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Ivana Pavlinac Dodig, M.D., Ph.D.
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1. Brainstem1. Medulla oblongata
2. Pons
3. Mesencephalon
2. Cranial nerves3. Cerebellum
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Connecting spinal cord to cerebrum and cerebellum.Suprasegmental region of CNS.
Medulla oblongataPonsMesencephalon
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Grey matter continuity – from spinal cord via brainstem tegmentum to diencephalon
White matter continuity – long ascending and descending fibers
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Physiological roles:Regulation of breathingRegulation of cardiovascular systemRegulation of gastro‐intestinal systemRegulation of movementsRegulation of body balanceRegulaation of eyes movements
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1. Ventral or basal part (basis) = motor pathways
2. Middle part or tegmentum = sensory pathways, reticular formation, cranial nerve nuclei
3. Dorsal part or tectum –only in midbrain;visual and auditory system
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Long descending motor pathways:CorticospinalCorticobulbarCorticopontine
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Cranial nerves nuclei
Reticular formation
Big extrapyramidal motor nuclei (nucl. ruber and substantia nigra)
Special monoaminergic tegmental nuclei (nucl. raphe, VTA, locus coeruleus)
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Sensory: lemniscus medialis, tractus spinothalamicus and trigeminothalamicus
Extrapyramidal
Non‐specific ascendent pathways (serotoninergic, noradrenergic and cholinergic)
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50 nucleiParamedial area – raphe + reticul. nucleiMedial area Lateral area
Physiological roles: Modulation of sensory transmission to the cortexRegulation of motor activityAutonomic regulationSleep and wakefulness cycleModulation of emotional behaviour
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Reticular nuclei of the pons – excitation of the antigravity muscles
Medullary reticular nuclei – inhibition of the antigravity muscles
antagonistic action
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Rostral third = open medullaCaudal 2/3 = closed medullaDorsal surface of tegmentum = bottom of IV. ventricleLissauer’s zone = tractus spinalis n. trigemini
Pyramids = corticospinal tract; decussationOlives = inferior olivary nucl. Nucl. gracilis and cuneatus
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Major fiber tractsInternal nuclei
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Tegmentum = extrapyramidal motor and sensory pathways (lemniscus medialis, tractus spinothalamicus*, spinotectalis, spinoreticularis* and spinocerebellaris) and RFFLM (connecting vestibul. nuclei and lower motor neurons)
* lemniscus spinalis
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Tractus corticospinalisTractus tectospinalisTractus rubrospinalisTractus reticulospinalis lat. and med.Fasciculus longitudinalis medialis▪ Descending part (medial vestibulospinal tract)▪ Ascending part (from medial, lateral, and superior vestibular nuclei to pons and
midbrain; information about head position to cranial nerves)
Lemniscus medialisTractus spinalis n. trigemini – somatosensory information from the head (Neuron II)
Tractus spinothalamicusTractus spinocerebellaris
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Reticular formationNucl. gracilis and cuneatusInferior olivary nuclei (spino‐olivary and rubro‐olivary fibers; to cerebellum)
Nucl. spinalis n. trigemini (pain and temperature from head)
Cochlear nuclei (n.VIII)Vestibular nuclei (n.VIII)Hypoglossal nucl. (n.XII)Nucl. ambiguus (n.IX & X)Nucl. tractus solitarii (n.IX & X)Dorsal motor vagal nucl. (n.X)
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1. Level of pyramidal decussation2. Level of medial lemniscus decussation
