HISTORY OF WEST ASIA CONFLICT

AFTERSECOND WORLD WAR

LEE BIH NI

Second Edition, 2013

© Lee Bih Ni

Editor:Edit Pad

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Chapter Contents Page_____________________________________________________________________Chapter 1 Background to Conflict West Asia

a) Introduction- Year 1800 to World War II

b) contributory factors and the event of conflict- Arab-Israeli Conflict- Aspects of Religious Conflict

c) Historyi) End of 19th Century to 1948ii) 1949-1967iii) 1967-1973iv) 1974-2000

- Egypt- Jordan- Iraq- Lebanon- Palestine

v) 2000-2009vi) 2010-present

d) Conclusion

Chapter 2 Establishment of the State of Israel, 1948 a) Introduction

- History of Israel- Early Israel (1200-950 BC)- Israel and Judah (c.1200-576 BC)- Babylonian, Persian and Greek rule (586 BC - 2nd century BC)- Government Hasmonean (2nd century BC - 64 BC)- Roman Rule- Pre-Christian Rome (64 BCE - 324 CE)- Rabbinical Era- Christian Roman and Byzantine rule (324-636)- Arab rule (636-1096)- Crusader Rule (1099 - 13th century)- Mamluk Rule (th century 13-1517)- Ottoman rule (1516-1917)

b) The emergence of Zionism and antisemitism- Growth persecution in Eastern Europe- Migration from Eastern Europe- The creation of the Zionist movementc) the British Mandate of Palestine- The Balfour Declaration- British Mandate of Palestine (1917-1948)- Immigration Jewish and Arab opposition

d) The Second World War and the Holocaust (1939-1945)e) Post-War Years (1945-1947)f) Plan of Subdivision united Nations

- The UN Plan for Palestine 1947g) of the Civil War, Jan.-May 1948h) Establishment of the State of Israel

- "Ten Day Attack" (July 9 to 18, 1948)- Second Armistice (July 18 to 15 October of 1948)

- Battle Renewed (October 6 - November 5, 1948)- Armistice Agreement (March-July 1949)- Government and Politics- Immigration

i) Conclusion

Chapter 3 The Arab-Israeli Conflict (I) - Arab Israeli War 1948 a) Introduction

- Backgroundb) 1947-1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine

- Political factors; Yishuvc) Overall Arab League

- King Abdullah I (Jordan)- Other Arab Countries- Supreme Committee Amin al-Husayni

d) Evaluation Force- Military Yishuv- Saudi Military- British forces in Palestine

e) Intervention by Arab League countriesf) Arab-Israeli War of 1948i) Phase One: 15th May - June 11, 1948

- Israeli Army in 1948- Jordan Cannon illuminates Jerusalem in 1948- First Armistice: 11th June, - July 8, 1948

ii) Phase Two: 8-18 July 1948- Operations Danny- Operation Dekel- Operation Kedem- Second Truce: July 18 - October 15, 1948- Operations Shoter

iii) The third phase: October 15, 1948 - March 10, 1949- Israeli Operations- Air Battles of the Anglo-Israel

g) the effect of the Arab Israeli War of 1948- After the 1949 Armistice Agreement- Demographics: Migration Palestine 1948 Palestinian migration Reason, 1948, and the migration of Jews from Arab Lands- Migration of Jews from Arab Countries Islam- Illegal camps Maabarot

h) Conclusions

Chapter 4 The Arab-Israeli Conflict (II) - Suez War, 1956 a) Introduction

- Backgroundb) the events leading to the Suez Crisis

- Postwar Yearsc) Nationalization of the Suez Canal and the Road to Crisisd) Diplomacy Anglo-French-American

- Committee Menzies- Protocol- British Army- The French Army

e) Israeli Military History- Egypt- Planning- August 9 Eisenhower press conference on the crisis- Operational Information (1956)- France recalled That Stockwell- Check Operation (Operation REVISE)- Intrusion- Operation Kadesh: Israeli operation in the Sinai Peninsula

f) Early Action in South Sinai (South Egypt)- Battle of Jebel Heitan, under attack paratroop brigade- Air Operations, Phase 1- Naval Operations- Anglo-French Army

e) Financial & Armistice Pressuref) Effect:

- Military Education- Migration of Jews from Arab countries and the Islamic and Jewish history in Egypt- Israel

g) Conclusion

Chapter 5 The Arab-Israeli Conflict (III) - Six-Day War, 1967 a) Introduction

- Background and Summary of Events That Lead To Warb) Prepare the Military

- Preparation Arab- Preparation Israel

c) Forward Team Fight- Beginning of Air Attack- Gaza and the Sinai Peninsula- West Bank- Golan Heights- Weapons

d) Conflict and Post-War Situation- Casualties- Controversy- Strike Attack Prevention of Improper- Allegations Against Egyptian Military Brutality- USS Liberty Incident

e) Population displaced- Arabic- Jews in the Arab countries- Jew In Communist Countries

f) Conclusion

Chapter 6 The Egyptian Revolution, 1952 a) Introductionb) Causes ofc) Predecessord) Consolidation

- Remindere) Conclusion

Chapter 7 The Lebanese Civil War, 1982 a) Introduction

- Background- Colonial Rule

b) Independencec) Tension Demographics

- Line of Lebanon and the Lebanese National Movement- Christian- Shia Islam- Sunni Islam- Druze sect- The Secular- Palestine

d) First Phase 1975-1977- Terrorism and sectarian massacre- Syrian Occupation of Lebanon- Quiet Is Not Comfortable

e) The second phase 1977-1982- Hundred Days War- Israeli intervention in South Lebanon, 1978- Safety Zone- Safra massacre- Campaign Zahleh

f) Third Phase 1982-1983- The Israeli invasion of Lebanon- Siege of Beirut- For Armistice Negotiations- International Rehabilitation: Multinational Force in Lebanon- The massacre of Sabra and Shatila- Agreement May 17- Terrorism

g) Fourth Phase 1984-1990- The Increasingly Poor Conflict and Crisis: War Camp- Government- Taif Agreement- Disputes in East Beirut: Massacre October 13

h) Effect After Violencei) Conclusion

Chapter 8 The Iranian Revolution, 1979 a) Introduction

- Background and Reasons for the Iranian Revolution- Historical Background

b) the rise of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeinic) the ideology of the Iranian Revolutiond) Organizations of the Iranian Revolutione) Some events 1970-1977

- A revolutionary leader- Demonstrations In Late 1977

f) Summer- Fire Rex Cinema in Abadan- Black Friday and Beyond- Protests Muharram

g) win the Revolution and the fall of the Monarchy- Return Khomeini and Fall of monarchy Monarchy- Casualties of the Iranian Revolution

h) Consolidation of power by Khomeini: Consolidation of the Iranian Revolution

- Organization of the Iranian Revolution- Revolt Khuzestan 1979 Kurdish uprising 1979 in Iran

j) The establishment of the Islamic Republic- Writing the Constitution

k) Hostage Crisis- Suppression of the Opposition- Press coverage

l) Islamic People's Republican Party- Kazem Shariatmadari- Left Islam

m) The effect- History of the Islamic Republic of Iran- International- Persian Gulf War and the Iran-Iraq- Relationship with the West / US-Iran- Internal Iran- Literacy Development- Government and Politics of Iran- Women's Rights in Iran- Economic Iran

n) Conclusion

Chapter 9 The Iraq war - Iran, 1980 to 1988 a) Introductionb) Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988)- Error Iraq, 1980-1982- Withdrawal of Iraq, 1982-1984- Slip War, 1984-1987- Tank War, 1984-1987c) Involvement of the Great Powers gradually- Special Weaponsd) Termination of Ware) Conclusion

Chapter 10 The Gulf War, 1990-1991 a) Introduction

- Backgroundb) Invasion of Kuwaitc) War

- How diplomatic- Creating A Series Alliance- Justification for Intervention- Early Battles: Air Campaign- Battle Of Khafji-Military Operations During the Liberation Khafji Land-Campaign

d) The liberation of Kuwait- Initial Steps To Iraq

- Allied Forces Enter Iraq- Analysis of Postwar Military- Part 1 during Operation Desert Storm.- End of Active Hostilities

e) The combination of the Gulf War- United Kingdom- France- Canada- Australia's contribution to the 1991 Gulf War

f) Public Casualties Iraq Right-Number

- Controversy Gulf War- Effects of Uranium- Highway of Death- Bulldozer Attack- Expulsion of Palestinians from Kuwait 1991- Infrastructure Coalition bombing- Abuse

g) Operation of Southern Watch- Restriction of the Gulf War- UN Security Council Resolution 661 of the United Nations- Draining Qurna Marshes- Spill Gulf War- Kuwait Oil Fires- Cost

h) Impact On Developing Countries- Media coverage of the Gulf War

i) Conclusion

Chapter 11 The Palestinian Intifada, 1987-1991 a) Introduction

- Intifadab) Organization Palestinians in the first Intifada

- Death in the first Intifada- Violent Incidents Within the First Intifada

c) Israeli Reaction to the First Intifadad) Conclusion

Chapter 1

Background of West Asia Conflict

Introduction

In 1800 to World War II

By the end year the 1800's the questions arise about how people Jewish can

overcome increasing persecution and anti-Jewish in Europe. Promised Land

Biblical led to a political movement, Zionism, to establish a Jewish state in

Palestine, in the Middle East.

From 1920 to 1947, the British Empire has a mandate over Palestine. At the

time, including all Israeli and Palestinian Occupied Territories today, Gaza, the

West Bank, and others. Increasing number of Jews immigrating to "Holy Land" to

increase tension in the region.

European geopolitics in the early half of the 20th century in the wider Middle

East region contributed to the instability of the whole lot. The British Empire, in

particular, plays a key role in the region.

During World War I, in 1916, he convinced Arab leaders revolted against

the Ottoman Empire (allied with Germany). In response, the British government

would support the establishment of an independent Arab state in the region,

including Palestine.

Yet, in this contradiction, and also got a support people-people Jewish, in

1917, Lord Arthur Balfour, Foreign Minister State British, issue a declaration in

(Declaration Balfour). Announced support for the establishment of the British

Empire "home of the Jewish state in Palestine."

As a complication, there was an agreement between Imperial Britain and

France to carve out territories Arab Ottoman Empire and divide control of the

region. The spoils of war are to be shared. With the Conference of Berlin in 1885

in which Africa was carved among the various European empires, the parts of the

Middle East will also be engraved, which requires boundary manufacture and

support of monarchies, dictators and other leaders who can be regarded as a

"puppet" or at least can influenced by external forces. 1

Contributing factors and the process of conflict events

Arab-Israeli Conflict

Arab-Israeli conflict refers to the political tensions and open hostilities between

Arabs and Middle Eastern Jewish communities. Roots of the Arab-Israeli conflict

lies in the rise of modern Zionism and Arab nationalism towards the end of the

19th century. Conflict between Jews and Palestinian Arabs appeared in the early

20th century, expanded to all Arab League countries with the creation of the

modern State of Israel in 1948. Territory regarded by the Jewish people as their

historical homeland is also regarded by the Pan-Arab movement as historically

1 Anup Shah. (2006 July 30). The Middle East conflict—a brief background. Retrieved 2012 May 12 from http://www.globalissues.org/article/119/the-middle-east-conflict-a-brief-background

and currently owned by Palestinian Arabs, and the Pan-Islamic context, in

territory regarded as Muslim lands.

Conflict, which started as a political and nationalist conflict over

competing regional ambitions following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, has

shifted over the years from the large scale regional Arab-Israeli conflict Israeli-

Palestinian conflict is more local. Peace agreement was signed between Israel

and Egypt in 1979, and Israel and Jordan in 1994. However, the Arab world and

Israel generally remain at odds with each other over a specific territory. 2

Religious Aspects Conflict

Jewish groups, Muslims and Christians worship, religious arguments for their

uncompromising positions. Contemporary history of the Arab-Israeli conflict are

very much affected by Christian, Jewish and Muslim religious beliefs and their

interpretation of the idea of the chosen people in their policy attention to the

"Promised Land" and "Chosen City" of Jerusalem.

The Holy Land or Eretz Yisrael (Land of Israel), according to the law

promised by God to the Children of Israel. According to the study of the Bible and

archaeological evidence, Israel ruled the land from the 13th century or 14th

century BC-1 BC (with a brief period of foreign rule), remaining a majority ethnic

population in the area until the 7th century CE.

In the manifesto of 1896, the Jewish State, Theodor Herzl repeatedly refers

to the Biblical concept of the promised land. Likud is the most prominent Israeli

politicians, including the Biblical claim to the Land of Israel in the platform.

Muslims also claim rights to the land in accordance with the Quran.

Contrary to the Jewish claim that this land was promised to Abraham's son

Isaac's descendants only young, they argue that the land of Canaan was

promised to all descendants of Abraham, including the firstborn of Ishmael, from

whom Arabs claim descent. In addition, many Muslims also respect the sacred

place for Israel Bible, such as Cave of the Patriarchs and the Temple Mount, and

1,400 years ago Islamic landmark built these sites ancient Jews, like the Dome of

the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque . Muslims also believe that Muhammad through

Jerusalem on the first trip to heaven. Hamas ruling the Gaza Strip, claiming that

the land of Palestine (Israel and the Palestinian territories) is an Islamic waqf

must be administered by Muslims.

2 The Palestinian National Charter - Article 6. Retrieved 2012 May 11 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict

Christian Zionists support Israel because they recognize the right of Jews

to the land of your ancestors, as proposed, for example, by Paul in Romans 11.

Some even believe that the return of the Jewish people in Israel is a prerequisite

for the Second Coming of Christ. 3

History

The end of the 19th Century (1948)

At the end of the 19th century, under Zionism, many European Jews purchased

land from the Ottoman sultan and his agents. At that time, Jerusalem did not go

beyond the walled area and has a population of only a few tens of thousands.

Collective farms, known as kibbutzim, were established, is the first entirely

Jewish city in modern times, Tel Aviv.

Before World War I, the Middle East, including Palestine, had been under the

control of the Ottoman Empire for nearly 500 years. In the closing years of the

Ottoman empire they began to support their Turkish ethnic identity, asserting

the priority of the Turks in the empire, leading to discrimination against Arabs.

Promise of liberation from the Ottomans led many Jews and Arabs to support the

allied forces during World War I, which led to the emergence of widespread Arab

nationalism.

In the year 1915-1916, as World War I was walking, the British High

Commissioner in Egypt, Sir Henry McMahon, secretly corresponded with Husayn

ibn 'Ali, the patriarch of the Hashemite family and Ottoman governor of Mecca

and Medina. McMahon convinced Husayn to lead the Arab revolt against the

Ottoman Empire, which aligned with Germany against Britain and France in the

war. McMahon promised that if the Arabs to support Britain in the war, the British

government would support the establishment of an independent Arab state

under Hashemite rule in the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire, including

Palestine. Arab revolt, led by TE Lawrence ("Lawrence of Arabia") and Husayn

son Faysal, succeeded in defeating the Ottomans, and Britain took control of

much of this area.

In 1917, the British issue the Balfour Declaration, which stated that the

government agreed to "the establishment in Palestine a national home for the

Jewish people" but "anything that can be done which may prejudice the civil

rights of existing and non-religious Jewish community in Palestine ". Declaration

was issued as a result of the trust principal members of the government,

3 Review of On the Road to Armageddon: How Evangelicals Became Israel's Best Friend. Retrieved 2010 May 12 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict

including Prime Minister David Lloyd George, that Jewish support was essential to

winning the war; However, the declaration is causing great concern in the Arab

world after the war, the area was under the rule British as the British Mandate of

Palestine. Area mandated to the British included what is today Israel, Jordan, the

West Bank and Gaza.

It was during this time that Jewish immigration to Palestine increased. By

1931, 17 percent of the Palestinian population is Jewish, an increase of six

percent since 1922. Jewish immigration increased after the Nazis came to power

in Germany, causing the Jewish population in Palestine to double. Palestinian

Arabs see the rapid influx of Jewish immigrants as a threat to their homeland and

their identity as a people. Moreover, Jewish policies of purchasing land and

prohibiting the Arab employment in industry and owned farms angered many

Jewish-Palestinian Arab society. Demonstrations were held as early as 1920,

protesting what the Arabs felt was an unfair preference to Jewish immigrants

made by the British mandate that governed Palestine at that time. This

resentment led to outbreaks of violence. In March 1920, the first violent incident

occurred in Tel Hai, and later that year riots occurred in Jerusalem. Winston

Churchill's 1922 White Paper tried to reassure the Arab population, denying that

the establishment of a Jewish state is the intention of the Balfour Declaration. In

1929, after a demonstration by Vladimir Jabotinsky political group Betar at the

Western Wall, riots started in Jerusalem and expanded throughout the

Palestinian Arabs killed 67 Jews in Hebron city, in what is known as the Hebron

Massacre.

A Jewish bus equipped with wire screens to protect from stone, glass and

throwing grenades, riot late 1930sDuring week, at least 116 Arabs and 133 Jews

were killed and 339 injured.

In the 1930s, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam organized and established the

Black Hand, an anti-Zionist and anti-British militant organization. He recruited

and arranged military training for peasants and by 1935, he had enlisted

between 200 and 800 men. The cells were equipped with bombs and firearms,

which they used to kill Zionist settlers in the area, and engaged in a campaign of

vandalism of Jewish settlers farm. By 1936, the growing tensions led to the 1936-

1939 Arab revolt in Palestine.

In response to Arab pressure, the British Mandate authorities greatly

reduced the number of Jewish immigrants to Palestine (see White Paper of 1939

and the ship Exodus). These restrictions remained in place until the end of the

mandate, a period that coincided with the Nazi Holocaust and the flight of Jewish

refugees from Europe. As a result, most of the Jewish participants to Palestine

were illegal (see Aliyah Bet), causing tension in the region. Following several

unsuccessful attempts to solve the problem diplomatically, the British asked the

newly formed United Nations for help. On May 15, 1947 the General Assembly to

appoint a committee, UNSCOP, composed of representatives from 11 states. To

make the committee more neutral, none of the Great Powers represented. After

five weeks in-country studies, the report to the General Assembly on September

3, 1947. The report contains the majority and minority plan. The majority of the

proposed Plan of Subdivision with Economic Union. The proposed minority

Palestinian Independent State. With only slight modifications, Subdivision Plan

with Economic Union is a recommended acceptance and implementation of the

resolution 181 (II) of 29 November 1947. Resolution was adopted by 33 votes to

13 with 10 abstentions. Arab countries, which make up the Arab League, voted

against. On the ground, Arab and Jewish Palestinians were fighting openly to

control strategic position in the region. Several major atrocities were committed

by both sides.

Boundaries defined in the partition plan of the United Nations (UN) in 1947:

The area assigned to the Jewish state;

Area assigned to an Arab country;

Separatum corpus Jerusalem (both Jewish and Arab).

Border under the 1949 cease-fire:

Arab territory from 1949 to 1967;

Israeli weaponry months before the end of 1949 lines.In Mandate the Haganah

launched several offensives in which they gained control over all the territory

allocated by the UN to the Jewish State, creating a large number of refugees and

capturing the towns of Tiberias, Haifa, Safad, Beisan and, basically, Jaffa.

In early 1948, the United Kingdom announced its firm intention to

terminate the mandate in Palestine on May 14. In response, U.S. President Harry

S. Truman made a statement on 25 March proposed UN trusteeship rather than

partition, stating that "unfortunately, it has become clear that the partition plan

can not be conducted at this time by peaceful means .... unless emergency

action is taken, there will be a public authority in Palestine on that date capable

of preserving law and regulations. violence and bloodshed will descend upon the

Holy Land. massive battle among the country will be the inevitable result. "4

On May 14, 1948, the day in which the British Mandate over Palestine expired 1,

Council of Jews gathered at the Tel Aviv Museum, and approved one

proclamation declaring the establishment of the Jewish state in Eretz Israel 1,

known as the State of Israel . There is no other mention of a new state border is

in Eretz Israel. Official cablegram from the Secretary General of the Arab League

to the UN Secretary General on May 15, 1948, the Arab states publicly declared

their goal to create a "United State of Palestine", where Jewish and Arab, two-

state, UN Plan. That day, the armies of Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Iraq

invaded / intervened in the divided territories of the Arab state, marking the

beginning of the Arab-Israeli War of 1948. Nascent Israeli Defense Force repulsed

the Arab League nations from part of the occupied territories, thus extending its

borders beyond the original UNSCOP partition. By December 1948, Israeli control

of most of the Palestine Mandate west of the Jordan River. Mandate remainder

consists of Jordan, the area that came to be called the West Bank (controlled by

Jordan) and Gaza Strip (controlled by Egypt). Prior to and during this conflict,

713,000 Palestinian Arabs fled from their native land into the Palestinian

refugees, in part, because the alleged promise from Arab leaders that they would

be able to come back when the war was won. Palestinians fled from areas that

now today Israel in response to the massacre of alleged Arab city by militant

Jewish organizations like the Irgun and Stern (See Deir Yassin massacre). War

ended with the signing of the 1949 Armistice Agreement between Israel and all

Arab neighbors. 5

1949-1967

Before adoption by the United Nations (UN) Resolution 181 in November 1947

and the declaration of the State of Israel in May 1948, several Arab states to take

steps discrimination against their local Jewish population. Status of Jewish

citizens in Arab countries worsened dramatically during the 1948 Arab-Israeli

conflict. Major anti-Jewish riots broke out across the Arab world in December

1947, and the Jewish community was hit hard in Syria and Aden, with hundreds

4 United States Proposal for Temporary United Nations Trusteeship for Palestine. (1948,April). Source: Department of State Bulletin, vol. 18, No. 457, April 4, 1948, p. 451

5 Smith, Charles D. Palestine and the Arab Israeli Conflict: A History With Documents. Bedford/St. Martin’s: Boston. (2004). Pg. 198

of dead and injured. By mid-1948, nearly all Jewish communities in Arab

countries have suffered attacks and their status deteriorated. Jews under Islamic

regimes were uprooted from their long residency or became political hostages of

the Arab-Israeli conflict. As a result, a large number of Jews fled or were forced to

emigrate from Arab countries and Islamic countries as well. Violence and anti-

Jewish persecutions begin the first wave of emigration, with the following most.

In Libya, Jews were deprived of citizenship, and in Iraq, their property seized.

Egypt deported most of the Jewish community in 1956, while Algeria denied the

Jews citizenship, upon its independence in 1962. The majority have fled because

of deteriorating political conditions, although some emigrated for ideological

reasons.

Over 700,000 Jews emigrated to Israel between 1948 and 1952, with

about 285,000 of them from Arab countries.

By the end of 1960, more than 850,000 Jews had left their birthplaces and their

homes at about 10 Arab countries. Today, fewer than 7,000 Jews remained in the

same countries. Individual and communal property was confiscated without

compensation. Today, Jews refugees and their descendants represent 41% of the

Israeli population.

Due to the victory in the Israeli War of Independence in 1948, any Arabs

caught on the wrong side of the ceasefire line could not return to their homes in

what became Israel. Likewise, any Jews in the West Bank or in Gaza were

expelled from their properties and homes to Israel. Palestinian refugees today

are the descendants of those who left the responsibility for their migration into

the dispute between Israel and the Palestinians (see Palestinian exodus Reason

1948).

In 1956, Egypt closes the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping, and blockaded

the Gulf of Aqaba, in contravention of the Constantinople Convention of 1888.

Many say that this is also violation of the Armistice Agreement 1949. On July 26,

1956, Egypt to nationalize the Suez Canal Company, and closed the Israeli

shipping canal.

Israel responded on October 29, 1956, by attacking the Sinai Peninsula

with British and French support. During the Suez Canal crisis, Israel captured the

Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula. United States and the United Nations (UN)

pressure soon ceasefire. Israel agreed to withdraw from Egyptian territory. Egypt

agreed to freedom of navigation in the region and the demilitarization of Sinai.

United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) was created and deployed to oversee

the demilitarization this. UNEF was only deployed on the Egyptian border, Israel

refused to allow them on its territory.

PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization) was first established in 1964,

under the charter includes a commitment to "he liberation of Palestine [which]

will destroy the Zionist and imperialist presence ..." (PLO Charter, Article 22,

1968).

On May 19, 1967, Egypt expelled UNEF observers, and deployed 100,000

soldiers in the Sinai Peninsula. It is once again close the Straits of Tiran Israeli

shipping, returning the region to the way it was in 1956 when Israel was

blockaded.

On May 30, 1967, Jordan signed a mutual defense pact with Egypt. Egypt

mobilized Sinai units, crossing UN lines (after being expelled the UN border

monitors) and mobilized and gathered on the southern border of Israel. On June

5, Israel launched an attack on Egypt. The Israeli Air Force (IAF) destroyed most

of the Egyptian Air Force 1 in a surprise attack, then turned east to destroy the

Jordanian, Syrian and Iraqi air forces. This strike is a key element in the Israeli

victory in the Six Day war. At the end of the war, Israel gained control of the

Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, east Jerusalem, Golan Heights

and Shebaa farms. The results of the war affect the geopolitics of this region to

this day. 6

1967-1973

At the end of August 1967, Arab leaders met in Khartoum in response to the war,

to discuss the Arab position toward Israel. They reached a consensus that there

should be no recognition, peace, and no negotiations with Israel, the so-called

"three no".7

In 1969, Egypt began a War of attrition, with the goal of exhausting Israel

to surrender the Sinai Peninsula. The war ended after the death of Gamal Abdel

Nasser in 1970.

On October 6, 1973, Syria and Egypt staged a surprise attack on Israel during

Yom Kippur, the holiest day in the Jewish calendar. The Israeli army was caught

off guard and unprepared, and it took about three days to fully mobilize. This led

Arab countries to send troops to another to reinforce the Egyptians and Syrians.

6 Morris, Benny (2001). Righteous victims : a history of the Zionist-Arab conflict, 1881-2001 (1st Vintage Books ed. ed.). New York: Vintage Books. pp. 316-318.

7 "President Mubarak Interview with Israeli TV". Egyptian State Information Service. 2006-02-15. Retrieved 2007-03-04. http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Politics/Presidency/President/Interview/000001/0401050300000000000154.htm.

In addition, Arab countries agreed to enforce oil sanctions on industrialized

countries, including the U.S., Japan and West European countries. OPEC countries

raised fuel prices four times, and used as a political weapon to win the support of

Israel. Yom Kippur War accommodated indirect confrontation between the U.S.

and the Soviet Union. When Israel turned the tide of the war, the USSR

threatened military intervention. United States, wary of nuclear war, obtained a

cease-fire on October 25. 8

1974-2000

Egypt

Begins, Carter and Sadat at Camp David Camp DavidFollowing late 1970s, Israel

and Egypt signed a peace treaty in March, 1979. Under the terms, the Sinai

Peninsula back into the hands of Egypt and the Gaza Strip remained under Israeli

control, to be included in a future Palestinian state. The agreement also provided

for the free passage Israeli ships through the Suez Canal and recognition of the

Strait of Tiran and the Gulf of Aqaba international waters.

Jordan

In October 1994, Israel and Jordan signed a peace treaty, which stipulated,

cooperation, the end of hostilities, and the settlement of other issues. Conflict

between them has cost about 18.3 billion dollars. Signing is also closely linked

with the efforts to create peace between Israel and the Palestine Liberation

Organization (PLO) representing the Palestinian National Authority (PNA). It was

signed at the southern border crossing Arabah on October 26, 1994 and made

Jordan only the second Arab country (after Egypt) to normalize relations with

Israel.

Iraq

Israel and Iraq were implacable opponents since 1948. Iraq sent troops to take

part in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, and then supported Egypt and Syria in the Six

Day War in 1967 and the Yom Kippur War in 1973.

In June 1981, Israel attacked and destroyed newly built Iraqi nuclear

facilities in Operation Opera.

During the Gulf War in 1991, Iraq has unleashed 39 Scud missiles at Israel,

in hopes of uniting the Arab world against the coalition working to liberate

8 Smith, Charles D. (2006) Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, New York: Bedford, p. 329.

Kuwait. On the direction of the United States, Israel did not respond to this attack

to prevent a larger outbreak of war.

Lebanon

In 1970, following the extension of civil war, King Hussein expelled the Palestine

Liberation Organization from Jordan. September 1970, known as Black

September in Arab history and sometimes referred to as the "era of regrettable

events". It was a month when Hashemite King Hussein, Jordan moved to quash

the autonomous Palestinian organizations and restore his monarchy in the

country. Violence causing the death of tens of thousands of people, the vast

majority of the Palestinian people. Armed conflict lasted until July 1971 with the

expulsion of the PLO and thousands of Palestinian fighters to Lebanon. PLO

resettled in Lebanon, from which it staged raids into Israel. In 1981, Syria, allied

with the PLO, positioned missiles in Lebanon. In June 1982, Israel invaded

Lebanon. In two months the PLO agreed to withdraw from there.

In March 1983, Israel and Lebanon signed a ceasefire agreement.

However, Syrian President Amin Gemayel urged to revoke cease-fire in March

1984. By 1985, Israeli troops withdrew to a 15 km wide strip of southern

Lebanon, the ongoing conflict in the lower scale, with a relatively low injury on

both sides. In 1993 and 1996, Israel launched a major operation against Shiite

militia Hezbollah, which has become an emerging threat. In 2000, as part of a

larger plan for a peace agreement with Syria, Israel left the security zone in

southern Lebanon.

In 2006, in response to a Hezbollah cross-border raid, Israel launched air

strikes against Hezbollah strongholds in southern Lebanon, from the 2006

Lebanon War. War lasted for 34 days, and resulted in creating a buffer zone in

southern Lebanon and the Lebanese army deployment south Litani river for the

first time since the 1960s. Hezbollah fighters withdrew from the border, and

Israel finally turned on the UN peacekeepers in Lebanon occupied. Both sides

declare victory in the conflict. 9

Palestine

The 1970s were marked by a large number of major international terrorist

attacks, including murder and murder Airport Munich Olympics in 1972, and

9 "Both Hezbollah and Israeli leaders declare victory". Fox News. 14 August 2006. Retrieved 16 January 2011. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,208206,00.html.

Taking hostages at Entebbe in 1976, with over 100 Jewish hostages from various

countries who kidnapped and held in Uganda .

In December 1987, the First Intifada began. The First Intifada was a

massive uprising against Israeli rule in the Palestinian Palestinian Territories.

rebellion began in Jabalia refugee camp and quickly spread throughout Gaza, the

West Bank and East Jerusalem. Palestinian actions ranged from civil

disobedience to violence. In addition to general strikes, boycotts of Israeli

products, graffiti and embankment, Palestinian demonstrations that included

stone throwing by youths against the Israel Defense Forces brought the Intifada

international attention. Israeli military response with a heavy hand on

demonstrations, beatings, with live bullets and mass arrests, brought

international criticism. PLO, which until then was never recognized as a leader of

the Palestinian people by Israel, was invited to the peace talks in the next year,

after it recognized Israel and renounced terrorism.

Yitzhak Rabin, Bill Clinton, and Yasser Arafat during the Oslo Accords

signing ceremony on September 13, 1993In mid-1993, Israeli and Palestinian

representatives engaged in peace talks in Oslo, Norway. As a result, in

September 1993, Israel and the PLO signed the Oslo agreement, known as the

Declaration of Principles or Oslo I; the next letter, Israel recognized the PLO as

the legitimate representative of the Palestinian people while the PLO recognized

the right of Israel to exist and renounced terrorism, violence and desire to

destroy Israel.

Oslo II agreement was signed in 1995 and detailed the West Bank into

Areas A, B, and C. The land area is under full control of the civilian population. In

Area A, Palestinians are also responsible for internal security. Oslo agreements

remain important documents in Israeli-Palestinian relations. 10

2000-2009

Second Intifada forced Israel to rethink relations and policies towards the

Palestinians. Following a series of suicide bombings and attacks, the Israeli army

launched Operation Defense Shield. It was the largest military operation

conducted by Israel since the Six Day War.

As violence between Israeli forces and Palestinian militants intensified,

Israel expanded the security apparatus across the West Bank to the acquisition

of most of the land in the area of A. Israel established a complicated system of

roadblocks and checkpoints around major Palestinian areas to prevent violence

10 "Uprising by Palestinians against Israeli rule in the West Bank and Gaza Strip territories", Intifada, Microsoft Encarta.

and protect Israeli settlements. However, since 2008, the IDF has slowly

transferred authority to Palestinian security forces.

Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon began a policy of withdrawal from the

Gaza Strip in 2003. This policy was fully implemented in August 2005. Sharon's

announcement to stay away from Gaza came as a big surprise to critics both on

the left and the right. A year earlier, he had commented that the fate of the most

remote settlements in Gaza, Netzararem and Kfar Darom, considered in the

same light as that of Tel Aviv. The official announcement to evacuate 17

settlements in Gaza and another four in the West Bank in February 2004

represented the first reversal for the settler movement since 1968. It divided his

party. It has been strongly supported by Trade and Industry Minister Ehud Olmert

and Tzipi Livni, Minister of Immigration and Absorption, but Foreign Minister

Silvan Shalom and Finance Minister Benjamin Netanyahu strongly condemned. It

is also not sure whether this is just the beginning of further evacuation.

In June 2006, Hamas militants infiltrated the military post near the Israeli

side of the Gaza Strip and abducted Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit. Two IDF soldiers

were killed in the attack, while Shalit was wounded after the tank was hit by RPG.

3 days after Israel launched Operation Summer Rains to secure the release of

Shalit. He has been held captive by Hamas, which prevented the Red Cross from

seeing him, until October 18, 2011, when he was exchanged 1027 Palestinian

prisoners.

In July 2006, Hezbollah fighters crossed the border from Lebanon into

Israel, attacked and killed eight Israeli soldiers and kidnapped two others as

hostages, triggering the 2006 Lebanon War which caused much destruction in

Lebanon. Ceasefire sponsored by the UN went into effect on August 14, 2006,

officially ending the conflict. Conflict that killed over a thousand people, mostly

Lebanese public, severely damaged Lebanese civil infrastructure, and displaced

approximately one million Lebanese and Israeli 300000-500000, although many

can return to their homes. After the ceasefire, some parts of Southern Lebanon

remained uninhabitable due to Israeli unexploded cluster bomblets.

After the Gaza War, where Hamas seized control of the Gaza Strip in a

violent civil war with rival Fatah, Israel placed restrictions on the border with

Gaza borders and ended economic cooperation with the Palestinian leadership

there. Israel and Egypt imposed a blockade on the Gaza Strip since 2007. Israel

maintains the blockade is necessary to limit Palestinian rocket attacks from Gaza

and to prevent Hamas from smuggling weapons and advanced missile capable of

hitting the town.

On September 6, 2007, in Operation Orchard, Israel bombed the eastern

complex of the so-called Syrian nuclear reactor built with North Korean

assistance. Israel also bombed Syria in 2003.

In April 2008, Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad told a Qatari newspaper,

Syria and Israel had been discussing a peace treaty for a year, with Turkey to try

between. This was confirmed in May 2008 by a spokesman for Prime Minister

Ehud Olmert. As well as a peace treaty, the future of the Golan Heights is being

discussed. President Assad said "there would be no direct negotiations with Israel

until a new U.S. president assumed the position. "11

Speaking in Jerusalem on August 26, 2008, the United States Secretary of

State Condoleezza Rice criticized Israel's increased settlement construction in

the West Bank to affect the peace process. Rice comments came amid reports

that Israeli construction in disputed territory had increased by a factor of 1.8

compared to 2007 levels.

Fragile six-month truce between Hamas and Israel expired on December 19,

2008; Attempts to extend the truce failed amid charges of violation of both

parties. Following the expiration, Israel launched a raid on a suspected tunnel

used to kidnap Israeli soldiers which killed several Hamas fighters. Following this,

Hamas continued rocket and mortar attacks on Israeli cities, especially more

than 60 rockets fired on December 24. On December 27, 2008, Israel launched

Operation Cast Lead against Hamas. Various human rights organizations accused

Israel and Hamas of war crimes.

In 2009, Israel put a 10-month settlement freeze in the West Bank. Hillary

Clinton praised the freeze as a gesture "never happened before" that can help

revive Middle East talks." 12

The raid was carried out by the Israeli navy on the Gaza Freedom Flotilla

of six ships in May 2010. After the ships refused to dock at Ashdod Port. On the

MV Mavi Marmara, activists clashed with Israeli boarding party. During the

fighting, nine activists were killed by Israeli special forces. Several dozen other

11 Walker, Peter; News Agencies (May 21, 2008). "Olmert confirms peace talks with Syria". London: The Guardian. Retrieved May 21, 2008. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/may/21/israelandthepalestinians.syria. "Israel and Syria are holding indirect peace talks, with Turkey acting as a mediator..."

12 "Palestinians blast Clinton for Israel praise". CNN. 2009 November 1. http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/meast/11/01/mideast.talks.clinton/index.html.

passengers and seven Israeli soldiers were injured, with some commandos

suffering from gunshot wounds. 13

2010-now

Following the latest round of peace talks between Israel and the Palestinian

Authority, 13 Palestinian militant movements led by Hamas initiated a campaign

of violence designed to derail and disrupt the negotiations. Attacks on Israel

have increased since August 2010, after 4 Israeli civilians killed by Hamas

militants. Palestinian militants have increased the frequency of rocket attacks

aimed at Israel. On August 2, Hamas militants launched seven Katyusha rockets

at Eilat and Aqaba, killing one civilian and wounded Jordan 4 others. 14

Significant wars and violent events of the Israeli War of Independence 1948-1949

1951-1955 Operating sentence

Suez War of 1956

Six-Day War in 1967

1967-1970 War of attrition

Yom Kippur War 1973

1978 South Lebanon conflict 1978

First Lebanon War 1982

1982-2000 South Lebanon conflict

1987-1993 First Intifada

2000-2004 Second Intifada

Lebanon War of 2006

2008-2009 Gaza War

A report by Strategic Anticipation Group has estimated the opportunity

cost of the Middle East conflict from 1991-2010 at $ 12 trillion. The opportunity

cost of calculating GDP report security of countries in the Middle East by

comparing the current GDP to the potential GDP in peace. Israel's stock is nearly

$ 1 trillion, with Iraq and Saudi Arabia, which has about $ 2.2 and $ 4.5 trillion,

respectively. In other words, there has been peace and cooperation between

13 Yaakov Katz (2010-06-01). "Vicious conflict aboard ‘Mavi Marmara’". JPost.com. Retrieved 2010-07-06. http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=177067.

14 Jordanian-national-killed-in-multiple-militant-rocket-strike. Retrieved 2012 May 13 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/jordan/7922624/Jordanian-national-killed-in-multiple-militant-rocket-strike.html

Israel and the Arab League nations since 1991, the people of Israel will average

more than $ 44,000 and not $ 23,000 in 2010. 15

In terms of human cost, it is estimated that the conflict has taken 92,000

lives (74000 soldiers and 18,000 civilians from 1945 to 1995).

Conclusion

From 1920 to 1947, the British Empire has a mandate over Palestine. At the

time, including all Israeli and Palestinian Occupied Territories today, Gaza, the

West Bank, and others. Increasing number of Jews immigrating to "Holy Land"

increased tension in the region. European geopolitics in the early half of the 20th

century in the wider Middle East region contributed to the instability of the whole

lot. The British Empire, in particular, plays a key role in the region.

Bibliography

Anup Shah. (2006 July 30). The Middle East conflict—a brief background. Retrieved 2012 May 12 from http://www.globalissues.org/article/119/the-middle-east-conflict-a-brief-background

Morris, Benny (2001). Righteous victims : a history of the Zionist-Arab conflict, 1881-2001 (1st Vintage Books ed. ed.). New York: Vintage Books. pp. 316-318.

"President Mubarak”. Cost of Conflict in the Middle East, Strategic Foresight Group. Retrieved 2012 May 13 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict.

Review of On the Road to Armageddon: How Evangelicals Became Israel's Best Friend. Retrieved 2010 May 12 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict

Smith, Charles D. Palestine and the Arab Israeli Conflict: A History With Documents. Bedford/St. Martin’s: Boston. (2004). Pg. 198The Palestinian National Charter - Article 6. Retrieved 2012 May 11 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict

Chapter 2

The establishment of the State of Israel, 1948

Introduction

History of Israel

15 Cost of Conflict in the Middle East, Strategic Foresight Group. Retrieved 2012 May 13 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict

State of Israel declared independence on May 14, 1948, 16 after nearly two

millennia, and persecution of Jews spread around the Mediterranean. From the

end of the 19th century, the Zionist movement to work towards the goal of

creating a state for the Jews. Israel's independence was marked by large-scale

Jewish immigration, the conflict with the Palestinians and the war with

neighboring Arab states. Since about 1970, the United States has been a key ally

of Israel. In 1979, the uneasy peace was established with Egypt, and in 1994,

with Jordan. Approximately 42% of Jews in the world live in Israel today.

Apart from the area west of the Jordan River is now known as the West

Bank, Israeli modern located approximately on the site of the ancient Jewish

kingdom of Israel and Judah, which was the birthplace of Judaism and Christianity

and contains the sacred sites to all the world's major monotheistic religions. Jews

were largely driven out of the country by the Romans during the centuries of

conflict, although some Jews continue. In the Middle Ages, the area became the

main focus of the conflict between Christianity and Islam. The expulsion of Jews

from Spain led to an increase, although still small presence, Jewish. In modern

times, persecution in Europe led to the creation of the Zionist movement, which

was able to win international support and establish only Jewish majority state in

the world.

In the Hebrew Bible Book of Genesis gives one of Abraham's grandson as

Jacob, whose name was changed to Israel and the twelve sons of the father of

the twelve tribes known as the "children of Israel". Judah was the fourth child of

Israel.

Early Israel (1200-950 BC)

The first record of the name Israel occurs in the Merneptah stele, erected for

Egyptian Pharaoh Merneptah c. 1209 BCE, "Israel lay waste and his seed is not."

William Dever see this "Israel" in the central plateau as a cultural and probably

political entity, but instead of ethnic groups and organized country. Ancestors of

the Israelites may have included Semites who occupied Canaan and the Sea

Peoples. McNutt said, "It's probably safe to assume that sometime during Iron

Age I population began to identify himself as 'Israel'", which distinguishes it from

the Canaanites through such markers prohibition of mixed marriages, the

emphasis on family history and genealogy, and religion. Villages with a

16 "Declaration of Establishment of State of Israel". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 1948 May 14. Retrieved 2012 April 16 http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace+Process/Guide+to+the+Peace+Process/Declaration+of+Establishment+of+State+of+Israel.htm..

population of up to 300 or 400, which lived by farming and herding and largely

sufficient; economic exchange is prevalent. Writing known and available for

recording, even in. small sites. Archaeological evidence shows communities as

village centers, but with more limited resources and a small population. 17

Israel and Judah (c.1200-576 BC)

The Hebrew Bible describes war always occurs between the Jewish people and

other tribes, including the Philistines, whose capital is Gaza. Around 930 BC, the

kingdom split into the southern Kingdom of Judah and the northern Kingdom of

Israel. An alliance between Ahab of Israel and Ben Hadad II of Damascus

managed to repel the attacks of the Assyrians, with victory in the Battle of

Qarqar (854 BCE). However, the Israeli government finally destroyed by the

Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III around 750 BC. Government Philistines were also

destroyed. The Assyrians sent northernmost Israeli government in exile, thus

creating a 'Lost Tribes of Israel'. The Samaritans claim to be descendants of the

victims of the Assyrian conquest. A rebellion of Israel (724-722 BC) was

destroyed after the siege and capture of Samaria by Sargon II. Assyrian King,

Sennacherib, tried and failed to conquer Judah. Assyrian records claim he was

sentenced to Judah and then leave (Herodotus also described the invasion).

Babylonian, Persian and Greek rule (586 BC - 2nd century BC)

The Assyrian Empire was overthrown by the Medes and Babylonians, or New

Babylonian Empire in 612 BC. In 586 BC King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon

conquered Judah. According to the Hebrew Bible, he had destroyed Solomon's

Temple and exiled the Jews to Babylon.

In 538 BC, Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon and took over.

Cyrus issue a declaration giving subjugated nations (including the men of Judah)

their freedom. According to the Hebrew Bible 50,000 Judeans, led by Zerubbabel

to return to Judah and rebuild the temple. The second group of 5000, led by Ezra

and Nehemiah, returned to Judah in 456 BCE, although non-Jews wrote to Cyrus

to try to prevent their return. (See also: Return to Zion and Yehud coins). In the

year 333 BC, the Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great defeated the Persians

and conquered the region. Sometimes after the first translation of the Hebrew

Bible, (the Septuagint), has begun in Alexandria. After Alexander's death, his

generals fought over the territory he had conquered. Judah became the border

17 Lehman in Vaughn 1992, pp. 156–62.

between the Seleucid Empire and Ptolemaic Egypt, eventually became part of

the Seleucid Empire. In the 2nd century BC, Antiochus IV Epiphanes (ruler of the

Seleucid Empire) tried to eradicate Judaism in the Hellenistic name of religion.

