4 Standard conditions for a grazing concession

As a general guide, grazing should not result in damage to an archaeological features.

The following are suggested as standard conditions/clauses: Stock levels in the case of new historic reserves or registered historic•

sites, this figure is calculated with advice from HPT and this guidelineCaring for archaelogical sites .

Stock t pe generall limit stock t pe to lambs, sheep and other •

soft-hoofed animals. In some districts allow (with HPT permission)earlings on the grounds that there are no sheep, e.g. in Taranaki.

State who the agreement is with, and the length of the concession.•

In some cases agreements ma carr over to immediate famil member successors, so long as the remain the owners of the neighbouringland (this clause usuall applies where a farmer has given/sold DOCsome, but not all, of their land). In other instances there ma be amore specific time period (e.g. 5 ears).

Retain the abilit to monitor the effects of grazing and explore•

alternative options if damage is occurring. Alternative options includereducing stock levels.

Surrender of the concession/agreement, usuall with 3 months notice.•

Ensure all- ear-round access is maintained for the public. For example,•

the farmer can not stop the public entering the reserve because of, sa ,birthing; that is the farmer’s problem, not DOC’s, or the public’s.

Then there are usuall two or three site-specific clauses which deal witha range of matters peculiar to the site (e.g. mustering, gates, fencing, wetweather, etc.), and which impact on the archaeological features.

The above six clauses should be seen as a minimum. The document alsohas to be able to be supplemented b site-specific clauses. Althoughsheep, goats, and llamas ma be the preferred stocking option, an national template has to allow for the fact that in some parts of the

countr few farmers bother to keep sheep.



12 1

Rubus spp. ( R. australis, R. Prickl scrambling vine, becoming Shrubland, oung forest. Sun to part shade.cissoides, R. schmidelioides large forest liane.depending on habitat) bush law er,

tataramoa

Shrubs

Pittosporum eugenioides

Brachyglottis repanda rangiora Large leaves with white underside. Tolerates coastal conditions, or moist forest(Shrub size 3 m × 1.5 m). understore . Requires good drainage. Sun or shade.

Coprosma repens taupata Gloss , flesh leaves. (Shrub size 2 m–4 m.) Coastal, mainl N.I. Frost tender. Prefers dr soil.

Coprosma hauwera Sprawling coastal plant with dense foliage. Tolerates moist and dr , sun and shade, cla .

Coprosma propinqua

Mingimingi Divaricating, twigg shrub (3 m × 1.5 m). Coastal to montane, wetland to dr hillsides.Sun shade.

Hebe stricta (N.I. and northern Useful as a nurse plant when revegetating Open ground to bush margins. Sun semi-S.I.); Hebe salicifolia (S.I.) large areas (1 m–2 m). shade. Quick growing.koromiko

Solanum laciniatum poroporo Ver rapid growth, short-lived shrub Open ground in disturbed places. Sun to part-(to 2 m). shade. Tolerates cla , but not wind.

Leptospermum scoparium Dense thickets or spreading bushes, Wet, infertile soils in open areas. Excellentmanuka hone producer. seed bed for forest species. Tolerates drought,

swamp, frost.

Macropiper excelsum kawakawa Medicinal shrub. Hard . Orange fruit Coastal, or lowland forest understore , south tospikes attractive to native birds. Banks Peninsula. Sun & Shade. Frost tender.(Shrub size 2 m × 1 m.)

Olearia arborescens

Olearia solandri , Rapid growth, heath-like shrub, Wet and dr coastal soil, to Lat. 42°S. Estuar coastal shrub dais (3 m × 1 m). margins. Tolerates cla . Sun.

Haloragis erecta toatoa Spreading bush herb, (40 cm to 1 m tall). Forest margins, open disturbed ground. Sun.Purple foliage. Tolerates cla .

Muehlenbeckia axillaris, Hard . Open mat (up to 1 m across). Open ground, south of Lat. 38°S. GrowsM. complexa pohuehue Grows from cuttings/rooted pieces. well in harsh places.

Kunzea ericoides kanuka Dense thickets of slender, aromatic trees Sunn , alluvial and hill slopes. Tolerates cla ,(to 6 m). Quick growing. Hard . drought, poor soils, grass.

Other ground hugging plants

Pimelea prostrata pinatoro. Spreading patches to small shrubs. Diverse habitats, but local varieties. Sunn N.Z. daphne Hangs over banks. dr places are best.

Acaena anserinifolia, Creeping patches. Hard . Open, grass places. Tolerates semi-shadeA. inermis ‘bidibid’, piripiri and wind.

Dichondra repens Carpet-forming or open patches. Open, moist areas. Tolerates cla . Sun shade.Mercur Ba weed

Pratia angulata

Arthropodium cirratumRengarenga lil

Mazus spp. Small herbs, often prostrate and/or creeping.Belongs to the Foxglove famil (Scrophulariaceae)

Hydrocotyle novae-zelandiae, Patches or open ground-cover. Moist open to semi-shaded places, coastal to

H. moschata, H. hetermeria lowland.

NAME FORM AND SPECIAL FEATURES HABITAT

Appendix 3 continued



122

Appendix 4

N A T I V E G R A S S E S A N D O T H E R G R O U N D -H U G G I N G C O V E R S

Recommended species, sowing and planting rates for sites in northerntemperate areas are listed below. Listing is b aspect.