(+accessory cuneate nucl. – external arcuate fibers – cuneocerebellar tract – inferior cerebellar peduncle: unconscious proprioception from upper limbs)
3. Rostral half of medulla – cranial nerve nuclei
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General somatic efferent neurons (GSE)
Special visceral efferent neurons (SVE)
General visceral efferent neurons (GVE)
General visceral afferent neurons (GVA)
Special visceral afferent neurons (SVA)
General sensory afferent neurons (GSA)
Special sensory afferent neurons (SSA)
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GSE – hypoglossal nucl.SVE – nucl. ambiguus (IX, X)GVE – parasympathetic (dorsal motor vagal nucl., nucl. salivatorius inferior)GVA – solitary nucl. (IX, X) – cardiovascular and respiratory reflexesSVA – gustatory portion of the solitary nucl. (taste)GSA – spinal nucl. of trigeminal nerveSSA – vestibular and cochlear nuclei
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GSE
SVE
GVE
GVA & SVA
GSA
SSA
GSE – SVE – GVE – GVA & SVA – GSA – SSA
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Lateral medullary syndrome (Wallenberg’s)
Contralateral body and ipsilateral face loss of pain and temperature (spinothalamic and spinal trigeminal tract), loss of gag reflex, hoarseness, difficulty with speech and swallowing (nucl. ambiguus)
Horner’s syndrome = loss of sympathetic functions
Medial medullary syndrome (Dejerine’s)
Pyramid, medial lemniscus and root fibers of n. XII
Dorsal medullary syndrome
Inf. cerebellar peduncle (ataxia), vestibular nuclei (nystagmus, vomiting, vertigo)
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Basis: fibersnuclei
Tegmentum: fibersnuclei
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Fasciculi longitudinales
corticospinal
corticobulbar (corticonuclear) interneurons of RF
corticopontine
Transverse pontine fibers (pontocerebellar)
Nuclei pontis (deep)
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Fibers:
fasciculus longitudinalis medialis
lemniscus medialis
spinothalamic and trigeminothalamic pathways
lemniscus lateralis (auditory pathway)
extrapyramidal pathways
tractus rubrospinalis
tractus tectospinalis
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Nuclei pontis: RF (including raphe nuclei), auditory relay structures: corpus trapeziodeum, superior olivary nucleus (from cochlear nuclei)nucleus locus coerulei, cranial nerves nuclei (V, VI, VII, superior and lateral vestibular nuclei)
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The locked‐in syndromelarge infarct of the basilar pons – corticobulbar and corticospinal tracts communication by blinking and moving eyes
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Tectum (corpora quadrigemina)TegmentumBasis (crus cerebri)
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Colliculi inferiores (auditory relay component; fibers of lemniscus lateralis from cochlear, sup.olivary nucl., and trapeziod body; to CGM – brachium of the inf. colliculus)
Colliculi superiores (inputs from retina; projects to cervical spinal cord via tectospinal tract)
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PAG (enkephalin‐modulation of pain; regulation of autonomic, affective and emotional functions)
Cranial nerves nuclei (III,IV+MLF)L&M lemniscus, spinothalamic, trigeminothalamic pathwaysRF (including raphe – somatomotor, autonomic and visceral regulation)
Decussation of the superior cerebellar peduncleSubstantia nigraNucleus ruber (rostral half, motor functions)VTA – dopaminergic mezocortical system
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Posterior commissure (pretectal area –coodination of eyes’ movements)
Thalamic structures (pulvinar, medial and lateral geniculate nuclei)
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Pretectal area (pupillary light reflex)
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Sensory: I. II. VIII.