This gives rise to 174-135 BC Maccabean revolt led by Judas Maccabaeus (The

victory is celebrated in the Jewish festival of Hanukkah). Books of Maccabees

describes the rise and end of the Greek government. A Jewish party called

Hasideans against both Hellenism and rebellion but eventually gave their

support to the Maccabees. Modern interpretations see this period as a civil war

between Hellenized and orthodox form of Judaism. 18

Government Hasmonean (2nd century BC - 64 BC)

Hasmonean dynasty of priest-kings ruled Judea with the Pharisees, and Essenes

Saducees as a major social movement. As part of their struggle against

Hellenistic civilization, the Pharisees who established what may have been the

world's first national men (religious) education and literacy programs, based

around the meeting house. This leads to rabbinical Judaism. Justice was

administered by the Sanhedrin, the leaders known as Rice. Rice religious

authority gradually superseded that the high priest of the Temple (under the

Hasmoneans is king).

In the year 125 BC Hasmonean King John Hyrcanus conquered Edom and

forced the population converted to Judaism. This is the only known case of forced

conversion to Judaism. 19

Roman rule

Pre-Christian Rome (64 BCE - 324 CE)

In the year 64 BC the Roman general Pompey conquered Judea. Jewish Temple in

Jerusalem to be the religion of the Roman Empire structure that contains no

statue of the emperor. From 37 BC to 6 CE, the Herodian dynasty, rulers

customer-Roman Jews, descendants of Edom, ruled Judea. Herod the Great

substantially enlarged the temple (see Herod's Temple), making it one of the

largest religious structure in the world. In spite of his fame, it was during this

period that Rabbinic Judaism, led by Hillel the Elder, took over the popular stand

over the Temple priesthood.

18 Revolt of The Maccabees. Retrieved 2012 May 14 from http://www.simpletoremember.com/articles/a/the_revolt_of_the_maccabees/

19 Paul Johnson. 1988. History of the Jews. Jurusalem: Harper , p. 106,.

In 66 CE, the Jews of Judea rose in rebellion, naming their new government

"Israel" (see also the First Jewish Revolt coins). The events that have been

described by Josephus leader / Jewish historian, including Jotapata desperate

defense, the siege of Jerusalem (69-70 CE) and the heroic last stand at Massada

under Eleazar ben Yair (72-73 CE). Most of the ruins of Jerusalem and the

Temple.

During the Jewish revolt, most Christians, at this time the sub-sects of the

Jews, removed themselves from Judea. Movement Rabbinical / Pharisees, led by

Yochanan ben Zacchaeus, who opposed the Sadducee priesthood temple, peace

with Rome and survived.

Rabbinical era

Chazal

Zugot

Tannaim

Amoraim

Savoraim

Geonim

Rishonim

Acharonim

From 115 to 117, the Jews in Libya, Egypt, Cyprus, Kurdistan and rose in revolt

against the Romans. This conflict was accompanied by massacres on a large

scale both Roman and Jewish. Severe Cyprus, deported and banned Jews from

living there.

In the year 131, Emperor Hadrian renamed Jerusalem "Aelia Capitolina" and built

a temple of Jupiter on the site of the former Jewish temple. Banned Jews from

living in Jerusalem itself (prohibition continues until the Arab conquest) and the

Roman territory, until then known as the Iudaea Province, was renamed

Palaestina, no rebellion which led to the territory renamed. The names of the

"Palestinians" (in English) and "Philistines" (in Arabic) is derived from this.

From 132 to 136 Jewish leaders Simon Bar Kokhba led a major uprising

against the other Romans, again renaming the country "Israel", (see the Bar

Kochba Revolt coins). The Bar-Kochba revolt may cause more problems for the

Romans of the revolt of the more famous (and better documented) 70. The

Christians refused to join the rebellion, and from this point the Jews regard

Christianity as a separate religion. The insurgency was crushed by Emperor

Hadrian himself. Although uncertain, it is widely thought that during the Bar

Kokhba revolt, when the rabbinical assembly decided which books should be

considered as part of the Hebrew Bible, Jewish writings equivocal left.

After pressing the Bar Kochba revolt revolt, Rome allowed the Patriarch

Rabbinical descent (from the House of Hillel) to represent the Jews in dealings

with the Romans. The most famous is haNasi Judah. Jewish seminaries continue

to produce the best scholars and is a member of the Sanhedrin. The Mishnah, the

main text of Judaism, was completed in this period.

Before the Bar Kochba revolt, approximately two thirds of the population

of Gallilee and third beach area is Jewish. However, persecution and economic

crisis that affected the Roman Empire in the 3rd century lead to further Jewish

emigration from Palestine to the Persian Sassanid Empire more tolerant, where

the prosperous Jewish community existed in Babylon. 20

Christian Roman and Byzantine rule (324-636)

At the beginning of the 4th century, Constantinople became the capital of the

Eastern Roman Empire and Christianity was adopted as the official religion.

Name of Jerusalem was restored and it became a Christian city. Jews are

forbidden to live in Jerusalem, but were allowed to visit, and in this period that

the Western Wall of the temple are still alive to be sacred.

At 351-2, there was another Jewish revolt against the Roman governor of

corruption. In the year 362, the last pagan Roman Emperor, Julian Apostate,

announced plans to rebuild the Jewish Temple. He died while fighting the

Persians in 363, and the project was discontinued.

Disintegration of the Roman Empire and the region became part of the

Eastern Roman Empire, known as the Byzantine Empire. Under the Byzantines,

Christians dominated by the Orthodox Church (Greek). In the 5th century, the

Western Roman Empire collapsed which led to the migration and development of

Palestinian Christians to the Christian majority. 10-15% Jewish population

numbered. Judaism is a religion of Christianity is not just tolerance, but there is a

ban on Jews to build new places of worship, holding public office or a slave. There

are two Samaritan revolt in this period.

Sacred Jewish texts written in Israel at this time is the Gemara (400),

Jerusalem Talmud (500) and the Passover Haggadah. According to Procopius, the

20 M. Avi-Yonah, The Jews under Roman and Byzantine Rule, Jerusalem 1984 chapter I

Byzantine general Belisarius took 533 Jewish temple treasury from vandals who

had taken them from Rome.

In 611, the Sassanid Persians invaded the Byzantine Empire, and after a long

siege, Chosroes II captured Jerusalem (614) with the help of Jews, including the

possibility of Jewish Himyar Kingdom in Yemen. Jews who lived to govern

Jerusalem until 617, when the Persians took over. Byzantine Emperor Heraclius,

promised to restore Jewish rights and to receive assistance in defeating the

Persian Jews, but he soon reneged on the agreement after reconquering

Palestine to issue a fatwa banning Judaism from the Byzantine Empire. (Egypt)

Coptic Christians have to take responsibility for breaking this pledge and still fast

in penance. 21 Byzantine Jews fled settled in the Baltic region, where the Khazar

nobility and some residents later converted to Judaism.

Arab rule (636-1096)

According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad in 620 was taken in the spiritual

journey from Mecca to "the farthest mosque", in which location is considered as

the Temple Mount, back on the same night. In 634-636 the Arabs conquered

Palestine, ending the Byzantine ban on Jews living in Jerusalem. Over the next

century, Islam replaces Christianity as the dominant religion in the region.

From 636 until the beginning of the Crusades, Palestine was ruled first by

the Caliphs Caliphs of Medina-based, then the Umayyad Caliphate based in

Damascus-and after that the Baghdad-based Abbasid caliph. In the year 691,

Ummayad caliph Abd al-Malik (685-705) built the Dome of the Rock Temple

Mount Temple. Jews regard it contains Stone Foundation (see also Holy of

Holies), which is a sacred site in Judaism. A second building, the Al-Aqsa Mosque,

also erected on the Temple Mount in 705.

Between the 7th century and 11th century, the Jewish scribes, called the

Masoretes and located in the Galilee and in Jerusalem, established the Masoretic

Text, the text of the Hebrew Bible end. 22

Crusader rule (1099 - 13th century)

21 While the Syrians and the Melchite Greeks ceased to observe the penance after the death of Heraclius; Elijah of Nisibis (Beweis der Wahrheit des Glaubens, translation by Horst, p. 108, Colmar, 1886) see http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?letter=B&artid=1642#4756.

22 See The History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem by Joshua Prawer, 1988, see also http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_cru1.htm (accessed November 2007)

During the Crusades, both Muslims and Jews in Palestine with impunity killed or

sold into slavery. Murder of Jews began during the Crusaders travel throughout

Europe and continues in the Holy Land. Ashkenazi Orthodox Jews still recite

prayers in memory of the death and destruction caused by the Crusades. In

1187, Ayyubid Sultan Salahuddin, defeated the Crusaders at the Battle of Hattin

(above Tiberias), took Jerusalem and Palestine. Acres Crusader state centered

round the survivors in poor form for another century.

From 1260 to 1291 the area became a frontier between Mongol invaders

(occasional Crusader allies) and Mamluk Egypt. Conflict is poor country and

reduced weight of the population. Sultan Qutuz Egypt finally defeated the

Mongols in the Battle of Ain Jalut (near Ein Harod) and successor (and assassin),

Baibars, the Government abolished the last Crusader Acre in 1291, with the end

of the Crusades.

Mamluk Rule (13th century - 1517)

Egyptian Mamluk sultan, Baibars (1260-1277) conquered Palestine and Mamluks

who ruled until 1517. In Hebron, Baibars banned Jews from worshiping at the

Cave of the Patriarchs (the second most sacred in Judaism) until the conquest by

Israel 700 years later.

The collapse of the Crusades were followed by increased persecution and

expel the Jewish people in Europe. Removal began in England (1290), followed

by France (1306). Spanish persecution of the Jewish community on a highly

integrated and successful start, including massacres and forced conversions.

During the Black Death, many Jews were murdered after being accused of

poisoning wells.

Completion of the Christian reconquest Spain led to the expulsion of the

Jews of Spain in 1492 and Portugal in 1497. This is a community rich in the most

integrated and Jews in Europe. Many Jews who converted to Christianity,

however, prejudice against Jewish converts continued and led many former Jews

to move to the New World (see History of the Jews in Latin America). Most of the

expelled Spanish Jews moved to North Africa, Poland, and the Ottoman Empire to

Israel. In Italy, Jews are required to live in ghettos.

Ottoman rule (1516-1917)

Palestine was conquered by the Turkish Sultan Selim II in 1516-17, to be Syrian

territory for four centuries to come.

In the elimination of 1648-1654 in Ukraine Khmelnytsky rise more than

100,000 Jews were killed, leading to the migration of some of Israel. In 1660, the

native Jews (the Old Yishuv) Palestinians have been killed in 1660 destruction of

Safed and Tiberias 1660 destruction. There are Jewish massacres in Palestinian

natives during the occupation of Egypt Muhammad Ali in 1834. In 1844, Jews are

the largest population group in Jerusalem, and by 1890 an absolute majority in

the city, but overall Jewish population made far less than 10% of the region. By

1890, the Palestinians are mainly Muslim Arabs and Christians, and Jews, Greeks,

Druze, Bedouins and other minorities. The small Jewish population is

concentrated in the Four Holy Cities. 23

The emergence of Zionism and antisemitism

The advent of modern Zionism and antisemitism is the Enlightenment in Europe

led to the enlightenment movement of the 18th century and 19 Jews in Europe,

called the Haskalah and the freedom of the Jews in Western Europe. In 1791, the

French Revolution led France to Jewish law equity grants and civil rights for the

first time since antiquity. Napoleon's empire spread equal rights of Jews in all of

Europe. Britain gave the Jews full equal rights in 1856, Germany in 1871.

The spread of Western liberal ideas among the newly liberated Jews

created for the first time class secular Jews who absorb the ideas of existing

awareness, including rationalism, romanticism, and nationalism.

Growth persecution in Eastern Europe

The formation of modern nations and national identity have been accompanied

by changes in anti-Jewish prejudice. Prejudice that had previously been granted

on the ground of religion is now defined in terms of the universal language of

scientific use antisemitic race time. While Jews have established basic civil rights,

the other groups saw a decline in their power, including the Russian Tsar and the

Church, and these groups easily convinced that a Jewish conspiracy was behind

their difficulties.

In the 19th century, most Jews living in the Russian Empire. Jews were

banned from Russia in the 1790s, but as the empire expanded, it took over a

large area of the East European Jewish population area. Jews were confined to

the Pale of Settlement (some Jews circumvented the rules).

23 "How to Respond to Common Misstatements About Israel". Anti-Defamation League. 2006. Retrieved 2006 October 4. http://www.adl.org/israel/advocacy/how_to_respond/establishment.asp?xflag=1.

Since 1897, there were 5 million Jews, forming 10% of the population of

the Pale. 24 From 1827 to 1855, the Russian authorities tried to forcibly convert

Jews by requiring six years of education followed by 25 years of military service

for young Jewish boy who is 12. From 1881 to 1917, the May Laws forbid Jews

from rural communities in the Pale (many are driven out) and limit the number of

Jewish students at the university and high school to 10% in the outer parts of the

Pale, 5% and 3% in major cities. In Tsarist Russia, for different reasons, the state

and the Church seeks to benefit from the establishment of the Jews as the

enemy. In the early 1880s the government encouraged and genocide organized

(attacks by mobs), blaming Jews for any problem and divert anger from Tsarist

regime. Jews also banned from practicing medicine or law.

Antisemitism was not confined to Eastern Europe, the International Anti-

Jewish Congress was held in Germany: Dresden in 1882, Chemnitz in 1883. In

France, the Dreyfus Affair (1894-1906) reveal antisemitism, widespread in the

highest echelons of the French. Military and government.

Migration from Eastern Europe

Millions of Jews left Eastern Europe in the late 19th century, mainly to the United

States, but a small percentage are heading to Israel and some Jews began to

consider the possibility of re-establishing themselves as an independent nation.

In 1870, an agricultural school, Mikveh Israel was founded near Jaffa by

the Alliance Israelite Universelle. The first modern Jewish settlements in

Palestine, Petah Tikva, founded in 1878, followed by the Rishon LeZion (1882).

Other settlements were established by members of Bilu and Hovevei Zion ("Love

of Zion") movement. This has been accompanied by a revival of the Hebrew

language. 'Zionism' attract Jews: all kinds of religious, secular, left-wing

nationalist and socialist. Socialist aimed at reclaiming the land to be a form of

collective labor. In Zionist history, the different waves of Jewish settlement

known as 'Aliyah'. During the First Aliyah, between 1882 and 1903, about 35,000

Jews moved to Palestine. 25

The creation of the Zionist movement

In 1896 Theodor Herzl published "Der Judenstaat" ("Jewish State") in which he

stressed that the solution to growing antisemitism in Europe (so-called "Jewish

24 Jon Bloomberg, The Jewish world in the modern age, New Jersey 2004 pp. 12–1325 Jacob Katz, From Prejudice to Destruction 1980 pp. 279–280,

http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0004_0_03408.html

Question") was to establish a Jewish state. In 1897, the Zionist Organization was

founded and the First Zionist Congress proclaimed the goal of setting up a home

for the Jewish people in Palestine secured under public law. "However, Zionism

was regarded askance at the Ottoman rulers and not able to make great strides .

Between 1904 and 1914, about 40,000 Jews living in Palestine (Second

Aliyah '). In 1908 the Zionist Organization established the Palestine Bureau (also

known as "Eretz Israel Office ') in Jaffa and began a policy of systematic Jewish

settlement in Palestine. Immigrants mainly from Russia (which then included

Poland), fleeing persecution. 1 kibbutz, Degania, founded by Russian socialists in

1909. The first full Hebrew-speaking city, Ahuzat Bayit was established in 1909

(later renamed Tel Aviv). Hebrew newspapers and books have been published,

and Jewish political parties and workers' organizations have been established.

British Mandate of Palestine

The Balfour Declaration

French and British influence and control (Sykes-Picot Agreement, 1916)

The Balfour Declaration of 1917, which supports the establishment of a Jewish

homeland in Palestine. During World War I, most Jews support Germany because

they fought with the Russian army which is considered as the main enemy of the

Jewish people. In Britain, the government get Jewish support for the war effort for

a variety of reasons, including the perception of antisemitic "Jewish power" on

the movement of young Turks of the Ottoman Empire, and the desire for

American Jewish support for the intervention of the United States (U.S.) for the

British.

Already have sympathy for the goals of Zionism within the British

government, including Prime Minister Lloyd-George. At the end of 1917, as

British troops (including one particularly Zionist Jewish Legion) drove the Turks

out of Palestine, the British Foreign Minister, Lord Balfour sent a letter to Lord

Rothschild. The letter later became known as the Balfour Declaration in 1917. It

states that the British government "view with favor the establishment in

Palestine a national home for the Jewish people".26

In 1918, Chaim Weizmann, president of the British Zionist Federation, has

established a Zionist Commission, who went to Palestine to promote Zionist

objectives there.

26 David Fromkin, A Peace to End All Peace, part VI pp 253-305

British Mandate of Palestine (1917-1948)

British Mandate (rule effect, British) Palestine, including the Balfour Declaration,

was confirmed by the League of Nations in 1922 and took effect in 1923.

Palestinian border was drawn by the British modern Jordan and inserted (which

was removed from the region by Churchill a few years later). Britain signed an

additional agreement with the United States (which did not join the League of

Nations) in the United States confirmed the terms of the Mandate.

In 1921, the Zionist Commission was given official status as the Jewish

Agency for Palestine in Article 4 of the Mandate. An offer to create a similar Arab

Agency was rejected by the Arab leaders.

Mandate that allowed the Jewish Agency to oversee Jewish immigration to

Palestine and buying land from local Arabs. The Jewish Agency will soon operate

as arms of the Zionist leadership. It ran schools and hospitals, and later formed

the militia, the Haganah. Chaim Weizmann was the leader of both the Zionist

Organization and the Jewish Agency until 1929. Jewish Agency distributed to

newcomers entry permit (number set by the British) and funds donated by Jews

abroad. 27

From 1920, Va'ad Leumi (National Council or Jewish, or JNC) is the main

institution of the Jewish community ('Yishuv') during the British Mandate of

Palestine. It is democratically elected and including non-Zionist Jews. This body

serves as a virtual state for the Jewish people in Palestine. Political Department

of the JNC is responsible for relations with the Arabs, relations with the Jewish

Agency and negotiations with the British. As growing Yishuv, JNC has adopted

more functions, such as education, health and welfare, defense and internal

security affairs.

Most of the revenue raised by the mandate came from the Jewish minority

but have spent to finance the British administration. Thus, with the permission of

the British, Va'ad raise taxes and run their own independent service for the

Jewish population education and health care for the Jews in Palestine was in the

hands of political parties leading Zionists: General Zionists, Mizrahi and the

Socialist Zionists, with each independent operation and services (except for

Mizrahi) sports organizations funded by taxes, donations, and local fees. Zionist

movement also established the Hebrew University in Jerusalem and the Technion

(technological university) in Haifa (both 1925). 28

27 Palestine Royal Commission, (Peel report) p. 17228 Ibid. p. 5, 8 and 16

In the whole interwar period, the British, appealing to the terms of the

Mandate, reject the principle of majority rule or any other measure that would

give the government control over the Palestinian Arab majority.

Jewish immigration and Arab opposition

Between 1919 and 1923, 40,000 Jews arrived in Palestine, especially after the

chaos escape the Russian revolution (3 Aliyah). Many immigrants become known

as the 'pilot' (halutzim), experienced or trained in agriculture and capable of

creating self-sustaining economy. Jezreel Valley and Hepher Plain marshes were

drained and converted to agricultural use.

Combined Jewish immigration led to the mandate and terms of the Arab

riots in 1920 and 1921. In response, the British authorities formulate an

immigration quota system. Exceptions have been made for the Jewish people for

over 1,000 pounds in cash (about 100,000 pounds at a rate of 2000), or Jewish

professional with more than 500 pounds. Arab attacks on isolated Jewish

settlements and British failure to protect them led to the creation of the Haganah

("Defense"), mainly socialist Jewish militia underground to defend Jewish

settlements.

By 1923 the number of Jews in Palestine had reached 90,000. Between

1924 and 1929, 82,000 more Jews arrived (4 Aliyah), fled antisemitism in Poland

and Hungary and as U.S. immigration policy now kept Jews out. New arrivals

included many middle-class families who moved to the city and established small

businesses and workshops despite the lack of economic opportunity means that

about a quarter then leave Palestine.

1929 Palestine riots (see also the Hebron Massacre), led Ze'ev Jabotinsky to

create a right-wing militia group known as the Irgun Tzvai Leumi (National

Military Organization, known in Hebrew by the acronym "Etzel").

Despite Arab opposition, the increase in persecution of European Jews in

the 1930s led to a significant increase in Jewish immigration. With the

emergence of fascist regimes across Europe, Jews returned to non-citizens,

deprived of all civil rights and economic and subjected to arbitrary persecution.

As countries came under Nazi or Nazi ally (Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, Croatia,

Slovakia and Slovenia were the allies of the Nazis) the number of those who want

to escape increases. Between 1929 and 1939, 250,000 Jews arrived in Palestine

(5 Aliyah). The majority of these, 174,000, arrived between 1933 and 1936, after

British immigration increasingly limited. Migration once again mostly from

Europe and includes professionals, doctors, lawyers and professors from

Germany.

In 1933, the Nazis negotiated Ha'avara Agreement, in which 50,000 Jews

and $ 100 million of their assets will be transferred to the Palestinians. In

Palestine, Jewish immigration has helped the economy to grow. With the

completion of the Haifa port and oil refineries, large industries to the Palestinian

economy which is heavily dependent on agriculture. With the British to enforce

quotas and increasingly desperate situation in Europe, Jews were forced to take

illegal immigrants. Illegal immigrants, (Aliyah Bet or 'Ha'apalah') was organized

by Beth Le'aliyah Mossad, and the Irgun. Jewish refugees arrived in secret by

sea, or, to some extent, overland through Syria. In response, a series of violent

Arab riots broke out in 1933.

Increased Jewish immigration contributed to the large-scale Arab uprising

in Palestine (1936-1939), the rise of nationalist largely end British rule. British

Peel Commission responded (1936-1937), who suggested that Jews created an

exclusive territory in Galilee and along the west coast (requires expulsion

200,000 Arabs) the other to be the exclusive Arabic. Jewish opinion was divided

on the merits of the scheme, but it was rejected outright by the Arabs of

Palestine and in the absence of a strong Jewish support, eventually abandoned

by the British as unworkable. 29

Woodhead Commission (1938) reported that the Peel Commission is

unworkable and recommended setting up small Arab and Jewish zones, but the

plan was rejected by both Arabs and Jews. 20 years later, the leaders of the

Jewish Agency, Ben-Gurion wrote: "If the partition [referring to the Peel

Commission partition plan was carried out, the history of our people has been

different and six million Jews in Europe would not have been killed-most of them

will be in Israel ".30 Ben-Gurion responded to the Arab Revolt with the "Havlagah"

self-control and a reluctance to provocations by Arab attack to prevent

polarization. Etzel group broke from the Haganah in opposition to this policy.

With the war in Europe more likely, the British tried to placate the Arab

population of Palestine. White Paper 1939, stating that the more than 450,000

Jews had arrived in Palestine now, the goal of the Balfour Declaration "national

home for the Jewish people" has been achieved. White Paper recommended

independent Palestine, governed jointly by Arabs and Jews, to be established in

29 For more information see Palestine: Retreat from the Mandate, The making of British Policy, 1936–1945 by Michael Cohen, New York 1979 Chapter 3

30 Tom Segev, One Palestine Complete: Jews and Arabs Under the British Mandate, 2001, p. 414)

the next 10 years. The White Paper has agreed to allow 75,000 Jewish

immigrants to Palestine during the period 1940-44, after the migration will

require (probably) Arab approval. Both Arab and Jewish leadership rejected the

White Paper. In March 1940, the British High Commissioner for Palestine issued a

fatwa prohibiting Jews from buying land in 95% of Palestine.

World War II and the Holocaust (1939-1945)

During World War 2, the Jewish Agency worked to establish a Jewish army would

fight along with British forces. Churchill supports the plan but the British Army

and government opposition leads to rejection. The British claim that the number

of recruits that corresponds to the number of Jewish recruits but very few

Palestinian Arabs Arabs are willing to fight for Britain. Refusal to provide

weapons to the Jewish people, despite Rommel team has developed through

Egypt in June 1942 (intent to occupy Palestine) and the 1939 White Paper,

leading to the emergence of the Zionist leadership in Palestine believed 1

conflict with Britain was inevitable. While the Jewish Agency Jewish Palestinian

youth urged voluntarily to the British Army (both men and women). In June 1944,

the British agreed to create a Jewish Brigade, who will fight in Europe.

Over a million Jews served in every branch of the allied forces, particularly in the

Soviet and U.S. forces. 200,000 Jews died serving in the Soviet army only.

A small group (with about 200 activists), dedicated to the Jewish

resistance to the British administration in Palestine, has split from Etzel (who

organizes support for Britain during the war) and formed the "Lehi" (Stern Gang),

led by Avraham Stern. In 1943 the USSR produce revisionist Zionist leader,

Menachem Begin from the Gulag and he went to Palestine, to take command of

the organization Etzel that increasing conflict with the policy of the British. At the

same time, Yitzhak Shamir escaped from the camp in Eritrea where the British

had held Lehi activists without trial, to take command Lehi (Stern Gang).

Jews in the Middle East were affected by the war. North Africa came under Nazi

control, and many Jews were used as slave. -Axis coup in Iraq in 1941 pro was

accompanied by massacres of Jews. Jewish Agency put together a plan to stand

last in the Palestinian attack Rommel (Nazi plan to eliminate the Jews of

Palestine).

Between 1939 and 1945, an estimated 6 million Jews in Nazi-occupied

Europe were murdered. Almost a quarter of those killed were children. Holocaust

has had a very very strict on the Jewish world (and beyond). Polish and German

Jewish community, which has played an important role in defining the pre-1945

Jewish world, now almost ceased to exist. In the United States and Palestine, the

Jewish people of European origin to be cut off from their family and roots.

Sephardic Jews, who were a minority, to be a more important factor in the Jewish

world. The Second World War left the surviving remnant of Jews in central Europe

as refugees (IDPs) of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry established to

examine the issue of Palestine, reviewed their ambitions and found that 97%

wanted to emigrate to Palestine.

In the Pro-Zionist movement modest British (and British citizen)

Weizmann, the child died flying in the RAF, have been undermined by the

policies of the British anti-Zionist. Leadership of the movement passed to the

Jewish Agency in Palestine, now led by the anti-British-Zionist Socialist party

(Mapai) and led by David Ben-Gurion. In the diaspora, the United States now

dominates Jewish Zionist movement. 31

Post-War Years (1945-1947)

The British Empire was severely weakened by the war. In the Middle East, the

war has made Britain realize our dependence on Arab oil and attached more

importance to good relations with the Arabs of helping Jews and create a

homeland. Soon after VE Day, the Labour Party won the general election in

Britain. Although the Labour Party conference called for the establishment of a

Jewish state in Palestine, the Labour government now decided to maintain the

1939 White Paper restrictions.

Illegal immigration (Aliyah Bet) became the main form of Jewish entry into

Palestine. Throughout Europe Bricha ("flight"), an organization of former

partisans and ghetto fighters, smuggled Jewish Holocaust victims from Eastern

Europe to Italy, where small boats trying to break the British blockade of

Palestine. Meanwhile, Jews from Arab countries begin to move into Palestinian

land. Despite British efforts to curb immigration, the Aliyah Bet next 14 years,

more than 110,000 Jews entered Palestine secret.

In order to win independence, Zionists are now bitter guerrilla war against

the British. Jewish underground militia, the Haganah, formed an alliance known

as the Jewish Resistance Movement Etzel and Stern Gang to fight the British. In

June 1946, following the Jewish sabotage, the British launched Operation Agatha,

31 Palestine: Retreat from the Mandate, The making of British Policy, 1936–1945 by Michael Cohen, New York 1979 pp. 125–135

capturing 2,700 Jews, including the leadership of the Jewish Agency, whose

headquarters were raided. Those arrested were held without trial.

In Poland, Kielce Pogrom (July 1946) led to a wave of Holocaust survivors

fleeing Europe and the British responded by imprisoning more and more Jews

who tried to illegally enter Palestine by sea in Cyprus internment camps. Those

arrested mainly Holocaust survivors, including a large number of children and

orphans. In response to the Cypriot fears that the Jewish people will not leave

(because they do not have state or documentation) British then allowed to enter

the Palestinian refugees at the rate of 750 a month.

United Jewish resistance movement split in July 1946, after Etzel bombed the

British Army HQ in the King David Hotel killing 92 people. In the days after the

bombing of Tel Aviv were placed under curfew and over 120,000 Jews, nearly

20% of the Jewish population in Palestine, had been questioned by police. In the

United States, Congress criticized the British handling of the situation and slow

lending important for the British postwar recovery. By 1947 the Labour

government is prepared to refer the Palestine problem to the United Nations

(UN).

Subdivision plan united Nations

UN plan for Palestine 1947

Organization Haganah fighters, 1947 decided to how to deal with the Palestinian

UN to appoint a committee, the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine

(UNSCOP). In July 1947 UNSCOP visited Palestine and met with Jewish and Zionist

delegation. Arab Higher Committee boycotted the meeting. At this time, there is

more controversy when the British Foreign Secretary, Ernest Bevin ordered an

illegal immigrant ship, Exodus 1947, to be sent back to Europe. Immigrants on

the ship was forcibly removed by the British army in Hamburg after a long period

in prison ship.

Jewish non-Zionist Orthodox party (or Haredi), Agudat Israel, suggested

that the Jewish state should be established after reaching the religious status

quo agreement with Ben-Gurion about the coming of the Jewish state. The

agreement granted exemption future Yeshiva (religious seminary) students and

orthodox women from military service, which made national Sabbath weekend,

promised Kosher food in government institutions and allow them to maintain a

separate education system. 32

32 Hebrew. Retrieved 2012 May 14 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Israel#Armistice_Agreements_.28March.E2.80.93July_1949.29

On September 3, 1947, the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine

(UNSCOP) to recommend to the General Assembly of the United Nations partition

plan for Palestine. On November 29, the General Assembly adopted Resolution

181 (II), which is recommended for the United Kingdom, as the mandatory Power

for Palestine, and to all other Members of the United Nations (UN) use and

implementation, taking into account the government's future Palestinian

Economic Union Plan of Subdivision Plan, attached to the resolution, is to replace

the British Mandate of Arab countries and the Jewish Independent and

International Special regime City of Jerusalem, administered by the United

Nations (UN). of the British army troops would be completed as soon as possible

but in any event not later than August 1, 1948.

Subdivision Plan in Part 1 A. 2 further provided that Britain should make

every effort to ensure that the area is located in the territory of the Jewish State,

including the port and hinterland adequate to provide facilities for a substantial

immigration, it will be transferred at the earliest possible date and in any event

no later than February 1, 1948.

Not Britain and the UN Security Council to act to implement the resolution and

Britain continued to hold Jews trying to enter Palestine. Concerned that the

partition would severely damage the Anglo-Arab relations, Britain refused to

cooperate with the UN, denying the UN access to Palestine in the interim period

(needs partition decision). British retreat was finally completed in May 1948.

However, Britain continued to hold Jews "fighting age" and their families in

Cyprus until March 1949. 33

Civil War in January-May 1948

Fighting between Arabs and Jews in Palestine began immediately after adoption

by the General Assembly Resolution 181 (II) in November 1947. Neighboring

Arab countries have declared that they will welcome any attempt to create a

Jewish state with war. In January 1948 Arab volunteers from Palestine and from

all over the Middle East began to gather in Syria to form the Arab Liberation

Army (ALA).

Arab-Jewish violence increased in the spring of 1948 because the British

were slowly pulled away. Britain has imposed an arms embargo, which only

33 UNSCOP Report to the General Assembly

really affects Jews as supplies reach the Palestinian Arabs from neighboring Arab

countries across the borders of Palestine.

Palestinian Arab forces consist of village militias backed by the Arab

Liberation Army. On the other hand, is very organized Yishuv, better educated

and prepared under the direction of Ben-Gurion. The Jewish Agency has a

number of underground militias, including many World War II veterans and elite,

professionals, several thousand strong called the Palmach. Jews have the

manpower advantage over the local Arabs among men in the 20-44 age group

and motivational advantage because they believe they face elimination.

In the north, the Jewish people have been successful in Tiberias, Haifa and

Safad. In Haifa, the Arab Higher Committee of the refusal to allow the Arab

population to remain under Jewish control contribute off the city's Arab

population.

Near Jerusalem, Arabs besieged and captured four Jewish settlements in

the Kfar Etzion and 100,000 Jews (sixth Jewish population) is under siege in

Jerusalem as the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem road running through Arab lands. Battle in

and around Jaffa, surrounded by Jewish settlements, causing mass transfer Arab

populations.

In the early stages up to 100,000 Palestinian Arabs, especially the better-

off, fleeing to neighboring states. By May 1948, 150,000 more have fled or been

expelled. 34

Establishment of the State of Israel

On May 14, 1948, the last British forces left Haifa. Later that day, David Ben-

Gurion, the leader of the Jewish Agency, "declared the establishment of a Jewish

state in Eretz Yisrael, known as the State of Israel." [63] Ben-Gurion became

Prime Minister of the new state. Both superpower leaders, U.S. President Harry S.

Truman (de facto) and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, immediately recognized the

new state. U.S. recognition of the text is as follows: -

This Government has been informed that a Jewish state has been proclaimed in

Palestine, and recognition has been requested by the provisional government.

United States recognizes the provision of government as de facto authority the

new State of Israel. (Sgn.) Harry Truman approved May 14, 1948 6.11 [64]

34 Benny Morris, 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War, Yale 2008 chapters 3 & 4

At that time, the Jewish population in Palestine was about 650,000, the

Arab population of about 1.2 million.

War of Independence, or The First Arab-Israeli War (1948-1949) Arab

invasion of Israel (May 14 to June 11 of 1948). Arab League members Egypt,

Jordan, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq refused to accept the UN partition plan and

declaring the right of self-determination for the Muslims all over the whole of

Palestine. They declared war on the new state of Israel and immediately

attacked. It has been suggested that the news of the killings in Deir Yassin Arab

governments strengthen our resolve to intervene. Saudi Arabia, Yemen and

Sudan also contributed some troops. UN Secretary-General Trygve Lie described

the conflict as "the first armed atrocities which the world has seen since the end

of the war".35

New state of Israel has a well-organized and efficient army, the Haganah,

under the command of Israel Galili. It numbered about 30,000 people, including

the Palmach under General Yigal Allon. There is also another 30,000 people

trained in the Haganah reserves. In addition, all Israeli settlements have been

covered by trained guards. Etzel with about 3,500 people, and the Stern Gang

with 500 men, was nominally under the command of the Haganah.

Saudi forces are of varying quality, but the Arab countries have a heavy

military equipment at their disposal. ALA consists of about 4,000 men trained in

less than 4 major groups. Jordanian Arab Legion consists of less than 10,000

people and up to 40 armed Arab trained British officers in command. Iraq has

sent two squadrons of air, armor battalions and 10,000 men of Egypt to send two

air squadrons and about 7,500 men, including several independent units; Syria

contributed tank battalion, squadron and 5,000 men; Lebanon has sent 2,500

men and some artillery. Palestinian Arabs have established the Salvation Army

'numbering 4000.

Many Arab Legion team was in Palestine when the British left. Arab Legion

commander of British high-ranking officials (who retired from the British Army in

1948) and commander-in-chief is a British General John Glubb Pasha. However,

the Jordanian army generally do not attack the areas allocated to the Jewish

state, focusing instead to occupy the West Bank and East Jerusalem, Jordan then

annexed.

In the north of Palestine, Syria and Lebanon forces initially stopped near the

border. The Iraqis marched to Jenin to Nablus area but can get no further. An

35 Ibid., p.126

Israeli attempt to take repulsed Jenin (June 1-4). Syrians and Lebanese to renew

their attack (June 6 to 10) and, in conjunction with the ALA, who conquered much

of Galilee.

General Arab Legion Glubb over the Old City of Jerusalem occupied

without opposition and then captured and held the east and south of the New

Jerusalem after hard fights (15 to 25 May). Aided by local Arab Palestinian Arab

Legion was later arrested and held in the Old Jewish quarter of Jerusalem (May

15 to 28). Latrun Arab Legion also captured and held against repeated Israeli

attacks to drive them out (25 to 30 May and June 9-10). Israeli troops attacked

along the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem but failed to penetrate into Jerusalem. They are,

however, a new road through the mountains further south. This road was

completed on June 10. Jews eventually destroy most of the Arab villages along

the road from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem.

Meanwhile, the Egyptians marched along the beach, through the ALA-held

Gaza, and advanced to Ashdod (May 29) is only 25 miles from Tel Aviv. A small

team, mostly ALA, advancing towards Jerusalem. An Israeli attempt to recover

the repulsed Ashdod (June 2-3). The Egyptians then marched inland, take

Beersheba (May 20), Hebron (May 21) and is associated with the Arab Legion in

Bethlehem (May 22).

Arab army was initially successful attack but Israel will soon recover from

the initial shock of the attack on all sides. On May 29, 1948, the British begin the

United Nations Security Council Resolution 50 and the United Nations to declare

an arms embargo on the region. Czechoslovakia violated the resolution

supplying the Jewish state with critical military hardware to match the equipment

(especially the British) weight and aircraft owned by Arab countries that

attacked. On May 20, the Security Council of the United Nations appointed Count

Folke Bernadotte Sweden to act as mediator. On 11 June, the month of the UN

ceasefire was put into effect. Both sides want a chance to recover and

reorganize.

Following the announcement of independence, the Haganah became the

Israel Defense Forces (IDF-Israel Defense Force). Palmach, Etzel and Lehi

required to stop operation of free and join the IDF. During the ceasefire, Etzel

trying to bring in private arms shipments outside the ship called "Altalena".

When they refused to hand over weapons to the government, Ben-Gurion

ordered that the ship would sink. Some Etzel members were killed in the fighting.

Large numbers of Jewish immigrants, many of them World War II veterans and

Holocaust survivors are starting to arrive at the new state of Israel, and many

joined the IDF. 36

"Ten Day Attack" (July 9 to 18, 1948)

Israeli attack to drive the Syrians back across the Jordan that repulsed (July 9 to

14). However, the second attack continued Israeli control over the northern coast

of Haifa and Nazareth sweeps inland to seize (12 to 16 July). Through intense

battles, captured Israeli cities Lydda and Ramle (July 9 to 12), but again repulsed

by the Arab Legion of Jerusalem (July 9 to 18) and Latrun (July 14-18). Far to the

south, Israel always probing raid on the Egyptian people even if no advances

have been made.

IDF has seized the initiative and attack the Palestinian majority. By now Israel

has deployed 49,000 troops. Organizations and their equipment has improved

over time. Saudi supply route length and fragile and protracted war, they have

trouble filling their supplies.

Second Armistice (July 18 to 15 October of 1948)

Both sides are once again keen to relax and regroup. In the recent fighting, Israel

has met with limited success, but feels that the changes in their favor, and

wanted more time to prepare for the attack. They used the truce to double the

strength of the IDF over 90,000, giving them a huge numerical advantage over

the Arab forces. Arabs were surprised by the strength of the Israeli resistance

and their ability to launch attacks on all fronts. Arab countries are increasingly

concerned to end the war as soon as possible. However, confident of victory,

many Israelis are now represented by the UN mediation efforts, which will

prevent further Israeli expansion and trying to force them to give hard-won

territory. On 17 September, 1948, Count Bernadotte was assassinated by three

unidentified men, probably members of the Stern Gang.

By mid-September the cease-fire has been knocked down by Israeli forces

and Egypt in the south. Israel focused on Faluja pressure, because they intended

to cut off the communication between the Egyptian army in the coastal and

inland areas.

Renewed battle (October 6 - November 5, 1948)

36 Hebrew. hagana.co.il. Retrieved 2007-12-11. http://www.hagana.co.il/show_item.asp?levelId=59798&itemId=47310&itemType=3.

The attack on the northern border of ALA in Manara (October 22) to encourage

major Israeli counter-offensive. Manara and the Hula Valley was cleared of Arab

fighters and ALA were driven back to Lebanon and Israel to stop only in southern

Lebanon (October 22 to 31).

In the center, trying to expand Israeli attack Tel Aviv-Jerusalem pockets and less

to the north and south of Jerusalem. However, they were defeated by the Arab

Legion in Beit Gubrin.

Israel's main effort in the south, where they concentrate their best team

against the Egyptians (now reinforced to about 15,000). The main attack against

Ashdod and Gaza, fail to capture either the city and lines of communication in

the Rafah Egypt remains intact (15 to 19 October). However, an attack on

Beersheba (October 19 to 21) has successfully captured the town and opened

the way to the Negev. Huleiqat was captured after heavy fighting (October 19),

cut the lines of communication and leave Egypt Egyptian soldiers near Hebron

and in isolated Faluja. Egyptians were forced to withdraw from Ashdod (October

27) and Majdal (November 5) and focus their remaining forces in Gaza.

In late November, tenuous local ceasefires were arranged between Israel,

Syria and Lebanon. On 1 December, Jordan's King Abdullah announced a union

with the Palestinian Arabs west of the Jordan, specify a new name into the

Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. He adopted the 'King of the Palestinian Arabs'

titles, more disgusted other states that most Arabs.

Defeat Egypt (November 19, 1948 - January 7, 1949) The Egyptians tried

but failed to break the pocket Faluja (November 19 to December 7). By holding

ceasefires in all other areas, Israel is now in a position to launch a major

offensive against the Egyptians (December 20). Israel is surrounded Rafah

(December 22), then captured Asluj (December 25) and Auja (December 27).

Colonel Allon advanced south into the Sinai, then swung back north to El-Arish.

Determined Egyptian resistance prevents further eastward movement, so Israel

northeast swung back into Rafah. As Israel was preparing to attack the Rafah,

Egypt asked the UN Security Council to arrange an immediate ceasefire put into

effect (January 7, 1949).

Armistice Agreement (March-July 1949)

1949 Green Line bordersPeace talks were held in Rhodes, the chairman of the

UN mediator Dr.. Ralph Bunche. Armistices Israel signed with Egypt (February

24), Lebanon (March 23), Jordan (3 February) and Syria (July 20). No real peace

treaties were signed. With permanent ceasefire comes into force, the new

frontier of Israel, which later became known as the Green Line, were established.

IDF has conquered the Galilee and the Negev. Syria remains in control of the

territory along the Sea of Galilee bands originally allocated to the Jewish state,

Lebanon occupies a small area at Rosh Hanikra and the Egyptians keep Gaza

strip and still have some of the powers in the region surrounded Israel. Jordanian

army remained in occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem, exactly

where the British had placed them before the war. Jordan annexed the occupied

areas while preserving Egypt Gaza as occupied zone.

Following the declaration of the ceasefire, Britain has produced more than

2,000 Jewish prisoners still held in Cyprus and recognize the state of Israel. On

May 11, 1949, Israel was accepted as a member of the United Nations (UN). Of

the total Israeli population of 650,000, about 6,000 men and women killed in the

fighting, including 4,000 soldiers in the IDF.

According to United Nations figures, 726,000 Palestinians fled or were

expelled by Israel between 1947 and 1949. Except in Jordan, Palestinian

refugees have been living in refugee camps are great in poor and overcrowded

conditions. In December 1949, the Organization of the United Nations (in

response to a British proposal) to establish an agency (UNRWA) to provide

assistance to Palestinian refugees

Government and Politics

A parliament with 120 seats, the Knesset, first met in Tel Aviv then moved to

Jerusalem after the 1949 ceasefire. In January 1949, Israel's first elections.

Socialist-Zionist party, Mapai and Mapam won the most seats (46 and 19

respectively), but not an outright majority. Mapai leader David Ben-Gurion was

appointed as Prime Minister. Knesset elected as the first president Chaim

Weizmann (largely ceremonial) Israel.

All-party coalition government has never won a majority in the Knesset.

From 1948 to 1977 all government headed by Mapai and Alignment, former

Labour Party. In years of Labour Zionism, initially led by David Ben-Gurion,

Israel's political and economic dominate went on line, particularly socialist. 37

Immigration

37 Morris 2004, pp. 604

In the last three years (1948-1951), immigration doubled the Jewish population

of Israel and left an indelible impression on voters remains to Israeli society.