North-, west- and east-facing aspects, sunny with minimal shading, well drained

Meadow rice grass ( • Microlaena stipoides ) local ecot pe, 50 g seedper m 2

Chewings fescue ( • Festuca rubra ) ‘Enjo ’, 25 g seed per m 2

Danthonia ( • Rytidosperma spp.) local ecot pe, 25 g seed per m 2

• Lotus pedunculatus ‘Maku’, 10 g seed per m 2

Fern ( • Paesia scaberula ) local ecot pe, 20 cuttings per m 2

Fern ( • Blechnum nigra ) local ecot pe, 20 cuttings per m 2

Clinging rata ( • Metrosideros perforata ) local ecot pe, 20 cuttingsper m 2

South-facing shady aspect, well drained slopes

Meadow rice grass ( • Microlaena stipoides ) local ecot pe, 50 g seed per m 2


Clinging rata ( • Metrosideros perforata ) local ecot pe, 20 cuttingsper m 2

Wet, poorly drained, heavily shaded areas, and areas prone toshort-term saturation

• Oplismenus hirtellus subspecies imbecillus local ecot pe, 20 cuttingsper m 2

• Lotus pedunculatus ‘Maku’, 10 g seed per m 2


Fern ( • Blechnum penna-marina ) local ecot pe, 20 cuttings per m 2

Heavily tracked areas

Dwarf perennial r egrass ( • Lolium perenne ), 30 g seed per m 2

New Zealand browntop ( • Agrostis tenuis ), 30 g seed per m 2

Chewings fescue ( • Festuca rubra ) ‘Enjo ’, 25 g seed per m 2

Woods (1999) has provided details of some of these species as follows:

Meadow rice grass

Common name: Meadow rice grass



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Species name: Microlaena stipoides

Fineness: Relativel fine

Leaf colour: Light green during summer, dark green duringwinter

Growth habit: Compact rhizome s stem giving rise to slow-spreadingclumps

Establishment: Seed

Habitats: Low-fertilit summer-dr soils; shaded environmentsoften found in open shade under trees in r egrass

and clover paddocks

Productivit : Main growth during warmer seasons; relativel littlegrowth during winter

Cultivars: None at present

Poa anceps

Common name: Broad-leaved poaSpecies name: Poa anceps

Fineness: Ver coarse

Growth habit: Rhizome s stem, spreading clumps; leaves up to 15 cmlong

Establishment : Seed or division of clumps

Habitats: Low-fertilit summer-dr soils; ston banks; lightl shaded environments

Productivit : Main growth during warmer seasons

Cultivars: None at present

Oplismenus imbecillus

Common name:

Species name: Oplismenus imbecillus

Fineness: Fine small leaves under mowing

Leaf colour: Dark green throughout the ear in shade; ellows andbrowns in full sun or with frosting

Growth habit: Low-growing stoloniferous grass with short broadleaves

Establishment : Seed or stolon cuttingsHabitats: Shaded environments

Productivit : Most growth occurs during warmer months; dormantduring winter

Cultivars: None

Zoysia spp.

Common name: Zo sia grass

Species names: Zoysia minima, Zoysia pauciflora, Zoysiaplanifolia



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Fineness: Z. minima extremel fine; other species quite fine

Leaf colour: Green throughout the ear; damaged b frost

Growth habit: Rhizomatous grass; plants generall less than 10 cmhigh

Establishment : Seed or stolons; scarif seeds

Habitats: Sand and gravel environments

Productivit : Slow growing; active during summer, winter dormant

Cultivars: Other species used extensivel in USA, Japan, Koreaand China; primaril Zoysia japonica

Silvery sand grass

Common name: Silver sand grass

Species name: Spinifex sericeus

Origin: New Zealand and Australia

Fineness: Coarse and sparsel tillered

Leaf colour: Silver blue green throughout the ear; damaged b wind and frost during winter

Growth habit: Extensive rhizomatous grass; plants generall up to60 cm high

Establishment : Seed or rhizomes; dioecious, separate male andfemale plants; seeds germinate readil when covered

with sandHabitats: Fore dunes and sand environments

Productivit : Active during spring and earl summer; relativel winter dormant; responds to fertilisers

Cultivars: None known; other species used extensivel inAustralia for dune restoration and coastal protectionwork



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Appendix 5

G L O S S A R y

Adventive Naturall arrived at a place, not deliberatel planted.Arable Land able to be ploughed.

Bioturbation All the ph sical biological processes at work in soilhorizons which cause the soil components to move about, includingworms, burrowing animals, tree throw.

Bole The lower trunk of the tree, often straight and free of branches.

Conservation plan A document which describes and anal ses thecondition and values of a place. It also sets out the policies, plans andintentions of the authorit which manages that place.

Ecotype A species which is long lived in a particular localit and welladapted to the conditions there.

Fine, fines Small particles.

Floor, living floor, working floor Thin stratigraphic la er wherepeople have lived or walked about.

Gallery forest Forest with widel spaced boles, allowing visibilit of the ground surface, and a closed canop .

Inoculum A seed coating that reduces risk of disease.

Midden Accumulation of deca ing or deca ed food refuse.pH A measure of acidit . Acid soils (low pH) suit native plants or plantation forest. Neutral (pH 7) or high pH soils suit production grassessuch as r egrass.

Revetted, revetting The practice of placing stones against a bank tostabilise it and to enable it to retain a steeper angle.

Root plate The full extent of roots formed in the soil and which ma be torn up with the surrounding soil when a tree is blown over.

Rotational grazing Putting stock into a small paddock for a short

period of time, allowing them to graze the grass down and then removingthem. Requires careful planning and installation of fencing.

Runanga Tribal government (New Zealand usage).

Seral Stage of growth in an ecological succession.

Set grazing Permanent grazing, keeping animals on the same pieceof land with the natural increase in spring and decrease in autumn.For archaeological sites, requires careful planning and installation of fencing.

Slash Branch debris l ing on the ground from plantation trees that have

been pruned.

Jones, K. Caring for Archaeological Sites in New Zealand. 2007

Documents

Transcript of Jones, K. Caring for Archaeological Sites in New Zealand. 2007