Motor: IV.VI.XI. XII
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Genereal somatic efferents (GSE):CN III, IV, VI, XII skeletal muscles derived from somites
Special visceral efferents (SVE):CN V, VII, IX, X, XI skeletal muscles derived from branchial arches
General visceral efferents (GVE = autonomic): CN III, VII, IX, X smooth muscles and glands
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Capsula interna Brainstem
Cranial nerves’ nuclei
Neuron I(upper
motoneuron) Neuron II(lower
motoneuron)
Precentral gyrus (area 4*) Tractus
corticobulbaris
n. III, IV, V, VI, VII, IX, X, XI, XII
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General somatic afferents (GSA)CN V, VII, IX, Xsensations of pain, temp, touch, pressure
Special sensory afferents (SSA)CN II, VIIIFrom highly specialized somatic receptors
Special visceral afferents (SVA)CN I (olfaction), CN VII, IX, X (taste) – chemoreceptors
General visceral afferents (GVA)CN IX and X (visceral pain, chemoreception, general unpleasent feelings)
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41GSE SVE GVESSA GSA SVA+GVA
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SVA (receptors are chemoreceptors)
Enters the brain through the cribriform plate and supplies the olfactory bulb
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SSA
Conveys visual signals to the CNS
Enters the brain at the level of the preoptic
region of the diencephalon
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GSE – extraocular eye muscles
GVE – parasympathetic inervation of the pupillary and ciliary muscles
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Motor nucleus: situated in the mesencephalon (level of the superior colliculus) – fossa interpeduncularis –the orbit Superior, medial, and inferior rectus musles, inferior oblique and levator palpebrae superior muscle
Bilateral corticobulbar inervation
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Westphal – Edinger nucleus Most of the fibers: ciliary ganglion (m. constrictor pupillae*) Some fibers pass through ciliary ganglion and synapse in episcleral ganglion – ciliary muscle (accomodation)
* M. dilatator pupillae – sympathetic fibers from superior cervical gangl.
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GSEM. obliquus superior – moves eye downward while in medial position
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SVE (muscles of mastication; upper motoneuron = bilateral inputs from the cortex; lower motoneuron lesions – difficulties in chewing and biting responses)
GSA (somatosensory inputs from the anterior 2/3 of the head)
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GSA from the anterior 2/3 of the headThree principal divisions:OphtalmicMaxillaryMandibular
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Ganglion semilunare Gasseri
Trigeminal nerve
Tractus spinalis n.V.
Neuron I Neuron II
VPM of the thalamus
Neuron III
Internal capsulePostcentral gyrus
(area 3,1,2)
Skin receptors
Ventral trigeminothal.tract
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Ganglion semilunare Gasseri
Main sensory nucl. Of n.V. (pons)
Neuron I Neuron II
VPM of the thalamus
Neuron III
Internal capsulePostcentral
gyrus (area 3,1,2)
Skin receptors
Ventral trigeminothal.
tract
Dorsal trigeminothal.
tract
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Muscle spindles in masticatory muscles and temporomandibular joint – via mandibular branchNeuron I = mesencephlic nuceus
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Trigeminal neuralgia (tic douloureux)Often localized to a portion of one side of the face (associated with a specific branch)Unknown etiology (irritation of the trigeminal nerve by inflammation, tumor, or vascular lesion)Therapy? Surgery?
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GSEM. rectus lateralis – moves eye laterallyClinical disorder: medial strabismus
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Motor components:SVE (muscles derived from the second branchial arch)GVE (parasympathetic: salivation, lacrimation, nasal cavity mucosal secretion)
Sensory components:GSA (somesthetic impulses from the back of the ear and external auditroy meatus)SVA (taste)
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SVE Muscles of facial expression, auricular, posterior belly of digastric , styloyoid, platysma and stapedius muscle
GVE ‐ parasympathetic inervationfrom the superior salivatory nucl. to the submandibular (submandibular and sublingual glands) and pterygopalatine ganlion (lacrimal, nasal and palatine glands)
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SVA – taste from the anterior 2/3 of the tongue – geniculate ganglion – solitary nucl. –thalamic VPM nucl.GSA – back of the ear and external auditory meatus – geniculate ganglion – spinal tract of the trigeminal nucl.Pain and temp, pressure, tactile stimuli
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Upper part of the face = bilateral inervationLower part of the face = contralateral inervation
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SSAAuditory and vestibular signals for the CNS
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Motor components:SVE (muscles derived from the branchial arches)GVE (salivation)
Sensory components:GSA (somesthetic impulses from the back of the ear)GVA (changes of the blood pressure)SVA (taste and blood oxygen level)
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SVE – from the nucl. ambiguusM. stylopharyngeus – speech and swallowing
GVE – from the inferior salivatory nucl. to the otic ganglionParasympathetic inervation of the parotid gland ‐salivaton
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GVA – baroreceptors in carotid sinus –inferior (petrosal) ganglion – solitary nucl.Carotid sinus baroreflex
GSA – tympanic membrane and skin of the external ear, posterior third of the tongue, eustachian tube, tonsil and upper part of the pharynx – superior ganglion – spinal trigeminal nucl.Pain and temp, pressure, tactile stimuli
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SVA Respiratory functions: chemoreceptors (PaO2, PaCO2, pH of the blood) in the carotid body –inferior ganglion – solitary nucleus, RF▪ Carotid body chemoreflex
Taste functions: taste buds in posterior third of the tongue – inferior ganglion – solitary nucl. –VPM thalamic nucl.