Most immigrants are either Holocaust survivors or Jews who fled Arab lands;

largest group (over 100,000 each) are from Iraq, Romania and Poland, although

immigrants arrived from all over Europe and the Middle East. In 1949-1951,

30,000 Jews fled Libya. In 1950, the Knesset passed the Law of Return granted to

all Jews and those of Jewish ancestry, and their spouses, the right to settle in

Israel and gain citizenship. That year, 50,000 Yemenite Jews (99%) secretly flown

to Israel. In 1951 the Jews of Iraq were given temporary permission to leave the

country and 120,000 (over 90%) chose to move to Israel. Jews also escaped from

Lebanon, Syria and Egypt. By the end of the sixties, about 500,000 Jews had left

Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. During twenty years, about 850,000 Jews from

Arab countries (almost the entire Jewish population of Arabia) to move to Israel.

Land and property left the Jewish people (many in the Arab urban centers) are

still some dispute. Today, there are about 9,000 Jews living in Arab countries, of

which 75% live in Morocco and 15% in Tunisia.

Between 1948 and 1958, the population of Israel rose from 800,000 to two

million. During this period, food, clothing and furniture had to be rationed in what

is known as the prudent Period (Tkufat haTsena). Immigrants mostly refugees

without money or property, and many were housed in temporary camps known

as ma'abarot.

By 1952, over 200,000 immigrants were living in tents or pre-fabricated

huts built by the government. Israel receives financial support from private

donations from abroad (especially U.S.). Financial pressure on the new state led

Ben-Gurion to sign a compensation agreement with West Germany. During the

Knesset debate about 5,000 protesters and riot police had gathered Cordon

building. Heated debate, Herut leader Menachem Begin and Ben-Gurion called

each other racist and branded Begin Ben-Gurion "thugs." Israel receives several

billion marks and return agreed to open diplomatic relations with Germany. At

the end of 1953, Ben-Gurion retired to Kibbutz Sde Boker in the Negev. 38

Conclusion

Eretz-Israel (Land of Israel) was the birthplace of the Jewish people. Here the

spiritual identity, religion and politics were formed. Here they first reach to

statehood, created cultural values of national and universal interests and provide

38 Haaretz 8/1/1952, http://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3306796,00.html (Hebrew accessed 10/10/2007)

permanent book to book world. After forcibly evicted from their land, the people

kept faith with the rest spread them and never ceased to pray and hope to

return to them and for the restoration of their political freedom. Arrest induced

by this historic and traditional, Jews strive in every successive generation to re-

establish themselves in their ancient homeland. In recent decades they returned

in their lot. Pioneer, ma'pilim (immigrants coming to Eretz-Israel in defiance of

the law restricting) and defenders, they made deserts bloom, turn Hebrew, built

villages and towns, and created a thriving community who control the economy

and its own culture, loving peace but knowing how to defend itself, bringing

blessings of progress to all the country's inhabitants, and aspiring towards

independent nationhood. In the year 5657 (1897), the spiritual father summons

the Jewish State, Theodore Herzl, the First Zionist Congress convened and

proclaimed the right of Jews to a national rebirth in its own country. This right

was recognized in the Balfour Declaration of the 2nd November, 1917, and

reaffirmed in the League of Nations Mandate for certain, gave international

sanction to the historic connection between the Jewish people and Eretz-Israel

and the right of the Jewish people to rebuild its National Home.

Bibliography

"Declaration of Establishment of State of Israel". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 1948 May 14. Retrieved 2012 April 16 http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace+Process/Guide+to+the+Peace+Process/Declaration+of+Establishment+of+State+of+Israel.htm.

"How to Respond to Common Misstatements About Israel". Anti-Defamation League. 2006. Retrieved 2006 October 4. http://www.adl.org/israel/advocacy/how_to_respond/establishment.asp?xflag=1.

Paul Johnson. 1988. History of the Jews. Jurusalem: Harper , p. 106,.

Revolt of The Maccabees. Retrieved 2012 May 14 from http://www.simpletoremember.com/articles/a/the_revolt_of_the_maccabees/

While the Syrians and the Melchite Greeks ceased to observe the penance after the death of Heraclius; Elijah of Nisibis (Beweis der Wahrheit des Glaubens, translation by Horst, p. 108, Colmar, 1886) see http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?letter=B&artid=1642#4756.

Chapter 3

Arab-Israeli Conflict (I) - Arab-Israeli War of 1948

introduction

Arab-Israeli war of 1948, known by Israelis as the War of Independence or

Ibrani.Milkhemet Hashikhrur Milkhemet Hakomemmiyut literally "war of

liberation") - took place between the Israeli state and military alliance Arab

countries and the Palestinian Arab forces. It is the first in a series of wars in the

Arab-Israeli conflict.

War had been preceded by a period of civil war in the territory of the

British Mandate of Palestine between the Jewish Yishuv forces and Palestinian

Arab forces in response to the United Nations Partition Plan of the United

Nations. An alliance of Arab states intervened on the Palestinian side, turning the

civil war into a war between sovereign states. Battle took place mostly in the

territory of the former British Mandate and for a short time also in the Sinai

Peninsula and southern Lebanon. War ended with the 1949 Armistice Agreement,

which established the Armistice Demarcation Line between Israel and Arab

forces, commonly known as the Green Line.

About half of the 1948 Palestinian exodus, often referred to as al-Nakba

(Arabic: النكبة, literally "Disaster"), which occurs in the middle of this war. War, in

addition to the establishment of Israel itself, is also considered as one of the

main triggers for the Jewish exodus from Arab countries and Muslims. 39

39 Chaim Herzog, The Arab-Israeli wars. 1982. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780853683674

Background

The proposed separation Palestine.Following World War II, on May 14, 1948, the

British Mandate of Palestine came to an end. Neighboring Arab countries have

also emerged from a mandatory rule. Jordan, under Hashemite ruler Abdullah I

gained independence from Britain in 1946 and known as Jordan, but it remained

under heavy British influence. Egypt, while nominally independent, signed the

Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 includes provisions that Britain would maintain a

garrison troops in the Suez Canal. From 1945 on, Egypt attempted to renegotiate

the terms of this agreement, which is seen as a remnant of colonialism insult.

Lebanon became an independent state in 1943, but French troops would not

withdraw until 1946, the same year, Syria won its independence from France.

In 1945, the British prompting, Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria,

Jordan, and Yemen formed the Arab League to coordinate policy between the

Arab countries. Iraq and Jordan coordinated policies closely, signing mutual

defense treaty, while Egypt, Syria, Saudi Arabia and Jordan are worried that the

additional part or Palestine, and use it as a steppingstone to attack or undermine

Syria, Lebanon, and the Hijaz.

On 29 November 1947, the General Assembly of the United Nations

adopted a resolution recommending the use and implementation of a plan to

resolve the Arab-Jewish conflict by partitioning Palestine into two states, one

Arab and one Jewish, and the City of Jerusalem. Each state will consist of three

main parts, which are connected by the intersection of Extraterritorial; Arab

states will also have pockets in Jaffa. Jews will get 56% of the land, which is

located in the Negev Desert; their area would contain 499,000 Jews and 438,000

Arabs. Palestinian Arabs would get 42% of the land, which has a population of

818,000 Palestinian Arabs and 10,000 Jews. In consideration of religious

significance, Jerusalem area, including Bethlehem, with 100,000 Jews and an

equal number of Palestinian Arabs, are to be separatum Corpus, will be

administered by the UN. Jewish leadership accepted the partition plan, without

reservation, as "indispensable minimum," glad to gain international recognition

but sorry that they did not receive more.

Arguing that the partition plan was unfair to the Arabs with regard to the

remaining population at the time, the representatives of the Palestinian Arabs

and the Arab League firmly opposed the UN action and reject the authority to

involve itself in the whole thing. They maintain "that the rule of Palestine should

revert to its inhabitants, in accordance with the provisions of the Charter of the

United Nations (UN)." 40

1947-1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine

1948 Palestinian exodus

1947-48 civil war

Arab-Israeli war in 1948

1948 Palestine War

The causes of such migration

Nakba Day

Palestinian refugee camps

Palestinian refugees

Palestinian right of return

Absent present

transfer Committee

resolution 1947

1947-1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine begins on November 30, 1947, the

date after the UN General Assembly vote on the UN Sub Plan. It was completed

on May 14, 1948 when the Jewish People's Council issued a proclamation

declaring the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, known as the State

of Israel.

In this period of the Arab and Jewish communities in Palestine fought,

while the British, who have an obligation to maintain order, organized their own

production and intervention only periodically. Palestinian Arabs left, fled or were

driven in large numbers, especially after the Jewish army took the main port of

Haifa in April 1948. 41

Political Factors

Yishuv

40 "Charter of the United Nations: CHAPTER XI: DECLARATION REGARDING NON-SELF-GOVERNING TERRITORIES". http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter11.shtml. Retrieved 1 January 2012. "b. to develop self-government, to take due account of the political aspirations of the peoples, and to assist them in the progressive development of their free political institutions, according to the particular circumstances of each territory and its peoples and their varying stages of advancement;"

41 Charles Herbert Levermore; Denys Peter Myers (1921). Yearbook of the League of Nations. The Brooklyn Daily Eagle. pp. 63–. Retrieved 3 May 2011. http://books.google.com/books?id=MwOtAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA63.

Benny Morris stated that the goal of growing the Yishuv during the war. At first,

the goal is "simple and modest": to survive the attack of the Arabs of Palestine

and the Arab countries. "The Zionist leaders deeply, genuinely, fear of re-

enactment of the Holocaust Middle East, which has just ended; Arab public

rhetoric reinforces this concern." Because of the war, the goal of expanding the

Jewish state beyond the UN partition borders appeared: first to incorporate

clusters of isolated Jewish settlements and later to add more territories to the

state and provide defensible borders. A further goal of 3 and appears among the

political leaders and the military after four or five months is to "reduce the size of

Israel's Arab minority to be large and hostile, which is seen as a potential fifth

column 1 authorities, by belligerency and expulsion.""42

Plan, Dalet or D, (Hebrew: תוכנית ד ', Tokhnit dalet) is a work plan by the

Haganah, a group of Jewish soldiers and pioneers Israel Defense Forces, in the

autumn of 1947 to the spring of 1948, the Haganah unit that was sent in early

March 1948 . According to academic Ilan Pappe, the aim is to conquer as much

of Palestine and expel as many Palestinians as possible. Although according to

Benny Morris there is no such intention. In his book The Ethnic Cleansing of

Palestine Ilan Pappe asserts that Plan Dalet was "blueprint for ethnic

cleansing": .... This ... blueprint spelled it clear: Palestinians have to go ... The

goal of the plan is actually the destruction of both urban and rural areas of

Palestine. Plan Dalet intent is subject to controversy, with a history of extreme

stress that it is entirely defensive, and history on the other extreme who insisted

that the plan was aimed at maximum conquest and expulsion of the Palestinians. 43

The Arab League Overall

In the introduction to a cablegram from the Secretary General of the Arab

League Secretary-General of the United Nations (UN) dated May 15, 1948, the

Arab League gave reaons to intervene, On the occasion of the Palestinian Arab

state intervention to restore law and order and to prevent interference in

Palestine from spreading into their territory and to examine further bloodshed,

Clause 10 (a) Wire provided: -

Now that the Mandate for Palestine has come to an end, leaving no

established legal authority behind to administer law and order in the country and

42 Benny Morris, (2008), 1948, pp.397–398.43 Pappe, Ilan. 2006. The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine., p. 86-126, xii

can afford the necessary and sufficient protection to life and property, the United

Arab declare as follows:

(A) The right to establish a government in the Palestinian connection to the

people under the principles of self-determination is recognized by the League of

Nations Covenant and the Charter of the United Nations;''

Lighted Calegram attention to in subclause (b) Peace and order has

completely disappointed in Palestine, and, due to the cruelty of the Jews, about

more than a quarter of a million Arabs were forced to leave their homes and

migrate to the neighboring Arab states. It furthe note in subclause (c) Mandatory

announced that at the termination of the Mandate it will no longer be responsible

for the maintenance of law and order in Palestine except in the camps and the

area actually occupied by the power, and only to the extent necessary for safety

their forces and their withdrawal. Wire also noted other clauses;

Great Britain, however, put the Palestinians in such a position that made it

possible for Jews flooded the country with waves of immigrants. Government of

the Arab countries to recognize the independence of Palestine, which has so far

been suppressed by the British Mandate. Only solution of the Palestine problem

is the establishment of Palestinian unity.

The events that occurred in Palestine exposed the hidden intentions of the

Zionist regime's aggressive.

Arab governments have found themselves forced to intervene for the sole

purpose of restoring peace and security and establish law and order in Palestine.

According to Yoav Gelber, the Arab countries were "drawn into the war by the

collapse of the Palestinian Arabs and the Arab Liberation Army [and] Saudi

government's main aim was to prevent the destruction of the Palestinian Arabs

and the flooding in their own countries by more refugees. according to their own

perception, had the invasion not occurred, is not Arab force in Palestine capable

of checking the Haganah attack ".44

"Yishuv danger, Arab invasion is considered to be threatened existence.

Having no real knowledge of the true Arab military capabilities, the Jews took

Arab propaganda literally, preparing for the worst and respond accordingly." 45

King Abdullah I of Jordan

44 Gelber, Yoav Palestine, 1948: war, escape and the emergence of the Palestinian refugee problem. 2nd ed. Sussex Academic Press, 2006 p. 137-138. "A war between Israel and the Arab States broke out immediately, and the Arab armies invaded Palestine."

45 Ibid

King Abdullah is the commander of the Arab Legion, the strongest Arab army

involved in the war. Arab Legion has about 10,000 soldiers, trained and

commanded by British officers.

King Abdullah outside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem, May

29 1948In 1946 to 1947, he said that he had no intention to "resist or prevent

the partition of Palestine and the creation of the Jewish state." Hostile towards

Palestinian nationalism, Abdullah wants additional Palestinians as possible.

Ideally, he would like to annex all of Palestine, but he was willing to compromise.

He supports partitions, suggesting that the West Bank provided the British

Mandate for Palestine annexed to Jordan. Abdullah held a secret meeting with

the Jewish Agency (in which the future Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir was

among the delegates) have reached an agreement with the Jews not intervene

Jordan annexation of the West Bank (although Abdullah failed in its goal to obtain

outlets to the Mediterranean Sea through the desert Negev) and Jordan

agreement not to attack the Jewish state contained in the resolutions of the

United Nations partition (in which Jerusalem was given a non-Arab and a Jewish

state, but is administered as an area internationally). In a stunning diplomatic

coup, strong Arab army agreed not to attack the Jewish state. However, by 1948,

the country demanding Abdullah's Arab neighbors to join them in the "Arab

military intervention" against the newly created state of Israel, so that it is used

to restore the prestige in the Arab world, which has grown suspicious relatively

good relations with leaders Western and Jewish leaders.

Abdullah's role in this war to be great. He saw himself as the "supreme

commander of the armed Arab" and "persuaded the Arab League to appoint him"

to this position. Through his leadership, the Arabs fought against the war in 1948

to meet Abdullah's political goals. 46

Other Arab Countries

King Farouk of Egypt eager to prevent Abdullah from being viewed as a major

champion of the Arab world in Palestine, which he feared might damage their

own leadership aspirations of the Arab world. In addition, Farouk wants to annex

all selatanPalestin to Egypt. Nuri as-Said, Iraq's strong, has the ambition to bring

the entire Fertile Crescent under Iraqi leadership. Both Syria and Lebanon would

like to take certain areas of northern Palestine. One of the results ambition Arab

leaders are doubts all Palestinian leaders who want to establish a Palestinian

46 Avi Shlaim (1988). The Politics of Partition. Columbia : Columbia University Press.

state, and mutual mistrust between each other. Cooperation is to be very poor

during the war between pelbagaipuak Palestinian and Arab armies. "

Supreme Committee Amin al-Husayni

Amin al-Husayni, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem and Chairman of the Arab Higher

Committee, collaborated with Nazi Germany during World War II. In 1940, he

asked the Axis Powers recognize Arab rights "for solving the Jewish elements in

Palestine and the Arab countries in accordance with the interests of other

countries and the Arabs and along the lines similar to those used to solve the

Jewish question in Germany and Italy. "

In early 1948, al-Husayni was in exile in Egypt. He was involved in several

high-level negotiations between Arab leaders at a meeting held in Damascus in

February 1948 to organize Palestinian Field Order, however, the commander of

the Holy War Army, Hasan Salama and Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni, provided only

Lydda district and Jerusalem . These results pave the way for an undermining of

the Mufti position among Arab countries. On February 9, just four days after the

Damascus meeting, a severe blow suffered by the Mufti at the Arab League

session in Cairo, where the demand for the appointment of General Staff

Palestine League, the formation of the Provisional Government of Palestine, the

transfer of authority to local National Committees in areas evacuated by the

British, a loan for administration in Palestine and appropriation of large sums to

the Arab Higher Executive for Palestinians entitled to war damages were all

rejected.

Arab League blocked recruitment of the armed al-Husayni, who collapsed

following the death of the most charismatic commander, his cousin Abd al-Qadir

al-Husayni, on April 8.

Following rumors that King Abdullah had re-opened bilateral negotiations with

Israel that he had previously conducted in secret with the Jewish Agency, the

Arab League, led by Egypt, decided to set up the All-Palestine Government in

Gaza on 8 September under the nominal leadership of the Mufti . History Avi

Shlaim writes:

The decision to form the Government of All the Palestinians in Gaza, and the

feeble attempt to create armed forces under control, furnished the members of

the Arab League with the means of disposal themselves directly responsible for

the prosecution of war and to withdraw their forces from Palestine with some

protection of popular protest. Whatever the long-term future Palestinian Arab

state, the immediate purpose, as conceived by the Egyptian sponsors, was to

provide a central meeting against Abdullah and serve as an instrument to thwart

the ambition to federate the Arab regions with Jordan.

Abdullah considers the attempt to revive al-Husayni Holy War Army as a

challenge to the authorities, and on October 3, the Minister of Defense directed

all military bodies operating in the areas controlled by the Arab Legion

disbanded. Glubb Pasha carried out the order ruthlessly and efficiently. 47

Military Assessment

Benny Morris has argued that even if, by 1947, the Palestinians "have one

healthy and demoralizing respect for the Yishuv's military power", they believe

that in a decade or century "Jews, like the government crusader medieval

eventually addressed by the Arab world ".

On the eve of the war, the number of Arab troops might be committed to

the war was about 23,000 (10,000 Egyptians, 4500 Jordan, Iraq 3000, 3,000

Syrian, 2,000 ALA volunteers, 1000 Lebanese and some Saudi Arabia), in

addition to the Palestinian people regularly attended. Yishuv had 35,000 troops

Haganah, Irgun and Stern 3000 and several thousand armed settlers.

On May 12, David Ben-Gurion was told by his chief military adviser, "who

over-estimated the size of the Arab armies and the numbers and efficiency of the

army will be done", that Israel's chances of winning the war against nations

Arabs are just about over. 48

Military Yishuv

Israeli Army Defence Force (IDF) Samson's Foxes unit advance in Egypt captured

Bren Gun carrier. In November 1947, the Haganah was an underground army

that has existed as a very organized team, country, since the riots from 1920 to

1921, and during the riots in 1929, and the Great Awakening from 1936 to 1939.

[47] It has a portable power, HISH, which has 2,000 full-time fighters (men and

women) and 10,000 reserve (all aged between 18 and 25) and an elite unit,

Palmach composed of 2,100 fighters and 1,000 reserve. Provident trained three

or four days a month and returned to public life time. These forces can rely on

47 Shlaim, Avi (2001). Israel and the Arab Coalition. In Eugene Rogan and Avi Shlaim (eds.). The War for Palestine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, (p. 79–103).

48 Morris, Benny (2004), The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited, Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, p35

portable power garrison, HIM (Heil Mishmar, lit. Guards Corps), made up of

people aged over 25. Yishuv total strength is around 35,000 to 15,000 to 18,000

fighters and a garrison force of about 20,000. Both of these secret groups, the

Irgun and Lehi, having members from 2.000 to 4.000 and 500-800, respectively.

Irgun, whose activities were considered by MI5 to be terrorism, was monitored by

the British. There are also several thousand men and women who have served in

the British Army in World War II who did not serve in any of the underground

militias but would provide valuable military experience during the war. Walid

Khalidi said the Yishuv had the additional forces Jewish Settlement Police,

number around 12,000 Gadna Youth Battalions, and the armed settlers. Some

units have trained by December 1947.

In 1946, Ben-Gurion decided that the Yishuv would probably have to

defend itself against both Palestinian Arabs and neighboring Arab countries and

accordingly initiate "a massive, secret weapons acquisition campaign in the

West". By September 1947 the Haganah had "10,489 rifles, 702 light machine-

guns, 2666 light guns, 186 medium machine-guns, 672 two-inch mortars and 92

three-inch (76 mm) mortars" and earned more in the first few months of

hostilities. Yishuv also had "a relatively advanced arms producing capacity",

between October 1947 and July 1948 "produced 3 million 9 mm bullets, 150,000

Mills grenades, 16,000 light weapons (Sten Guns) and 210 three-inch mortars (76

mm)", co- with several "Davidka" homemade mortars highly inaccurate but had a

spectacularly loud explosion that demoralized the enemy. Initially, the Haganah

had no heavy machine guns, artillery, armored vehicles, anti-tank or anti-aircraft

weapons, nor military aircraft or tanks. 49

On December 5, 1947, obligatory conscription was instituted for all men

and women aged between 17 and 25. By the end of March, 21,000 have been

deployed. On March 30, a call was extended to single men and women between

the ages of 26 and 35. Five days later, a General Mobilization order was issued

for all men under 40.

Sources disagree about the amount of weapons at the disposal of the end

of the Yishuv in Mandate. According to Karsh before the arrival of the shipment

of arms from Czechoslovakia as part of Operation Balak, there was roughly one

weapon for every three fighters, and even Palmach can complete just two out of

every three active members. According, Collins and Lapierre, by April 1948, the

Haganah had managed to accumulate only about 20,000 rifles and Sten guns for

49 Ibid, p16

the 35,000 soldiers who existed on paper. According to Walid Khalidi "arms at

the disposal of these forces much". Weapons there is no shortage of locally

produced explosives. 50

Arab troops

There is no national military organization in the Palestinian Arab community.

There are two military youth organization, which Futuwa pro-and anti-Husayni

Husayni Najjada ("auxiliary corps"). According to Karsh, these groups have

members from 11.000 to 12.000, but according to Morris, who Najjada, founded

in Jaffa and had 2,000-3,000 members, was destroyed in the run-war, 1948,

during an attempt to seize control Husayni, and never Futuwa numbered more

than a few hundred. At the outbreak of war, the local militant groups recently,

the National Guard, like mushrooms growing in towns and cities. Every

responsible to local Arab National Committee. Palestinian tendency to dissipate

their forces along village and clan lines would be a major disadvantage

Palestinian side. In particular there is a split in Palestinian society between those

who are loyal to the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin Husseini and those

opposed to his leadership. In December, Abd al-Qadir Husseini, who was the

protege's uncle the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem by 100 fighters who were trained in

Syria and that would form the cadre of the Army of the Holy War. The army was

joined by several hundred young villagers and veterans of the British army.

There are 7,000 Palestinians who served in the British Army during World War II,

and 10,500 Palestinians in para-military police mandate forcing many of them

deserted during the winter 1947-48, fought in the war.

Palestinian armed equipment is very poor. British seized their weapons

during the 1936-1939 revolt and the World War II. A 1942 report by the Haganah

intelligence service to assess the number of firearms at the disposal of the

Palestinian at 50,000 but this may overestimate or even "highly exaggerated". In

early February 1948 the military committee of the League, Arab deliver guns to

the 1700 Arab Palestinians. at the same time give people the Mufti of Egypt in

1200 rifles, Iraq sent 1000 rifles and Syria gave 645 rifles, 78 machine guns and

8 mortars. Arab Liberation Army (Jaysh al-Inqadh al-Arabi) was established by the

Arab League. It is made of about 6,000 volunteers, mostly from Syria, and led by

50 Dov Joseph, "The Faithful City – The Siege of Jerusalem 1948". Library of Congress number 60 10976. Page 8 : "For example, all the land mines used against Rommel came from Jewish factories in Palestine."

Fawzi al-Qawuqji. Officially allocated area is north of Palestine, including

Samaria. 51

Jordanian Arab Legion was considered the most effective Arab force. Armed,

trained and commanded by British officers, is a strong force was organized on

4th 8.000 to 12.000 infantry regiments / mechanically supported by some 40

artillery pieces and 75 armored vehicles. Until January 1948, it has been

reinforced by the 3,000 strong Jordan Frontier Force. As many as 48 British

officers who served in the Arab Legion. 52 Glubb Pasha, the commander of the

Legion, organized his army into four brigades.

Arab League joined the war in May 1948, but fought only in areas that

King Abdullah wanted to get to Jordan: West Bank and East Jerusalem. Armed

Jordan is probably the best trained of all combatants. Other forces fighters lack

the ability to make strategic decisions and tactical maneuvers, as evidenced by

the position of the fourth regiment at Latrun, abandoned by other combatants

before the arrival of the Jordanian army. At the end of the war, Latrun proved to

be very important, and the determining factor for the fate of Jerusalem.

In 1948, Iraq had the military, from 21,000 people in 12 brigades and the

Iraqi Air Force had 100 planes, mostly British. Initially, Iraq committed around

3,000 men to the war effort, including four infantry brigades, one armored

battalion and support personnel. These forces are to operate under the guidance

of Jordan. During the first truce, the Iraqis improve them to about 10,000. Finally,

Iraqi forces expedition numbered around 15,000 to 18,000 people.

The first Iraqi forces to be deployed reached Jordan in April 1948 under the

command of Gen. Nur ad-Din Mahmud. On 15 May, Iraqi engineers built a

pontoon bridge across the Jordan River and attacked the Israeli settlement

Alupang with little success. Following this defeat, Iraqi forces moved into the

triangle of Nablus-Jenin-Tulkarm strategic, where they suffered heavy casualties

in the Israeli attack on Jenin which began on 3 June, but they managed to hold on

to their position. Active involvement in the Iraq war effectively ended at this

point.

In 1948, Egypt was able to put a maximum of around 40,000 men into the

field, 80% of the male population of military age to be unfit for military service

and logistics systems are limited in the ability of the embryo to support ground

forces deployed beyond its borders. At first, the expeditionary force of 10,000

51 Karsh, op.cit., p2852 "TRANS-JORDAN: Chess Player & Friend". Time. 1948 February 16. Retrieved 2010 April 20.

http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,794208,00.html..

men was sent to Palestine under the command of Maj. Gen. Ahmed Ali al-Mwawi.

This force consists of five infantry battalions, an armored battalion equipped with

British Light Tank Mk VI and Matilda tanks, one battalion of 16 25-pounder guns,

a battalion of eight 6-pounder guns and a medium machine-gun battalion with

supporting troops.

Egyptian Air Force has over 30 Spitfires, 4 Hawker Hurricanes and 20 C47s

modified into crude bombers.

By the time the second truce, the Egyptians had 20,000 men in the field in 13

battalions equipped with 135 tanks and 90 artillery pieces.

Syria has 12,000 soldiers at the beginning of 1948 War, grouped into three

brigades of infantry and armored force of about battalion size. Syrian Air Force

has 50 aircraft, 10 is not the latest model of the World War II generation.

On May 14 Syrian attack Palestinians with 1 Infantry Brigade, supported by

an armored battalion, a French company R 35 and R 37 tanks, an artillery

battalion and other units. On May 15 to 16 they attacked Israel Tzemah village,

which they captured, the new attack, on May 18. The village is abandoned

following the defeat of the Syrian forces in Deganias a few days later. After that,

the Syrians scored a victory at Mishmar HaYarden on June 10, after which they

return to the defensive posture, conducting only a small number of small attacks,

Israeli settlements are exposed. Lebanese Army is the smallest Arab army,

consisting of only 3,500 soldiers. According to Gelber, in June 1947, Ben-Gurion

"arrived at an agreement first with the Maronite religious leadership in Lebanon

that precious first few thousand pounds and kept Lebanon's army out of the War

of Independence and the combined Arab armies." According to Rogan and

Shlaim, a token force of 1,000 has been committed to the invasion. It crossed

into the northern Galilee and was repulsed by the Israeli army. Israel then

invaded and occupied southern Lebanon until the end of the war.

Saudi Arabia sent a contingent of men 800-1200. Saudi troops have been

attached to the Egyptian order. During the first truce, Sudan has sent six

companies of ordinary soldiers to fight alongside the Egyptians. Yemen also

committed a small expedition force to the war effort. 53

British forces in Palestine

53 Uthman Hasan Salih, DAWR AL-MAMLAKA AL-`ARABIYYA AL-SA`UDIYYA FI HARB FILASIN 1367H/1948 (The role of Saudi Arabia in the Palestine war of 1948), Revue d'Histoire Maghrébine [Tunisia] 1986 13(43–44): 201–221.

It is 100,000 British troops deployed in Palestine "in two ground forces divisions,

two independent infantry brigades, two mechanized regiments, some artillery

units and several RAF squadrons". Peak deployment was in July 1947, when 70

200 British troops have been stationed in Palestine, supported by public and

driver 1277 28.155 civil servants. British forces, however, have gradually

withdrawn in 1948. British High Commissioner Cunningham left Palestine on May

14, 1948 another British forces overseeing the withdrawal remained in Palestine

for a few weeks after that, keeping pockets in and around the port of Haifa. Four

Royal Air Force pilots were killed on May 22 when the Royal Egyptian Air Force

struck RAF Ramat David, mistaking the airport for one occupied by the Israeli Air

Force. The last British troops left Palestine on June 30, 1948.54

Intervention by Arab League countries

Five of the seven countries of the Arab League at the time, namely Egypt, Iraq,

Jordan, Lebanon and Syria, backed by Saudi Arabia and Yemen contingents

invaded territory in the former British Mandate of Palestine on the night of May

14 to 15, 1948. Powers Syria and Egypt launched an attack outside the Arab

section of the proposed Subdivision Plan.

Some unofficial statements before the war has been more aggressive. Arab

League Secretary Azzam Pasha, according to an interview in an article of 11

October 1947 Al-Yom newspaper, said: "I personally wish that the Jews do not

drive us into this war, because this will be the elimination of war and massacre

historic many of which will be spoken of like the Mongolian massacres and the

Crusades ".

According to Yoav Gelber, the Arab countries were "drawn into the war by

the collapse of the Palestinian Arabs and the Arab Liberation Army. Saudi

government's main aim was to prevent the destruction of the Palestinian Arabs

and the flooding in their own countries by more refugees. According perception

their own, have the invasion not occurred, is not Arab force in Palestine capable

of checking the Haganah attack ".

"The Yishuv see the dangers of the Arab invasion as threatening

existence. Having no real knowledge of the true Arab military capabilities, the

54 Associated Press (1948 July 1). "Israel Flag Over Haifa, Last British Troops Leave Zion". The Milwaukee Sentinel: p. 2. Retrieved 2010 March 30 http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1368&dat=19480701&id=mNA_AAAAIBAJ&sjid=-w0EAAAAIBAJ&pg=7282,1374057..

Jews took Arab propaganda literally, preparing for the worst and respond

accordingly." 55

Arab-Israeli war in 1948

First phase: 15th May - June 11, 1948

Invasion by Arab countries, May 15-June 10 hours 1948. In the Declaration of

Establishment of the State of Israel, five of the seven countries of the Arab

League at the time, namely Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria, backed by

Saudi Arabia and Yemen contingents invaded territory of the former British

Mandate of Palestine on the night of 14-15 May 1948 . Powers Syria and Egypt

launched an attack outside the Arab section of the proposed Subdivision Plan.

Jordan invaded the proposed "Corpus Separatum", which has not be instituted,

including the Jewish Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem.

Defenders of Israel in the Arab AfulaThe team plan called for Syria and

Lebanon to attack from the north while Jordanian and Iraqi forces to attack from

the east. Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Iraq forces to connect in Galilee and then

turn toward Haifa. In the south, the people of Egypt to advance and take Tel

Aviv. Cooperation among the various Arab armies is very poor, so the plan was

not fully carried out in the spirit imaginable. The first mission of the Jewish

paramilitary organization and then the IDF is to survive against the Arab armies

and stop them from destroying major Jewish settlements, until reinforcements

and weapons arrived.

As the Arab armies attacked Israel, two Royal Egyptian Air Force (REAF)

Spitfires bombed Tel Aviv. One of them was shot down and taken prisoner pilot.

However, the Egyptians continued bombing raids on the city. On 18 May, the Tel

Aviv Central Bus Station was bombed, killing over a hundred victims. Efforts were

also made for the stake from the ground. For the first few weeks of the war,

Egyptian fighter aircraft capable of bombing Tel Aviv with almost complete

impunity, just meet fire ground.

On May 22, REAF Spitfires attack the Ramat David air base in Israeli

territory still occupied by the British Royal Air Force covering the withdrawal of

British forces from Israel. The Egyptians believed that the base has been taken

over by Israel, and has been attacked three times. Five RAF Spitfires were

destroyed on the ground, transport aircraft was destroyed as it landed, hangars

destroyed, and four pilots were killed. During the third attack, the RAF Spitfire

55 Yoav Gelber, op.cit, p137

shot down four of FR18s Spitfires attacked Egypt, and the fifth was shot down by

the British Bren gun crew. British left Ramat David Airbase 1 a few days later.

Two Egyptian attack by air, armor and artillery cover entered southern Israel, but

were met with stiff resistance from various settlements defended by armed

residents and Israeli soldiers. Joined the Egyptian army is a large number of

volunteers from the Muslim Brotherhood. An Egyptian column heading to Tel

Aviv will be joined by more Egyptian troops who arrived by sea at Majdal and

another column put towards Beersheba. To get their flanks, the Egyptians

besieged several kibbutzim in the Negev. Egyptians met with stiff opposition

from the armed mild defense of besieged kibbutzim. They had stopped their

advance and took heavy losses, while the losses suffered by those who defend

the comparison light. Kfar Darom, after withstanding attack by the Muslim

Brotherhood, was attacked by Egyptian tanks retreated after losing one tank. In

the kibbutz Nirim, about 40 Israeli struggle over Egypt attack, supported by

artillery, armor and air power. The most notable involvement was the Battle of

Yad Mordechai, where a lower power 100 Israelis armed with nothing more than

a gun, medium machinegun and PIAT anti-tank weapons, organized a column in

2500 Egypt, backed by armored units, artillery and air, for five days [103] The

Egyptians suffered some 300-400 victims while Israeli victims was 26 killed and

49 wounded. This battle has delayed action, which is designed to allow time

Haganah ready to attack Egypt. Egyptians attacked Kibbutz Nitzanim who

surrendered after a long battle. Some kibbutzim killed after surrender, but the

Egyptian army to prevent local members who fought on their side of killing a

prisoner of war.

Over the next few days, more than 1,000 Lebanese, 5,000 Syrian, 5,000

Iraqi, and 10,000 Egyptian troops (initial numbers) invaded the newly established

state, while the 4000 Jordanian army attacked Corpus separatum region include

Jerusalem and its environs, as well as certain areas as part of the Arab state by

the UN partition plan of the United Nations (UN). They were assisted by a corps

of volunteers from Saudi Arabia, Libya and Yemen. Arab countries gradually

increase the number of troops by the thousands as the war later developed. Both

sides increased their manpower over the following months, but the Israeli

advantage grew very well as a result of the progressive mobilization of Israeli

society and the influx of migrants an average of 10,300 per month.

Syrian troops advanced into Galilee on May 15, but deadlocked by

resistance from many kibbutzim. Syria was forced to besiege the kibbutzim not

advance. Throughout Galilee, various isolated settlement outposts Israel has

been exposed to Arab attack on all sides, and had to rely on their own armories

for defense. Lebanese army take Malkiya village, who recaptured by Israel three

days later. An Iraqi division comprising two infantry and one armored brigade

arrived in the area known as the "triangle" between Jenin, Nablus and Tulkarm,

where on May 25, 1948, it started the attack with a view to taking Netanya,

which failed. On May 29, Israeli counter-attacks against the people of Iraq that

led to three days of heavy fighting over Jenin, which ultimately saved by the

Iraqis. After this battle, the Iraqi army to be stationary. On 6 June, the Arab

Liberation Army forces retook the Syrian-Lebanese Malkiya. 56

Israeli troops in 1948

On May 26, 1948, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) was officially established, and

the Haganah, Palmach and Irgun were incorporated into the IDF.

Jordan artillery illuminates Jerusalem in 1948

Egyptian Spitfire shot down in Tel AvivOn May 29, Israeli soldiers stopped drive

towards Tel Aviv Egypt Pleshet Operations. In the first combat missions carried

out by Israel's fledgeling air force, four Avia S-199s attacked Egyptian armored

column of 500 vehicles on the way to Ashdod. Israeli planes dropped 70 kilogram

bombs and strafed the column, although their machine guns jammed quickly.

Two of the planes crashed, killing a pilot. The attack caused the Egyptians to

spread, and they have lost the initiative by the time they have to regroup. The

attack, which was followed by small-scale disturbances Israel Egyptian online.

Brigade givati team then launched a counterattack. Although the response was

repulsed, Egyptian attack was stopped in Egypt to change strategy to defend

themselves from attack.

Because of the war, the IDF managed to lose more troops than the Arab forces.

By July 1948, the IDF had 63,000 soldiers; by early spring 1949, they had

115,000. Arab armies had about 40,000 troops in July 1948, increased to 55,000

in October 1948, and less by the spring of 1949.

All Jewish aviation assets were placed under the control of the Sherut Avir

(Air Service, known as SA) in November 1947 and flying operations began the

following month from a small civil airport on the outskirts of Tel Aviv called Sde

Dov, with the support of ground operations first (1 RWD-13) occurred on

56 Karsh, op.cit, p60

December 17. Galilee Squadron was formed in March 1948 Yavne'el, and the

Negev Squadron was formed in NIR-Am in April. Of 10 May, when SA lost the first

battle, there are three flight units, air staff, maintenance facilities and logistics

support. At the outbreak of war on May 15, SA became the Israeli Air Force. With

a fleet of light aircraft, it is not comparable to the Arab forces during the first few

weeks of the war with the T-6s, Spitfires, C-47s and Avro Ansons. It was also

during this time that the balance of air power began to swing in favor of the

Israeli Air Force following the purchase of 25 Avia S-199s from Czechoslovakia,

the first of which arrived in Israel on May 20. This created the ironic situation of

the young Jewish state using derivatives BF-109 designed in Nazi Germany to

help deal with the British designed Spitfires flown by Egypt. The first raid on the

Arab capital followed on the night of May 31 / June 1 when three Israeli planes

bombed Amman. On June 3, Israel scored the first victory in the battle air when

the pilot Modi Alon shot down a pair of Egyptian bombers on Tel Aviv. During the

war, a total of 15 Egyptian and Syrian 2 plane was shot down. By the fall of 1948,

the IDF had achieved air superiority and have a better firepower and more

knowledgeable, many who had seen action in World War II. Israeli aircraft also

bombed targets in and around Arish, Gaza, Damascus, Amman and Cairo. Israel

B-17 bomber coming to Israel from Czechoslovakia bombed Egypt on their way

to Israel.

Jerusalem's Jewish population fled during the war beginning offenses

Jordan, Israel Navy consists of four former Aliyah Bet ship that was seized by the

British and detained at the port of Haifa. These vessels have been modified by

naval repair facilities of the newly formed with the help of two private

shipbuilding and repair company. In October 1948, the hunter submarines

purchased from the United States. Five warships were handled by former

merchant seaman, ship crews former Aliyah Bet, the Israeli who served in the

Royal Navy during World War II, and foreign volunteers. Warships newly

refurbished and crewed served on patrol duties and inundated coastal areas

Egyptian coastal installations in and around the Gaza Strip all the way to Port

Said.

Arab Legion soldier standing in the ruins of the Hurva Synagogue, Old

CityThe heaviest fighting occurred in Jerusalem and in Jerusalem -. Tel Aviv road,

between Jordan's Arab Legion and the Israeli Army. As part of the relocation deal

with first in Egypt, Israel left the Latrun fortress overlooking the main highway to

Jerusalem, the Arab Legion immediately seized. The Arab League also ranked

Latrun Monastery. From this position, Jordan can not afford to cut off supplies to

the soldiers and Israeli civilians in Jerusalem. Although some supplies, mostly

weapons, airdropped into the city, the lack of food, water, fuel, and medicine is

acute. King Abdullah ordered Glubb Pasha, the commander of the Arab Legion, to

enter Jerusalem on 17 May, and heavy house-to-house fighting occurred between

19 and 28 May, with the Arab Legion eventually succeeded in pushing Israeli

forces from the Arab neighborhoods of Jerusalem and the Old City Jewish Quarter

. The Israeli army is seriously short of food, water and ammunition. Arab League

release 10,000 artillery and mortar shells a day. 1500 Jewish population Jewish

Quarter Old City were expelled, and several hundred arrested. Jews had to be

escorted out by the Jordanian army to protect them against the Palestinian Arab

mobs intended to massacre them. The Arab League also attacked Western

Jerusalem with sniper fire. Israeli attempt to take Latrun fortress unsuccessful.

Israeli army suffered about 586 victims, among them Mickey Marcus, the first

general Israeli, who was killed by friendly fire. Arab Legion had about 30 victims,

even among those who died Jordan is the commander of the fort. Israel's position

on Jerusalem only saved by the opening of what is known as the "Burma Road",

while the shortcuts built by the Israeli army supply convoy that allows Israel to

enter into Jerusalem. Some of the areas where roads are built has been cleared

of Jordanian snipers in May and the road was completed on June 14. Supply has

already started through before the road was completed, with the first convoy

through the night 1 to 2 June Jordan detect and try to traveling expenses, but is

not effective, because it can not be seen. However, Jordan Sharpshooters kill

some road workers, and on June 9 attack left eight Israelis dead. On 18 July, the

Harel Brigade elements took about 10 villages south of Latrun to enlarge and get

the Burma Road.

Iraqi troops failed in their attacks on Israeli settlements in the most

significant battles that took place in Mishmar HaEmek, and instead took

defensive positions around Jenin, Nablus, and Tulkarm, where they can put

pressure on the Israeli center. On May 25, the advance of Iraqi forces from

Tulkarm, which takes Geulim and reach Kfar Yona and Ein Vered in Tulkarm-

Netanya road. Then stop the advance brigade Alexandroni Iraq and retook

Geulim. On June 1, Carmeli and Golani Brigades captured Jenin from Iraqi forces.

They were forced by the Iraqi counterattack, and lost 34 dead and 100 injured.

On 21 May, the Syrian army was stopped at the kibbutz Degania Alef in

the north, where local militia reinforced by elements of the Carmeli Brigade stop

Syrian armored forces with Molotov cocktails, grenades and a single PIAT. A tank

disabled by Molotov cocktails and hand grenades still on kibbutz. Syrian forces

were driven from the remainder of the next day with the first use 4

Napoleonchik-Israeli artillery guns during mountain warfare.

Syrian R-35 light tank destroyed in Degania Alef on 22 May, the Arab armies

attacked kibbutz Ramat Rachel south of Jerusalem. After a fierce battle in which

31 Arabs and 13 Israelis were killed, defenders of Ramat Rachel withdrew, only

part retake the kibbutz the following day. Fighting continued until May 26, until

the entire kibbutz was recaptured. Radar Hill was taken from the Arab League,

and held until May 26, when Jordan retook in clashes that left 19 Israelis dead

and 2 Jordan. A total of 23 attempts by the Palmach Harel Brigade to capture

Radar Hill in the war failed.

On 23 May, the Brigade had captured Alexandroni Tantura, south of Haifa.

On the same day, Thomas C. Wasson, United States (U.S.) Consulate General in

Jerusalem and a member of the UN ceasefire Commission shot dead in West

Jerusalem. It is disputed whether Wasson was killed by Arabs or Israelis.

During the following days, the Arabs were able to make limited gains as

fierce Israeli resistance, and quickly driven their new holdings by Israeli

counterattacks, though the Arab Legion able to repel the Israeli attack on Latrun.

On June 2, Holy War Army commander Hasan Salama was killed in clashes with

Israeli soldiers in Ras al-Ein, north of Jaffa. Jordan launched two counter-attacks,

while taking Beit Susin before being forced back, and captured Gezer after a

fierce battle. On June 6, almost two brigades Arab Liberation Army and the

Lebanese army has taken Malkiya and Kadesh, while the Syrian army attacked

Mishmar HaYarden, but were repulsed. At the Battle Nitzanim, Egyptian soldiers

attacked the kibbutz Nitzanim on the same day, and the Israeli defenders

surrendered after a five-day fight. On 10 June, the Syrian Mecca Mishmar

HaYarden and advanced to the main road, where they were stopped by Oded

Brigade units57

First Armistice: 11th June, - July 8, 1948

Palestinian UN official mediator, Count Folke Bernadotte, was killed in September

1948 by the UN LehiThe militant group declared a ceasefire on 29 May, which

57 “Timeline (Chronology) of Israel War of Independence – 1948 Arab-Israeli War". Zionism-israel.com. Retrieved 2010 June 26. http://www.zionism-israel.com/his/Israel_war_independence_1948_timeline.htm.

came into effect on June 11 and runs for 28 days. The ceasefire was overseen by

UN mediator Folke Bernadotte and UN observer team consisting of army officers

from Belgium, United States, Sweden and France. Bernadotte was elected by the

General Assembly to "ensure the safety of the holy places, to protect the well-

being of the population, and to promote the" peaceful adjustment of the future

situation of Palestine ". Ceasefire was designed to last for 28 days and an arms

embargo was declared with the intention that side would not make any profit

from the cease-fire. Side does not respect the ceasefire; both found ways around

the restrictions placed on them. Both Israel and the Arabs used this time to

improve their position, a direct violation of the ceasefire terms .. "The Arabs

violated the ceasefire to strengthen their lines with fresh units and prevent

supplies from reaching isolated Israeli settlements; sometimes, they open fire

along the line".

At the time of the ceasefire, the British view is that "Jews are too weak in

armament to achieve spectacular success". As the truce commenced, a British

officer stationed in Haifa stated that the four-week truce "would certainly be

exploited by the Jews to continue military training and reorganization while the

Arabs would waste them] feuding over the spoils of the future" . During the

ceasefire, Israel has tried to enhance them with weapons of mass import IDF was

able to buy weapons from Czechoslovakia and improve team training and

reorganization of the army at this time. Yitzhak Rabin, IDF commander in the war

and later Israel's fifth Prime Minister, stated without arms from Czechoslovakia ...

it is very doubtful whether we will be able to conduct war. "Israeli forces

increased workforce of about 30.000 to 35.000 men to almost 65,000 during the

truce. It also can increase the supply of arms to more than 25,000 rifles, 5,000

machine guns, and fifty million bullets and violating arms embargo and the staff,

they also sent fresh units to the front lines as Arabs.

During the cease-fire, the Irgun tried to bring in private arms shipments outside

the ship called "Altalena". When they refused to hand over weapons to the

government of Israel, Ben-Gurion ordered that the ship would sink. Several Irgun

members were killed in the fighting.

After the cease-fire in place, Bernadotte began to address the issue of

achieving a political solution. The main obstacle in his opinion is "continuing

refusal of the Arab world that existed in the Jewish state, what its borders; Israeli

new 'philosophy', based on the strength of a growing army, ignoring the partition

boundaries and conquering what additional territory it could and the Palestinian

refugee problem emerging Arab ". Taking all these issues into account,

Bernadotte presented a new partition plan. He suggested that there be an Arab

Palestinian state alongside Israel and that "the Union" "be established between

the two sovereign states of Israel and Jordan (which now includes the West Bank)

that the Negev, or part thereof, included in the Arab countries and that Western

Galilee, or part thereof, will be included in Israel, that the whole of Jerusalem be

part of the Arab states, with the Jewish areas enjoying municipal autonomy and

free Lydda Airport and Haifa 'ports' considered free-Israeli or Arab sovereignty ".

Israel rejected the proposal, particularly in terms of loss of control of Jerusalem,

but they did not agree to extend the truce for another month. Arabs rejected

both extend the truce and the proposal.

On July 8, the day before the expiration of the ceasefire, the Egyptian

army under General Muhammad Naguib renewed the war by attacking Negba.

[125] The next day, the Israeli army launched a simultaneous attack on all three

fronts. The fight continued for ten days until the UN Security Council ceasefire

Second issue on July 18. In the battle, Israel was able to open a lifeline to some

besieged kibbutzim. 58

Second phase: 8-18 July 1948

An Egyptian artillery battalion captured by Givati Brigade 53

Israeli soldiers in battle LOD (Lydda) or Ramle. It is being followed and is

dominated by large-scale Israeli offense and defense posture from the Arab side.

Operation Danny was the most important Israeli offensive, which aims to

guarantee and extend the corridor between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv by capturing

the roadside cities LOD (Lydda) and Ramle.

In the second stage planned operations, strong defensive position overlooking

the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem highway and also captured the city of Ramallah. Hadita,

near Latrun, was captured by Israel at a cost of 9 dead.

The second plan was Operation Dekel, which aims to capture the lower

Galilee including Nazareth. The third plan, the less resources were allocated,

Operation Kedem, was to secure the Old City of Jerusalem, but failed. In the

north, Operation Brosh was launched in a failed effort to oust Syrian troops from

the Eastern Galilee and the Benot Yaakov Bridge. During this operation, 200

Syrians and 100 Israelis were killed. Israeli Air Force also bombed Damascus for

the first time.

58 Morris, Benny (1988), The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949, Cambridge: Cambridge Middle East Library.

In the south, the IDF carried out several offensives, including Operation

An-Far and Operation Death to the invaders. On 12 July, the Egyptians launched

an offensive action, and once again attacked Negba, they have failed to capture,

using three infantry battalions, an armored battalion, and artillery regiments. In

the war that followed, the people of Egypt were repulsed, suffering 200-300

victims, while Israel lost 5 dead and 16 injured. After failing to take Negba, the

Egyptians turned their attention to placement and more isolated position. On 14

July, the Egyptian attack on Gal On mine and driven by 1 population by

resistance from Gal at that. The Egyptians then attacked villages defended

Be'erot Yitzhak light. Egyptians managed to penetrate permimeter village, but

the defenders concentrated in the internal position in the village and fought

advances IDF Egypt until reinforcements arrived and drove the attackers. The

Egyptians suffered about 200 victims, while Israel had 17 dead and 15 injured.

The war is one of the last actions abusive Egypt during the war, and the people

of Egypt did not attack any Israeli village due to this war..

Danny Operations

Israeli armored vehicles in Lydda airport after the capture of the city by the

Israeli army. Arab forces surrender to the victorious Israelis in Operation Danny

RamlaThe objective to capture territory east of Tel Aviv and then to push inland

and relieve the Jewish population and forces in Jerusalem. Lydda had become an

important military center in the region, lending support to Arab military activities

elsewhere, and Ramle was one of the main obstacles blocking Jewish

transportation. Lydda was defended by a local militia of about 1,000 people, with

the Arab Legion contingent of 125-300. IDF forces gather to attack the city

numbered around 8000. It was the first operation where several brigades

involved. This city was attacked from the north via Majdal al-Sadiq and al-

Muzayri'a, and from the east via Khulda, al-Qubab, Jimzu and Daniyal. Bombers

also used for the first time in the conflict to bombard the city. IDF captured the

city on 11 July. Increased to 9-10 450 Arabs and Israeli soldiers were killed. The

next day, falling Ramle Lydda and Ramle civilians fled or were driven to the

forefront of Arabic, and the resistance in Lydda, the population there dismissed

without provision of transport vehicles;. Some evictees died on the long journey

under the hot July sun.

On July 15 to 16, the attack on Latrun happen but not managed to occupy

the fort. A desperate second attempt occurred on 18 July by units of Yiftach

Brigade equipped with armored vehicles, including two Cromwell tanks, but the

attack also failed. Despite the second truce, which began on 18 July, the Israeli

efforts to conquer Latrun continued until July 20.

Operation Dekel

During Danny walked in the middle, Operation Dekel was carried out in the

north. Nazareth was captured on July 16, and by the time the second truce came

into effect on July 18, 19:00, lower Galilee from Haifa Bay around the Sea of

Galilee was conquered by Israel.

Operation Kedem

Originally Operation Kedem was started on July 8, shortly after the first truce, by

Irgun and Lehi forces. However, it was delayed by David Shaltiel, possibly

because he did not trust their ability after their failure to capture Deir Yassin

without Haganah assistance.

Irgun forces commanded by Yehuda Lapidot to break through at the New

Gate, Lehi was to break down the wall that extends from New Gate to the Jaffa

Gate, and Beit Horon Battalion was to strike from Mount Zion.

Battle was planned to start on the Sabbath, at 20:00 on July 16, two days before

the second ceasefire of the war. The plan was one of the early and delayed first

until 23:00 and then to midnight. It was not until 02:30 that the battle actually

began. The Irgun managed to break through at the New Gate, but other forces

failed in their mission. At 5:45 on July 17, Shaltiel ordered the retreat and to

cease hostilities.

On July 14, 1948, Irgun occupied the Arab village of Malha after a fierce

battle. A few hours later, the Arabs launched a counterattack, but Israeli aid

arrives, and the village was taken back at the cost of 17 dead.

Second ceasefire: July 18 - October 15, 1948

At 19:00 on July 18, the second conflict ceasefire went into effect after intense

diplomatic efforts by the United Nations. On September 16, Count Folke

Bernadotte proposed a new partition for Palestine in the Negev will be divided

between Jordan and Egypt, and Jordan would annex Lydda and Ramla. There will

be a Jewish state in the whole of Galilee, with the border running from northeast

Faluja towards Ramla and Lydda. Jerusalem would be internationalized, with

municipal autonomy for the Jewish and Arab residents of the city, Haifa Port will

become a free port, and Lydda Airport will be complimentary airport. All

Palestinian refugees be given the right to return, and those who choose not to

return will be compensated for lost property. UN will control and regulate Jewish

immigration. The plan was once again rejected by both sides. The following day,

17 September, Bernadotte was assassinated in Jerusalem by the militant Zionist

group Lehi. A team of four Horde ambushed Bernadotte in Jerusalem, killing him

and a French UN observer who sat next to him. Lehi see Bernadotte as British

puppets and Arabic, and thus a serious threat to the emerging State of Israel,

while Israel's fear that the government will accept the plan, which was

considered a disaster. Unbeknowest Lehi, the government has decided to reject

and continue the battle in a month. Bernadotte's deputy, American Ralph

Bunche, replaced him.59

Shoter operations

Arabs had blocked traffic along the highway Tel Aviv-Haifa Israel. Attack on 18

June and 8 July failed because of poor planning and stiff resistance by Arab

militia in a better position.

Shoter operation was launched a week after the ceasefire came into force on the

area known as the "Little Triangle" south of Haifa, with the aim of taking the final

Arab pocket Tel Aviv-Haifa road. Arabs were blocking the road to traffic along the

highway Israel, and did not plan the attack on 18 June and 8 July failed to

unearth the Arab militia from a higher position. The operation was launched on

July 24, in response to the killing of two Israeli civilians. Israeli attacks on July 24

and 25 have been beaten back by fierce resistance. Israel then broke the Saudi

defense with infantry and armor assault backed by heavy artillery and aerial

bombing attack. The three Arab villages surrendered, and Israeli soldiers and

aircraft struck at one of the Arab retreat routes, killing 60 Arab armies. Arabs

claim that Israeli Arabs have killed civilians, but Israel rejected the claim. United

Nations investigation found no evidence of genocide. Following the operation,

the Tel Aviv-Haifa road opened to traffic Israeli soldiers and civilians, and Arab

roadblocks along the route has been eliminated. Train traffic along the coast of

Haifa-Hadera also restored. 60

Phase three: October 15, 1948 - March 10, 1949

Israeli operations

59 Ibid60 Ibid

Israel launched a series of military operations to oust the Arab armies and secure

the borders of Israel.

October Battle

On 15 October, the IDF launched Operation Yoav in the northern Negev. The goal

is to drive a wedge between the Egyptian forces along the coast and the road

Beersheba-Hebron-Jerusalem and ultimately to conquer the whole Negev. This is

a special concern on the part of Israel for the British diplomatic campaign

throughout the Negev handed over to Egypt and Jordan, and thus made Ben-

Gurion anxious to have the Israeli army in the Negev control as soon as possible.

Yoav headed by South Front commander Yigal Allon. Committed to Yoav were

three infantry and one armored brigade, which was given the task of breaking

through the Egyptian lines. Egyptian position severely weakened by the lack of

defense in depth, which means that once the IDF had broken through the

Egyptian lines, there is little to stop them. The operation was a huge success,

breaking the line of Egypt and the Egyptian military force from northern Negev,

Beersheba and Ashdod. In the so-called "Faluja Pocket", which surrounded the

Egyptian force can survive for four months until the 1949 Armistice Agreement,

when the village is peaceful and the army moved to Israel left Egypt. Four Navy

warships to bombard Israel to support the installation of the Egyptian coast in

Ashkelon, and prevent Egyptian Navy Egyptian army retreated from the transfer

by sea. On 19 October, the naval battle between the three Israeli warships near

Majdal, and Egyptian corvette with air support. Israeli sailors were killed and 4

wounded, and two ships were damaged. An Egyptian aircraft were shot down,

but the Corvette ran away. Israeli naval vessels also bombed Majdal on October

17, and the Gaza Strip on October 21, with air support from the Israeli Air Force.

On the same day, the IDF captured Beersheba, and taking 120 Egyptian soldiers

prisoner. On 22 October, Israeli naval commandos using explosive boats sank the

Egyptian flagship Emir Farouk, and destructive Egyptian minesweeper.

An Israeli mortar team outside Safsaf in October 1948On October 22, 3

ceasefire went into effect. Irregular Arab forces refuse to recognize the truce,

and continue to interfere with the Israeli army and settlements in the north. On

the same day that a ceasefire came into power, the Arab Liberation Army

violated the ceasefire by attacking Manara, capturing the strongpoint Sheikh

Abed, repulsing counterattacks by local Israeli units, and ambushed Israeli forces

attempting to relieve Manara. IDF Carmeli Brigade lost 33 dead and 40 injured.

Manara and Misgav Am completely severed, and Israeli objections in the United

Nations failed to change the situation.

On 24 October, the IDF launched Operation Hiram and captured the entire

upper Galilee, driving the ALA and the Lebanese army back to Lebanon, and

successfully ambushing and destroying whole battalions of Syria. Israeli force of

four infantry brigades were commanded by Moshe Carmel. The entire operation

for only 60 hours, where many villages are caught, often after locals or Arab

forces put make resistance. Arab losses were estimated at 400 dead and 550

taken prisoner, with low Israeli victims. Some prisoners were reportedly executed

by the Israeli army. An estimated 50,000 Palestinian refugees fled to Lebanon,

most of them fled before the advancing forces, and some expelled from villages

that were opposed, while the Arab population of those who remained peaceful

village be allowed to stay and become citizens of Israel. Iqrit and Birim villagers

were persuaded to leave their homes by the Israeli authorities, who promised

them that they would be allowed to return. Israel finally decided to not allow

them to return, and offering them financial compensation, which they refused to

accept. At the end of the month, the IDF has arrested around Galilee, driven all

Lebanese troops out of Israel, and had advanced 5 miles (8.0 km) into Lebanon

to the Litani River, occupying 13 Lebanese villages. In the village of Hula, two

Israeli officers killed between 35 and 58 prisoners in retaliation for the massacre

of Haifa Oil Refinery. Both officers were later tried for their actions.

Israeli troops occupying trenches Huleiqat left Egypt, October 1948

IDF troops during Operation Yoav Beersheba. On November 9, 1948, the IDF

launched Operation Shmone to capture the Tegart fort in the Iraqi village

Suwaydan. Egyptian defenders before this fortress repulsed eight attempts to

take it, including two during Operation Yoav. Israeli army bombarded the fort

before an assault. After violate isolated gate unchallenged, Israel blew a hole in

the outer wall fortifications, which led the Egyptian army which operates 180 fort

surrender without a fight. The defeat leaves the Egyptians to evacuate several

nearby positions, including hills the IDF had failed to take by force. Meanwhile,

IDF forces met with stiff resistance in Iraq Suwaydan itself, losing 6 dead and 14

wounded.

From 5 to 7 December, the IDF run BD Operations to take control of the

Western Negev. The main attacks were led by the power of the machine, while

the Golani Brigade infantry covered the rear. A counterattack in Egypt was

repulsed. Egyptians planned another counterattack, but it failed after Israeli

aerial reconnaissance revealed Egyptian preparations and Israel launched a

preemptive strike. About 100 Egyptians were killed, and 5 tanks were destroyed,

with Israel losing 5 killed and 30 wounded.

On 22 December, the IDF forces driving Israel out of Egypt balances with

Operation Horev (also called Operation Ayin). Operational goal is to get the

whole Negev from Egyptian presence, destroying the Egyptian threat on Israel's

southern communities and forcing the Egyptians into a ceasefire. Within five

days of fighting, Israel expel the Egyptians from the Negev.

Israeli army staged a raid Nitzana area, and entered the Sinai Peninsula on

December 28. IDF captured Umm and Abu Ageila Katef, and move north towards

Al Arish, with the goal of surrounding the entire Egyptian expedition team. Israeli

troops pulled out of the Sinai on January 2, 1949 following a joint British-

American pressure and the threat of British military action. IDF troops were back

at the border with the Gaza Strip. Rafah, Israeli forces raided the next day, and

after several days of fighting, the Egyptian army in the Gaza Strip has been

surrounded. Egyptians agreed to negotiate a cease-fire on January 7, and then

pulled the IDF out of Gaza.

On December 28, Brigade Alexandroni failed to take Falluja Pocket, but

managed to grab Iraq el-Manshiyeh and temporary hold. Egyptians

counterattacked, but were mistaken for a friendly energy and is allowed to

develop, trapping a large number of men. Israel lost 87 soldiers.

On March 5, Uvda operation launched after almost a month of

reconnaissance, with the goal of mastering the Negev south of Jordan. IDF in and

acquire territory, but did not meet significant resistance along the way, because

the area has been designated to be part of the Jewish state in the UN Partition

Plan, and operations designed to establish Israel's sovereignty over the territory

rather than actually conquer. Golani, the Negev, and Alexandroni brigade took

part in the operation, along with a number of smaller units and naval support. On

March 10, Israeli forces reached Umm Rashrash Red Sea (where Eilat was built

later) and take without fighting. Israeli soldiers lift handmade Israeli flag ("Ink

Flag") at 16:00 hours on March 10, claiming Rashrash Umm for Israel. Flag-

raising Ink regarded as the end of the war.

Air Battles of the Anglo-Israel

Remains of the Royal Air Force pilots were killed in a clash with Israeli Air

ForceAs advanced fighting and Israel mounted an attack to Sinai, the Royal Air

Force began conducting almost daily reconnaissance missions over Israel and

Sinai. RAF reconnaissance plane took off from airbases Egypt and sometimes

flew with the Royal Egyptian Air Force aircraft. British high-flying aircraft often fly

over Haifa and Ramat David Airbase, and became known to Israel as

"shuftykeit." 61

On November 20, 1948, 1 unarmed RAF photo-reconnaissance De

Havilland Mosquito No. 13 Squadron RAF was shot down by 1 Israeli Air Force P-

51 Mustang flown by American volunteer Wayne Peake as it flew over the Galilee

to the Hatzor Airbase. Peake opened fire with artillery, causing a fire to break the

port engine. The aircraft turned to the sea and lowering the height, then

exploded and crashed off Ashdod. Both crew were killed.

Shortly before noon on January 7, 1949, four FR18s Spitfire from No. 208

Squadron RAF reconnaissance mission in Deir al-Balah area flew over Israeli

convoy that was attacked by five Egyptian Spitfires fifteen minutes earlier. The

pilots have spotted smoking vehicles, and have been prepared to the scene out

of curiosity. Two planes dive below 500 feet elevation to take pictures convoy,

while the other two covered them from 1,500 feet. Israeli troops on the ground,

informed by sound Spitfires approaching and fear another Egyptian air attack,

opened fire with machine guns. One Spitfire was shot down by a tank mounted

machine guns, while others were damaged lightly and quickly pulled over. The

remaining three Spitfires were attacked by patrolling IAF Spitfires flown by Slick

Goodlin and John McElroy, volunteers from the United States and Canada

respectively. The three Spitfires were shot down, and one pilot was killed. Two

pilots were captured by Israeli forces and taken to Tel Aviv for interrogation, and

then released. Others were rescued by Bedouins and handed over to the

Egyptian military, which makes him the RAF. On the same day, four RAF Spitfires

from the same squadron escorted by seven No.. 8 No. 213 Squadron RAF 6

Squadron RAF Hawker storm went looking for the missing aircraft, and was

attacked by four IAF Spitfires. The establishment of Israel was led by Ezer

Weizman. The remaining three were conducted by Weizman wingman Alex

Jacobs and American volunteers Bill Schroeder and Caesar Dangott. Storm finds

they can not Jettison external fuel tanks, and some have non-operational guns.

Schroeder shot down British Tempest, killing pilot David Tattersfield. Weizmann

61 "Iaf V Raf". Spyflight.co.uk. Retrieved 2010 June 26. http://www.spyflight.co.uk/iafvraf.htm.

severely damaged a British plane flown by Douglas Liquorish, but the plane itself

was lightly damaged by RAF pilot Brian Spragg. Two other British aircraft were

lightly damaged during the engagement. Battle ended after the British wiggled

their wings to be more clearly identified, and Israel finally realized the danger of

their situation and released, returning to Hatzor Airbase.

A salvage team was deployed to RAF demanded that the plane wreck was

shot down, entering Israeli territory during their search. Two found in Egypt, and

later confirmed by local Arabs that Israeli forces had visited the crash site,

remove various parts of wrecks, and buried the other aircraft. Tempest

tattersfield found in northern Nirim, four miles in Israel. Tattersfield was initially

buried near the wreckage, but his body was later removed and reburied at the

British War Cemetery in Ramla.

In response, the RAF provided all the storms and the Spitfires attack any

IAF aircraft they faced and bomb IAF airport. All British troops in the Middle East

were put on alert, all leave has been canceled for the British army, and British

citizens have been advised to leave Israel. In Hatzor Airbase, general consensus

among pilots, most of whom have flown by or co-RAF during World War II, is that

the RAF would not allow the loss of five aircraft and two pilots went without

reprisal, and will probably attack the base at dawn the next day. That night, in

anticipation of the impending British attack, some pilots decided not to offer any

resistance and left the base, while the number of available pilots and Spitfires

that they were tied to a chair in the morning, ready to repel air attack response.

However, British commanders refused to authorize any retaliation. Days

following the event, the British pilot had issued a directive to assume that any

Israeli aircraft infiltrated Egyptian or Jordanian airspace as enemy and shoot

them, but also were instructed to avoid activities near the border with Israel.

British diplomacy in support of the Arabs of the disputed neutrality of this

section. Please see the discussion on the talk page. Please do not remove this

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Britain, which at that time was one of the major powers in the Middle East,

supporting the Arabs. The reasons for this have been carried out in the British

staff memo stating "No proposed solution to the Palestinian problem will be.

Alienate Arab nations If one of the two communities had to be antagonized, it is

better, in terms of sheer military, that the solution must be found that does not

involve ongoing hostility of the Arabs; event our difficulties will not be confined

to Palestine, but will extend throughout the entire Middle East diplomat Sir John

Toutbeck wrote:

"We (and the Arabs) is a partner in trouble on this question. Jewish state is no

more for our benefit than the Arabs .... Our whole strategy in ME founded when

holding the base securely in Egypt, but the basic utility must gravely affected if

we can not move out except through a hostile country ".62

Moreover, it is an article of faith most British policymakers that most

Jewish Communists, and that Israel would be bound to become a Communist

country, giving the Soviet Union-held foot in the Middle East. For these reasons,

the British in the months before May 1948 have been doing their best to

encumber and block partitioning. Trygve Lie wrote in his memoirs with some

anger:

"Great Britain has been put before the Assembly the Palestinians declare

with confidence that the agreement between Arabs and Jews is not achievable.

This does not prevent the British representative, (Colonial Secretary) Arthur

Creech Jones, from informing the House that Britain will have an impact only on

the plan received by Arabs and Jews .... The British approach proved to be

appropriate, in my opinion with the letter or spirit of either the distribution plan

".63

United Kingdom could not progressively turn over power to the Palestinian

Commission as Assembly resolution provided, but only abruptly and completely

on May 15. Neither did "assume good any recommendations by the Commission

to proceed to Palestine earlier than two weeks before the date of termination of

the Mandate". London will not allow the establishment of the militia called the

Assembly resolution, it will facilitate the delineation of the border. Another

Assembly has recommended that the United Kingdom strives to move by

February 1 port and the hinterland in the Jewish state adequate to provide for

immigration ".

General Sir Alan Cunningham wrote to Creech Jones at this time to

complain "It seems to me that HMG policy now just to get the Palestinians as

soon as possible without regard to consequences in Palestine". In February 1948,

the British Foreign Secretary, Ernest Bevin assured the Prime Minister of Jordan

Tawfiz Abu al-Huda British support for the invasion of Jordan as soon as the

62 Karsh, op.cit, p7363 Ibid

British left Palestine. British officials consider the prospects for the Arab invasion

well as offering the best opportunity to cancel the UN partition resolution and cut

Israel "to size". Bernard Burrows Department of Middle East British Foreign Office

wrote:

"It is tempting to think that Jordan probably overstepped the boundaries of

the Jewish state of the United Nations (UN) as creating a corridor across the

Southern Negev joining the existing territory of Jordan to the Mediterranean and

Gaza. This will have a huge strategic advantage for us, both of two in cutting the

Jewish State, and therefore Communist influence, off from the Red Sea and the

Mediterranean area where the expanding military and political influence is

dominant to provide a way to send and other military equipment needed to

Jordan through routes other than self rotate through Aqaba".64

On May 20, Bevin informed Baron Inverchapel, British Ambassador to the United

States:

"I do not (repeat not) intend in the near future to recognize the Jewish state and

still less to support any proposal that it should become a member of the United

Nations (UN). In this regard, I hope that even through the U.S. has recognized de

facto Jewish state they will not own any right recognized borders. It is possible

that if the two sides ever accept a compromise it will be different from the base

boundary proposed in the General Assembly Partition Plan ".65

In this case, the British have launched a diplomatic offensive that

continued to the United Nations (UN) recognizes all areas taken by the Arabs as

their own Arab countries, especially Jordan and to reduce Israel's borders

became more or less the Peel Plan 1937 was advised. In the early days of the

war, the British delegation at the UN blocked all efforts cease-fire (which is

perceived to hurt the Arabs, who won the war at this point more than Israel) and

because of fears that Article 39 of Chapter 7 of the UN Covenant might involve

sanctions against Arab countries. The change in the British position ceasefire in

the spring of 1948 when Arab armies that have large chunks of Palestine with

Egypt that holds a lot of the Negev and Jordan hold a large section of central

Palestine. Sir Ronald Ian Campbell, the British Ambassador to Egypt was

instructed by Bevin to tell the Egyptian government after the first ceasefire:

"It may be assumed that the ceasefire will be used by Jews to establish an

effective administration not only in parts of their November State which are

64 Ibid, p7665 Ibid

behind military lines, but also in the Arab territories they have occupied, such as

Central and Northern Galilee . If the Arabs are to be in a show on the same

terms, it is important that they need to establish some real authority in the areas

behind the lines occupied by their forces. This is especially important in the area

for frontline south of Egypt. most of this area has been awarded to Jews in

November, and the Jewish settlements there are still holding and may maintain

relationships with Tel Aviv. We shall have great difficulty in supporting the Arab

claim to retain this part of Palestinians unless it can show that it is in fact and not

in name only under Arab administration during the cease-fire .... "66

Finally as part of a diplomatic effort to support the Arab war effort, British

support arms embargo perceived to favor the Arabs more than the Israelis.

British reasoning behind the arms embargo is that it has been a long time it is in

place, the United States would be prevented from supplying arms to Israel, and if

the restriction has been lifted and the United States can provide far greater

numbers of weapons to Israel from Britain could supply arms to Arabs.

UN Resolution 1941. In December 1948, the General Assembly of the

United Nations passed Resolution 194 which declared (amongst other things)

that in the context of a general peace agreement "refugees wishing to return to

their homes and live in peace with their neighbors should be permitted to do so

"and that" compensation should be paid for the property of those choosing not to

return. "resolution also mandated the creation of the peace Commission of the

United Nations. However, the resolution was never implemented, resulting in the

Palestinian refugee crisis.

Most of the weapons remains of World War II era weapons were used by

both sides. Egypt had some British equipment; Syrian army has some French.

German, Czechoslovak and British equipment was used by the Israelis. 67

Arab Israeli War of 1948 impact

After the 1949 Armistice Agreement

In 1949, Israel signed separate armistices with Egypt on February 24, Lebanon

on March 23, Jordan on 3 April, and Syria on July 20. Armistice Demarcation

Lines, as set by the agreement, look at the area under Israeli control covering

about three-quarters of Mandate Palestine. This is about one-third more than

66 Ibid, p7967 Weapons of the Arab-Israeli Wars. Retrieved 2012 May 16. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Arab

%E2%80%93Israeli_War

that allocated to the Jewish state under the partition proposals of the United

Nations (UN). Armistice lines were known afterwards as the "Green Line". Gaza

Strip and West Bank occupied by Egypt and Jordan respectively. Supervision

truce United Nations Organization and Mixed Armistice Commission was set up

to monitor ceasefires, supervise armistice agreements, to prevent isolated

incidents from rising, and helped the UN peacekeeping operations in the region.

Israel lost 6373 people, about 1% of the population of the country, in war. About

4,000 soldiers and the rest were civilians. The actual number of Arab losses is

unknown, but estimated to be between 8,000 and 15,000.

Demographics: Migration Palestine 1948 Palestinian migration Reason, 1948, and

the migration of Jews from Arab Lands

Jewish exodus from Arab Countries 1947-1972

Jewish exodus from Arab Countries and Islam

Arab-Israeli war in 1948

Operation Magic Carpet (Yemen)

Operation Ezra and Nehemiah

Jakin Operations

Removal of Egyptian Jews in 1956

Immigrants camps Maabarot

During the 1947-1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine and the 1948 Arab-Israeli

War that followed, around 750,000 Palestinian Arabs who fled or were expelled

from their homes, from about 1.2 million Palestinians living in the former

Palestinian Mandate. In 1951, the UN Commission for Palestinian reconciliation

estimates that the number of Palestinian refugees displaced from Israel was

711,000. This number does not include displaced Palestinians inside Israeli-held

territory. More than 400 Arab villages, and about ten villages and neighborhoods

Jews deported during the Arab-Israeli conflict. According to estimates based on

an earlier census, the total population is 1,143,336 moslim in Palestine in 1947.

1948 exodus Palestinian cause is a topic of controversy among historians.

Displaced Palestinian Arabs, known as the Palestinian refugees, have

settled in Palestinian refugee camps throughout the Arab world. United Nations

(UN) established the UNRWA relief and human development agency tasked with

providing humanitarian aid to Palestinian refugees. Arab countries refused to

absorb the Palestinian refugees, rather than keeping them in refugee camps

insisting that they be allowed to return. Refugee status are also passed on to

their offspring, which also largely denied citizenship in Arab countries.

Descendants of refugees were denied citizenship in the countries hosting them.

Arab League instructed its members to deny Palestinians citizenship "to avoid

dissolution of their identity and protect their right to return to their homeland."

More than 1.4 million Palestinians still live in 58 recognized refugee camps.

Palestinian refugee problem and the right of return is also debate about

the key issues of the Arab-Israeli conflict. Arab Palestinians and their supporters

have held annual demonstrations and commemorations that on 15 May each

year, known as the "Nakba Day". The popularity and number of participants in

the annual al Nakba demonstrations has varied from time to time. During the

Second Intifada after the failure of the Camp David summit in 2000, attendance

at demonstrations against Israel increased.

During the War of 1948, about 10,000 Jews were forced to flee their

homes in Palestine or Israel, but in the three years after the war, 700,000 Jews

lived in Israel, especially along the borders and in former Arab lands. Around 136

000 comes from 250,000 Jewish refugees of World War II. About 270,000 other

Jews came from Eastern Europe. Another 300,000 arrived from the Arab world

and Islam as part of Jewish exodus from Arab countries and Muslims. Most

immigrants were forcibly removed by their respective governments, while others

left voluntarily, either to escape antisemitic violence and genocide and

persecution by the government brought by war or by political instability, or left

to settle in Israel conviction Zionist or find a better one economically and get

home in the West. They formed the first wave of 800,000-1,000,000 Jewish

people during the next thirty years will flee or were expelled from the Arab world

Approximately 680,000 of them migrated to Israel, others mostly live in Europe

(particularly France) or the United .

Israel initially depends on the tent camp run by the Jewish Agency called

immigrant camps to accommodate Jewish refugees from Europe and Islamic

countries. In the 1950s, it was transformed into a transition camp, where living

conditions have improved and the tents were replaced with tin dwellings. In

contrast to the situation in the camps of immigrants, when the Jewish Agency

provided to immigrants, the population shift camps needed to provide for

themselves. The camps began to decline in 1952, with a final closing in 1963.

Largely camps change permanent settlements known as urban development,

while others are absorbed as neighborhood cities they serve, and the people

given permanent housing in these cities and neighborhoods. Most of the cities

eventually evolved into the development of the city. Some Jewish immigrants

were also given an empty house Palestinian refugees. There are also trying to

solve the Jewish refugees from Arab countries and Muslims in moshavim

(cooperative farming villages), though these efforts are not only a success,

because they have history artisans and merchants in their home countries, and

traditionally involves in farm work.

Conclusion

After the war, the Israeli and Palestinian historiographies different interpretation

of the events of 1948: the majority view in the West is a small group of Jews who

were far outnumbered and ill-equipped fighting force assembled Arab armies

that attacked it also is widely believed that the Arabs of Palestine to leave the

house them on the orders of their leaders. From 1980, with the opening of the

Israeli and British archives, some Israeli historians have developed within

different accounts. In particular, the role played by Abdullah I of Jordan, the

British government, the Arab goal during the war, the balance of force and the

events related to the Palestinian issue has been nuanced or given new

interpretations. Some of them are still hot among historians and commentators

of the conflict today.

Bibliografi

Chaim Herzog, The Arab-Israeli wars. 1982.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780853683674

Charles Herbert Levermore; Denys Peter Myers (1921). Yearbook of the League

of Nations. The Brooklyn Daily Eagle. pp. 63–. Retrieved 3 May 2011.

http://books.google.com/books?id=MwOtAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA63.

"Charter of the United Nations: CHAPTER XI: DECLARATION REGARDING NON-

SELF-GOVERNING TERRITORIES".

http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter11.shtml. Retrieved 1

January 2012. "b. to develop self-government, to take due account of the

political aspirations of the peoples, and to assist them in the progressive

development of their free political institutions, according to the particular

circumstances of each territory and its peoples and their varying stages of

advancement;"

Gelber, Y. 2006. Palestine, 1948: war, escape and the emergence of the

Palestinian refugee problem. 2nd ed. Sussex Academic Press, p. 137-138.

"A war between Israel and the Arab States broke out immediately, and the

Arab armies invaded Palestine."

Morris, Benny (1988), The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949,

Cambridge: Cambridge Middle East Library.

Shlaim, Avi (2001). Israel and the Arab Coalition. In Eugene Rogan and Avi

Shlaim (eds.). The War for Palestine. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, (p. 79–103

Chapter 4

Arab-Israeli Conflict (II) - Suez War, 1956

Introduction

Suez Crisis, also referred to as the Tripartite Aggression or Suez War, it is the end

of the diplomatic and military confrontation in 1956 between Egypt on the one

hand, and Britain, France and Israel on the other, with the United States, the

Soviet Union and the United Nations (UN) plays a key role in forcing Britain,

France and Israel to withdraw.

Less than a day after Israel invaded Egypt, Britain and France issued an

ultimatum to Egypt and Israel together, and then began to bomb Cairo. Despite

the denial of the Israeli government, the British and French, evidence began to

appear that the attack on Egypt was planned in advance by the three powers.

The forces of the Anglo-French withdrawal before the end of the year, but Israeli

forces remained until March 1957, prolonging the crisis. In April, the canal is fully

reopened to shipping, but other consequences followed.

Attack followed the President of the results of the July 26, 1956 Egypt's Gamal

Abdel Nasser, nationalize the Suez Canal, after the withdrawal of one bid by

Britain and the United States to finance the construction of the Aswan High Dam,

which is in response to Egypt's new ties with the Soviet Union and recognizing

the People's Republic of China during the height of tensions between China and

Taiwan. The purpose is mainly to control the invasion of Western canal and to

remove Nasser from power.

Three allies, especially Israel, particularly successful in achieving their

military objectives immediately, but pressure from the United States and the

USSR in the United Nations (UN) and elsewhere forced them to withdraw. Due to

outside pressure Britain and France failed in their political objectives and

strategic control of the canal and removing Nasser from power. Israel to meet

certain objectives, such as achieving freedom of navigation through the Straits of

Tiran. By the conflict, UNEF Egypt-Israel border police to prevent both sides from

recommencing hostilities. Some sources assert that the crisis that began on July

26 with the nationalization of the canal, and that the military action by Britain,

France and Israel is their response to the crisis. 68

Background

Suez Canal opened in 1869, after ten years of work funded by the governments

of France and Egypt. The canal was operated by the Universal Company of Suez

Maritime Canal, an Egyptian-chartered company; canals surrounding areas

remained sovereign Egyptian territory and the only land bridge between Africa

and Asia.

Canal instantly became strategically important, it provides the shortest

sea link between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Canal trade relief for

trading nations and particularly helped European colonial powers to gain and

govern their colonies.

In 1875, as a result of debt and financial crisis, the Egyptian government has

been forced to sell shares in the canal operating company to the British

68 "Suez crisis" 2003. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press,.

Benjamin Disraeli. They are buyers ready and get 44% shares in the canal

operating for less than £ 4 million; retains majority shareholding mostly French

private investors. With the invasion of Egypt in 1882 and occupied the United

Kingdom took de facto control of the country and right channels, and financial

and operations. 1888 Convention of Constantinople declared the canal a neutral

zone under British protection. In ratifying it, the Ottoman Empire agreed to allow

independent international shipping pass through the canal, in times of war and

peace. Convention came into force in 1904, the same year as the entente

cordiale, between Britain and France.

Although this convention, the strategic importance of the Suez Canal and

control has been proven during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, after

Japan and Britain entered into a separate bilateral agreement. Following the

Japanese surprise attack on the Russian Pacific Fleet based at Port Arthur, Russia

has sent aid of their fleet in the Baltic Sea. The British denied the Russian fleet

use of the canal and forced to steam around the entire continent of Africa, giving

the Japanese time to strengthen their position in the Far East.

The importance of the canal as a strategic intersection again significantly during

the First World War, when Britain and France were shut down non-Allied shipping

canal. Attempts by the German-Ottoman army to storm the Canal in February

1915 caused the British to commit 100,000 troops for the defense of Egypt

during the First World War. Continue to strategically important canal after the

Second World War as a conduit for oil shipments. Petroleum business Daniel

Yergin writes the history: "In 1948, the canal abruptly lost traditional rationale ....

British control over the canal no longer be maintained on the ground that it is

important for the defense of either India or parts of the empire being and again,

right at the same time, the canal got a new role - as the highway not of empire,

but oil. By 1955, oil accounted for half of the canal traffic, and thus, two-thirds of

European oil through.

At that time, Western Europe imported two million barrels (bbls) per day from

the Middle East, 1.2 million by ship through the Canal, and another 800,000 via

pipeline from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean, where tankers received it.

U.S. import another 300,000 bbls. every day from the Middle East. Although the

pipeline connecting oil fields of Iraq and the Persian Gulf states to the

Mediterranean, this route tends to suffer from instability, which led British

leaders to choose to use the sea route through the Suez Canal. As it is, the rise

of super tankers to Middle East oil shipments to Europe, that is not too large to

use the Suez Canal meant that policy-makers of the mighty British overestimated

the importance of the canal. By 2000, only 8% of imported oil in Britain arrived

via the Suez canal to the other will come through the Cape route.

In August 1956, the Royal Institute of International Affairs published a

report entitled "Britain and the Suez Canal" revealing government perception of

the Suez area. It repeats several times the strategic needs of the Suez Canal the

United Kingdom, including the need to meet military obligations under the Manila

Pact in the Far East and the Baghdad Pact in Iraq, Iran, or Pakistan. The report

also shows how the canal was used in past wars and could be used in future wars

to transport troops from power up to Australia and New Zealand in the event of

war in Europe. 69

Events leading to the Suez Crisis

Postwar Years

After the Second World War, Britain had to reassess its role in the region in view

of the severe economic constraints and colonial history. The economic potential

of the Middle East, with large oil reserves, as well as the geo-strategic

importance of the Suez Canal against the background of the Cold War, prompted

Britain to consolidate and strengthen its position there. The governments of

Egypt and Iraq were seen as crucial to maintaining strong British influence in the

region.

Britain's military strength was spread throughout the region, including the

vast military complex at Suez with a garrison of about 80,000 people, making it

one of the largest military installation in the world. Suez base was considered the

first important part of Britain's strategic position in the Middle East; However,

increasingly it is becoming a growing source of tension in Anglo-Egyptian

relations, Egyptian politics after the war in the country has undergone a radical

change, in accordance with. no small part by economic instability, inflation, and

unemployment. Unrest began to manifest itself in the growth of radical political

groups, such as the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, and the increasingly hostile

attitude towards Britain and its presence in the country. This coupled with the

spirit of the anti-British role Britain has played in the creation of Israel. Thus, the

Egyptian government began to reflect population and the first anti-British policy

began to permeate Egypt's relations with Britain.

69 Donald Watt, "Britain and the Suez Canal", Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1956, p. 8.

In October 1951, the Egyptian government unilaterally cancel the Anglo-Egyptian

Treaty in 1936, given the conditions of the lease on the basis of Suez Britain for

20 years. Britain refused to withdraw from Suez, too dependent on the rights

agreement, and so the presence of the Suez garrison. Price action course is a

steady increase in the increasingly violent hostility towards Britain and British

troops in Egypt, where the Egyptian authorities did little to curb.

On January 25, 1952, British attempts to disarm a police force barracks in

Ismailia resulted in additional burden of death of the Egyptians 41. This in turn

led to anti-Western riots in Cairo cause heavy damage to property and the

deaths of several foreigners, including 11 British citizens. This proved to be a

catalyst to eliminate the Egyptian monarchy. On July 23, 1952 a military coup by

officers' movement led by Mohammed Percuma'-Neguib and future Egyptian

President Gamal Abdul Nasser-overthrew the King Farouk and established an

Egyptian republic.

Since the establishment of Israel in 1948, cargo shipments and from Israel

has been subjected to search the truth of Egypt, and seizure when trying to go

through the Suez Canal. On 1 September 1951, the United Nations Security

Council Resolution 95 of the United Nations called Egypt: "... to terminate the

restrictions on freight and international trade of goods through the Suez Canal, in

wherever bound, and to cease all interference with shipping The "This

interference and confiscation, contrary to the laws of the canal (Article 1 of the

1888 Suez Canal Convention), increased following the coup.

Post-revolution periodBritain desire to improve relations following the

Anglo-Egyptian coup saw her strive for rapprochement throughout 1953 and

1954. Part of this process is the agreement, in 1953, to end British rule in Sudan

in 1956 in response to demands for a powerful left Cairo on the Nile Valley

region. In October 1954, Britain and Egypt concluded an agreement on the

phased evacuation of British troops from the Suez base, the terms of which have

agreed to the withdrawal of all troops in 20 months, basic maintenance to

continue, and for Britain to hold the right to return for seven years. Suez Canal

Company was not due to return to the Egyptian government until 16 November

1968 under the terms of the agreement.

Although the establishment of any agreement with the British, Nasser's

position remained tenuous. Egypt's claim to Sudan's loss, coupled with the

continued presence of Britain at Suez for a further two years, led to domestic

unrest including an assassination attempt against him in October 1954. Weak

nature of Nasser's rule caused him to believe that his regime, nor Egypt's

independence would be safe until Egypt had established itself as a leader of the

Arab world. This will manifest itself challenging the British Middle Eastern

interests throughout 1955.

At the same time, the United States has been trying to lure Nasser into a

federation. The main problem for American policy in the Middle East is that the

region was seen as strategically important as oil, but due to the U.S. defense

commitment to Europe and the Far East the lack of sufficient troops to oppose

Soviet aggression in the Middle East. In 1952, General Omar Bradley's Joint

Chiefs of Staff declared in a planning session on what to do in case of a Soviet

invasion of the Near East: "If the staff will come from It will take a lot of stuff to

do there job?" Thus, the creation of an American diplomat in favor of the NATO

organization types in the Near East. to provide the necessary military force to

prevent the Soviets from invading the region.

The main dilemma for American policymakers is that the two dominant forces in

the Near East, Britain and France are also the ones that many local nationalists

objected to the most. From 1953 onwards, American diplomacy has tried

unsuccessfully to persuade the powers involved in the Near East, both local and

imperial aside their differences and unite against the Soviet Union. United took

the same view as fear of the Soviet Union has helped to end the Franco-German

hostility historic, so that anti-Communism too can end the Arab-Israeli conflict

more recent. It is a source of constant puzzle to U.S. officials in 1950 that the

Arab countries and Israel seems to have an interest in fighting each other

instead unite against the Soviet Union.