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Motor components:SVE (muscles derived from the branchial arches)GVE (body viscera)
Sensory components:GSA (somesthetic impulses from the back of the ear)GVA (changes of the blood pressure)SVA (taste and blood oxygen level)
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SVE – from the nucl. ambiguusMuscles of the pharynx and larynx – role in speech
GVE – from the dorsal motor nucl.Parasympathetic inervation of the body viscera to left colic flexureBronchoconstriction, speeding up of peristalsis, cardiac cycle slowing, increases in bronchi, stomach, pancreas and intestines’ secretion
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GVA – body viscera and aortic arch – inferior (nodose) ganglion – solitary nucl.Unconscious (baroreceptors in aortic arch, part of baroreceptor reflex) and conscious (thirst, hunger) sensory inputs from the viscera
GSA – back of the ear and external auditory canal – superior (jugular) ganglion – spinal trigeminal nucl.Pain and temp, pressure, tactile stimuli
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SVA Respiratory functions: chemoreceptors (PaO2, PaCO2, pH of the blood) in the aortic body –inferior ganglion – reticular formationTaste functions: taste buds in epiglottis and posterior pharynx wall – inferior ganglion –solitary nucl. –VPM thalamic nucl.
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SVE / GSEVentral horn cells of first 5‐6 cervical segmentsM. trapezius and sternocleidomastoideusContralateral turning and lifting of the headSupranuclear paralysis = contralateral
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GSE
Control of the shape and position of the tongue
Extrinsic (styloglossus, hyoglossus, genioglossus) and intrinsic muscles of the tongue
Damage –protruded tongue deviates to the side of the lesion
Contralateral inervation!70
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Nerve Nucleus GanglionBrainstemlocation
N. oculomotorius Westphal‐Edingerova Ciliary Mesencephalon
N. facialis Nucl. salivatorius sup.SubmandibularyPterygopalatine
Pons
N. glossopharyngeus Nucl. salivatorius inf. Oticum M. oblongata
N. vagus Nucl. dorsalis n. vagi At visceral organs M. oblongata
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Integration of information from spinocerebellar pathways, vestibular nuclei and cortex (via pons and cerebellar peduncles)Cortex, white matter, deep nucleiTwo hemispheres + vermisMain neurotransmitter: GABA
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Attached to the brainstem by:
Inferior cerebellar peduncle – fibers from spinal cord and lower brainstem regions
Middle cerebellar peduncle – cortex – pons – cortex cerebelli
Superior cerebellar peduncle – to nucl. ruber and VLN of thalamus
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affe
rent
effe
rent
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Folia; no gyri and sulci
3 layers of the cells: Purkinje cells layerMolecular layerGranule cell layer
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Nucleus fastigii (=nucl.medialis) – to RF and vestibular neuronsNucleus globosusNucleus emboliformisNucleus dentatus (=nucl.lateralis) – to VLN of thalamus
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= nucl.interpositus – to nucl. ruber
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Anatomical name Filogenetic name Functional name
Lobus anterior Paleocerebellum Spinocerebellum
Lobus posterior NeocerebellumPontocerebellum / Cerebrocerebellum
Lobus flocculonodularis Archicerebellum vestibulocerebellum
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Loss of balanceTremorsLack of coordination of musclesReduced muscle tone
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