In May 1953, during a meeting with U.S. Secretary of State, John Foster

Dulles, who asked Egypt to join the anti-Soviet alliance, Nasser responded by

saying that the Soviet Union never occupied our territory .. but the British have

been here for over seventy years. How can I go to my people and tell them I

ignore killer with gun 60 yards from me in the Suez Canal to worry about a

person holding a knife a thousand miles away?

Dulles informed Nasser of his belief that the Soviet Union sought world conquest,

that the main danger came from the Near East to the Kremlin, and urged Nasser

to put aside his differences with Britain to focus on against the Soviet Union. In

this spirit, Dulles suggested that Nasser negotiated a deal that would see Egypt

take over sovereignty over the Canal Zone base, but then allowed the British to

have "technical control" in the same way that the Ford car company provided the

training to the dealer and Egypt .

Nasser did not share the fear Dulles, the Soviet Union took over the Middle

East, and quite vehemently insisted that he wanted to see the final total of all

British influence not only in Egypt, but all the Middle East. The CIA Offered $ 3

million bribe Nasser if he would join the proposed Middle East Defense

Organization; Nasser took the money, but then refused to participate. While

America is trying to set up in the form of federal Middle East still born Defence

Organisation to keep the Soviet Union out of the Near East, the Soviet Union

under Nikita Khrushchev's new leadership has made a major effort to win

influence "world 3" supposedly. As part of a diplomatic offensive, Khrushchev

had abandoned traditional line Moscow treating all communists not as an enemy

and adopting one new tactic of making friends with so-called "non-aligned"

countries, which are often led by a non-Communist leaders , but in a different

way is hostile to the West. Khrushchev realized that by treating the non-

communist as the same thing as an anti-communist, Moscow has wasted

alienated a lot of friends that may occur throughout the year in the third world.

Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai who met Nasser at the Bandung Summit 1955

impressed him, recommended that Khrushchev treat Nasser as potential allies.

Zhou described as a nationalist Nasser for younger Khrushchev, the Communist

although if used properly can not do much damage to Western interests in the

Middle East. Marshal Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, who also came to know in

Bandung Nasser told the meeting Khrushchev in 1955 that "Nasser was a young

man without much political experience, but if we give him the benefit of doubt,

we may be able to exert a beneficial influence on him, both because the

Communist movement, and the people of Egypt. " Traditionally, most of the

equipment in the Egyptian army had come from Britain, but Nasser's desire to

break the British influence in Egypt means that he is desperate to find new

sources to replace Britain's arms. Nasser has started broached the subject of

buying arms from the Soviet Union in 1954.

Not siding with either super-power, Nasser took the spoiler role and trying

to play off the super power for them to compete with each other in an attempt to

buy friendship. Option 1 Nasser to buy U.S. weapons, but frequent anti-Israel

speech and sponsorship for that was fedayeen raids into Israel has made it

difficult for the Eisenhower administration to get congressional approval to sell

arms to Egypt. American public opinion is so hostile towards selling arms to

Egypt that could be used against Israel. Nasser has let it be known in the year

1954-55 that he was considering to buy weapons from the Soviet Union as a

means of urging Americans to sell him weapons he wanted.

Hope Nasser Egypt faced with the prospect of buying Soviet weapons and

thus come under Soviet influence the Eisenhower administration would be forced

to sell Egypt weapons he wants. Khrushchev who desperately want to win the

influence of the Soviet Union in the Middle East, is more than ready to complete

Egypt if the U.S. proved unwilling.

Britain's close relationship with the two Hashemite kingdom of Iraq and

Jordan is special attention to Nasser. In particular, getting a good relationship

with Britain Iraq is a threat to the desire to see Egypt as head of the Arab world

Nasser. The creation of the Baghdad Pact in 1955 seemed to confirm Nasser's

fears that Britain was attempting to pull the Eastern Arab World into one block

centered on Iraq, and sympathetic to Britain. Nasser reaction 1 series of

challenges to British influence in the region that will culminate in the Suez Crisis.

British disappointment aimsThroughout 1955 and 1956 Nasser pursue

policies that will disappoint some British goals throughout the Middle East, and

results in a more pronounced hostility between Britain and Egypt. Nasser "...

played widespread suspicion that any Western defense pact merely veiled

colonialism and that Arab disunity and weakness-especially in the struggle with

Israel is a consequence of British machinations." He also began to align Egypt

with Saudi Arabia's ruling government is the hereditary enemy of the Hashemites

in an effort to thwart British efforts to draw Syria, Jordan and Lebanon into orbit

Baghdad Pact. Nasser frustrated British attempts to draw Jordan into the pact by

sponsoring demonstrations in Amman, leading King Hussein expel the British

commander of the Arab Legion Glubb Pasha in March 1956 and throwing Britain's

Middle Eastern security policy into chaos.

Nasser struck a further blow against Britain by negotiating an arms deal

with communist Czechoslovakia in September 1955 thereby ending Egypt's

reliance on Western arms. Later, other members of the Warsaw Pact also sold

arms to Egypt and Syria. In practice, all sales from the Eastern Bloc were

approved by the Soviet Union, in an effort to increase Soviet influence

throughout the Middle East. This causes tension in the United States because

Warsaw Pact nations now have a strong presence in the region.

Increasingly Nasser came to be seen within the British - and in particular

by Prime Minister Anthony Eden - as a dictator, like Benito Mussolini. Ironically,

the building crisis, it is the Labour leader Hugh Gaitskell and the left-wing

newspaper, the tabloid Mirror began to make the comparison between Nasser

and Mussolini. Anglo-Egyptian relations would continue on their downward spiral.

At the same time, French Premier Guy Mollet, who face a serious war in

Algeria, where the FLN rebels are supported by a growing Egyptian, have come

to view Nasser as a major threat. During his visit to London in March 1956, Mollet

to Eden that the country was faced with the threat of Islamic 1 very French soul

backed by the Soviet Union Mollet stated that. "All this is the work of Nasser, the

same as Hitler's policy was revealed in Mein Kampf. Nasser has an ambition to

create the Islamic conquest. But now his position is largely due to Western policy

in the building and demolish it." 70

In May 1956, a gathering of veterans of France, where Louis Mangin, who

was speaking at a Defence Minister is unable to attend meetings, give speeches

violent anti-Nasser, leader of Egypt compare to Hitler, and Nasser accused of

plotting to rule the entire East Middle and want additional Algeria, the "people

living in the community with the French".71 Mangin Nasser urged France to stand,

and as a strong friend of Israel, called for an alliance with the country against

Egypt.

Nationalization of the Suez Canal and the Road to Crisis

Nasser announced the nationalization of the canal (Universal newsreel, July 30,

1956). Britain was eager to tame Nasser and looked to the U.S. for support.

However, President Eisenhower strongly against the British-French military

action. Closest Arab ally of America, Saudi Arabia, is just as fundamental against

the Baghdad Pact Hashemite-dominated Egypt, and the United States is keen to

increase its own influence in the region. Failure of the Baghdad Pact assisted

goal by reducing Britain's dominance in the region. "Great Britain would like to

overthrow Nasser America, however uncomfortable with the" Czech arms deal ',

think smarter to please him. "72

The events that brought the crisis to a head occurred in the spring and

summer of 1956. On 16 May, Nasser officially recognized the People's Republic

of China, 1 move that angered the United States and the secretary of state, John

Foster Dulles, one keen sponsor of Taiwan. These measures, as well as the

notion that this project is beyond the capabilities of the Egyptian economy,

70 Kyle, Keith Suez, London: I.B Tauris , 2011 page 115.71 Ibid pages 116-117.72 Kissinger, p. 528

leading Eisenhower to withdraw all financial support for the Aswan Dam project

U.S. on July 19.

Eisenhower administration had taken the view that if Nasser was able to

get the Soviet economic support for the high dam, which would be beyond the

ability of the Soviet Union for support, and so will burden the Soviet-Egyptian

relations. Eisenhower wrote in March 1956 that "If Egypt finds itself isolated from

the Arab world, and with no allies in sight except Soviet Russia, he would quickly

get sick of prospects and will join us in finding a just and decent peace in the

region" . Dulles told his brother, CIA Director Allen Dulles, "If they [the Soviets]

do make an offer, we can make much use of propaganda in satellite blocks. You

do not get bread because you are being squeezed to build a dam." 73

Finally, the Eisenhower administration had been very angry at Nasser

plays the U.S. effort against the Soviet Union, and decided to call Nasser's bluff

by refusing to finance the Aswan high dam with the intention of teaching teach

Nasser. As early as September 1955, when Nasser announced the purchase of

Soviet military equipment via Czechoslovakia Dulles writing in favor of

competing for Nasser was probably going to be "one expensive process", one

that Dulles wanted to avoid as much as possible.

Nasser's response was the nationalization of the Suez Canal. On 26 July, in

a speech in Alexandria, Nasser gave a riposte to Dulles. In his speech, he

accidentally saying the name of Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the canal, a

code word for Egyptian forces to seize control of the canal and implement

nationalization. He announced that the nationalization law was published, that all

assets of the Suez Canal Company had been frozen, and that the shareholders

will be paid their share price by the closing price on the Paris Stock Exchange.

On the same day, Egypt closed the canal shipping Israel. Egypt also closed the

Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping, and blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba, in

contravention of the Constantinople Convention of 1888. Many say that this is

also violation of the Armistice Agreement 1949.

Nationalization of the Suez Canal hit British economic and military

interests in the region. Prime Minister Anthony Eden was under immense

domestic pressure from Conservative MPs who draw direct comparisons between

the events of the 1956 Munich Agreement in 1938. Since the U.S. government

does not support the British protests, the British government decided in favor of

73 Gaddis, John Lewis (1998) page 172.

military intervention against Egypt to avoid the complete collapse of British

prestige in the region.

Eden has hosted a dinner for King Feisal II of Iraq and Prime Minister Nuri

es-Said, when he learned Canal has become the government. They both

unequivocally advised Eden to "hit Nasser hard, hit him soon, and his own hit" - a

stance shared by the majority of the British people in the next few weeks. "There

are a lot of twaddle about Suez," Guy Millard, Eden's private secretaries, and

then recorded. "People forget that the policy at that time was very popular."

Opposition leader Hugh Gaitskell also at the dinner. He further agreed that

military action might be inevitable, but warned Eden would have to keep a close

America informed. Jo Grimond, who became leader of the Liberal Party that

November, thought if Nasser went unchallenged throughout the Middle East will

go on the road.

French Prime Minister Guy Mollet Nasser step angry and have absolutely

determined that Nasser would not be allowed to get away with it. French public

opinion is very supporting of Mollet, and except for the Communists, all the

criticism of the government from the right, a very public doubts that the first

socialist like Mollet has dared to go to war with Nasser. In an interview with

Henry Luce, Mollet held up a copy of the book Philosophy and Revolution Nasser

said: "This is Nasser, Mein Kampf If we are too stupid not to read, understand

and draw the obvious conclusion, then so much worse for us"74

On July 29, 1956, the French Cabinet decided military action against Egypt

in alliance with Israel, and Nomy Navy Chief of Staff Admiral French was sent to

Britain to inform national leaders that what the French have decided to, and

invite them to join if they are interested. At the same time, Mollet very offended

by what he regarded as the Eisenhower administration mentality nationalization

of the Suez Canal Company. This is especially the case since early in 1956, the

Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov was offered a deal in exchange for

Moscow France ended support for the FLN in Algeria, Paris will pull out of NATO

and become neutral in the Cold War.

With the way that the war in Algeria has been hit vicious circle of violence

rose 1 that French leaders longed to put an end to cabinet Mollet Molotov was

tempted by the offer, but in the end, the first Mollet Atlanticist firm has chosen to

remain loyal to NATO. In view of the Mollet, his loyalty to NATO has earned him

the right to expect support for American firms to Egypt, and when the support is

74 Kyle. K, op.cit, p145

not coming, he became one more determined that if the U.S. is not willing to do

anything about Nasser, then France.

Direct military intervention, however, ran the risk of damaging the anger

of Washington and the Anglo-Arab relations. As a result, the British government

concluded a secret military pact with France and Israel aimed at regaining

control of the Suez Canal.

Diplomacy Anglo-French-American

1956 newsreels about the reaction to nationalization.Pada August 1, 1956, a

tripartite meeting was opened at 10 Downing Street between British Foreign

Secretary Selwyn Lloyd, U.S. Ambassador Robert D. Murphy and French Foreign

Minister Christian Pineau.

Soon federation was formed between Eden and Guy Mollet, Prime Minister

of France, with its headquarters based in London. General Hugh Stockwell and

Admiral Barjot was appointed as Chief of Staff. Britain sought the cooperation of

the United States throughout 1956 to deal with what it maintained was a threat

of Israeli attack on Egypt, but to little effect. Between July and October 1956,

unsuccessful initiatives promoted by the United States have been made to

reduce the tension that will eventually lead to war. The international conference

was organized to seek agreement on Suez Canal operations but all ended up in

vain.

Menzies Committee

Australian Prime Minister Robert Menzies led an international committee in

consultation with Nasser in September 1956, seeking to achieve international

management Canal. The mission is failed. Subsequent power 18 London

Conference involving Australia, Denmark, Ethiopia, France, West Germany, Iran,

Italy, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, Portugal, Spain,

Sweden, Turkey, Britain, and the United States (U.S.) - Prime Australian Prime

Minister Robert Menzies, was sent to Cairo to serve as chairman of the

committee charged with the negotiations that led to Nasser.

Menzies, is an elder statesman of the British Commonwealth, who felt that

Nasser threatened action trading nations such as Australia. Menzies' argued

publicly that the Western powers had built the canal trade, but Egypt now seek

to exclude them from the ownership or management role. 75

75 Brian Carroll; From Barton to Fraser; Cassell Australia; 1978

September Menzies '7 official communique to Nasser presents a case for

compensation for the Suez Canal Company and the "establishment of principles"

for future use Canal which will ensure that it "will continue to be an international

waterway operate independently of political or national discrimination, and the

financial structure so safely and international confidence is so high that the

future of an expanding and growing to be guaranteed Canal "and called for the

Convention to recognize the sovereignty of Egypt Canal, but for the

establishment of an international body conducting canal. Nasser look like steps

"to reduce the sovereignty of Egypt" and rejecting Menzies. Nasser Menzies

imply that Britain and France might use force to resolve the crisis, but the United

States President Eisenhower publicly opposed the use of force and Menzies leave

Egypt without success.

Protocol

Three months after Egypt's nationalization of the Suez Canal company, a secret

meeting took place at Sèvres, outside Paris. Britain and France seek federal

support for Israel against Egypt. The parties agreed that Israel would invade the

Sinai. Britain and France would intervene, purportedly to separate the warring

Israeli and Egyptian forces, ordered both to withdraw to a distance of 16

kilometers from both sides of the canal.

British and French would argue that an important route to Egyptian control

is too weak, and that it should be placed under Anglo-French management.

David Ben-Gurion did not trust the British as their agreement with Jordan and he

did not initially support the plan, because it will only make Israel look like the

aggressor, but he soon agreed to since a good opportunity to strike back at

Egypt may no longer presents itself.

StatesThe importance of motivation involves the parties are diverse.

Britain was anxious lest it lose efficient access to the remains of the empire. Both

the French and the British felt that Nasser should be removed from power.

French "held the Egyptian president responsible for assisting the anticolonial

rebellion in Algeria." 76

France is nervous about the growing influence that Nasser exerted on the

North African colonies and protectorates. Both Britain and France want the canal

should remain open as an important channel for the oil. Israel wanted to reopen 76 Risse-Kappen, Thomas (1995). Cooperation among Democracies: The European Influence on U.S. Foreign Policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, p85.

the Straits of Tiran leading to the Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli shipping, and saw the

opportunity to strengthen its southern border and undermine what they see as a

dangerous and hostile situation. This is particularly felt in the form of attacks

injuring approximately 1,300 civilians originated from Egypt held Gaza Strip.

Israel also very large amount of Egyptian revenue problem Soviet

weapons including 530 tanks, of which 230 are tanks, 500 guns; 150 MiG 15

fighter jets, 50 Iluyshin-28 bombers; submarines and other naval vessels.

Admission is developed weapons that change the balance of power was shaky. In

addition, Israel believed Egypt had formed a secret alliance with Jordan and

Syria.

Washington disagreed with Paris and London on whether to use force to

resolve the crisis. United States worked hard through diplomatic channels to

resolve the crisis without conflict. "The British and French reluctantly agreed to

pursue diplomatic channels but see it as merely a first attempt to buy time,

where they continued their military preparations." 77 The British, the closest ally

of Washington, Eisenhower ignored sharp warning, that the American people will

not accept a military solution.

Before the operation, London deliberately neglected to consult with the

U.S., rather than believing that Nasser's engagement with communist countries

will persuade Americans to accept British and French actions if they were

presented as a fait accompli. This proved to be a critical miscalculation. U.S.

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) has been taking pictures in high-altitude-

related activities, and more details came from human sources in London, Paris

and Tel Aviv.

British troops

Universal movie news from August 6 British and French ships departing for Egypt

team. British troops are trained, experienced and has a good moral, but

experienced economic and technological limitations imposed by post-war

austerity. 16th Independent Parachute Brigade Group, which aims to become a

major British forces strike against Egypt has been heavily involved in the Cyprus

Emergency, which led to the neglect of paratroop training in favor of the counter-

insurgency operations. Royal Navy could project formidable power through the

gun warships and aircraft flown from the carrier, but the lack of landing craft

proved to be a serious drawback.

77 Ibid, p87

It has just undergone a major modernization program carrier and

innovative. Royal Air Force (RAF) has introduced a two-range bombers, Vickers

Valiant and the English Electric Canberra, but since their entry into service

recently, the RAF has not been properly established techniques for the airplane

bombing. Even so, General Sir Charles Keightley, commander of the invasion

force believed that air power alone is sufficient to defeat Egypt. Instead,

Keightley, Deputy Chief Hugh Stockwell believed that methodical and systematic

armored operations centered around the Centurion battle tank to be the key to

victory.

French troops

France experienced and trained, but suffered cuts imposed by the post-war

political economy savings. In 1956, French troops have been heavily involved in

the Algerian war, which makes the operation against Egypt divert attention.

French paratroopers elite Regiment de Parachutistes Coloniaux (RPC) is very

experienced, battle-hardened and very tough soldiers who have much to

distinguish themselves in the fighting in Indochina and Algeria. RPC those who

follow shoot 1, ask questions later policy towards the public, first adopted in

Vietnam, which led to the killing of several Egyptian public. Other French troops

were described by the historian Derek Varble American soldiers as competent,

but not outstanding.

French major (and Israeli) battle tank, the AMX-13 is designed for mobile,

outflanking operations, which can tank 1 light armor, but very fast. Chief André

Beaufre, which served as a preferred 1 subordinate Stockwell fast movement

campaign in which the main objective is to surround the enemy. During the

operation, Beaufre proved himself to be more aggressive than the British, has

always insisted that bold steps be taken once. French Navy carrier authority has

the power to project power very nice interior, but, like his counterparts from

Britain, suffering from lack of landing craft.

Military History of Israel

American Derek Varble called the Israeli Defence Forces (IDF) the "best" of

military power in the Middle East while at the same time experiencing a

"shortage" as "immature doctrine, faulty logistics, and technical deficiencies".

The IDF's Chief of Staff, Major General Moshe Dayan encourage aggression,

initiative, and ingenuity amongst the Israeli officer corps while ignoring logistics

and armored operations. Dayan, a firm infantry man 1 priority at the expense of

the services arms armor, which Dayan look like a clumsy, expensive, and often

suffer damage.

At the same time, the logistics arm of the IDF have quite a mess, which is

placed under severe strain when the IDF invaded Sinai. Most of the IDF weapons

in 1956 came from France. The main IDF tank AMX-13 and the main aircraft

Dassault Mystere IVA and the Ouragan. Superior pilot training was to give the

Israeli Air Force an unbeatable edge over their Egyptian opponents. Israeli Navy

consists of two destroyers, seven frigates, minesweepers 8, several landing craft,

and 14 torpedo boats.

Egypt

In Egypt the military, rather than political and military efficiency is the main

criterion for promotion. Egyptian commander, Field Marshal Abdel Hakim Amer,

was purely political appointment with an alcohol problem which owes its close

friendship with Nasser, and who proved himself as a general prohibitively

inefficient. In 1956, the Egyptian army was equipped with weapons from the

Soviet Union's T-34 and JS-3 tanks, MiG-15 fighters, Ilyushin Il-28 bombers, SU-

100 self-propelled guns and assault rifles.

Rigid line between military officers and men in Egypt lead to "distrust and

contempt" with the officers and men who served under them. Egyptian soldiers

who excelled in defense operations, but does not have the ability to have a lack

of offensive operations "rapport and effective small unit leadership".78

Planning

August 9 Eisenhower press conference on the crisis

In July 1956, Eden ordered his chief staff to begin planning for the invasion

of Egypt 1. Eden's plan called for a Cyprus-based 16th Independent Parachute

Brigade Group to seize the Canal Zone. Prime Minister's plan was rejected by the

Chief of Staff who argue that the neglect of parachute training given 16

Independent Parachute Brigade plans to attack 1 Air inappropriate. Instead, the

Chief of Staff suggested that sea-power based Contingency Plan, which called for

the Royal Marines to take Port Said, which would then be used as a base for

three British to overrun the Canal Zone.

78 Varble. D, op.cit., p20

In early August, the Contingency Plan has been modified to include the

first strategic bombing campaign intended to destroy the Egyptian economy, and

thus is expected to bring about the overthrow Nasser. In addition, the role was

assigned to the 16th Independent Parachute Brigade, who will lead the assault

on Port Said in conjunction with the Royal Marine landing. The commander of

Task Force led by General Stockwell rejected Contingency Plan, which Stockwell

protests failed to destroy the Egyptian military.

Information Operations (1956)

Operation Musketeer Stockwell offered, starting with a two-day air campaign that

will see the British gain air superiority. In place of Port Said, Musketeer called for

the arrest of Alexandria. When the city was taken in an attack from the sea,

British armored division would be involved in the decisive battle of annihilation

southern area north of Alexandria and Cairo.

Musketeer require thousands of troops, and that led the British to find

France as an ally. To destroy the Egyptian army 300,000 strong in battle he

planned annihilation, Stockwell estimated that he needed 80,000 troops, while

the majority of the British Army can spare is 50,000 French troops could supply

30,000 troops to make up the shortfall.

On August 11, 1956 General Keightley was appointed as commander of

Musketeer with the French Admiral Jobert as Deputy Commander. Stockwell

appointment as commander of Task Force accused of leading an attack on

Egyptian cause great frustration with other Task force officers. A French officer

remembered That Stockwell

There is still a part of keeping him, his hands, his feet and his head and

hands are always busy, he began to sweep the object away from the table with

his swagger cane swish in his room or to use it to make a golf swing with potted

flowers and ash-tray. That was a good moment. You will see him pass in the blink

of an eye from the most optimistic happy to note that total spinal fracture. He is

cyclothymic. Since the switch to be polite and brutal, refined and rough,

stubborn in certain circumstances, hesitation and doubt in others, he answers

disconcerts by uncertainty and conflict that he made. The only constant quality:

courage under fire.

In contrast, the majority of the Task Force officers, French and British

admired general Beaufre as elegant but tough with sharp analytical mind has

always been angry. Most of the officers of the Anglo-French Task Force

expressed regret that it is Beaufre which is deputy Stockwell, rather the other

way around. A major problem both politically and militarily with planning for

Musketeer is a 1 week interval between sending troops to the eastern

Mediterranean and the beginning of the invasion. In addition, the arrival of winter

weather Mediterranean in late November will result in a possible invasion, which

meant that the invasion had started earlier.

In late August 1956, French Admiral Pierre Barjot suggested that Port Said

once again will be the main target, which reduced the number of troops needed

and thus reduce the interval between sending troops to the eastern

Mediterranean and aggression. Beaufre is strongly opposed to such changes,

modifications Barjot warned that only control of the Canal Zone made vague

goals, and that the lack of clear goals is dangerous.

In early September, Keightley embraced the idea Barjot seizing Port Said,

and deliver Operational Check. Revision called for the following:

Phrase I: Anglo-French air forces for aerial supremacy over the skies of

Egypt

Phrase II: The Anglo-French air forces to launch a 10-day "aero-

psychological" campaign that would destroy the Egyptian economy.

Phrase III: Air and sea-borne landings to capture the Canal Zone

Check Operation (Operation REVISE)

On 8 September 1956 Revision approved by the British and French cabinets.

Both Stockwell and Beaufre against revision as open plan with no clear goal

beyond seizing Canal zone, but has been embraced by Eden and Mollet offers

more flexibility political and prospects of victims of the Egyptian public.

At the same time, Israel has been working on Operation Kadesh for the

invasion of the Sinai. Dayan plan, putting the emphasis on air power combined

with mobile battles of encirclement. Kadesh urged the Israeli air force to win air

superiority, which will be followed by "1 constant battle" in the Sinai. Israeli

soldiers in a series of quick operation and then take strong around major points

in the Egyptian Sinai.

Reflecting this emphasis on siege is "out-" approach Kadesh, called for

Israeli paratroops to seize distant points first, with closer to Israel to be seized

later. Thus, the 202 paratroop brigade commanded by Colonel Ariel Sharon is to

land on the far west of the Sinai to take the Mitla Pass, and thus cut off the

Egyptian army in Sinai east of their supply lines.

In October 1956, the Eden, after two months of pressure, finally

reluctantly agreed to French demands, including Israel in Operation Check.

British alliances with the Hashemite kingdom of Jordan and Iraq have made the

British very reluctant to fight alongside Israel, so that the next reaction in the

Arab world threaten London's friends in Baghdad and Amman. Arrival of winter

weather in November meant that Eden need 1 reason to start Check as soon as

possible, which means that Israel has to be included. Under the Protocol of

Sèvres, the following points were agreed to:

October 29: Israel to invade the Sinai.

October 30: The Anglo-French ultimatum to demand both sides withdraw from

the Canal Zone.

October 31: Britain and France began Check.

Aggression

Operation Kadesh: Israeli operation in the Sinai Peninsula

Operation Kadesh received its name from ancient Kadesh, located in the

northern Sinai and mentioned several times in the Hebrew Pentateuch. Israeli

military planning for this operation in the Sinai depends on four main military

objectives; Sharm el-Sheikh, Arish, Abu Uwayulah, and the Gaza Strip. Egyptian

blockade the Straits of Tiran was based at Sharm el-Sheikh and, by capturing the

city, Israel would have access to the Red Sea for the first time since 1953, which

will allow to restore trade benefits of secure passage of the Indian Ocean.

Gaza Strip was chosen as another military objective because Israel wants

to remove the training grounds for Fedayeen groups, and because Israel

acknowledged that Egypt could use the territory as a transit point for attacks

against the advancing Israeli troops. Israel supports rapid progress, in which

potential Egyptian flanking attack would present more risk. Arish and Abu

Uwayulah important hubs for soldiers, equipment, and centers of command and

control of the Egyptian army in the Sinai. Catch them will deal deathblow to

Egypt's strategic operations throughout the peninsula. Arrests four objectives are

intended to be a way that the entire Egyptian army will defeat and falling into

Egypt proper, which British and French forces would then be able to raise against

the Israeli advance, and crush in a decisive encounter. On 24 October, Dayan

ordered the mobilization of the part. When this leads to a state of confusion,

Dayan ordered full mobilization, and choose to take the risk so he can remind

people of Egypt. As part of the effort to maintain surprise, Dayan ordered the

Israeli army to go to Sinai concentrated near the border with Jordan first,

intended to deceive the people of Egypt to think that it is Jordan.

The conflict began on October 29, 1956. At about 3: .. 12:00, Israeli Air

Force Mustangs launched a series of attacks on Egyptian positions across the

Sinai because Israeli intelligence is expected Jordan to enter the war on the

Egyptian forces, Israeli soldiers stationed along the Israel-Jordan border. Israeli

Border Police Military Israeli-Jordanian border, including the Green Line with the

West Bank, in the first hours of the war. Israeli-Arab villages along the Jordanian

border was placed under curfew, and orders were given to shoot curfew

violators. This resulted in the killing of 48 civilians in the Arab village of Kafr

Qasim in the event known as the massacre of Kafr Qasim. Border policemen

involved in the killing was later tried and imprisoned, the Israeli court that orders

to shoot civilians is "blatantly illegal". The event has a major impact on Israeli

law relating to the ethics of war and more subtle effects on the legal status of

Israel's Arab citizens, who at that time was regarded as the fifth column.

Early actions in Southern Sinai

Israeli paratrooper near Mitla Israeli Chief, Major General Moshe Dayan, first

planned to take the important Mitla Pass. Dayan plan for paratroop battalion of

890 Brigade, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Rafael Eitan, 1 veteran

Arab-Israeli War of 1948 and the future head of the IDF, to drop at Parker's

Memorial, near one of the passes and the Jebel Heitan pollute. Other brigade,

under the command of Colonel Ariel Sharon would then advance to meet with

the battalion, and consolidate their holdings.

On 29 October, Operation Kadesh - the invasion of Sinai, began when an

Israeli paratrooper battalion air falls into the Sinai Peninsula, east of the Suez

Canal near the Mitla Pass. In conjunction with a drop paragraphs, 4 Israeli P-51

Mustangs using their wings and propeller, cut all overhead telephone lines in the

Sinai, severely disrupt command and control Egypt. Due to navigation errors, DC

-3 transportation Israeli paratroopers landed Eitan 400, three miles from

Memorial Parker, their intended target. Eitan marched his men towards Jebel

Heitan, where they dug in while receiving supplies of weapons dropped by

French aircraft. At the same time, Colonel Sharon, 202 paratroop brigade raced

out towards the Mitla Pass. A major problem for Sharon is a vehicle break-down.

Dayan's efforts to maintain a strategic shock bore fruit when the commander of

the Egyptian Field Marshal Abdel Hakim Amer was initially treated Israel to Sinai

summary report as a big raid is not an attack, and as a general warning order

not Amer. By the time the Amer realized his mistake, Israel has made significant

progress in the Sinai.

Early actions along the Gulf of Aqaba, and the central paratroopers being

dropped into the Sinai, which Israel captured 9 Infantry Brigade 1 Naqb-Ras, one

important staging ground for that brigade's later attack against Sharm el-Sheikh.

Rather than attack the city by frontal attack, they enveloped the city in the night

attack, and negotiated them through some of the natural chokepoints city back,

surprised the Egyptians before they could ready themselves to defend. The

Egyptians surrendered, with no Israeli victims suffered.

4th Infantry Brigade, under the command of Colonel Josef Harpaz,

captured al-Qusaymah, which will be used as a jumping off point for an attack on

Abu Uwayulah. Colonel Harpaz out-flanked by two al-Qusaymah pengguntingkan

from the south-east and north-east in the night attack. In a short battle that

lasted from 3:00 am until sunrise, the IDF stormed al-Qusaymah.

Heitan Jebel battle, paratroop brigade under attack

Israeli paratroopers dig in near the Parker MemorialThe Paratroopers under

Sharon's command continued to advance to meet the Brigade 1. Travel, Sharon

assaulted Themed in a dawn attack, and was able to storm the city through the

Gap themed armor. Sharon routed the Sudanese police, and capture solutions.

On the way to Nakla, Sharon people come under attack from Egyptian MIG-15s.

At 30, Sharon associated with Eytan near Nakla.

Dayan had no plans for further advances beyond the passes, but Sharon

decided to attack the Egyptian positions at Jebel Heitan. Sharon sending lightly

armed paratroopers against dug-backed Egyptian aircraft, tanks and heavy

artillery. Sharon's action in response to reports of the arrival of 1st and 2nd

Brigade 4th Egyptian Armored Division was in the area, which Sharon believed

would destroy his army if he did not seize the high ground. Sharon sent two

companies of infantry, mortar battery and some AMX-13 tanks under the

command of Mordechai Gur into the defile Heitan evening October 31, 1956.

Egyptian forces occupied a strong defensive position and brought down heavy

anti-tank, mortar and machine gun fire at the IDF force. Gur people were forced

to retreat into the "Saucer", where they were surrounded and came under heavy

fire. Hearing this, Sharon sent in its other tasks while the Gur people use the

cover of night to scale walls Heitan smear. During the ensuing action, the

Egyptians were defeated and forced to retreat. A total of 260 Egyptians and 38

Israeli soldiers were killed in the war. Although the battle was a victory of Israel,

the injuries sustained by the controversy surrounding Sharon. In particular,

Sharon was criticized for ordering the attack on Jebel heitan without permission,

and do not realize that the Israeli Air Force controlling the skies, the men are not

dangerous as the Egyptian tank as he believed. Dayan himself insists that

Sharon was right to order an attack without orders, and that under the

circumstances, Sharon made the right decision, but he criticzed Sharon to head

the Egyptian attack tactics, which led to the victim claimed Dayan unnecessary

Most deaths caused by Israel throughout the operation. remained at Jebel Heitan.

Air Operations, Phase 1

News from 1 November about the beginning of the attack on Egypt, the Israeli

Air Force flew paratroop drops, supply flights and medevac sorties that. Israel's

new French-made Dassault Mystere IV jets provide air cover for transport

aircraft. In the early phases of the conflict, the Egyptian Air Force flew attack

missions against advancing Israeli army. Egyptian tactic is to use their new

Soviet-made MiG-15 fighter jets as escorts, and older British made De Havilland

Vampire and Gloster Meteor jets conduct attacks against Israeli military and

vehicles. In air combat, Israeli aircraft shot down between seven and nine

Egyptian jets with the loss of one plane, but the strike Egypt against army

continued to November 1. With the attack by the British and the air force and

navy of France, President Nasser ordered the pilot to get away and fly their

aircraft to base in southern Egypt. Israeli Air Force then free to attack the

Egyptian army at will, as Israeli forces advanced to the Western Sinai.

On November 3, four Israeli warplanes attacked a British warship, HMS

Black Swan-class sloop crane as it was patrolling the approaches to the Gulf of

Aqaba. According to the IDF, Crane has been identified as an Egyptian warship

and the Israeli General Staff authorized the attacks. Three rocket penetrated the

hull of the ship and cause significant internal damage, including mains power

disconnected and the fuel tank ruptured. The ship also maintains a number of

external damage from shrapnel and artillery fire, and three crew members were

injured. Crane shot down an Israeli aircraft and other damaged during the

engagement.

Naval Operations

Ibrahim el Awal after the capture by Israel NavyOn October 30, the Egyptian

Navy sends Ibrahim el Awal, Hunt class destroyer ex-British, for the purpose of

Haifa shore oil equipment attack that city. On 31 October Ibrahim el Awal

reached Haifa and began bombarding the city with four 102mm (4 inch) guns.

Kersaint French destroyer, in charge of the port of Haifa as part of Operation

Musketeer, returned fire but failed to score any hits. Ibrahim el Awal miss and

turn west. INS Yaffo Israeli destroyer INS Eilat and then gave chase and catch up

with the Egyptian warship. Destruction of Israel, uniting two Israeli Air Force

Dassault Ouragans, managed to damage the turbo generator destroyers,

steering and antiaircraft guns. Left without power and unable to steer, the

Ibrahim el Awal delivered to the destruction of Israel. Egyptian destroyer was

later included in the Israeli Navy, and renamed INS Haifa (K-38).

On the night of October 31 in the northern Red Sea, the British light

cruiser HMS Newfoundland challenged and involved Domiat Egyptian frigate,

reduce the burning hulk in a brief gun battle. Egyptian warship was sunk by

escorting destroyer HMS Diana, with 69 surviving Egyptian sailors rescued.

Hedgehog-Abu Uwayulah village of Abu Uwayulah operations in central

Sinai served as the center of the road for the entire Sinai, and thus is the main

target of Israel. Abu Uwayulah East zone ridge some form natural defenses

known to Israelis as the "Hedgehog". "Hedgehog" is a 3000's Egyptian battalions

of the 17th and 18th of the 3rd Infantry Division commanded by Colonel Sami

Yassa. Yassa's men held a series of trenches and fortified "Hedgehog" can only

be attacked from the east wing Umm Qataf ridge and west sides of the ridge

Ruafa.

On 30 October, the probing attacks by Israeli armor under Major Izhak

Ben-Ari turned into assault on Umm Qataf ridge that ended in failure. In the

battle of Umm Qataf, Colonel Yassa was seriously injured and was replaced by

Colonel Saadedden mutawally. In the south, another unit of the Israeli Armored

Brigade 7 found a gap in the ridge Dayyiqa al-Jebel Halal "Hedgehog". Israeli

soldiers raided and bring al-Dayyiqa gap. Colonel Mutawally failed to appreciate

the extent of the danger to the powers that posed by the discovery of the IDF in

al-Dayyiqa. Led by Colonel Avraham Adan 1 IDF force entered the al-Dayyiqa and

at dawn on October 31 attacked Abu Uwayulah. After an hour of fighting, Abu

Uwayulah down to the IDF. At the same time, another IDF battalion attacked the

ridge Ruafa. At the same time, another attack was launched on the eastern edge

of the "Hedgehog" by the IDF Infantry Brigade of the 10th (mostly deposits)

which ended in failure. By mid-day, the Israeli Air Force conducted a series of

punishing air attacks on Egyptian positions, sometimes accidentally hit the IDF

ground forces. That tendency IAF with the incident "friendly fire" IAF is arguably

as much a danger to the Israeli army to the enemy.

After taking Abu Uwayulah, Adan do all the soldiers on the ridge Ruafa

"Hedgehog", and begin a three-pronged attack with an interesting team shield

northeast side Ruafa, mixed infantry / armor force attacking the north edge and

attack the hypocrisy of the neighboring mounds. During the afternoon attack on

31 October, chaotic war that raged on Ruafa ridge with much hand-in-hand

battle. Through every IDF tank involved was destroyed, after a battle tonight,

Ruafa have fallen into the IDF. Another IDF assault that night, this time by the 10

Infantry Brigade in Umm Qataf is less succcessful with a lot of energy getting lost

in the darkness of attack, resulting in a series of confused attacks that ended in

failure. Dayan, who had grown impatient with the failure to storm the

"Hedgehog", remove the 10th Brigade commander Colonel Shmuel Golinda and

replaced him with Colonel Israel Tal.

On the morning of November 1, Israeli and French aircraft launched

frequent napalm attacks on Egyptian troops in Umm Qataf. Armored Brigade 37,

Brigade 10 again attacked Umm Qataf, and again defeated. However, the

violence that the IDF assault combined with rapidly dwinding water stock and

lead bullets to order Colonel Mutawally general retreat from the "Hedgehog" on

the evening of November 1.

Gaza Strip town of Rafah operation is strategically important to Israel for

control of the city would sever Gaza from the Sinai, and provide a way for the

main central northern Sinai, al-Arish and al-Qantarah. Forts outside Rafah is a

mixture of Egyptian and Palestinian forces in the 5th Infantry Brigade

commanded by Brigadier General Jaafar al-Abd. In Rafah itself Palestine 87

Infantry Brigade was stationed. Assigned to capture Rafah 1st Infantry Brigade

led by Colonel Benjamin Givli and 27th Armored Brigade commanded by Colonel

Haim Bar-Lev IDF. In southern Rafah is a series of sand dunes and met mine in

the northern part is a series of fortified hills.

Daylan ordered the IDF forces to seize Crossroads 12 in the central area of

Rafah, and to focus on the break rather than reducing every Egyptian

strongpoint. IDF assault began with Israeli sappers and engineers clear the path

at night through the minefields that surrounded Rafah. French warships led by

the cruiser Georges Leygues provided fire support, through Dayan has a low

opinion of the French artillery, complaining that the French just hit reserve

Egypt.

Using both a cleared path through the southern minefields, IDF tanks

entered the Rafah main feature. Under Egyptian artillery fire, the IDF force raced

ahead and took Crossroads 12 with the loss of 2 killed and 22 wounded. In the

northern Israeli troops fought a series of confused night action, but successful in

attacking Hills 25, 25A, 27 and 29 with the loss of 6 killed. In the morning

November 1, Israeli AMX-13s encircled and took Hills 34 and 36. At the time, al-

Abd ordered his troops to abandon their posts outside of Rafah and retreat into

the city.

With more or less cut Rafah and the Israeli army controlled the north and

east to the town, Dayan ordered the AMX-13s 27th Armored Brigade to strike

west and take al-Arish. By this point, Nasser had ordered his troops to fall back

toward the Suez Canal, so at first Bar-Lev and his men met little resistance as

they advanced across the northern Sinai. Hear the order to withdraw, al-Abd and

his men leave on the morning of 1 November Rafah through the gap in the line

of Israel, and towards the Canal Zone. Three hours later, Israel took Rafah. It has

been reported that after taking Rafah, the Israeli army killed 111 people,

including 103 refugees, in the Palestinian refugee camp of Rafah. Not until the

Jeradi Pass in the northern Sinai do IDF term into serious opposition. A series of

hooking attacks that out-flanked by Egyptian positions combinded with air strikes

that led to the defeat of Egypt in Jeradi Pass. On November 2, Arm Bar-Lev had

taken al-Arish.

Meanwhile, the IDF attacked the Egyptian defenses outside of Gaza City

late on November 1. After crossing the line in Egypt, Israeli tanks headed to Gaza

City. Shield to attack the fortress of al-Muntar outside Gaza City, killed or

captured 3,500 National Guard troops Egypt. By noon 2 November, there were

no more Egyptian opposition in Gaza City. On November 3, the IDF attacked the

Egyptian army and Palestinians in Khan Yunis. After a fierce battle, the Sherman

Israeli Armored Brigade 37 broke through the line greatly enriched outside Khan

Yunus held by the Brigade in Palestine 86. After several clashes with the

Egyptian army streets and Palestinian fedayeen, Khan Yunis fall to Israel. There

are claims that after taking into Khan Yunis, the IDF has committed genocide.

Israel insists that the Palestinian people were killed in street fighting, while

Palestinians claimed that Israeli forces began implementing the unarmed

Palestinian people after the fall of Khan Yunis. Claims of genocide have been

reported to the General Assembly of the United Nations on December 15, 1956

by the Director of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency Public Emirates,

Henry Labouisse, who reported from "reliable sources" that 275 people were

killed in massacre -many of which 135 140 are refugees and the local population.

In both Gaza City and Khan Yunis, street-fighting led to the deaths of

"tens, perhaps hundreds, of non-combatant". During the Gaza fighting, anarchy

reigned in the streets, and a warehouse belonging to the United States. Nations

Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) has been fired by Palestinian mobs, leading to

the humanitarian crisis in Gaza as many were left without food and medicine.

This was exacerbated by a widespread view in Israel that the responsibility for

the care of Palestinian refugees UNRWA rest, not Israel, leading Israel to give aid

slow. By noon November 3, Israel has been dominated almost the entire Gaza

Strip except for a few isolated strongpoints, which will be attacked and taken.

The UN estimates that 447 to 550 civilians were killed by the Israeli army in the

first week of the Israeli occupation of the strip.

Operation of Sharm el-Sheikh on November 3, with the IDF has

successfully taken the Gaza Strip, Arish, the Hedgehog, and Mitla Pass, Sharm el-

Sheikh is the last Israeli objectives. The main difficulty faced by Colonel Abraham

Yoffe the 9th Infantry Brigade logistics. There is no good road linking Ras-Naqb to

Sharm el-Sheikh. After taking the border town of Ras 1-Naqb on October 30,

Daylan ordered Yoffe to wait until air superiority is ensured. To outflank Sharm

el-Sheikh, Dayan ordered paratroopers to take Tor city in western Sinai. Egyptian

army at Sharm el-Sheikh has the advantage of holding one of the strongest

fortified positions across the Sinai, but has been subjected to a heavy Israeli air

strikes from the beginning of the war. Yoffe set to Sharm el-Sheikh on November

2, and the main obstacle is the terrain and vehicle break-down. Navy ships to

support Israel during the first Section 9. After many battles on the outskirts of

Sharm el-Sheikh, Yoffe ordered an attack on the port at around midnight on

November 4. After four hours of heavy fighting, Yoffe ordered his men to retreat.

On the morning of November 5, the Israeli army launched an attack with massive

artillery tanks and napalm against military strike to defend Egypt Sharm el-

Sheikh. At 9:30 am on November 5, the Egyptian commander Colonel Raouf

Mahfouz Zaki, submit Sharm el-Sheikh.

Anglo-French military

Damaged War de Havilland Sea Venom EagleTo support HMS invasion, large air

forces had been deployed to Cyprus and Malta by Britain and France and many

aircraft carriers were deployed. The two airbases on Cyprus was so congested

that a third field which is in dubious circumstances had to be brought into use for

French aircraft. Although the RAF Luqa in Malta very crowded with RAF Bomber

Command aircraft. British deployed the aircraft carrier HMS Eagle, Albion and

fortress and the French battleship Jean Bart had and aircraft carriers

Arromanches and La Fayette on station. In addition, HMS Ocean and Theseus

acted as jumping-point for attacks in Britain brought by helicopter (first world).

Checking: Phase I and IIIn morning October 30 Britain and France have

sent ultimatums to Egypt and Israel. They started Operation Musketeer on 31

October, with a bombing campaign. Nasser responded by sinking all 40 ships

present in the canal was closed to all shipping. Shipping will not move again until

early 1957. Although the risk of intrusion into the Canal Zone, Field Marshal

Abdel Hakim Amer ordered the Egyptian army in the Sinai to survive, as assured

Nasser Amer confident that Egyptians can beat Israel at Sinai and then defeat

the forces of the Anglo-French once they come into beach in the Canal Zone.

Amer also advised Nasser to send more troops into Sinai to defeat the Covenant

in Israel, even through there is a risk of them being cut off if the Canal Zone was

seized by the Anglo-French team is great. Not until late on October 31, do not

ignore assessement encouraging Nasser Amer and ordered his troops to

separate the Sinai and to retreat back to the Canal Zone to face the expected

Anglo-French invasion. Eden and Mollet ordered Phase I Operational Check to

begin 13 hours after the Anglo-French ultimatum. British bombers based in

Cyprus and Malta departure to Cairo with the aim of destroying Cairo airport,

only to be ordered personally by Eden when she learned that the American

public has moved in Cairo airport. Fear reactions that may result if the American

public were killed in a British bombing attack, Eden has sent the Valiant bombers

back to Malta while the Canberras were ordered to hit Almaza airbase outside of

Cairo. Night of British bombardment proved ineffective. Starting on the morning

of November 1, carrier-based de Havilland Sea venoms, Chance-Vought Corsairs

and Hawker Sea Hawks begin a series of strike day in Egypt. On the night of 1

November the Egyptian Air Force has lost 200 aircraft. With the destruction of

the Egyptian air force, Keightley ordered the beginning Check Phase II. As part of

the Check Phase II, 1-wide interdiction between the campaign began. On

November 3 F4U-7 Corsairs from the 14.F and 15.F Aéronavale off from French

carriers Arromanches and La Fayette, attacked the airport in Cairo.

The very aggressive French General Beaufre suggests at once that the

forces of the Anglo-French seize the Canal Zone with air landing rather than the

planned 10 days to Check II will work through, and that risk without the prospect

of sending paratroopers sea-borne landings for several days will be taken.

November 3, Beaufre finally convinced Keightley and Stockwell of the merits of

his approach, and get approval for Operation Telescope as Beaufre has a code

name airstrikes in the Canal Zone.

Telescope Modified: Landon paratroopers late November 5, the advance

elements of 3rd Battalion of the British Parachute Regiment dropped on El Gamil

Airfield, a strip of land, led by Brigadier MAH Butler. "Red Devils" can not return

Egyptian fire while landing, but when paratroopers landed, they used their Sten

guns, three-inch mortars and anti-tank weapons to great effect. After taking the

airport with a dozen 1 casualites, the remaining battalion flew in by helicopter.

Battalion then obtained around the airport area. During a street battle to ensure,

Egyptian soldiers involved methodical tactics, fighting on defense and inflict

maximum casualties and retreating only when a favorable energy was brought to

bear. In particular, proved to be a weapon SU100s formiable in urban combat.

British forces moving towards Port Said with air support before digging in at

13:00 to hold up the beach assault. With close support from carrier-based

Wyverns, the British paratroopers take sewage works Port Said and cemeteries

having been involved in pitched battles for the Coast Guard barracks.

At the same time, Lieutenant Colonel Pierre Chateau-Jobert landed with a

force of 2e RPC at Raswa. Raswa apply a small drop zone problem that is

surrounded by water, but General Jacques Massu's 10th Parachute Division

assured Beaufre is not an insolvable problem for men. 500 armed paratroopers 2

French Colonial Parachute Regiment (2ème RPC), hastily placed the battle in

Algeria, jumped over the bridge of al-Raswa from Noratlas Nord 2501 escadrille

transport de Transport (ET) 1/61 and ET 3/61, along with some Guard combat

engineer Independent Parachute Company. Despite the loss of two soldiers, the

western bridge swiftly secured by the level, and F4U Corsairs Aéronavale 14.F

and 15.F flew a series of close-air-support missions, destroying several SU-100

tank destroyer. F-84Fs also hit two large oil storage tanks in Port Said, which

went up in flames and covered most of the city in a thick cloud of smoke for the

next few days. Egyptian resistance varied, with some positions fighting back until

destroyed, while others are left with little resistance. The French paratroopers

stormed and took Port Saïd waterworks that morning, one important objective for

control of a city in the desert. Chateau-Jobert followed up this success with effect

from 1 attack on Port Fuad. Derek Varble, American military history, then write

"Air support and fierce French attack on Port Fuad change battle to defeat".

During the fighting in the Canal Zone, French paratroops often practiced their

"no prisoners" code and executed Egyptian POWs.

Egyptian commander at Port Said, Chief Salahedin Moguy then propose a

truce. Deals have been taken, and the meeting to ensure the Chief Butler,

Chateau-Jobert and General Massu, was offered terms surrender of the city and

marching men Gamil airport to be taken to POW camps in Cyprus. Moguy has no

interest in giving up and just made a ceasefire offer to buy time for his men to

dig. Is strongly supported by the British Admiral Manley Laurence power, Beaufre

suggested that sea-borne landings accelerated and that Allied troops land the

next day. In this case, Beaufre was opposed by Stockwell and Knightley who

want to stick with the original plan. Stockwell was always in favor of hardcore

agreed to the plan, and are very reluctant to see any changes, while Beaufre all

to change the plan to match changing conditions. The difference between

Stockwell and Beaufre summarized by the American historian Derek Varble,

"Stockwell favor of existing methods for their construction plans and the

underlying staff work to reduce the risk Beaufre, by contrast opportunist, looking

to plan only a means to an end, without much value exist for him, changed

circumstances or assumptions provide sufficient justification for Jettison. part or

all of the original plan. "

Royal Marines coming ashore at Port SaidAt first light on November 6,

Commando Commando Nos 42 and 40 Commando Royal Marines stormed the

beaches, using landing craft of World War II vintage (Landing Craft Assault and

Landing Vehicle tracked). The battle group standing offshore opened fire, giving

covering fire for the landings and causing considerable damage to the Egyptian

batteries and gun emplacements. Port Said city remained significant damage

and was seen as down. Those who Commando 42 as much as possible choose to

by-pass Egyptian positions and focused on trying to break through the interior.

40 Commando Royal Marines have the advantage backed by Centurion tanks as

they landed in Sierra Red beach. Upon entering the center of Port Said, the

Marines became engaged in fierce urban combat as the Egyptians used Palace

Hotel Casino and other strongpoints as fortresses.

RPC paratroopers patrol in Port Said. October 1956, Nasser proclaimed the Suez

War 1 "brown people". Therefore, the Egyptian military has been ordered to wear

civilian clothes while guns were freely handed out to Egyptian civilians. From the

point of view Nasser, 1 ", the war" presented at the British and French with 1

insolvable dilemma. If the Allies reacted aggressively "brown" people, then that

will cause the death of innocent civilians and thus bring world sympathy to the

cause while undermining morale on the home front in Britain and France. If the

Allies reacted cautiously to "people's war", which will result from the Allied

Forces getting bogged down by sniper attacks, which have the advantage of

attacking "... with near impunity by hiding among the people-not the real fighters

". This tactic works especially well against the British. British leaders, especially

Eden and the First Sea Lord Admiral Sir Louis Montbatten fear of being labeled

"murderers and baby killers", and sincerely trying to limit public death in Egypt.

Eden often interfere Check Phrase and II bombing, cutting a variety of targets

that he felt might cause excessive civilian deaths, and limit the size of the gun

that can be used in Port Said landings, again to reduce public death. American

History Derek Varble commented that the paradox of concern to the public in

Egypt Eden, and objects check Phrase II bombing, which was intended to

terrorize the Egyptian people was never solved. Despite the best efforts of Eden,

the British bombing still killed hundreds of Egyptian civilians during Check II,

although this is more due to death are not exactly meant a deliberate policy of

not 1 "area bombing" a la like that employed against Germany in World War II. In

Port Said, the heavy fighting in the streets and the resulting fire destroyed much

of the city, killing thousands of civilians.

In the afternoon, 522 additional French Levels 1er REP (Regiment Étranger

Parachutiste., 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment) were dropped near Port Fouad.

This is also constantly supported by Corsairs from Aéronavale France, which flew

very intensive operations: for example, although the French carrier La Fayette

developed catapult problems, no less than 40 combat sorties were completed.

France has been assisted by the AMX-13 light tanks. While clearing Port Fuad,

IER Regiment Etranger Parachutiste killed 100 Egyptians without losing a man in

return. In total, 10 French soldiers were killed and 30 injured in the landing and

subsequent battle.

No British commandos. 45 Commando assaulted by helicopter, meeting

stiff resistance, with shore batteries attacked several helicopters, while friendly

fire from British aircraft carriers brought by causing injuries to 45 Commando

and HQ. Helicopter-borne assault of 45 Commando was the first time helicopters

were used by UK forces to lift men directly into a combat zone. Lieutenant

Colonel NH Tailyour, who led 45 Commando were landed by mistake in a stadium

still under Egyptian control resulting escape very hasty. Street fighting clearing,

with strong opposition from well-enshrined Egyptian sniper positions, caused

further injury. Particularly fierce battle took place at Customs House Port Said,

and the Navy House. Egyptians destroyed Port Said there Inner Harbour, which

forced the British to improvise and use the Fishing Port land their forces. 2nd

Battalion Parachute Regiment landed by ship at the port. Centurion tanks 6

British Royal Tank Regiment were landed and by 12:00 they had reached the

French paratroops. Although the British landing in Port Said, the man who RPC 2

at Raswa happen Egyptian counter-attack featuring SU100 self-propelled guns

themselves.

After establishing themselves in the position of the center of Port Said, 42

Commando headed Muhammat Ali Shari, the main north-south road to link up

with French forces on the bridge and lock Raswa Inner Basin. At the same time,

the Marines also took Port Said's gasworks. Meanwhile, 40 Commando supported

by the Royal Tank Regiment remained involved in the clean up in the center of

Egyptian snipers. Colonel Tailyour arranged for more aid brought by helicopter.

Heard rumors that Moguy want to give away, both Stockwell and Beaufre

leave their command ship HMS Tyne to Port Said. After landing, they learned the

rumors were not true. Otherwise return to the Tyne, both Stockwell and Beaufre

spent the day in Port Said, and thus cut off from the news. Only a day late and

Stockwell learn acceptance Beaufre truce United Nations Organisation. Instead of

focusing on breaking out to take al-Qantarah, Royal Marines bogged down in

clearing every building in Port Said snipers. Heads of the Royal Tank Regiment

supported by the paratroops 2 RPC began to advance slowly down on the night

of al-Qantarah 6th of November. Sniper attack Egypt and the need to clean every

building that leads to the 3 will be slowed in their attempts to connect with the

Royal Marines. When Stockwell know ceasefire takes effect in five hours time at

9: 00 pm, he ordered Colonel Gibbon and his centurions which to race and take

al-Qantarah with all speed to improve the position of Associate. What followed

was a series of confused melee action the way. What followed was a series of

confused chaotic action in the way of al-Qantarah ended with British forces in al-

Cap, a small village four miles north of al-Qantarah at 2:00 am, when a cease-fire

took effect .

Total British dead is 16, with 96 wounded. Sacrifice France totaled 10 dead

and 33 others injured. Israel's loss of 177 dead and 899 injured. Number of

Egyptians killed was "never definitely established". Victims of the Israeli invasion

of Egypt was estimated at 1.000 to 3.000 dead and 4,000 wounded, while the

loss to the Anglo-French operation was estimated at 650 dead and 900 injured.

Egypt an estimated 1,000 civilians have died.

Anti-war protests in Britain. Protests against the war in Britain after the invasion

began. On the popular television show talk Free Speech, especially bitter debate

occurred on October 31 with the historian AJP Taylor and journalists leftist Labour

Party leader Michael Foot future call their friends on Free Speech, the

Conservative MP Robert Boothby, a "crime" to support the war . A Free Speech

talk television critics during the war that "the team seemed on the verge of not

only, but actually losing their tempers ... Boothby boomed, Foot fumed and

Taylor trephined with real malice ...". 79

The anger, passion, watched the debate on the Suez war on Free Speech

reflect the divided public response to the war. British historian AN Wilson writes

that "a letter to The Times captures the mood of this country, the great majority

of which opposed military intervention ...". Journalist Malcolm Muggeridge and

actor Robert Speaight wrote in the public letter that:

Bitter division in public opinion driven by the British intervention in the

Middle East have had a disaster. It has diverted popular attention from the far

more important struggle in Hungary. A week ago, the feelings of the British

people were combined in a flame of admiration for the courage and apparent

success of the Hungarian uprising. Now, success seems to be threatened by

Russian treachery and violence, and Hungary have appealed to the West ... It is

the first, and probably will prove only chance to reverse the calamitous results of

the Yalta ... The Prime Minister has told us that 50 million tons of British shipping

is at stake in his dispute with President Nasser. What is at stake in Central

Europe is somewhat more than 50 million souls. It can be argued that it is not so

easy to help in Hungary; reason they are entitled to reply that it is not so easy to

help themselves. 80

79 Cole, Robert A.J.P. Taylor the traitor Within the Gates, London: Macmillan 1993 page 14980 Wilson, A.N. Our Times, Hutchinson: London 2008 pages 65-66.

Women Violet Bonham Carter, influential members of the Liberal Party,

wrote in a letter to the Times that:

I am one of the millions who watched his martyrdom Hungary and hear an

appeal today for delivery agonizing help (immediately followed by "successful

bombing" our "target" of Egypt) who has felt the humiliation, shame and anger

that is beyond expression ... We can not comply with the edict ordering the

Russian Soviet Nations (UN) that we ourselve have challenged, or remove tanks

and weapons from Hungary, while we bombed and invaded Egypt. Today we

stand in the dock with the Russian ... Never in my life have our name stood so

low in the eyes of the world. We never stand alone so ingloriously. 81

According to public opinion polls at the time, 37% of British people support

the war, while 44% were opposed. Observer newspaper leader (editorial)

attacked the government of Eden to "folly and crookedness" in invading Egypt

while the Manchester Guardian urged readers to write letters of protest to their

MPs. The Economist talking "weird union cynicism and hysteria" in the

government and the audience stated that Eden will soon be facing a "terrible

indictment".82

Labour Party and Trade Union Congress organized anti-war protests

around the country, starting on 1 November under the slogan "law, not war!"

[179] On November 4, the anti-war rally in Trafalgar Square attended by 30,000

people (making it easier largest gathering in London since 1945), the Labour MP

Aneurin Bevan accused the government of "policy bankruptcy and despair".

Bevan stated in Trafalgar rally:

We are stronger than Egypt but there are other countries that are stronger

than we. Are we ready to accept the logic we apply to Egypt for ourselves? If the

countries are stronger than ourselves accept the principle of absence,

anarchistic attitude Eden and launch bombs in London, what was the answer we

got, what we got complaints? If we are going to appeal to force, if force is to be

referee we appeal, it will at least make common sense to try to make sure in

advance that we were there, if you accept that abysmal logic, that decadent

view.

We are actually in a position today to make an appeal to force in the case

of a small country, where if it appealed to us it will lead to the destruction of

Great Britain, not only as a nation, but as an island containing living men and

81 Ibid, p6682 Turner, Barry Suez 1956, London: Hodder & Stoughton 2006 page 354.

women. So I said to Anthony, I said to the British government, there is no count

at all in which they can be defended.

They were using the name of Britain. They have made us ashamed of the

things that we were once proud of. They have offended against every principle of

decency and simply no way in which they can begin to restore their damaged

reputation and that is to get out! Get out! Get out! 83

Inspired by Bevan's speech, the crowd in Trafalgar Square and then

marched on 10 Downing Street chanting "Eden Must Go!", And tried to invade

the house of the Prime Minister. The clashes between the police and ensure the

protesters who were arrested by the television camera has a significant effect on

the cabinet discourage Eden, who had met there.

Some modern historians insist, however, that the majority of public

opinion at the time was on the side of Eden. British historian Barry Turner writes

that:

The public comments highlighted the pressing in the country. But there is

no doubt that Eden still commanded support from a sizeable minority, perhaps

even a majority of voters who think that it is about time that the Arab people are

disappointed to be taught a lesson. Observer and Guardian readers, as is the

News Chronicle, a liberal newspaper soon to fold as a result of the findings.

A.N. Wilson wrote that:

Most of the press, the Labour Party and that the same party influence,

learning left London dinner party, all of Suez along with rent mob poet, dons,

priests and ankle-socked female graduates who regret the British action, they do

not necessarily agree. The majority of public opinion "unexpressed Economy",

Roy Harrod wrote at the time that "the head is more British, which I believe to be

the majority by not the most vocal" support "a significant act of courage and

statesmanship" of the government.

Reaction International Operations, which aims to take control of the Suez

Canal, Gaza, and the Sinai, was highly successful for invaders from a military

standpoint, but a disaster from a political standpoint, causing international

criticism and diplomatic pressure. Along with the Suez crisis, the United States

was also dealing with the near-simultaneous Hungarian revolution. Vice

President Richard Nixon later explained: "We can not on one hand, complain

about the Soviet intervention in Hungary and on the other hand, approved the

83 "Aneurin Bevan 1956". New Statesman. UK. 4 February 2010 2010. http://www.newstatesman.com/uk-politics/2010/02/aneurin-bevan-1956-speech. Retrieved 22 August 2011.

British and French dig that particular time to intervene against Nasser".84

Although no commercial or military interest in the area, many countries with

respect to what is a growing split between Western countries associate.

Although Israel refused to withdraw troops from the Gaza Strip and Sharm

el-Sheikh, Eisenhower declared, "We can not allow Europe to go flat on the back

of oil O." He tried the efforts supported by the United Nations to impose

economic sanctions against Israel until it withdraws completely from Egyptian

territory. Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson and minority leader William

Knowland objected to American pressure on Israel. Johnson told Secretary of

State, John Foster Dulles that he wanted him to fight "with all skills" any attempt

to apply sanctions on Israel.

Dulles institute demand Johnson, and Eisenhower told the objections made

by the Senate. Eisenhower was "demanding to impose economic sanctions" as

cutting U.S. aid to Israel, which has been estimated at over $ 100 million a year.

Finally, the Democratic Party controlled Senate will not work with Eisenhower

position on Israel. Eisenhower finally told Congress he would take this issue to

the American people, saying, "America has one or no voice, and that voice is the

voice of the President - whether everyone agrees with him or not". The President

spoke to the nation on radio and television where he outlined Israel's refusal to

withdraw, explaining the belief that the UN has "no choice but to exert pressure

on Israel." 85

On 30 October, the Security Council held a meeting, at the request of the

United States, when it submitted a draft resolution calling on Israel to withdraw

immediately forces behind the established armistice lines. It does not apply

because the British and French vetoes. A similar draft resolution sponsored by

the Soviet Union was also rejected. On 31 October, also as planned, France and

UK launch air strikes against targets in Egypt, which was followed shortly by

landing their troops in the north end of the Canal Zone. Later that day,

considering the grave situation created by the actions of Egypt, and with the lack

of consensus among the permanent members prevented from carrying out its

primary responsibility to maintain international peace and security, the Security

Council passed Resolution 119; she decided to call an emergency special session

84 Borhi, László (1999). "Containment, Rollback, Liberation or Inaction? The United States and Hungary in the 1950s" (PDF). Journal of Cold War Studies 1 (3): 67–108. doi:10.1162/152039799316976814. http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/152039799316976814?cookieSet=1&journalCode=jcws. Retrieved 2009-06-29.

85 Divine, Robert (1981). Eisenhower and the Cold War. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 64–66.

General Assembly for the first time, as provided in the 1950 "United for Peace"

resolution, to make appropriate recommendations to end the battle.

Universal Film news report Dag Hammarskjöld's meeting with NasserThe

emergency special session held on 1 November; same day Nasser requested

diplomatic assistance from the United States (U.S.), without asking the same of

the Soviet Union; him at first skeptical of the effectiveness of U.S. diplomatic

efforts at the UN, but later gave full credit to Eisenhower role in stopping the war

[190] In the early morning of 2 November, the General Assembly adopted the

United States' proposal for Resolution 997 (ES-I). 64 votes in favor and 5 against

(Australia, New Zealand, Britain, France, and Israel) with 6 abstentions. It calls

for an immediate ceasefire, the withdrawal of all forces behind the armistice

lines, an arms embargo and the reopening of the Suez canal, which has now

been blocked. The Secretary-General was requested to observe and report

promptly on compliance to both the Security Council and General Assembly, for

further action as it deems appropriate in accordance with the UN Charter. Over

the next few days, the emergency special session next using a series of

resolution, the United Nations established the first American Emergency Force

(UNEF), on 7 November by Resolution 1001. This proposal and the resulting

emergency team ceasefire was done primarily through the efforts of, Lester B.

Pearson, Secretary of Foreign Affairs of Canada, and Dag Hammarskjöld,

Secretary-General of the United Nations (UN). The role of Nehru, both as Indian

Prime Minister and a leader of the Non-Aligned Movement is important, he tries

to be handed in between the two sides, while denouncing Eden and co-sponsors

aggression vigorously. Nehru has one powerful ally in U.S. President Dwight

Eisenhower who, if relatively silent public, go up to the use of American influence

in the IMF to make Eden and Mollet back down. Portugal and Iceland went so far

as to suggest ejecting Britain and France from the North Atlantic Treaty

Organization (NATO) defense pact if they did not withdraw from Egypt not in

citation given] Nehru achieved his objective of protecting Egypt's sovereignty

and Nasser's honor;. the Suez War ended in Britain's humiliation and Eden later

resigned Britain and France agreed to withdraw from Egypt within a week; Israel

does.

Meanwhile, on 7 November in Israel, David Ben-Gurion addressed the

Knesset in a victory speech that would set Israel on a collision course with the

United Nations Organization, the United States (U.S.) and others. He declared a

major victory and that the 1949 armistice agreement with Egypt was dead and

buried, and that the armistice lines are no longer valid and can not be restored.

Under no circumstances would Israel agree to placement of UN troops on

territory or in any occupied area. He also made an oblique reference intention to

annex the Sinai Peninsula. Isaac Alteras wrote that Ben-Gurion 'was carried away

by the brilliant victory against Egypt' and while 'a statesman well-known for

sober realism, he took flight in dreams of grandeur.' Speech marked the

beginning of a four-month diplomatic struggle, culminating in withdrawal from all

territory, under conditions far less palatable than envisioned in the speech, but

with conditions for sea access to Eilat and a UNEF presence on Egyptian soil.

Speech immediately drew increased international pressure on Israel to withdraw.

Then on November 7 in New York, an emergency session passed Resolution

1002, again calling for the immediate withdrawal of Israeli forces behind the

armistice lines, and for the immediate withdrawal of British and French troops

from Egyptian territory. After a long Israeli cabinet meeting late on November 8,

Ben-Gurion informed Eisenhower that Israel declared its readiness to accept the

withdrawal of Israeli forces from Sinai, 'when satisfactory arrangements are

made with the international forces were about to enter the canal zone'. 86

Although the Soviet Union's position in the crisis are not able to do

anything as is the United States' on Hungarian uprising, Prime Nikolai Bulganin

threatened to intervene on the side of Egypt, and rocket attacks in Britain,

France and Israel. Eisenhower's reaction to this threat is, "If those fellows start

something, we may have to hit 'em -., And, if necessary, with everything in the

bucket". Eisenhower immediately ordered the U-2s into action over Syria and

Israel to find any Soviet air force base in Syria, the British and French so can

destroy them. He told the Secretary of State Herbert Hoover Jr. and CIA director

Allan Dulles, "If the Soviet invasion of France and the British directly, we will be

in a war and we are justified in taking military action even if Congress is not in

session." (American Israel excluded from warranty against Soviet attack,

however, concern the Israeli government) Eden no clearly concerned with the

Soviet threat, since Britain was itself a nuclear power, and the government does

not have a broad knowledge of all weapons of the Soviet Union. Bulganin

accused Ben-Gurion support of European colonialism, and Mollet of hypocrisy for

leading a socialist government while pursuing a right-wing foreign policy. He did

not budge in his letter to Eden that Britain has a legitimate interest in Egypt.

86 Eisenhower and Israel: U.S.-Israeli Relations, 1953–1960, Isaac Alteras, University Press of Florida, 1993, ISBN 0-8130-1205-8, page 246. Books.google.com. Retrieved on 8 September 2011.

Financial stress

Film News from the month of November 12, the United States also provided

financial pressure on the UK to end the invasion. As the Bank of England has lost

$ 45 million between 30 October and 2 November, the UK's oil supply has been

blighted by the closure of the Suez Canal, the British get immediate relief from

the IMF, but it was denied by the United States. Eisenhower in fact ordered the

Secretary of the Treasury, George M. Humphrey, to prepare to sell part of the

U.S. Government's Sterling Bond holdings. U.S. Government bonds in part to help

the economy after the war Britain during the Cold War, and as part payment of

the debt-World War II Britain's big to the U.S. Government, American

corporations, and individuals. It is also part of the overall effort of Marshall Plan

aid, in the rebuilding of the Western European countries. UK Government

considered invaded Kuwait and Qatar if oil sanctions has been created by the

United States.

Then Britain's Chancellor of Finance United Kingdom, Harold MacMillan,

advised the Prime Minister, Anthony Eden, that the United States is fully

prepared to carry out the threat. He also warned his Prime Minister that Britain's

foreign exchange reserves simply can not sustain the devaluation of the pound,

which will come after the U.S. action, and that within a few weeks of such

measures, the country will be importing the food and energy supplies needed to

maintain the population in the islands. However, there is some skepticism in the

Cabinet that Macmillan had deliberately underestimated the financial situation

forced out of Eden. What Treasury officials told Macmillan was far less serious

than the version he told the Cabinet.

In conjunction with U.S. actions Saudi Arabia begin oil embargo against

Britain and France. The U.S. refused to fill the gap until Britain and France agreed

to a rapid withdrawal. NATO members refused to sell oil received from Arab

nations to Britain or France.

Cease-fire

Israelis protest against UN order to evacuate Gaza and Sinai, February 14,

1957The British government faced political and economic pressure. British Prime

Minister, Sir Anthony Eden, announced a cease-fire on November 6, not France

or Israel warned beforehand. Army still in Port Said and operational maneuvers

when the order came from London. Port Said has been overrun and the military

assessment was that the Suez Canal could have really taken within 24 hours.

Eisenhower initially agreed to meet with Eden and Mollet to resolve their

differences, but then cancel the proposed meeting after Secretary of State Dulles

advised him it risked inflaming the Middle Eastern situation further. Eisenhower

did not favor immediate withdrawal of British troops, France and Israel, the U.S.

ambassador to the United Nations (UN), Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. urged. Eden

before Sir Winston Churchill commented on 22 November, "I can not understand

why our military has stopped. To go this far and not go on was madness."

Churchill added that while he may not have been brave enough to start with

military operations, but once he had ordered would not dare to stop before it has

achieved its objectives. Without further guarantee, the Anglo-French Task Force

to complete withdrawal by December 22, 1956, replaced by Danish and

Colombian units of the UNEF. Israel refused to host any UN force on Israeli

controlled territory and left the Sinai of March, 1957. Before the withdrawal of

Israeli forces systematically destroyed infrastructure in the Sinai peninsula, such

as roads, railways and telephone lines, and all the houses in the villages of Abu

Ageila and Quseima El. Before the railway was destroyed, Israel Railways took

captured Egyptian National Railways locomotive equipment including 6 and 30

ton crane damage.

The UNEF was formed by forces from countries that are not part of the

major alliances (NATO and the Warsaw Pact - though Canadian troops

participated in later years, since Canada had spearheaded the idea of a neutral

force). On 24 April 1957 the canal was fully reopened to shipping. 87

Impression

End imposed by the final weak signal crisis the United Kingdom and France as

global powers. Medium-sized powers were no longer free to act independently.

Nasser's position in the Arab world improved, with his stance helping to promote

pan-Arabism. Although Egyptian forces had stood no chance against the three

allies, many Egyptians believed that Nasser had won the war militarily. Suez

Crisis may have directly led to the July 14 Revolution in Iraq. King Faisal II and

Prime Minister Nuri-es-Said were killed in two years their advice to Eden to "hit

Nasser hard and quickly". Egyptian sovereignty and ownership of the Canal was

confirmed by the United States and the United Nations. In retirement Eden

87 "Gallery". Fun. Israel Railways. http://www.rail.co.il/EN/Fun/Museum/Pages/gallery.aspx. Retrieved 25 May 2011. "Message to the Congress Transmitting the 11th Annual Report on United States Participation in the United Nations". University of California Santa Barbara. 14 January 1958. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=11356. Retrieved 5 March 2009. "Suez crisis, 1956". The Arab-Israeli conflict, 1947–present. 28 August 2001. http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/mideast/timeline.htm. Retrieved 5 March 2009.

stressed that the military response crisis has prevented the larger war in the

Middle East. Israel was expecting the invasion of Egypt either in March or April

1957 and the Soviet invasion of Syria. This crisis can be said to hasten the

process of decolonization, as many of the remaining colonies of both Britain and

France gained independence over the next few years. Some hold that it is ending

crisis led to decolonization, over-hasty in Africa, resulted in civil war and military

dictatorship. The fight over the canal also laid the foundations for the Six Day

War in 1967 due to lack of post-war peace settlement in 1956. Failure of the

Anglo-French mission was also seen as a failure for the United States, since the

western alliance has weakened and the military response had ultimately

achieved nothing. Soviets got away with their violent repression revolt in

Hungary, and can give rise to the United Nations (UN) as the defender of small

powers against imperialism. 88

As a direct result of one crisis and in order to prevent further Soviet

expansion in the region, Eisenhower asked Congress on January 5, 1957 for

authorization to use military force if requested by any Middle Eastern nation to

check aggression and, second, to set aside $ 200 million to help Middle Eastern

countries that desired aid from the United States. Congress granted both

requests and this policy became known as the Eisenhower Doctrine.

The Soviet Union has made major gains associated with influence in the

Middle East. American History John Lewis Gaddis writes about the aftermath of

the crisis.

When the British-French invasion-Israel forces them to choose, Eisenhower and

Dulles were down, with immediate firmness, next to the Egyptian people. They

prefer alignment with Arab nationalism, even if it means separating the election

of pro-Israel on the eve of presidential elections in the United States, even if it

means throwing the NATO alliance to be the most divisive crisis again, even if it

means risking whatever is left ' istimewa' Anglo-American relationship, even if it

means voting with the Soviet Union in the Security Council of the United Nations

at a time when Russia invaded Hungary and destroy itself far more brutal than

anything that happened in Egypt - the revolt against authority their own there.

The fact that the Eisenhower administration itself applied crushing economic

pressures, the British and French to stay away from Suez and it was later forced

Israel to withdraw from Sinai as well with all this, one might think, would win the

88 Delauche, Frederic Illustrated History of Europe: A Unique Guide to Europe's Common Heritage (1992) p. 357

lasting gratitude USA Nasser, Egypt and the Arab world . Instead, America lost

influence in the Middle East as a result of Suez, while Russia acquired.

Many threats Nikita Khrushchev, publicity stated in a letter written by

Nikolai Bulganin to launch a rocket attack on 5 November in Britain, France and

Israel if they did not withdraw from Egypt was widely believed at the time to

have to force a cease-fire. Thus, the prestige of the Soviet Union, which seems

set to launch a nuclear attack on Britain, France and Israel to Egypt soared to

new heights in Egypt, the Arab world and the Third World in general. Through

Nasser in private admit that it is the American economic pressure that has saved

him, but it was Khrushchev, Eisenhower not a public thank Nasser as Egypt's

savior and special friend of Khrushchev in his memoirs later to increase:

We use our influence to stop the England international, French and Israeli

invasion of Egypt in 1956 is a historic turning point ... Before this they seem to

think that we were cheating, when we openly said that the Soviet Union has

powerful rocket. But then they see that we really have a rocket. And this has an

impact.

Khrushchev took the view that the Suez crisis was a major victory for the

Soviet nuclear brinksmanship, arguing in public and private sector that the

threat to use nuclear weapons is what has kept Egypt Khrushchev claimed in his

memoirs:

England and the French government know well that the speech

Eisenhower's invasion they only signal for public appearances. But when we

deliver our own harsh warning to the three intruders, they know we do not play

with public opinion. They take us seriously. 89

Khrushchev interesting conclusion that the Suez crisis, which he sees as

his own personal victory is that the use of nuclear blackmail is a very effective

tool to achieve the goal of Soviet foreign policy. Thus began the long crisis that

began with the Berlin crisis of 1958 and culminated in the Cuban Missile Crisis of

1962, where Khrushchev threatened to start World War III if he did not get the

trip. No less important in explaining the Soviet diplomatic victory in the Near

East is Nasser's reaction to the Eisenhower Doctrine. Nasser never wanted to

Egypt in line with one superpower, and instead prefer a situation where he was

the object of competing American and Soviet efforts to buy friendship. After

Suez, U.S. Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, to see that there is one vacuum

89 Gaddis, John Lewis (1997, 1998). We Know Now: Rethinking Cold War History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p173.

power in the Middle East, and think the United States should fill it. Dulles

policy, which is to ultimately led to the proclamation of the Eisenhower Doctrine

was based on the assumption that Nasser and other Arab leaders share U.S. fear

of the Soviet Union. This is not actually the case, and Nasser hate Israel far more

than anything in him may have about the Soviet Union, and in any case prefer a

situation in which the two major powers competing for his favor for its part to be

aligned with one superpower. Eisenhower Doctrine was considered by Nasser as

a heavy-hand attempt to dominate the Middle East America (region that Nasser

believed he should rule), and bring him back swinging the Soviet Union as the

best counter-weight. It is only by leaving the quiet Eisenhower Doctrine in the

study of the National Security Council in mid-1958 that Nasser began to

withdraw from the Soviet Union to continue its role as a spoiler liked trying to

play two great powers against each other.

Military Education

Great military was strengthened by the Suez War was the extent that the desert

supports very fluid, mobile operations and air retention power. French aircraft

destroyed Egyptian forces threatening paratroops at Raswa and save the IDF

Israeli air force a few days worth of time. Operating in the open desert without

air supremacy proved suicidal for the Egyptian army in the Sinai. Royal Marine

helicopter assault on Port Said "shows promise as a technique for transporting

troops to the small landing zone". Strategic bombing proved ineffective. Revise

Phrase II failed to achieve the goal of breaking the spirit of Egypt and at the

same time, those civilian deaths that do not occur helped to turn world opinion

against the invasion and especially hurt support for the war in Britain. Egyptian

urban warfare tactics at Port Said proved effective delay Allied advance. Finally,

the war demonstrated the importance of diplomacy. Anglo-French operation

against Egypt's military succcessful, but proved to be counterproductive as

opinion in the presence of both houses of Britain and France and the world

abroad, especially in the United States, is on operations.

Jewish exodus from Arab countries and the Islamic and Jewish history in Egypt

In October 1956, when the Suez Crisis erupted, 1,000 Jews were arrested and

500 Jewish businesses were confiscated by the government. A statement

branding the Jews as "Zionists and enemies of the state" was read in the

mosques of Cairo and Alexandria. Jewish bank accounts were confiscated and

many Jews lost their job. Lawyers, engineers, doctors and teachers are not

allowed to work in their profession. Thousands of Jews were ordered to leave the

country. They were allowed to take only one suitcase and a small amount of

cash, and forced to sign declarations "donating" their property to the Egyptian

government. Foreign observers reported that members of Jewish families were

taken hostage, apparently to insure that those forced to leave did not speak out

against the Egyptian government. Some 25,000 Jews, almost half of the Jewish

community left, mainly to Israel, Europe, USA and South America, after being

forced to sign a declaration that they had left voluntarily and agree with seizure

of their assets. Similar measures were enacted against British and French

nationals in retaliation for the invasion. By 1957 the Jewish population of Egypt

had fallen to 15,000.

British historian DR Thorpe wrote that the imposed ending to the Crisis

gave Nasser "... an inflated view of his own power." In his mind, he had defeated

the combined forces of the United Kingdom, France and Israel, when in fact the

military operation was "defeated" by pressure from the United States. Despite

the defeat of Egypt, Nasser emerged as a hero in the Arab world enhanced.

American history Derek Varble commented "Although Egyptian forces fought

with modest skills in conflict, many Arabs see Nasser as the conqueror of

European colonialism and Zionism, simply because Britain, France and Israel

leave the Sinai and the northern Canal Zone". Thrope wrote about Nasser's post

Suez hurbis that "the Six Day War against Israel in 1967 was when reality kicked

in a war that will not happen if the Suez crisis was having a different

resolution".90

Political and psychological impact of the crisis resolution BritainThe have a

fundamental impact on British politics. Anthony Eden was accused of misleading

parliament and resigned from office on January 9, 1957, after significant

pressure leveled by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and the United States

government. Eden almost did not become prime minister for two years by the

time. resignation, and his unsuccessful handling of the Suez Crisis eclipse the

success he has achieved in a variety of government and opposition roles over

the past 30 years. Eden's successor, Harold MacMillan, many accelerated

decolonization and try to recapture the joy of the United States. He enjoys a

close friendship with Eisenhower from their first meeting in a very successful

conference in Bermuda in March 1957. Benefit from the personal popularity and

90 Thrope, D.R. (1 November 2006). "What we failed to learn from Suez". London: Daily Telegrah. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/3656288/What-we-failed-to-learn-from-Suez.html. Retrieved 2010-21-21.

a good economy, governments Macmillan increase majority in general elections

1959.

Increasingly, British foreign policy thinking turned out to act as a major

imperial power. During the 1960s there was much speculation that the constant

rejection Prime Minister Harold Wilson, to send any British troops into Vietnam,

still in force 1 token, though continuing demand President Lyndon B. Johnson's, is

partly due to the U.S. failed to support Britain during the Suez crisis. Edward

Heath was frustrated by the opposition of the United States to Britain during the

Suez crisis: as Prime Minister in October 1973 he refused the U.S. permission to

use any of the UK's air bases to resupply during the Yom Kippur War, or to allow

the Americans to gather intelligence from the British base in Cyprus.

The events that led to the resignation of Eden marked the last significant

attempt Britain made to impose military abroad without the support of the

United States, up to the Falklands War in 1982. Macmillan was every bit as

determined as Eden had stopped Nasser, although he is more willing to get

American support. There are those who say that the crisis also marked the final

transfer of power to the new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet

Union.

Despite the lack of U.S. cooperation, although British domestic politics

suffered, the British relationship with the United States did not suffer lasting

consequences from the crisis. "'Special relationship' Anglo-American has

revitalized immediately after the Suez Crisis." "The two governments ... engaged

in almost ritualistic reassurances that the 'special relationship' with the quicker

they will be restored." Eisenhower himself later stated that he regretted private

opposition to the celebration combined British, French and Israeli crisis. After

retiring from office Eisenhower came to see the Suez Crisis might be his biggest

foreign policy mistake. Not only did he feel that the United States weakens two

important European allies Cold War, but he has created in Nasser a man that can

dominate the Arab world. In later years a revisionist view held that the real

mistake during the Crisis was made not by Eden but by Eisenhower, for failing to

support his allies, he gave the impression that the West was divided and weak,

the Soviet quick to exploit. Revisionists further argued that by failing to show

enough leadership in finding a diplomatic solution Crisis, Eisenhower and the

Organization of the United Nations has made the Anglo-French military response

unavoidable. Eisenhower was intensely worried supporting his allies might harm

his chances of winning re-election - had the invasion was launched on November

7, he may be more muted reaction, in which the entire canal may have been

taken by the British and French armies.

American Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles was diagnosed with colon

cancer and underwent surgery last week the Suez war. During a visit by UK

Foreign Secretary, Selwyn Lloyd, at Walter Reed Hospital in Washington, Dulles

asked, 'Selwyn, why would you stop? Why do not you go through with it and get

Nasser down?' Lloyd surprised replied, "If you have so many a wink that we ... '.

Records bedside visit by President Eisenhower five days earlier shows Secretary

of State made a similar statement.

Eden was reported to have said to one conservative and that he found it

strange that someone so little compared to the Suez crisis in 1938 and wrote,

"Egypt may be not Germany but Russia is and Egypt are 'pawns' in Moscow. Yet

so much as be to fail to see this and to trust Nasser's almost like someone else

gave Hitler years. "In 1977, died of Eden, The Times wrote," He was the last

prime minister to believe Britain was a great power and the first to deal with the

crisis that prove he is not. "

French-American relations have never recovered from the Suez crisis.

There are various reasons for this. "Prior to the Suez Crisis has become strain in

Franco-American relationship triggered by what Paris considered U.S. betrayal of

the French war effort in Indochina at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. Incident reflects

poorly on the NATO alliance in the lack of planning and external cooperation

European level. Mollet believed Eden should have delayed calling the Cabinet

together until 7 November, taking around Canal meantime, and then veto with

the French resolution any UN sanctions. point of view of General de Gaulle, the

Suez events show the French that it could not rely on allies associates; British

started ceasefire in the middle of a battle without consulting the French, while

the Americans had opposed Paris politically damage to relations between Paris

and Washington DC "which led to the decision of 1966 to President de Gaulle

withdrew from NATO's military integration." 91

According to the protocol of Sèvres agreements, France secretly

transmitted parts of atomic technology to Israel.

Israel

Israeli Chief of Staff Moshe Dayan (left) speaks at the Sharm el Sheikh. To the

right is Avraham Yoffe, commander of the 9th Brigade. Israeli capture of

91 Risse-Kappen, Thomas (1995). Cooperation among Democracies: The European Influence on U.S. Foreign Policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/06910346446|06910346446]].

strategic positions of power emerged victorious from the war. Implementing

powers leading the military campaign military theorist BH Liddell Hart termed

"brilliant." [240] Israel Defense Forces gained confidence from the campaign.

War proved that Israel is capable of performing large scale military maneuvers in

addition to small night raids and counter insurgency operations. David Ben-

Gurion, reading on November 16 that the 90,000 British and French troops were

involved in the Suez affair, wrote in his diary, 'If they only joined us this power

commander, Nasser would have been destroyed in two days' [236] The Battle it

also has significant benefits for Israel. Straits of Tiran, closed by Egypt since

1951 has been reopened. Israeli shipping in turn can move freely through the

Straits of Tiran to and from Africa and Asia. Israel also secured the presence of

UN Peacekeepers in Sinai. Operation Kadesh bought Israel's 11-year lull in the

southern border with Egypt.

Israel missed the political humiliation that befell Britain and France

following the release of their rapid, forceful. In addition, a stubborn refusal to

withdraw without ending assurance efforts the West, particularly the United

States and the British, to impose a political settlement in the Middle East without

Israel's security must take into account.

In October 1965 Eisenhower on Jewish fundraiser and Republican party

supporter Max M. Fisher that he greatly regretted forcing Israel to withdraw from

the Sinai peninsula; Vice-President Nixon recalled that Eisenhower expressed the

same view to him several times.92

Other parties, Lester B. Pearson, who later became the Prime Minister of

Canada, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957 for his efforts in creating a

mandate for the United Nations Peacekeeping Force the United Nations, and he

is regarded as the father of the modern concept of peacekeeping. Suez Crisis

contributed to the use of a new national flag for Canada in 1965, without

reference to the past that the country as a colony of France and Britain. The

Egyptian government had objected to Canadian peacekeeping troops on the

grounds that their flag at that time included the British banner. As Prime

Minister, Pearson would support simple Maple Leaf that was finally adopted.

92 Hendershot, Robert M. (2008). Family Spats: Perception, Illusion, and Sentimentality in the Anglo-American Special Relationship. VDM Verlag. ISBN 978-3-639-09016-1. Heikal, Mohamed (1986). Cutting The Lion’s Tail : Suez Through Egyptian eyes. London: Deutsch. Herzog, Chaim (1982). The Arab-Israeli Wars : War and Peace in the Middle East. New York: Random House Hyam, Ronald (2006). Britain's Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonisation 1918–1969. Cambridge University Press.

After Suez, Cyprus, Aden and Iraq became the main base for the British in

the region while the French focus their troops in Bizerte and Beirut. UNEF was

placed in the Sinai (on Egyptian territory only) with the real purpose of

maintaining the ceasefire. Although effective in preventing small-scale warfare

that existed before 1956 and after 1967, the budget cuts and changing needs

had seen the force shrink to 3378 by 1967.

The Soviet Union, after long peering through the closed door keyhole on

what is regarded as the Western sphere of influence, now finds itself invited over

the threshold as Arab partners. Soon after the re-opening, the canal was

traversed by ships first Soviet war since World War I. Soviet influence 'of the

Middle East, although it was not to last, included acquiring Mediterranean base,

introducing multipurpose projects, supporting the budding Palestinian liberation

movement and penetrating the Arab countries. 93

Conclusion

Ongoing blockade of the Suez Canal and the Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli shipping,

prompting Israel, with the support of Britain and France to invade Egypt on

October 29, 1956. Israeli Ambassador to the UN Abba Eban explained

provocation to the Security Council on 30 October. In the last six years has

operated in violation of the Armistice Agreement has occurred 1843 cases of

armed robbery and theft, 1339 cases of armed clashes with Egyptian armed

forces, 435 cases of invasion of the Egyptian-controlled territory, 172 cases of

sabotage committed by Egyptian fedayeen units and the Israeli military. Due to

the actions of Egyptian hostility in Israel, 364 Israelis were injured and 101 killed.

In 1956 alone, as a result of this aspect of Egyptian aggression, 28 Israelis were

killed and 127 injured. One of the reasons this is so intolerable attack on Israel is

that the country has chosen to create a relatively small standing army and

depends mainly on the reserves in times of war. This means that Israel has little

power to fight in an emergency, that threat can provoke mobilization reserves

nearly crippled the country, and that the initial core of the enemy will have to

last long enough to complete mobilization.

Bibliography

"Gallery". Fun. Israel Railways. http://www.rail.co.il/EN/Fun/Museum/Pages/gallery.aspx. Retrieved 25 May 2011. Heikal, Mohamed (1986). Cutting The Lion’s Tail : Suez Through

93 "Suez: The 'betrayal' of Eden". BBC News. 30 October 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/6085264.stm.

Egyptian eyes. London: Deutsch.

Hendershot, Robert M. (2008). Family Spats: Perception, Illusion, and Sentimentality in the Anglo-American Special Relationship. VDM Verlag.Herzog, Chaim (1982). The Arab-Israeli Wars : War and Peace in the Middle East. New York: Random House

Hyam, Ronald (2006). Britain's Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonisation 1918–1969. Cambridge University Press.

"Message to the Congress Transmitting the 11th Annual Report on United States Participation in the United Nations". University of California Santa Barbara. 14 January 1958. Retrieved 2009 March 5. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=11356

"Suez crisis, 1956". The Arab-Israeli conflict, 1947–present. 2001 August 28.

Retrieved 2009 March 5 from http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/mideast/timeline.htm.

Chapter 5

Arab-Israeli Conflict (III) - Six-Day War, 1967

Introduction

Six-Day War or "setback," 1967حرب , Harb, 1967, "War of 1967"), also known as

the June 1967 War, the Arab-Israeli War, or Third Arab-Israeli War, took place

between 5 and June 10, 1967 , by Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt

(known then as the United Arab Republic), Jordan, and Syria. After a period of

tension between Israel and its neighbors is high, the war began on June 5 with

Israel launching surprise air strikes against the Arab powers. Israel's decision is a

victory that swiftly and firmly. Israel took effective control of the Gaza Strip and

Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and

the Golan Heights from Syria.

Background and Summary of Events That Lead To War

After the Suez crisis of 1956, Egypt agreed to placement of the Emergency Team

of the United Nations Organisation (UNEF) in the Sinai to ensure all parties will

comply with the 1949 Armistice Agreement. In the following years there were

many border skirmish between Israel and its Arab neighbors, particularly Syria.

In early November 1966, Syria signed a mutual defense treaty with Egypt. Not

long after that, in response to the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) guerilla

activity, including mine attack that left three dead, the Israeli Defense Forces

(IDF) attacked the city of as-Samu in the Jordanian-occupied West Bank.

Jordanian units that engaged the Israelis were quickly beaten back. King Hussein

of Jordan criticized Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser failed to come to

Jordan's aid, and "hiding behind UNEF skirts".94

In May 1967, Nasser received false reports from the Soviet Union that

Israel was massing on the Syrian border. Nasser began massing troops on the

border in the Sinai Peninsula (May 16) Israel, expelled the UNEF force from Gaza

and Sinai (May 19), and take UNEF positions at Sharm el-Sheikh, overlooking the

Straits of Tiran. UN Secretary-General U Thant proposed that the UNEF force

stationed on the borders of Israel, but this was rejected by Israel despite U.S.

pressure. Israel reiterated declarations made in 1957 that any closure of the

Straits would be considered an act of war, or justification for war. Nasser

declared the Straits closed to Israeli shipping in May. 22-23. On May 27, he

stated "Our basic objective will be the destruction of Israel. Arabs want to fight."

On May 30, Jordan and Egypt signed a defense pact. On the following day, at the

invitation of Jordan, the Iraqi army began deploying troops and armored units in

Jordan. They were later reinforced by contingents of Egypt. On June 1, Israel

formed the National Unity Government to expand the cabinet, and on June 4 the

decision was made to go to war. The next day, Israel launched Operation Focus,

the air strike a massive shock that is opening the Six Day War. 95

Military preparations

Arab preparations

On the eve of the war, Egypt gathered about 100,000 soldiers 160,000 in the

Sinai, including all the 7 (four infantry, two armored and 1 machine), four

infantry brigades and four independent armored brigades. Not less than one-

third of whom are veterans of Egypt's intervention into the Yemen Civil War and

another third was safe. These forces had 950 tanks, 1100 APCs and more than

1,000 pieces of artillery. At the same time some Egyptian troops (15,000-20,000)

are still fighting in Yemen. Nasser's ambivalence about his goals and objectives

are reflected in his orders to the army. General staff changed the operational

94 Burrowes, Robert & Muzzio, Douglas. (1972). The Road to the Six Day War: Towards an Enumerative History of Four Arab States and Israel, 1965–67. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 16, No. 2, Research Perspectives on the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Symposium, pp.224-225

95 Churchill, Randolph & Churchill, Winston. (1967 ). The Six Day War. Houghton Mifflin Company. PP 52-77.

plan four times in May 1967, each change requires redeployment of troops, with

the toll on both men and vehicles that can not be avoided. By the end of May,

Nasser finally forbade the general staff from proceeding with plans Qahir

("Victory"), called for a light infantry screen in the forward fortifications with

most of the forces held back to conduct a massive counterattack against the

main Israeli advance when identified, and ordered the defense before Sinai.

Meanwhile, he continued to take actions intended to increase the level of

mobilization of Egypt, Syria and Jordan, to bring pressure on Israel.

Syrian troops have 1 total strength of 75,000 and collect them along the

Syrian border. Jordanian army has 55,000 troops and 300 tanks along the

Jordanian border, 250 of which were U.S. M48 Patton, sizable amounts of M113

APCs, 1 new motorized infantry battalion, and a paratrooper battalion trained in

the new school was built. They also have 12 battalions of artillery and six

batteries of 81 mm and 120 mm mortars.

Documents captured by Israel from Jordan commandments various

records kept by the end of May for the Hashemite Brigade to capture Ramot Burj

Bir Mai'in in night raid, codenamed "Operation Khaled". The aim is to establish a

database along with the position to capture Latrun armor LOD and Ramle.

"Continue" and the final codeword Sa'ek Nasser. Jordan plans to capture and

Sha'alvim Motza in the strategic Jerusalem Corridor. Motza was assigned to

Infantry Brigade 27 camped near Ma'ale Adummim "reserve brigade will

commence infiltration into Motza night, will destroy the foundation, and will not

leave residue or refugee from among 800 residents".

100 Iraqi tanks and infantry division has provided near the border with

Jordan. Two fighter squadron, Hawker Hunters and MiG 21, were rebased

adjacent to the Jordanian border. On June 2, Jordan called all reserve officers, and

commander of the West Bank to meet with community leaders in Ramallah to

request assistance and cooperation for the army during the war, assuring them

that "in three days we'll be in Tel-Aviv". Arab air forces assisted by volunteer

pilots of the Pakistan Air Force acting in independent capacity, and by some

aircraft from Libya, Algeria, Morocco, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia to make huge

losses suffered on the first day of the war. 96

Israeli preparations

96 "Pakistan Air Force – Pakistan Navy – Pakistan Army". Scramble.nl. Retrieved February 1, 2012. http://www.scramble.nl/pk.htm.

Before the war, Israeli pilots and ground crews had trained extensively in rapid

refitting aircraft returning from sorties, enabling an aircraft sortie up to four

times a day (as opposed to the norm in Arab air forces of one or two sorties per

day). This allows the Israeli Air Force (IAF) to send several attack waves against

Egyptian airport on the first day of the war, overwhelming the Egyptian Air Force,

and allowed to knock the Arab air forces on the same day. This has contributed

to the Arab belief that the IAF was helped by foreign air forces (see Controversies

relating to the Six Day War). Pilots were extensively schooled about their targets,

and forced to memorize every single detail, and read operations several times on

dummy runways in total secrecy.

The Egyptians built the fortress defenses in the Sinai. These designs are

based on the assumption that the attack would come along some main roads

through the desert, not through desert terrain difficult. Israel chose not to risk

attacking the Egyptian defenses head, and instead surprised them from an

unexpected direction. They had practiced driving vehicles through soft dunes in

the Negev, and discovered that the vehicle will have greater maneuverability in

desert terrain if the tire part deflated. As a result, they can choose the angle of

attack, and advance through areas the Egyptians least expected. To maintain

the high performance of the Israeli army in the summer of the Sinai desert, the

Israeli army ordered that soldiers be supplied with one liter of water per hour,

compared to the previous one liter per day. As a result, the military is capable of

doing better than their Egyptian counterparts.

Israeli civilians to dig trenches in Gan Shmuel. To prepare war with Syria, the

Mossad (Israeli secret service) had sent agent Eli Cohen to infiltrate the Syrian

government, in which he exploits high position to provide vital intelligence.

Pretending to be sympathetic to the Syrian army, he ordered trees planted by

every Syrian charging for their shade. They were then used as a marker targeted

by Israel. Intelligence has revealed in the form of the most difficult terrain, so the

path of the storm were chosen that would avoid natural tank traps and surprises

Syria. Mossad also exercise oversight over Egypt. By the time war broke out, the

Mossad has either katsa informants (field intelligence officer) or Egypt at the

headquarters every Egyptian air bases and military. Three staff officers at the

General Headquarters of the High Command is Israeli mole. Between the

intelligence gathered by the informant is embarrassing personal information on

Egyptian soldiers. This information is sometimes used as blackmail to get new

information Mossad. Mossad also disclose details of private conduct numerous

deployments to the family and their friends through anonymous letters and

phone calls. The campaign caused a considerable dissention in the Egyptian

army, and led to the suicide senior. Early 1967, the Israeli intelligence network in

Egypt, Nasser was spotted preparing for war with Israel, and more information

was employed. By early May 1967, the Mossad, the Israeli commander can keep

the right time to attack Egyptian airbases.

The Israeli army had a total strength, including reserves, 264,000,

although this figure could not be sustained, as the savings are essential to

civilian life. James Reston, writing in The New York Times on May 23, 1967, said,

"In the efficiency of discipline, training, morale, equipment and general

[Nasser's] army and the other Arab forces, without the direct assistance of the

Soviet Union, not on par with Israel Even with 50,000 troops .... and the best

generals and air force in Yemen, he was not able to work in a small and primitive

country, and efforts to help the Congo rebels are flops. "

On the evening of June 1, Israeli Minister of Defense Moshe Dayan called

Chief of Staff Yitzhak Rabin and the General Officer Commanding (GOC),

Southern Command Brigadier General Yeshayahu Gavish to present plans

against Egypt. Rabin had formulated a plan in which Southern Command team

would fight their way to Gaza and then hold the territory and people hostage

until Egypt agreed to reopen the Straits of Tiran;, while Gavish had a more

comprehensive plan that called for the destruction of the Egyptian army in the

Sinai. Rabin support Gavish plan, which was later confirmed by Dayan with the

caution that simultaneous attack against Syria should be avoided.

Although plans were made for an offensive operation of society, Israeli

Arabs are ready for the invasion. Israeli civilians and defense dug, and

preparations were made to transfer the child to Europe. About 14,000 hospital

beds were available. Antidote to the poison gas victims, are expected to arrive in

waves of about 200, stockpiled, and German donate approximately 20,000 gas

masks. About 10,000 graves have been excavated. Jewish diaspora plays an

important role in the preparation. Volunteers arrived in large numbers, and

priority was given to the young and skilled degree. There are large-scale

donations and fund drives of both Jews and Gentiles sympathetic. French Jews

expressed their willingness to donate blood, the children of Israel moved, and

selling artwork to raise money. According to Michael Oren account of the war,

there was a sense of approaching calamity in Israel, with lectures widely

bombing Israeli cities and wiped out a whole generation of soldiers. 97

Forward Team Fight

Beginner Air Attack

Israel's first step and the most critical is the surprise attack on the Egyptian Air

Force. Egypt has the largest far and all the Arab air forces, consisting of about

420 of the most modern combat aircraft, all of them Soviet built and with a

heavy quota of top-line MiG-21 capable of reaching Mach 2 speed. Initially, both

Egypt and Israel announced that they had been attacked by another country.

Of concern to Israel 30 Tu-16 "Badger" medium bombers, capable of

inflicting damage on the weight of Israeli military and civilian centers. On June 5

at 7:45 Israeli time, as civil defense sirens sounded throughout Israel, the IAF

launched Operation Focus (Moked). All but 12 of nearly 200 operational jets left

the skies of Israel in a mass attack on the airport 1 Egypt. The Egyptian

defensive infrastructure is very poor, and no further airport is equipped with

hardened aircraft shelter capable of protecting Egypt fighter planes. Most of the

Israeli warplanes headed in the Mediterranean Sea, flying low to avoid radar

detection, before turning toward Egypt. Other people who fly over the Red Sea.

Meanwhile, Egyptians prevented their own defense effectively shut down their

entire air defense system: they were worried that rebel Egyptian forces would

shoot down the plane carrying Field Marshal Abdel Hakim Amer and Lt-Gen.

TULUNGAGUNG Mahmoud, who travel from al Maza to Bir Tamada in the Sinai to

meet the commander of the troops stationed there. In any event, it does not

make much difference as the Israeli pilots came in below Egyptian radar cover

and well below the lowest point at which the battery missile SA-2 surface-to-air

can reduce aircraft. Despite Jordan's powerful radar facility in Ajloun detecting

plane wave approaching Egypt and reported the code word for "war" up the

Egyptian command chain, Egyptian command and communications problems

prevented the warning from reaching the targeted airport. Israeli attack mix

strategy worked: bombing and strafing runs against planes parked on the ground

itself, and bombed the runway with special-shredding penetration bombs

developed platform with France to disable them and leave surviving aircraft can

not take off. Arish airport runway has been missed, Israel is expected to return to

the airport to transport their troops after the war. Surviving aircraft were later

97 Oren, Michael. (2005). The Revelations of 1967: New Research on the Six Day War and Its Lessons for the Contemporary Middle East, Israel studies, volume 10, number 2.

taken out by wave attack some more. Operation was more successful than

expected, catching the Egyptians by surprise and destroying virtually all

Egyptian Air Force on the ground, with few Israeli losses. A total of 338 Egyptian

aircraft were destroyed and 100 pilots were killed, though the actual number of

aircraft lost by the Egyptians dispute. Among the Egyptian planes lost all 30 Tu-

16 bombers, 27 of the 40 Il-28 bombers, 12 Su-7 fighter-bombers, over 90 MiG-

21s, 20 MiG-19s, 25 MiG-17 fighters, and about 32 helicopters and transport

aircraft. In addition, the Egyptian radar and SAM missiles have also been

attacked and destroyed. Israel lost 19 aircraft, including two destroyed in air

combat and air-to-13 downed by anti-aircraft artillery. One of the plane, which

was damaged and could not break radio silence, was shot down by Israeli Hawk

missiles after it lost over the Negev Nuclear Research Center. Another literally

blown air by Egyptian bombers exploded. Attack guaranteed Israeli air

superiority throughout the war.

Due to the misleading information provided by the two agents, the

Egyptians have left their aircraft on the runway, allowing them to be easily

destroyed. Only four unarmed training flight in the air when the strike Egypt

began.

Attacks on other Arab air forces occur later in life as hostilities occurring in

other fields. Also on the morning of June 6, 1967, Lebanese Hunter, one of 12

Lebanon had, was shot down on the Israeli-Lebanese borders by Israel Israeli

Mirage IIICJ, piloted by Uri Even-NIR.

Number of Arab aircraft claimed destroyed by Israel were at first regarded

as "greatly exaggerated by the Western media. Nevertheless, the fact that the

Egyptian Air Force, along with other Arab air forces attacked Israel made

practically no days seem to prove that the number of conflicts are most likely

authentic. During the war, Israeli aircraft continued strafing Arab airfield runways

to prevent their return to usability. Meanwhile, Egypt's state run radio reported

Egyptian victory, falsely claiming that 70 Israeli planes had dropped on the first

day of battle. 98

Gaza and the Sinai Peninsula

Egyptian forces consists of seven divisions: four armored, two infantry,

and one mechanized infantry. Overall, Egypt had around 100,000 troops and

900-950 tanks in the Sinai, backed by APC in 1100 and 1,000 artillery pieces.

This arrangement has been thought by Soviet doctrine, where mobile armor

98 "Part 4: The 1967 Six Day War". Retrieved April 20, 2011. http://www.npr.org/news/specials/mideast/history/history4.html.

units at strategic depth provide a dynamic defense while infantry units engage in

defensive battles.

Israeli troops concentrated on the border with Egypt included six armored

brigades, one infantry brigade, one mechanized infantry brigade, three

paratrooper brigades, giving a total of about 70,000 men and 700 tanks, which

were organized in three parts of the shield. They had gathered at the border the

night before the battle, camouflage themselves and observe radio silence before

directed to develop. Israeli plan was to surprise the Egyptian forces in both time

(the exact equivalent of an attack with the IAF strike on Egyptian airport),

location (attacking via northern and central Sinai routes, as opposed to the

Egyptian expectations repeat the 1956 war, when the IDF attacked through

central and southern routes) and method (using a combined approach flanking

force, instead of directly attacking tanks).

The northern part of Israel, consisting of three brigades and commanded

by Major General Israel Tal, one of Israel's most prominent armor commanders,

crossed the border at two points, opposite Nahal Oz and south of Khan Yunis.

They move quickly, hold fire extend the element of surprise. Tal forces attacked

"Rafah Gap", which consists of seven miles shortest three main routes through

the Sinai toward Qantara and the Suez Canal. The Egyptians have four parts in

the area, which is supported by minefields, pillboxes, bunkers, hidden gun

emplacements and trenches. Terrain on either side of the route is passable.

Israeli plan is to hit the Egyptians at the main gate selected by thick armor.

Tal advance was led by 7th Armored Brigade under Colonel Shmuel

Gonen. Israel plans urging Brigade 7 outflank Khan Yunis from the north and 60

Armored Brigade under Colonel Menachem Aviram will advance from the south.

Both teams will be connecting and around Khan Yunis, and Rafah paratroopers

will take. Gonen findings entrusted to the battalion of his brigade. Initially, first

met with light resistance, Egyptian intelligence has concluded that it is a

diversion for the main attack. However, as the lead battalion advanced Gonen, it

suddenly came under intense fire and took heavy losses. A second battalion was

raised, but also pinned down. Meanwhile, 60 Brigade became submerged in the

sand, while the paratroopers have trouble browsing through the dunes. Israel

continued to press their attack, and even losses, cleaned up the position of Egypt

and Khan Yunis railway junction about four hours. Gonen Brigade then added

nine miles to Rafah in a twin room. Rafah itself was bypassed, and Israel

attacked Sheikh Zuweid, eight miles to the southwest, which is defended by two

brigades. Although lower in numbers and equipment, the Egyptians were deeply

entrenched and camouflaged. Israel crushed by stiff Egyptian resistance, and

called in air and artillery support to allow these elements to advance their lead.

Egypt is left after their commander and some of his staff were killed. Israel broke

through with a tank-led attack. However, the team misjudged ribs Aviram Egypt,

and pin the stronghold before they were extracted after a few hours. Before

sunset, Israel has finished absorbing obstacles. Israeli forces took heavy losses,

with Colonel Gonen later told reporters that "we abandon our many dead soldiers

in Rafah, and many tanks burn out." The Egyptians suffered about 2,000 victims

and the loss of 40 tanks.

Major-General Ariel Sharon, during the Battle of Abu AgeilaWith, the open

road, the Israeli army continued advancing towards Arish. By late afternoon,

elements of the 79th Armored Battalion was claimed by seven miles long Jiradi

defile, a narrow pass defended by troops placed 112 Egyptian Infantry Brigade.

In the fierce battle that saw change hands several times passes, Israel imposed

through position. Egyptians suffered heavy casualties and losses tank, while

Israeli losses at 66 dead, 93 wounded and 28 tanks. Emerging on the western

end, the Israeli army reached the outskirts of Arish. As he reached the edge of

Arish, Tal also strengthen the hold on the Rafah and Khan Yunis.

Israeli reconnaissance team from the unit "realization" in the Sinai during

the days following the war. Israeli soldiers on the outskirts of Arish was

reinforced by the 7th Brigade, which fought through Jiradi pass. After receiving

supplies via airdrop, Israel entered the city and captured the airport at 7:50 am.

Israel entered the city at 8:00 am. Company commander Yossi Peled told that

"Al-Arish is completely quiet, deserted. Suddenly, the city was turned into a mad

house. Shots comes to us from every street, every corner, every window and the

house." Record IDF stated that "clearing the city is fighting hard. Egyptians fired

from the roof, from the balconies and windows. They dropped grenades into our

half-tracks and blocking the roads with trucks. Our man threw a grenade into the

back and destroy the truck with their tanks. " Gonen send additional units to

Arish, and the city finally taken.

Far to the south, Israel 38 Armored Division under Major-General Ariel

Sharon attacked Um-enriched Katef many areas defended by 2 Egyptian Infantry

Division under Major-General Sa'adi Nagib. The Egyptians also had a tank

destroyer battalion and a tank regiment, formed the Soviet World War II armor,

which included T-90 tanks 34-85 (with 85 mm guns), 22 SU-100 tank destroyers

(with 100 mm guns), and about 16,000 men. Israel has the power of about

14,000 men and 150 tanks after World War II, including the AMX-13 with 90

centurions guns, mm, and M50 Super Shermans (modified M-4 Sherman tanks).

Sharon's plan is to cross the sand waste Egyptians considered impassable,

and attack from the north. At the same time, the tank will be involved from the

west ridge of the Egyptian army in Um-Katef and prevent any aid. Israel will

evacuate three infantry trenches, while heliborne paratroopers will land behind

Egyptian lines and silence their guns. An armored thrust would be made at al-

Qusmaya the focus and isolate the garrison.

As part of Sharon's march to Sinai, Egypt held a successful delaying

military action Tarat Umm, Umm Tarfa, and Hill 181. An Israeli jet was downed by

anti-aircraft fire, and armed Sharon came under heavy attack as they marched

from the north and west. Israel had to fight through sand dunes and mine while

under heavy fire, and take a heavy toll. However, Israeli tanks managed to

penetrate the northern flank Abu Ageila, and by nightfall, all units are in position.

Israel then carry 90 105mm and 155mm artillery guns for Meal preparation,

while public buses carrying infantrymen Jekuthiel reserve under Colonel Adam

and helicopters arrived to bring their paratroopers. These movements are

unobserved by the Egyptians, who were preoccupied with Israeli probes against

their perimeter.

As night falls, the Israeli military attack lit flashlight, battalion each a

different color, to avoid friendly fire incidents. At 10:00 pm, Israeli artillery

barrage on 1-Katef Um, firing about 6,000 shells in less than twenty minutes.

Israeli tanks invaded northern Egypt defense and largely successful, even if the

entire armored brigade was stopped by the mine, and have only a mine-clearing

tank. Israeli infantrymen attacked three lines in the east ditch. To the west,

paratroopers commanded by Col. Dani Matt landed behind enemy lines, although

half submerged helicopter and never found the battlefield, while others can not

land because of mortar attacks. That no land paratroopers attacked the Egyptian

artillery park. Confusion sown among the artillery crews helped to slow but not

quite stop artillery fire. Overall plan have been met and sometimes exceeded.

Egyptian reinforcements from advancing towards Libni Jabal Um-Katef to

respond, but failed to achieve their goals, which are subject to heavy air attack

and face lodgments Israel on the road. Egyptian commander then called in

artillery attacks on their own position. Israel reached and sometimes exceeded

their overall plan, and have largely been replaced by the following day.

Egyptians have taken a heavy casualty, while Israel lost 40 dead and 140

injured.

Meanwhile, two Israeli reserve brigade under Brigadier-General Avraham

Yoffe, each equipped with 100 tanks, penetrated in the southern Sinai in the

northern part and Tal, Sharon, catching at the crossroads of Abu Ageila, Beer

Lahfan, and Arish, take all them before midnight. Two armored brigades

counterattacked Egypt, and a fierce battle going until the next day. Egyptians

were beaten back by fierce resistance coupled with air strikes, keep losing

weight tank. They fled west towards Jabal Libni.

Further south, 8 Armored Brigade under Colonel Albert Mandler, originally

positioned as a ruse to lure the invading forces from the real invasion route,

attacking fortified bunker in Kuntilla, valuable strategic position that will allow

Mandler arrests for blocking aid from reaching Um-Katef and to participate in the

upcoming attack on nakhl Sharon. Battalion defending Egypt, overcome and

Outgunned, fiercely opposed the invasion, do damage and hit several Israeli

tanks. However, most of the defenders were killed, and only three tanks of

Egypt, one of them is damaged, survived. Before sunset, armed Mendler took

Kuntilla.

Yoffe attack allows Tal and Sharon to complete the catch dirty Jiradi, Khan

Yunis and Um-Katef. All of them were taken after a fierce battle. The main thrust

of the Um-Katef has stalled because of mines and craters. After the IDF

engineers have cleared the way by 4:00 pm, Israeli and Egyptian tanks engaged

in a fierce battle, often in the range of 10 kilometers away. Israel's war ended

with the victory, with 40 Egyptian and 19 Israeli tanks were destroyed.

Meanwhile, Israeli infantry finished cleaning drains Egypt, the Israeli victims who

died there on 14 and 41 people injured and Egypt in 300 dead and 100 prisoners

taken. Gonen then sends force of tanks, infantry and engineers under Colonel

Yisrael Granit directly to the Mediterranean coast towards the Suez Canal, while

a second team led by Gonen himself turned to the south and captured Bir Lahfan

and Jabal Libni.

With the exception of Rafah and Khan Yunis, Israeli forces initially avoided

entering the Gaza Strip. Israeli Defense Minister Moshe Dayan was expressly

excluded from the area. After Palestinian positions in Gaza opened fire on Nirim

and Kissufim Negev settlements, IDF Chief of Staff Yitzhak Rabin and Dayan

overrode direct command of the 11th Mechanized Brigade under Colonel Yehuda

Reshef to enter Gaza. Force immediately met with heavy artillery fire and fierce

resistance from the forces and the remnants of the Egyptian military Palestinians

from Rafah. By sunset, Israel has taken significant strategic Ali Muntar ridge

overlooking Gaza City, but were beaten back from the city itself. Some 70 Israelis

were killed, along with Israeli journalist Ben Oyserman and American journalist

Paul Schutzer. Twelve members of UNEF also killed. On the second day of the

war, Israel was boosted by Paratroopers Brigade 35th under Colonel Rafael Eitan,

and take Gaza City along with the rest of the Gaza Strip. Intense fights, and

accounted for nearly half of all Israeli victims in front of the south. However, the

rapid fall of Gaza to Israel.

During the fighting ground, remnants of the Egyptian Air Force attacked

Israeli army, but took the loss from the Israeli Air Force and from Israeli anti-

aircraft units. During the last four days, Egyptian aircraft flew 150 sorties against

Israeli units in the Sinai.

Most of the Egyptian units remained intact and could try to prevent Israel

from reaching the Suez Canal or engaged in combat in order to reach the canal.

However, when the Egyptian Minister of Defense, Field Marshal Abdel Hakim

Amer heard about the fall of Abu Ageila, he panicked and ordered all units in the

Sinai to retreat. This order effectively meant the defeat of Egypt.

Film News from June 6 about the first battle during the Israel-Egypt Egypt

retreated, Israeli aircraft and artillery to attack them. Israeli jets using napalm

bombs during their sorties. Attack destroyed hundreds of vehicles and causing

heavy casualties. In Jabal Libni, retreating Egyptian army had been shot by their

own artillery. In Beer Gafgafa, intense Egyptians against Israeli soldiers advance,

knock three tanks and eight half-tracks, killing 20 soldiers. Due to the withdrawal

of Egypt ', the Israeli High Command decided not to pursue the Egyptian units

but to intercept and destroy them in the mountainous passes West Sinai.

Therefore, in the following two days (6 and 7 June), all three parts of Israel

(Sharon and Tal were reinforced by armored brigade each) rushed westwards

and reached the passes. Part Sharon goes south then westwards through an

nakhl-, the Mitla Pass with air support. It is accompanied by the division Yoffe,

while other units blocking Gidi Pass. This pass into killing grounds for the

Egyptians, who ran right into waiting Israeli positions and suffered heavy losses.

According to Egyptian diplomat Mahmoud Riad, 10,000 people were killed in one

day alone, and others who died from hunger and thirst. Tal units long stop at

various points of the Suez Canal.

Israel's actions are part of successful block. Only the Gidi pass was

captured by the Egyptian people, but in other places, Egyptian units managed to

pass through security and cross the canal. Due to retreat hastily Egypt, the

military is often left arms, military equipment, and hundreds of vehicles. Many

Egyptian soldiers were cut off from their units had to walk about 200 yards by

foot before reaching the Suez Canal with food and water supplies are limited and

are exposed to intense heat. Thousands of soldiers died. Many Egyptian soldiers

choose otherwise submit to Israel. However, Israel eventually exceed their ability

to provide for the detention. As a result, they began to instruct soldiers towards

the Suez Canal and just take prisoners high-ranking officials, who are expected

to be exchanged for captured Israeli pilots.

During the attack, the Israeli Navy landed six combat divers from the unit

Shayetet 13 naval commandos to infiltrate Alexandria harbor. Divers submerged

Egyptian minesweeper before taken prisoner. Shayetet 13 commandos also

infiltrated Port Said harbor, but found no boat there. Planned commando raid

against the Syrian Navy never materialized. Both Egyptian and Israeli warships

made movement in the sea to intimidate the other side throughout the war, but

do not engage each other. However, Israeli warships and planes do hunt

submarines Egypt during the war.

On June 7, Israel began the conquest of Sharm el-Sheikh. Israel Navy

probe began operations with naval defense Egypt. Aerial reconnaissance flight

found that the area is less defensible than originally thought. At about 4:30 am,

three Israeli missile boats opened fire on the Egyptian shore batteries, while the

paratroopers and commandos boarded the helicopter and transport aircraft Nord

Noratlas for the attack on Al-Tur, as Chief of Staff Rabin believe it is too risky to

land directly in Sharm el-Sheikh. However, the city was largely abandoned the

day before, and the report of the air force and navy finally convinced Rabin to

divert the plane to Sharm el-Sheikh. There, Israel engaged in pitched battles with

the Egyptians and took the city, killing 20 Egyptian soldiers and took 8 prisoners.

At 12:15 pm, the Minister of Defense Dayan announced that the Straits of Tiran

is an international waterway open to all vessels without restrictions. 99

On June 8, Israel completed the capture of the Sinai by sending infantry

units Ras Sudar on the western coast of the peninsula.99 Oren, Michael. (2006). "The Six-Day War", in Bar-On, Mordechai (ed.), Never-Ending Conflict:

Israeli Military History. Greenwood Publishing Group. P 248.

Several tactical elements made the swift Israeli advance possible: first, a

surprise attack that quickly gave the Israeli Air Force air superiority entirely on

the Egyptian Air Force, secondly, the determined implementation of an

innovative battle plan; Third, the lack of coordination between the Egyptian

military. These factors will prove to be a defining element in Israel's other fronts

as well.

West Bank

Jordan is reluctant to enter the war. Nasser uses the first hour obscurity conflict

to convince King Hussein that he had succeeded, he claimed as evidence a radar

sight Israeli aircraft squadron returning from bombing raids in Egypt that he is

Egyptian plane trip to Israel. One of the Jordanian brigades stationed in the West

Bank has been sent to the Hebron area to connect with the people of Egypt.

Hussein decided to attack.

Jordanian Armed Forces included 11 brigades totaling some 55,000 troops,

equipped with some 300 modern Western tanks. Of these, nine brigades (45,000

troops, 270 tanks, 200 artillery pieces) were deployed in the West Bank,

including 40 elite armor, and two in the Jordan Valley. Jordanian army, which was

then known as the Arab Legion, is a long-term service, professional army, which

is quite well equipped and trained. In addition, the Israeli post-war briefings said

that the Jordanian staff acted professionally as well, but always left "half a step"

behind the Israeli move. Small Royal Jordanian Air Force consists of only 24

British-made Hawker Hunter fighters, six transport, and two helicopters.

According to Israel, the Hawker Hunter basically on par with the French built

Dassault Mirage III - the IAF's best plane.

Against the force of Jordan in the West Bank, Israel deployed about 40,000

troops and 200 tanks (8 brigades). Israeli Central Command forces consists of

five brigades. Two months remain stationed near Jerusalem and was called

Jerusalem Brigade and the mechanized Harel Brigade. 55 Mordechai Gur

paratrooper brigade was summoned from the Sinai front. 10th Armored Brigade

was stationed in the northern West Bank. Israeli Northern Command provided

that division (3 brigades) led by Major-General Elad Peled, which is located in the

northern West Bank, in the Jezreel Valley. IDF's strategic plan is to stay in front of

defense along the Jordan, to enable focus in the expected campaign against

Egypt.

Instant - intermittent exchange machine started to take place at 9:30 am

Jerusalem, and the battle gradually increased as Jordan introduced the 3-inch

mortars and 106mm recoilless rifle. Under the direction of Chief Narkis, Israel

responds only to small arms fire, shooting in a flat trajectory to avoid hitting

civilians, shrines or Old City. At 10:00 am on June 5, Jordan began shelling Israeli

Army. Two batteries of 155mm Long Tom cannon firing in the suburbs of Tel Aviv

and Ramat David Airbase. This battery commander was ordered to put the two-

hour barrage of military and civilian settlements in the midst of Israel. Several

shells hit the outskirts of Tel Aviv. Israel assumes that the attack was a symbolic

unity with Egypt, and sent a message to King Hussein promised not to initiate

any action against Jordan if it stayed out of the war. King Hussein replied that it

was too late, "die was cast". At 11:15 am, Jordan howitzers start a barrage of

6,000 Israeli shell in Jerusalem. Jordan was initially targeted at kibbutz Ramat

Rachel in the south and Mount Scopus in the north, it is to the city center and

outlying neighborhoods. Military installation, the Prime Minister's Residence, and

also targeted the Knesset compound. Israeli civilian casualties totaled 20 dead

and about 1,000 injured. About 900 buildings were damaged, including Hadassah

Ein Kerem Hospital. At 11:50 am, 16 Jordan Hawker Hunters attacked Netanya,

Kfar Saba and Kfar Sirkin, killing one civilian, injuring seven and destroyed a

transport plane. Three Hawker Hunters strafed Iraqi civil settlements in the

Valley of Jezreel, and Iraqi Tu-16 attack Afula, and was shot down near the

airport Megiddo. The attack caused minimal material damage, hitting only a few

homes for the elderly and chicken coop, but 16 Israeli soldiers were killed, most

of them when a Tupolev crashed.

When the Israeli cabinet convened to decide what to do, Yigal Allon and

Menahem Begin said that this is an opportunity to take the Old City of Jerusalem,

but Eshkol decided to defer any decision until Moshe Dayan and Yitzhak Rabin

could be consulted. Uzi Narkiss make some proposals for military action,

including the capture Latrun, but the cabinet turn him down. Dayan rejected

several requests from Narkiss for permission to launch infantry attacks towards

Mount Scopus. However, Dayan allowed some of the more limited response. Just

before 12:30 am, the Israeli Air Force attacked airbases 2 Jordan. Hawker

Hunters refueling at the time of the attack. Israeli planes came in two waves, the

first of which crater the runway and control tower tapping, and the second wave

destroys all Jordan Hawker Hunter fighter, along with six transport aircraft and

two helicopters. One of the Israeli jet was shot down by ground fire. Israeli

aircraft also attacked H-3, the Iraqi Air Force base in western Iraq. During the

attack, 12 MiG-21s, two MiG-17s, 5 Hunter F6s, and 3 Il-28 bombers were

destroyed or shot down. A Pakistani pilots stationed at the base managed to

shoot down Israeli fighters and bombers during the raid. Jordanian radar facility

at Ajloun was destroyed in an Israeli air strike. Israeli Fouga Magister jet attack

Jordan's 40th Brigade with the rocket as it moves south from Bridge Damiya.

Dozens of tanks were knocked out, and a convoy of 26 trucks carrying

ammunition was destroyed. In Jerusalem, Israel, Jordan responded to the attack

with a missile strike that hit the Jordanian position. L Israeli missile, the missile

surface-to-surface developed in secret.

A Jordanian battalion marched ridge and dug Government House

Government House perimeter, the headquarters of the United Nations observers,

and opened fire on Ramat Rachel, Allenby Barracks and the Jewish section of Abu

Tor with the mortars and recoilless rifles. UN observers fierce protest

encroachment into the neutral zone, and some Jordan manhandled machine

guns from Government House after the crew had set the second-floor window.

After Jordan occupied Jabel Mukaber, patrol sent out in advance and approaching

Ramat Rachel, where they came under fire from four civilians, including the wife

of the director, who, armed with old weapons artificial Republic.

Israeli paratroopers deport Jordanian army during the war of the trenches

Ammunition Hill.

Israeli paratroopers silhouette advancing to welcome Israeli bullets

promptly Hill.The is offensive to retake Government House and ridges. Jerusalem

Brigade Reserve Battalion 161, under Lieutenant Colonel Asher Dreizin, was

given the task. Dreizin have two companies of infantry and eight tanks under his

command, some damaged or become stuck in the mud at Ramat Rachel, leaving

three for the attack. Jordan mounted fierce resistance, knocking two tanks. Israel

broke through the western gate of a compound and began to clean up the

building with grenades, before General Odd Bull commanders, UN observers,

forcing Israel to hold their fire, tell them that Jordan had fled. Israel continue to

take Antenna Hill, directly behind the Government House, and clear a series of

bunkers to the west and south. Battle, who often run hand-in-hand, continued for

nearly four hours before that Jordan still fall back to the trenches of life held by

the Hittin Brigade, sound overwhelmed. By 6:30 pm, Jordan has retreated to

Bethlehem, after suffering about 100 casualties. All but 10 soldiers Dreizin

sacrifice, and self Dreizin was wounded three times.

In the late evening of June 5, Israel launched its offensive to encircle

Jerusalem that lasted into the next day. At night, they were supported by intense

tank, artillery and mortar attacks to soften the position of Jordan. Searchlights

placed on buildings Federation of Labor, the highest in Israel, Jerusalem,

vulnerable and blind in Jordan. Jerusalem Brigade moved south of Jerusalem,

while the mechanized Harel Brigade and the paratroopers under Mordechai Gur

surrounded from the north. A combined force of tanks and paratroopers crossed

no-man's land near the Mandelbaum Gate. One of the paratroop battalion

approached Gur enriched Police Academy. Israel uses Bangalore torpedo blast

their way through the barbed wire that leads to the exposure and position while

under heavy fire. With the help of two tanks borrowed from the Jerusalem

Brigade, they arrested the Police Academy. After receiving the assistance, they

moved to attack the hill Bullets. Jordan's defense, which has been much dug in,

fiercely opposed the attack. All Israeli officials except for two company

commanders were killed, and the battle was mostly led by individual soldiers.

Fights that were conducted at close quarters in the trenches and bunkers, and

often hand-in-hand. Israel captured the title after four hours of heavy fighting.

During the battle, 36 Jordanian and 71 Israeli soldiers were killed. Battalion then

drive east, and is connected with pockets and Israel on Mount Scopus campus of

Hebrew University. Another battalion captured Jordan Gur other positions across

the United Colonies, though short on men and equipment and having come

under mortar bombardment Jordan while waiting for the signal to advance.

At the same time, mechanized Harel Brigade attacked the fort at Latrun,

which Jordan has been abandoned due to heavy Israeli tank fire. Brigade

attacked Har Adar, but seven tanks were hit by mines, forcing the infantry to

mount an attack without armor protection. Israeli troops advanced under heavy

fire, jumping between rocks to avoid the mines. Fights that have been conducted

in close quarters, usually with a knife and attacked. Jordan fell back after the

battle left two Israeli soldiers dead and eight Jordanian, and Israeli troops

marched through Beit Horon towards Ramallah, taking four fortified villages

along the way. By the afternoon, the brigade arrived in Ramallah. Meanwhile, the

163 Infantry Battalion earned Abu Tor following a violent war, decided the Old

City of Bethlehem and Hebron.

Mordechai Gur and his paratroopers survey of the Old City of Jerusalem

before catching itMeanwhile, 600 Egyptian commandos stationed in the West

Bank moves to attack Israeli airport. Scouts led by Jordanian intelligence, they

crossed the border and started to infiltrate through Israeli settlements towards

Ramla and Hatzor. They will be detected and sought shelter in nearby areas,

which Israel burned. About 450 commandos were killed and the rest fled to

Jordan. 100

From Colony American paratroopers moving towards the Old City. Although their

plan is to reach out through one light to defend al-Din Street. However, they

made a wrong turn into a lot of Nablus Road is maintained. Israel ran into

opposition. Their tank opened fire at point blank range at the end of the road,

while the paratroopers mounted recurring charges. Despite Israel's repeated

charges repel, Jordan gradually gave way to firearms and momentum of Israel.

Israel suffered about 30 victims - half of the original force, while Jordan lost 45

dead and 142 injured. Meanwhile, Israel has violated 71 Battalion barbed wire

and minefields and appear near Wadi Joz, Mount Scopus near the base, from

which can be deducted from the Old City of East Jerusalem from Jericho and

Ramallah. Israeli artillery targeted the remaining route from Jerusalem to the

West Bank, and artillery fire prevented Jordan from counterattacking from their

position in the Augusta-Victoria. A detachment of the Rockefeller Museum Israel

then captured after a brief skirmish. After that, Israel broke through Jerusalem-

Ramallah road. In the Tel al-performance estimation, Israel fought running

battles with up to 30 Jordanian tank. Jordan ceased to advance and destroy some

half tracks, but Israel launched air strikes and exploit the weaknesses of external

fuel tanks mounted on the tank Jordan. Jordan lost half their tank, and retreated

towards Jericho. Joining with the 4th Brigade, Israel Shuafat and then down

through what is now the site of French Hill, through the Jordan defense in Mivtar,

appeared in Bullets hill.

An Israeli airstrike near-Augusta Victoria Hospital in Jerusalem to Jordan's

defense collapsed, the elements of Jordan's 60th Brigade and a battalion of

infantry was sent from Jericho to reinforce Jerusalem. Original order is to drive

the Israelis from Latrun corridor, but because of the worsening situation in

Jerusalem, the brigade was ordered to continue the Arab suburbs of Jerusalem

and Mount Scopus attack. In line with the brigade Brigade infantrymen from

Imam Ali, who was approaching Issawiya. Brigade was detected by Israeli aircraft

and destroyed by rocket and artillery fire. Jordan other attempts to strengthen

Jerusalem was beaten back, either by ambush or air assault armor.

100 Oren, Michael. (2006). "The Six-Day War", in Bar-On, Mordechai (ed.), Never-Ending Conflict: Israeli Military History. P 203.

Fear of damage to holy places and the prospect of fighting in built-up

areas, Dayan ordered his troops not to enter the Old City. He also feared that

Israel would be subject to intense international reaction and anger of the

Christians around the world if it had to go to the Old City. Privately, he told David

Ben-Gurion that he was also concerned about the prospect of Israel captured the

holy sites of Jerusalem, only to be forced to give them under the threat of

international sanctions.

On June 7, following heavy fighting. Dayan had ordered his troops not to

enter the Old City; however, upon hearing that the UN was about to declare a

ceasefire, he changed his mind, and without cabinet clearance, decided to

capture. Two paratroop battalions that attacked Augusta-Victoria Hill, the high

ground overlooking the Old City from the east. A battalion attacked from Mount

Scopus, and another attack from the valley between it and the Old City. Another

paratroop battalion, personally led by Gur, broke into the Old City, and is

accompanied by two other battalions after their mission is complete.

Paratroopers met little resistance. Fights that were conducted solely by

paratroopers; Israel does not use a shield in battle of fear damage to the Old

City.

In the north, one battalion from Peled division was sent to check Jordanian

defenses in the Jordan Valley. One brigade belonging to Peled captured the

western part of the West Bank. A Jordanian artillery brigade attacked positions

around Jenin, the attack Ramat David Airbase. Jordan 12th Armored Battalion,

ahead of Israel, held repeatedly attempt to capture Jenin. However, Israeli air

strikes had taken their toll, and Jordan M48 Pattons, with their external fuel

tanks, proved vulnerable at short distances, although Israel has modified

Shermans. Jordan twelve tanks were destroyed, and only six remain operational.

Just after nightfall, Israel's aid. Jordan continued fierce fight, and Israel can not

be advanced without artillery and air support. Israeli jets attacked a tank

commander Jordan, injuring him and killing the radio operator and intelligence

officer. Jordan surviving military subsequently withdraws Jenin, where they were

reinforced by the 25th Infantry Brigade. Jordan was effectively surrounded the

Jenin. Jordan infantry and 3 tanks they managed to hold the balance of Israel

until 4:00 am, when three battalions arrived to reinforce them in the afternoon.

Jordan's tanks charged, and vehicle knocked Israeli variety, and the tide began to

turn. After sunrise, Israeli jets and artillery bombardment of two hours of

exercise in Jordan. Jordan lost 10 dead and 250 wounded, and had only 7 tanks

left, including two without gas, and 16 APCs. Israel then fought their way to Jenin,

and captured the city after a fierce battle.

IDF paratroopers shortly after the capture of the Western Wall in

Jerusalem. After the Old City fell, Jerusalem Brigade paratroopers strengthen,

and further to the south, capturing Judea and Gush Etzion. Hebron was taken

without any resistance. Fear that Israeli soldiers will exact punishment for the

massacres of 1929 in the city's Jewish community, the residents of Hebron, white

cloth flying from their windows and rooftops, and voluntarily give up their

weapons. The Harel Brigade walk towards the east, down to the Jordan River.

On June 7, the Israeli army seized Bethlehem, took the city after a brief battle

which left some 40 Jordanian soldiers dead, the rest ran away. On the same day,

a Peled brigades seized Nablus, then joined one of Central Command armored

brigades to fight the Jordanian army, Jordan held the advantages of superior

equipment and are similar in number to Israel.

Again, the air superiority of the IAF proved crucial as it struck the enemy, which

led to the defeat. One of the brigade Peled joined the Central Command

counterparts coming from Ramallah, and two blocked the Jordan river crossings

together with General Order 10. Engineering Corps sappers blew up the bridge

Abdullah and Hussein with mortar shells Jordan arrested, while elements of the

Harel Brigade crossed the river and occupied positions along the east bank to

protect them, but quickly pulled back due to American pressure. Jordan expects

Israeli attack deep into Jordan, collect the remnants of their forces and the Iraqi

units in Jordan to protect the western approaches to Amman and the southern

slopes of the Golan Heights.

No specific decision had been made to capture any other territories

controlled by Jordan. After the Old City was captured, Dayan his troops to dig in

the hold. When the armored brigade commander entered the West Bank on his

own initiative, and stated that he could see Jericho, Dayan ordered him back. It

was only after intelligence reports indicated that Hussein had withdrawn his

forces across the Jordan River that Dayan ordered his troops to capture the West

Bank. 101

According to Narkis, first of all, the Israeli government had no intention to

dominate the West Bank. Instead, it was opposed. Second, not any provocation

on the part of the IDF. Third, the rein loose only when a real threat to Jerusalem's

101 Shlaim, Avi (2007) Lion of Jordan: The Life of King Hussein in War and Peace Vintage Books.P 245.

security emerged. This is truly how things happened on June 5, although it is

difficult to believe. The end result is something that no one had planned. 102

Golan Heights

False reports crushing victory against the army of Egypt, Israel and

predicted that the Egyptian army will soon be attacking Tel Aviv influenced

Syria's willingness to enter the war. Syrian artillery begins attack northern Israel,

and 12 Syrian jets attacked Israeli settlements in the Galilee. Israeli fighter jets

intercept aircraft Syria, shot down three and drive than the other. On the

evening of 5 June, the Israeli Air Force attacked the Syrian airport. Syrian Air

Force lost some 32 MiG 21s, and 23 MiG-15 and MiG-17 fighters, and two Ilyushin

Il-28 bombers, two-thirds of the strength of battle. Syrian aircraft survived the

attack retreated to the remote database without playing any further role in the

ensuing battle. Following the attack, Syria understood that the news it had heard

from Egypt almost total destruction of the Israeli army can not be true. A small

Syrian force tried to capture the water plant at Tel Dan (the subject of intense

reaction two years earlier), and, and She'ar Yashuv. This attack was repulsed

with the loss of twenty-seven soldiers and tanks. An officer of Israel also killed.

But a broader Syrian offensive quickly failed. Syria reserve unit was broken by an

Israeli air strike, and several Syrian tanks were reported to have drowned in the

river Jordan. Other problems included tanks too wide for bridges, lack of radio

communications between tanks and infantry, and units ignoring orders to

advance. A post-war Syrian army report concluded "Our forces did not go attack

either because they did not arrive or were not available or because they belong

to can not find shelter from enemy aircraft Reserve can not withstand the air

attacks;. They dispersed after their morale plummeted . " Syria abandon hope

under attack and began a massive bombardment of Israeli society in the Hula

Valley instead.

Israeli children in a bomb shelter at Kibbutz Dan during war.On June 7 and

8, the Israeli leadership debated about whether the Golan Heights should be

attacked, and the attack on Syria was initially planned for June 8, but was

postponed for 24 hours. At 3 am on June 9, Syria announced its acceptance of a

cease-fire. Despite this, four hours later, at 7 am, Israeli Defense Minister Moshe

Dayan, "gave the order to go into action against Syria." [I] Syria has supported

the pre-war raids that had helped increase the tension and routine Israeli

bombing of the Heights, so some Israeli leaders wanted to see Syria punished.

102 Ibid

"Military advice was that the attack was going to be very expensive, as high

assailing will be a great challenge fortified against a strong enemy. western part

of the Golan Heights consists rock escarpment that rose 500 meters (1700 feet)

from the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan River, and then horizontal to gently

sloping plateau over. Dayan believed such an operation would yield losses of

30,000 and opposed. Prime Minister Levi Eshkol, on the other hand, is more open

to the possibility of surgery in the Golan Heights, as is the head of the Northern

Command, David Elazar, whose unbridled enthusiasm for and confidence in the

operation may have eroded Dayan's reluctance. Finally, as conditions in the

South and Central cleared up, intelligence estimated that the likelihood of Soviet

intervention had reduced, the survey showed some Syrian defenses in the Golan

region collapsing, and an intercepted cable showed Nasser urging the President

of Syria to immediately accept the cease-fire, Dayan become more enthusiastic

about the idea, and he authorized the operation. Syrian Army consists of about

75,000 men grouped in nine brigades, supported by a sufficient amount of

artillery and armored Israeli military used in combat brigade consists of 2 (The

8th Armored Brigade which and Golani Brigade) in the northern front at Givat

haem, and another two (infantry and one of Peled brigade called from Jenin) in

the center. terrain unique The Golan Heights' (mountainous slopes crossed by

parallel streams every several kilometers running east to the west), and the lack

of roads in the area channeled both forces along east-west axes of movement

and restricted the ability of units to support them either on the sides.

Accordingly, Syria could move north-south on the square itself, and Israel could

move north-south at the base of the Golan escarpment. An advantage Israel has

excellent intelligence collected by Mossad operative Eli Cohen (who was

captured and executed in Syria in 1965) regarding the Syrian battle positions.

Syria had built extensive fortifications in depth of up to 15 kilometers,

comparable to the Maginot Line.

Compared with all other campaigns, IAF was only partially effective in the

Golan because the fixed fortifications are not very effective. However, the Syrian

forces proved unable to build an effective defense largely because the officers

are the military leaders of the poor and weak treat their troops; often officers

would retreat to escape from danger, leaving their men confused and

ineffective . Israel also has the advantage during close combat taking place in

various Syrian bunkers along the Golan Heights, as they are armed with Uzi, soft

light gun, designed for close combat, while Syrian troops armed with heavy AK -

47 assault weapons, which are designed to combat the a more open area.

Israeli tanks advanced into the Golan Heights in the morning of 9 June,

Israeli jets began to run dozens of sorties against Syrian positions from Mount

Hermon to Tawfiq, using rocket rescued from stocks captured Egypt. Air strikes

and artillery batteries knock treasure and had to strip off-road transportation.

Syria suffered heavy casualties and a decline in morale, with some senior

military officers and desertion. Attacks are also provided time as Israeli forces

clear the path through minefields Syria. However, the air attack was not

seriously damage the fortress in Syria and the canal system, and most of the

Syrian forces in the Golan Heights remained in their positions.

About two hours after the air strikes began, 8th Armored Brigade, led by

Colonel Albert Mandler, advancing to the Golan Heights from Givat haem.

Advance was led by the Engineering Corps sappers and eight bulldozers, which

cleared the barbed wire and mines. As they advanced, its criticism, and five

bulldozers were immediately hit. Israeli tanks, with their maneuverability

reduced dramatically with terrain, slowly advancing under fire towards the

fortified village of al-Dib Sir, with their ultimate goal as a fortress at Qala. Israeli

Victims sound installed. Some of the attacking force lost its way and appeared

opposite Za'ura, storage fortification operated by Syria. With critical condition,

Colonel Mandler directed attacks in Za'ura and Qala. Heavy fighting and

confusion followed, with Israeli tanks and Syria struggled around obstacles and

shoot at a very short range. Mandler recalled that "Syria fought well and covered

in blood. We beat them just to crush them under our treads and blast them with

our artillery at very short distances, from 100 to 500 meters." First three Israeli

tanks enter Qala was prevented by Syrian bazooka team, and seven relief

column arrived Syrian tank to fend off attackers. Israel took heavy fire from the

house, but can not return, as other forces were advancing on their backs, and

they were in a narrow street with mine by any party. Israel continued to press

forward, and called for air support. A pair of Israeli jets destroyed two Syrian

tanks, and the remainder to withdraw. Surviving defenders of Qala retreat after

their commander was killed. Meanwhile, Za'ura fall in Israeli attacks, and Israel

also captured 'Ein Fit fortress.

In the center, Battalion 181 Israel captured the fort and Hillal Tel Dardara

after a fierce battle. Desperate battle also occurred along the northern axis

operation, where Golani Brigade attacked the 13 Syrians, including the position

of Tel Fakhr awesome. Navigational error put directly under the guns of Israel in

Syria. In the ensuing battle, the two sides have taken a heavy casualty, but Israel

lost all 19 of their tanks and half-tracks. Israeli battalion commander then

ordered the 25 remaining men to dismount, divided into two groups, and impose

the north and south sides of Tel Fakhr. Israeli people first reached the southern

perimeter of the approach laid the body down on the barbed wire, allowing their

friends to their Vault. From there, they have a strong defensive position to attack

Syria. Fights being fought at very close quarters, often hand-in-hand. In the north

wing, Israelis broke through and in a few minutes and clean ditches and bunkers.

While in the seven-hour battle, Israel lost 31 dead and 82 wounded, while Syria

lost 62 dead and 20 captured. Among the dead was the Israeli battalion

commander. Golani Brigade Battalion 51 took Azzaziat Tel ', and Darbashiya also

fell to the army of Israel.

Global News from June 9 Films about war and UN reaction by evening June

9, four Israeli brigades have all broken through the plateau, where they can be

reinforced and replaced. Thousands of reinforcements began to come to the

front, tanks and half-tracks that survived the previous day's battle was refueled

and replenished with ammunition, and the wounded were evacuated. By dawn,

Israel has eight brigades in this sector.

Syria's first line of defense has been shattered, but external defense held

strong. Mount Hermon and Banias in the north, and across the sector between

Tawfiq and Customs House Road in the south to remain in the hands of Syria. In

an initial meeting on the night of June 9, the leaders of Syria decided to

strengthen their position as soon as possible, and to maintain a steady barrage

of Israeli settlements public.

Throughout the night, Israel continued their advance. Although it has been

delayed by strong opposition, the Syrian response expected never materialized.

In Jalabina fortified villages, the Syrian garrison from savings, even an anti-

aircraft gun they managed to hold 65 Israeli paratroop battalion for four hours

before a small detachment managed to penetrate the village and knocked on

heavy weapons. Meanwhile, Brigade 8 tanks moved south from Qala, advancing

six miles to umpire under heavy artillery and tank bombardment. In Banaias in

the north, Syria mortar batteries opened fire on the advancing Israeli forces just

after the Golani Brigade cleared the way through the mine, killing 16 Israeli

soldiers and wounding 4.

The next day, June 10, the central and north participating in pincer

movement on the plain, but that fell mainly on empty territory as the Syrian

forces withdrew. At 8:30 am, Syria began blowing up their own fortress, burning

documents and retreat. Several military units joined by Elad Peled climbed the

Golan from the south, only to find that mostly vacant position. When the brigade

arrived in Mansura 8, five miles from the umpire, Israel met no opposition and

found the abandoned equipment, including tanks, in perfect condition. Banaias

fortified village, Golani Brigade soldiers found only a few Syrian soldiers chained

to their positions. On that day, the Israeli units stopped after obtaining maneuver

room between their position and the line of volcanic hills to the west. 103 In some

locations, Israeli troops advanced after the cease fire agreed to occupy a

strategic position of strength. To the east, the ground terrain is an open plain

gently sloping. This position later became the cease-fire line, known as the

"Purple Line".

Time magazine said: "In order to put pressure on the United Nations (UN)

to enforce the ceasefire, Damascus Radio undermine its own army by

broadcasting the fall of Quneitra city three hours before it actually surrendered

That report premature surrender of their headquarters destroyed. Syrian army

morale left in the Golan area."

Weapon

With the exception of Jordan, Saudi depends mainly on Soviet weapons. Israeli

weapons especially those from the West. Air force consists mainly French aircraft

and armored units mainly design and manufacture of Britain and the United

States. Some infantry weapons, including an Uzi everywhere, originating from

Israel.

War And Conflict Situations

By June 10, Israel has completed the final attack on the Golan Heights, and the

ceasefire was signed the day after. Israel had seized the Gaza Strip, the Sinai

Peninsula, the West Bank of the Jordan River (including East Jerusalem) and the

Golan Heights. Overall, Israel's territory grew by a factor of three, including

about one million Arabs placed under Israel's direct control in new territories

captured. Israel's strategic depth grew to at least 300 kilometers to the south, 60

103 Oren 2002, electronic edition, Section "Playing for the Brink".

kilometers east and 20 kilometers of extremely rugged terrain in the north,

security asset that would prove useful in the Yom Kippur War six years later.

1967 War political importance is immense, Israel shows that it is able, and

willing to initiate strategic strikes that could change the regional balance. Egypt

and Syria learned tactical and will launch an attack in 1973 in a failed attempt to

reclaim their lost territory. Speaking three weeks after the war ended, he

received an honorary degree from the Hebrew University, Yitzhak Rabin gave the

reason behind the success of Israel:

Our pilot, the plane hit the enemy with precision that no one in the world

to understand how it is done and the people who look for explanations or secret

weapons technology; military defeat our enemy armor even lower their

equipment; our troops in all branches can overcome our enemies everywhere,

despite the superior numbers and fortifications second-all these revealed not

only coolness and courage in battle but ... understanding that only their personal

stand against the greatest danger will achieve victory for their country and their

family and if they are not winning alternative is ruin.

In recognition of the donation, was given the honor of naming Rabin war

for Israel. Of the recommendations proposed, he "chose at least ostentatious, the

Six Day War, evoking the days of creation."

The final report on the war Dayan, Israeli general staff listed several flaws

in Israel's actions, including misinterpretation of Nasser's intentions,

overdependence on the United States, and reluctance to act when Egypt shut

down the Strait. He is also credited several factors for the success of Israel:

Egypt did not appreciate the first cutting edge and their enemies do not

accurately measure the strength of Israel.

After the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, Egypt reviewed the cause of the loss of the war

in 1967. Issues that have been identified include the "individualistic bureaucratic

leadership"; "promotion based on loyalty, not expertise, and scared soldiers told

Nasser truth"; lack of intelligence, and better Israeli weapons, direction,

organization, and will to fight.

According to Chaim Herzog, on June 19, 1967, the Government of National

Unity (Israel) voted unanimously to return the Sinai to Egypt and the Golan

Heights to Syria in return for a peace treaty. Golans will have demilitarized and

special arrangement would be negotiated for the Straits of Tiran. The

government also decided to open negotiations with King Hussein of Jordan on the

Eastern border. Israel's decision to be conveyed to the Arab countries by the

United States. United States has been informed of the decision, but not that it is

to send. There is no evidence of receipt from Egypt or Syria, and some historians

claim that they may not have accepted the offer.

In September, Khartoum Arab Summit decided that there would be "no

peace, no recognition and no negotiations with Israel." However, as Avraham

Sela notes Khartoum conference effectively marked the first shift in the

perception of a conflict by the Arab countries far from focused on the question of

Israel's legitimacy in the direction to focus on regions and borders and is

supported on November 22 when Egypt and Jordan accept the United Nations

Security Council Resolution 242.

June 19 Israeli cabinet decision did not include the Gaza Strip, leaving open the

possibility of Israel permanently acquiring parts of the West Bank. In June 25-27,

Israel incorporated East Jerusalem along with the West Bank to the north and

south of the new municipal boundaries of Jerusalem.

Another aspect discussed by the war on the people of the territories

captured: about one million Palestinians in the West Bank, 300,000 (according to

the U.S. State Department) fled to Jordan, where they contribute to growing

unrest. Another 600,000 remain. In the Golan Heights, about 80,000 Syrians fled.

Only residents of East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights to be eligible to receive

full Israeli citizenship, as Israel uses law, administration and jurisdiction to the

provinces in 1967 and 1981 respectively, and a majority in both regions declined

to do that. See also Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the Golan Heights.

Both Jordan and Egypt eventually withdrew their claims to the West Bank

and Gaza (the Sinai returned on the basis of the Camp David Agreement of

1978). After Israel's conquest of the newly acquired 'territory, a large settlement

effort was launched to obtain permanent Israeli presence. Now there are

hundreds of thousands of Israeli settlers in the territories, even if Israeli

settlements in Gaza were evacuated and destroyed in August 2005 as part of

Israel's unilateral disengagement plan.

1967 War laid the foundation for the split in the region in the future - on

November 22, 1967, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 242, the "land

for peace" formula, which called for Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied

"in 1967 and "termination of all claims or states of belligerency. "

Resolution 242 recognizes the right of "every state in the area live in

peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of

force." Israel returned the Sinai to Egypt in 1978, after the Camp David Accords,

and regardless of the Gaza Strip in the summer of 2005, although the army

frequently re-enter Gaza for military operations and still maintain control of the

border crossings, ports and airports.

After the war also important religions. Under Jordanian rule, Jews were

effectively barred from visiting the Western Wall (although Article VIII of the

1949 Armistice Agreement demanded Israeli Jewish access to the Western Wall).

Jewish holy sites were not maintained, and a cemetery was vandalized. After the

annexation to Israel, each religious group has been given administration over

such sites and sacred. Despite the importance of the Temple Mount in Jewish

tradition, the al-Aqsa Mosque is under sole administration of the Muslim Waqf,

and Jews were barred from conducting services there. 104

After following the Arab countries declared war on the other, Mauritania

remains in a state of declared war with Israel until 1999.

Crash

Between 776 and 983 Israelis were killed and 4517 were wounded. 15 Israeli

soldiers were captured. Arab victims is far greater. Between 9800 and 15,000

Egyptian soldiers were listed as killed or missing in action. 4338 additional

Egyptian troops were captured. Jordan losses estimated 6,000 killed or missing

and 533 captured, though Gawrych cite some 700 were killed in combat with

some other 2500 injured. The Syrian people are estimated to have suffered

about 1,000 killed in battle. 105 367 Syrians captured.

Controversy

Strike Assault Prevention of Improper

At the start of hostilities, both Egypt and Israel announced that they had been

attacked by another country. The Israeli government then leave the original

position, acknowledged Israel had struck first, claiming that it was a pre-emptive

strike in the face of aggression planned by Arab countries. Instead, the Arab view

that it is improper attack.

Allegation Against Egyptian Military Brutality

104 Bard, Mitchell G. (2002, 2008). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Middle East Conflict. NY: Alpha books. 4th Edition. Chapter 14, "Six Days to Victory" is reproduced online as The 1967 Six-Day War, at the Jewish Virtual Library of the American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise.

105 Churchill, Randolph & Churchill, Winston. (1967 ). The Six Day War. Houghton Mifflin Company. P 189.

It has been alleged that Nasser did not want Egypt to learn the extent defeat and

ordered the killing of Egyptian soldiers stragglers make their way back to the

Suez Canal zone. There are also allegations of both Israeli and Egyptian sources

that Israeli soldiers killed unarmed Egyptian prisoners.

Allegations of military support from the United States, the United Kingdom

and the Soviet Union had some direct support allegations of Israeli army during

the war by the United States and United Kingdom, including the supply of

equipment (although restraints) and U.S. military participation in the conflict.

Many claims have been disputed and it has been claimed that there is a given

currency in the Arab world to explain the Arab defeat. Also been claimed that the

Soviet Union, support Arab allies, using military power in the Mediterranean sea

to act as a major obstacle to the U.S. Navy.

USS Liberty incident

At 8 JUN 1967, the USS Liberty, the Navy intelligence ship sailing USA 13 nautical

miles (24 km) off Arish (just outside Egypt's territorial waters), was attacked by

Israeli jets and torpedo boats, nearly sank the ship, killing 34 sailors and wound

171. Israel said the attack was a case of mistaken identity, and that the ship was

misidentified as an Egyptian ship El Quseir. Israel apologized for the error, and

pay compensation to the victims or their families, and to the United States for

damage to the ship. After investigation, the United States accepted the

explanation that the incident was friendly fire and the issue was closed by

exchange of diplomatic notes in 1987. Crew members who are still alive still

claims, and presents some evidence, that the attacks may have been intentional. 106

Displaced populations

Arab

Due to the war, a wave of displaced Palestinians. An estimated 300,000

Palestinians left the West Bank and Gaza, most of them residing in Jordan.

In the book Righteous Victims, Israel "Historian new" Benny Morris wrote: 107

106 "McNamara: US Near War in '67". The Boston Globe: p. 1. September 16, 1983. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/boston/access/663999751.html?FMT=ABS&date=Sep%2016,%201983.

107 Right of return: Palestinian dream. UK: BBC. April 15, 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3629923.stm .

In three villages in southwest Jerusalem and at Qalqilya, houses were

destroyed "not in battle, but as punishment ... and to evict residents feel ... -

contrary to government policy ...," Dayan wrote in memoirs. In Qalqilya, about

one third of the houses were destroyed and about 12,000 residents were evicted,

though many then camped in the vicinity. Evictees in both areas have been

allowed to stay and given cement and tools by the Israeli authorities to rebuild at

least some of their residence.

But thousands of other Palestinians who are now taking the road. Perhaps

as many as 70,000, mostly from the Jericho area, fled during the fighting; tens of

thousands more left during the following months. Overall, about one-quarter of

the population of the West Bank, about 200-250000, going to waste .... They just

walk crossing the Jordan River and made their way on foot to the East Bank. It is

not clear how many of them were forced or forced out by the Israeli army and

how much to leave on a voluntary basis, in a state of panic and fear. There is

some evidence about the IDF soldiers with loudspeakers ordered West Bankers

to leave their homes and cross the Jordan. Some left because they have relatives

or sources of livelihood in the East Bank and the eternal fear of failure.

Thousands of Arabs were taken by bus from East Jerusalem Allenby

bridge, although there is no evidence of repression. Israel organized free

transport, which began on June 11, 1967, went on for about a month. At the

bridge they had to sign a document stating that they have left their own free will.

Perhaps as much as 70,000 people emigrated from the Gaza Strip to Egypt and

other places in the Arab world.

On 2 July, the Israeli government announced that it would allow the return

of refugees in 1967 required them to do so, but no later than August 10, later

extended to 13 September. Jordanian authorities may stress many refugees,

which is a huge burden, to sign up for the return. In practice, only 14,000 of the

120,000 who applied actually allowed by Israel to the West Bank by the

beginning of September. After that, only a trickle of "special cases" were allowed

back, perhaps 3,000 in all.

In addition, between 80,000 and 110,000 Syrians fled the Golan Heights, about

20,000 from the city of Quneitra. According to more recent research by the

Israeli daily Haaretz, 130,000 Syrian residents were expelled from the region,

most of them by the Israeli army.

Jews in Arab countries

Minority of Jews living in the Arab world was immediately faced persecution and

expulsion, following the Israeli victory. According to historians Michael B. Orange:

Mobs attacked Jewish neighborhoods in Egypt, Yemen, Lebanon, Tunisia,

and Morocco, burning synagogues and attacking residents. Pogrom in Tripoli,

Libya, left 18 Jews dead and 25 wounded; survivors were herded into detention

centers. 4000 Egyptian Jews, 800 were arrested, including two chief rabbis of

Cairo and Alexandria, and their property removed by the government. Ancient

communities of Damascus and Baghdad were placed under house arrest, their

leaders imprisoned and fined. A total of 7,000 Jews were expelled, many with

merely satchel. 108

The Jewish Communist Countries

Antisemitic purges began in communist countries as counter terrorism. Many

Jews were forced to emigrate eg. during the 1968 Polish political crisis.

Conclusion

2007 marked the 40th anniversary of the war the Western terms "Six Day War".

The Arabs call it the "War of 1967" or Naksah (setback). It has been said that for

Israel's war is a question of sheer survival for the Arabs, it is one of credibility.

Of course hindsight is a wonderful thing, offering great clarity over what

could or should have done. It is too easy to be judgmental retrospect. So, this

page has been trying to turn back the clock to give you a sense of what it is like

in Israel at the time, who live with the tension involved with opposing backs will

propose the elimination of Israel.

This website has been collected background information from various

sources to provide a deeper understanding of how the situation developed over

the weeks and months leading up to the war. War itself has been

comprehensively documented, both in books and on the internet, so this site will

focus more on build-and beyond.

108

Oren, Michael (2002). Six Days of War. Oxford University Press. P 306-307

Bibliography

"Al-Qunayṭirah". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2010. Retrieved July 18, 2010. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/487614/al-Qunaytirah.

Bard, Mitchell G. (2002, 2008). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Middle East Conflict. NY: Alpha books. 4th Edition. Chapter 14, "Six Days to Victory" is reproduced online as The 1967 Six-Day War, at the Jewish Virtual Library of the American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise.

Churchill, Randolph & Churchill, Winston. (1967 ). The Six Day War. Houghton Mifflin Company. P 189.

"McNamara: US Near War in '67". The Boston Globe: p. 1. September 16, 1983. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/boston/access/663999751.html?FMT=ABS&date=Sep%2016,%201983.

Oren, Michael (2002). Six Days of War. Oxford University Press.

Right of return: Palestinian dream. UK: BBC. April 15, 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3629923.stm .

Chapter 6

Egyptian Revolution, 1952

Introduction

1952 Egyptian revolution (Arabic: يوليو 23ثورة 1952 ), also known as the July 23

Revolution, began on July 23, 1952, by a military coup d'etat by the Free Officers

Movement, a group of army officers led by Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel

Nasser. Revolution was initially aimed to overthrow King Farouk. However, the

movement has greater ambitions of a political nature, and soon moved to abolish

monarchy and nobility of Egypt and Sudan, establishing a republic, ending the

British occupation of the country, and guarantees freedom of Sudan (currently

administered as an Anglo- Egyptian condominium). Revolutionary government

adopted a strong nationalist, anti-imperialist agenda that came to be expressed

primarily through Arab nationalism, and international non-alignment.

Revolution was faced with the immediate threat of Western imperialist

powers, especially the United Kingdom, who had occupied Egypt since 1882, and

France, both of whom are wary of rising nationalist sentiment in the territory

under their control throughout the Arab world and Africa. State of war with Israel

is also a serious challenge, as Egypt's Free Officers increase already strong

support of the Palestinians. Both these issues persist four years after the

revolution when Egypt was conquered by Britain, France, and Israel in 1956

Tripartite attack. Despite heavy losses the military, the war was seen as a

political victory for Egypt, mainly because it leaves control of the Suez Canal in

Egypt without competing for the first time since 1875, erasing what was seen as

a sign of national humiliation. This reinforces the appeal of revolution in the Arab

countries and other African.

Wholesale reform of agricultural and industrial programs was initiated in the first

decade and a half of the revolution, which led to a period of unprecedented

building this infrastructure, and urbanization. By the 1960s, Arab socialism has

become a dominant theme, making Egypt the planned economy in the middle.

Fear of Western-sponsored official counter-revolutionary extremism, domestic,

religious, communist infiltration potential, and the conflict with Israel, all cited

severe restrictions and has long been a compelling reason on the political

opposition, and the prohibition of multi-party system. Restrictions on political

activities would remain in place until the presidency of Anwar al-Sadat, from

1970 onwards, in which many revolutionary policies have been scaled back or

reversed.

The initial success of the revolution encouraged many other nationalist

movements in Arab countries and Africa, such as Algeria, and Kenya, which are

involved in the anti-colonial struggle against the European empires. It also

provides inspiration to topple the pro-Western monarchy and the existing state

of the region and the continent. Revolution is commemorated every year on the

national Egyptian Revolution Day on 23 July.

Causes

Both the United States and the Soviet Union to promote the view that the

Egyptian monarchy is both corrupt and pro-British Satrapy, luxury lifestyle in

sharp contrast to the Free Officers, who live in poverty. Super-power propaganda

solve two images of the Egyptian government as corrupt British puppet.

The Central Intelligence Agency and the KGB through their agents in Egypt

to promote a sense of corruption on several institutions such as the police, court

and Egyptian political parties, and help coordinate their sympathy for the anti-

British and reformers with the Free Officers Movement. Loss of 1948 war with

Israel led to the Free Officers blame the King and court corruption and promotion

of the feeling among the people of Egypt.

Free Officers Movement 'was formed by a group of reform-minded officers,

supported by the Soviet Union and the United States, which together around a

young officer named Gamal Abdel Nasser. They use military general, Muhammad

Naguib, as they head to show seriousness and attract more followers of the

army.

In a warning that General Naguib conveyed to King Farouk on July 26 on

the abdication of the king, he also provides a summary of the reasons for the

revolution:

Given what the country has been experiencing lately, in complete tears in

all corners due to bad behavior, your toying with the constitution and your

practice, and your disdain for the will of the people, no person shall count

confident about life, life, and honor. Egypt's reputation among the people of the

world has been debased as a result of your extreme 1 in these areas that traitors

and bribe-takers seek refuge under your shadow in addition to security,

excessive wealth, and at the expense of many extravagances. hungry and poor

people. You manifested this during and after the Palestine War in the corrupt

arms scandals and your open interference in the courts to try to falsify the facts

of the case, thus shaking faith in justice. Thus, the military, which represents the

power of the people, has empowered me to ask Your Majesty abdicate the throne

to His Royal Highness, Crown Prince Ahmed Fuad, provided that this is achieved

at a fixed time is 00:00 noon (Saturday, July 26, 1952, 4 Zul Qa'ada, 1371), and

as you exit before 6:00 pm the same day. Army put to His Royal Highness you

loads of things that can cause your failure to abdicate according to the wishes of

the people. 109

Precursor

During the winter 1951-1952 nationalist police officers, supported by the United

States and the Soviet Union began to protect and promote the fedayeen

(Egyptian resistance) attacks on British authorities in Cairo, Alexandria, and the

Suez Canal. After a devastating attack drove the British and shipping facility near

Ismailia that cause the deaths of several British soldiers. The British Army has

been detected fedayeen to bandar.Pada January 25, 1952, the British forces

found fedayeen had retreated to the local police barracks. When police refused

to hand fedayeen, British officials tried to negotiate a surrender and the

fedayeen. When consulting them were killed in parley by fedayeen, the British

forces attacked the Egyptian police barracks in Ismailia. Fifty Egyptian police

officers were killed and 100 injured. Egypt erupts in anger.

After that, the cells Free Officers Movement was started riots in Cairo that

led to the arsons. Without oppression from the local fire brigade, burning more

rioting inflammatory attack more. American and Soviet newspapers promoting

the event in the global wireless branch as "Cairo Fire" and suggested they were

seen as further evidence of the beginning of the end of the monarchy.

The next day, January 26, 1952 ("Black Saturday"), what many Egyptians

who say "second revolution" broke out (the first, the Egyptian Revolution in

1919).

King Farouk reject Mustafa el-Nahhas government, and in the months that

followed, three members of different political have been instructed to form a

government, each proved short-lived: Ali Maher (January 27-March 1), Ahmed

Naguib El-Hilali (2 March to 29 June, and July 22 to 23) and Hussein Sirri (July 2 to

20). This "ministry of security", as they are called, failed to stop the downward

109 The Long Struggle: The Seeds of the Muslim World's Frustration By Amil Khan, p.58

spiral. Corruption remains the case despite attempts by successive prime

ministers to put their political home.

Stirrings of discontent was felt in the army, and in January 1952 opposition

officers supported by the Free Officers gained control of the governing board

Officers Club. On July 16, King canceled this election, appoint his own and not in

an attempt to regain control of the military.

A coup d'etat (coup) was planned for August 5, but when General Naguib,

one of the Free Officers, the group was informed on 19 July that the Royal

Military Egyptian high command has a list of their names, the coup leaders to act

on the night of 22 July.

On July 23, 1952, military coup in Egypt, carried out by the "Free Officers" and

led by General Naguib, but the real power behind the military coup was Gamal

Abdel Nasser. Assisted by intelligence provided by the two super-powers and

their own network, Free Officers Movement target command, control, and

communications posts and the Ministry of Internal Forces. Some sections which

have penetrated the police assisted in rounding up key personnel royal

government.

At 7:30 in the morning, the people of Egypt heard the first issue of

broadcasting stations Statement revolution in the name of Gen. Naguib to the

Egyptian people stated justification for revolution or movement that is. All voice

heard reading the message belonged to the Free Officers and the future

president of Egypt, Anwar El Sadat: the coup was carried out by less than 100

officers - almost all taken from the junior ranks - and prompted scenes of

celebration in the streets by cheering mobs.

Egypt has gone through a critical period in recent history characterized by

bribery, corruption, and the absence of governmental stability. All of these are

factors that have a significant influence on the army. Those who accept bribes

and thus influenced caused our defeat in the Palestine War (1948). For the

period after the war, elements have helped to make damage to each other, and

have dominated the traitor forces. They were appointed as commanders either

ignorant or corrupt. Egypt has reached a point, therefore, has no army to defend.

Accordingly, we have undertaken to clean up and was appointed to command us

men from within the military that we are confident in their abilities, their

properties, and their patriotism. It is certain that all Egypt will meet this news

with enthusiasm and will welcome. For those who caught it makes us feel that

before the men were associated with the military, we would not be hard to deal

with them, but will release them at the appropriate time. I can assure the people

of Egypt that the entire army today has been able to operate in the national

interest and under the rule of the constitution apart from any interests of its own.

I take this opportunity to ask people never permit any traitors to take refuge in

deeds of destruction or violence because it is not in the interest of Egypt. Anyone

should behave in that way, he will be dealt with forcefully in a way like never

before and deeds will meet immediately the reward for treason. Army will take

over with the help of the police. I assure our foreign brothers that their interests,

their personal safety. "Self-their own"), and their property safe, and that the

army considers itself responsible for them. May Allah give us success. "God is the

guardian of success").

With British support network now neutralized, King Farouk seeking U.S.

intervention, the surprise will not respond. Since 25, the army had occupied

Alexandria, where the king is in residence Montaza Palace. Now obviously

terrified, Farouk leave Montaza, and moved to Ras Al-Teen Palace on the

waterfront. Naguib ordered the captain of the yacht, Farouk al-Mahrusa, not sail

without orders from the military.

Sparked debate among the Free Officers about the fate of deposed king.

While some (including Gen. Naguib and Nasser) is seen best solution to send him

into exile, others argue the urge to put him on trial and execute him for "crimes

he committed to the people of Egypt." Finally, the order came to Farouk to

abdicate in favor of his son, Crown Prince Ahmed Fuad - who had received the

throne as King Fuad II - and a Regency Council was appointed. Departure into

exile finally came on Saturday, July 26th, 1952 at 6:00 pm, the king set sail for

Italy with the protection of the Egyptian army. On July 28, 1953, Muhammad

Naguib became the first President of Egypt, which marked the beginning of

modern Egyptian governance. 110

Unification

Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), composed of the previous 9-member

committee directives Free Officers in addition to the five members, including

Mohamed Naguib, was established. Ali Maher was asked to form a civilian

government. When the Free Officers began to isolate elements sympathetic to

the Soviet Union, Communist Party cadres led riots in Kafr Dawar workers on

August 12, 1952, which resulted in two death penalty. Ali Maher who still

110 Egypt on the Brink by Tarek Osman, Yale University Press, 2010, p.40

sympathized with the British resigned on September 7 following differences with

officials, particularly over the proposed land reform. Prime Minister Mohamed

Naguib. On September 9, Agricultural Law Reform was passed, which

immediately seized any white owned, full British property especially in Egypt.

This is followed by a signal major land redistribution program among peasant

farmers who got most of the seized land. However, the royal land and Jews,

Greeks, and Copts, thus distributed among the Free Officers regime and regular

supporters. In order to stop the concentration of land ownership, 200 feddans

regime put a ceiling on land ownership. On 9 December, the Revolutionary

Command Council (RCC) without the right to determine that the 1923

Constitution was repealed Egypt "in the name of the people."

On January 16, 1953, officials of the RCC dissolved and banned all political

parties, declaring the three-year transition period during which the RCC would

rule. A provisional Charter Constitution, written by close circle hijackers, was

written with the intention to give legitimacy to the RCC veneer. This new

constitution promulgated on February 10, and the first 3 Liberation Rally-political

organization associated with the July regime was launched soon afterwards with

a view mobilize popular support. The rally was led by Gamal Abdel-Nasser and

the Free Officers, including another as secretary-general. On 18 June, the RCC

declared Egypt a republic, abolish the monarchy (infant son Farouk has been

ruled as King Fuad II) and appoint General Naguib, aged 52 years, first as

president and prime minister. Gamal Abdel-Nasser, 35, was appointed deputy

prime minister and interior minister. Revolutionary Tribunal consisting of RCC

members Boghdadi Abdel Latif, Anwar el-Sadat and Hassan Ibrahim, was set up

to try politicians Ancien regime.

In opposition to the Constitution with overt secularism is the Muslim

Brotherhood. Moreover, contrary to the orders issued by the Council, a member

of the Liberation Rally accumulated a lot of non-Muslim property seized and

distributed among their closed networks. Left angry at the political and economic

spoils and see the continuity of secularism and modernity in the Free Officers

Movement as having been under the King, the Muslim Brotherhood organized a

street element. From June 1953 to the following year, Egypt wracked by street

violence, fighting, fire, and civil tumolt as the regime and the Muslim

Brotherhood fought for popular support.

In January 1954, the Muslim Brotherhood was banned, the balance of

political organizations illegal until 2011 Revolution. The move comes in the midst

of a battle between members of the Brotherhood and the Liberation Rally

student demonstrators on January 12, 1954. March saw combat in the RCC,

symbolized in the trial, ultimately successful, to oust Naguib. This step opposition

from the military, and some members of the RCC, especially Khaled Mohieddin,

in favor of the return to constitutional government. On October 26, suspected of

attempted murder was ordered by the Brotherhood on Nasser during a rally in

Alexandria. This led to the regime to act against the Brotherhood, implement

Brotherhood leaders on 9 December. After that, Gamal Abdel-Nasser, who has

maneuvered itself into a high power rule, finally cemented his power, first

chairman of the RCC, and finally as prime minister, with Naguib constitutional

position, which remains vague until 14 November, when he was removed from

office and placed under house arrest.

Meanwhile, RCC, morally supported by the Soviet Union and the United

States, managed to remain united against the British and the French, in

particular on the Suez. Despite constant calls from RCC, the debate in the United

Nations (UN), and pressure from the U.S. and the USSR, the British refused to

transfer control of the Canal to the new regime. RCC begins fund and coordinate

an ever greater attacks on the British and French in the Suez and Damietta.

Finally, on October 19, Nasser signed an agreement for the transfer of British

forces from Egypt, to be completed within 20 months. Two years later, on June

18, 1956, Nasser raised the flag over the Canal Zone of Egypt, announced the

complete evacuation of British troops.

President Nasser announced a new constitution on January 16, 1956 in the

popular assembly, set up the presidential system of government in which the

President has the power to appoint and dismiss ministers. An electoral law was

passed on March 3 gave women the right to vote for the first time in the history

of Egypt. Nasser was elected as the second president of the Republic on June 23.

In 1957, Nasser announced the formation of the National Union (Al-Ittihad Al-

Qawmi), paving the way to the July elections for the National Assembly, the first

parliament since 1952.

Warning

Commemorated the anniversary of the Revolution in the Revolution Day, an

annual public holiday in Egypt, on July 23. 111

111 Ibid

Conclusion

On July 23, 1952: Egypt Revolution overturned the monarchy of King Farouk in

1952 and led to the temporary installation under Naguib government, "the

president of the short-lived revolution". In 1952, early education reform in Egypt,

including free installation (and compulsory education) in public for children ages

6-12 with co-education at the primary level. Government priority goals to

eradicate illiteracy, which proved difficult due to lack of facilities in rural areas. In

1954, Nasser's rise to power plays an important role in getting the British to

evacuate the Suez Canal, in the military press and in the creation of the Muslim

Brotherhood in Egypt's democratic Marxist. In 1955, the opening of the first

family planning clinics and government efforts to control population growth.

"Arab Socialism" 1956 in Egypt that led to broad social reform, including

women's suffrage in 1956 and the rights of women to run for political office. This

period starts the past two decades migration to urban areas, such as Cairo,

Alexandria, Suez and Port Said, where economic opportunities and education is

greater. 1962: National Charter drafting, claiming egalitarianism for men and

women, it was formally approved in 1962. In the 1960s-70s: the feminism in

Egypt, on par with the second wave of feminism in the United States, although

the first wave of feminism in Egypt is closely associatedóalthough

completelyówith not later colonization pressure and ëmodernization,

westernizationí efforts in Egypt, where many contemporary feminist and

postcolonial leaders remain critical. Andrée Chedid and feminist Nawal el

Saadawi's top two this time, although their influence, especially Saadawiís (still

living), still applies today. Leila Ahmed writes that "in uncovering the hidden

physical abuse, whether culturally sanctioned and carried out openly, as the

practice of clitoridectomy, or culture that can not be seen, in a hidden

committed, and denied abuse such as child sexual abuse, no writer has played

The more important and eloquent role of feminist Nawal el Saadawiónor have

any more straightforward and do more challenging misogynist and androcentric

cultural practices "(215). However, Ahmed also strongly criticized Saadawiís a

total generalization about patriarchy, Islam and Egyptian culture.

In 1967, Egypt's defeat by Israel in the Egyptian-Israeli wars (Yemen War,

1962-1967); increasing influence of the Muslim Brotherhood and Islamic

fundamentalism. In the end Nasserism, Egypt witnessed the decline of socialist

policies and undermine democratic Marxist or socialist country. In 1969, the

death of Nasser, Anwar Sadat became president of Egypt. In the 1970s-1980s: a

reduction of interest and improper influence on Egyptian feminism. Hijab (which

has declined during Nasserism and equitable, socialist reforms) began to rise in

the 1980s, however, many scholars note that this "veil" is an objection to

Western imperialism and capitalism. Also, the issue of the veil or hijab is a

contested among feminists, most postcolonial feminists who oppose western

feminist interpretation of the veil as ëmisogynistí. In 1974, "In 1974 the United

States and Egypt resume diplomatic relations, which were previously cut off by

Egypt in 1967 By September 1975, through the efforts of U.S. mediator, Egypt

and Israel have reached some agreement on the withdrawal of their forces In

March 1976 , Sadat. abrogated the friendship agreement with the USSR was

signed in 1971. " Under the authority of Sadat, Egypt experienced an increase of

two conflicting ideologies: the western and commercialization as American

capitalism and "market economy" gained influence under Sadat, and increase

ëIslamizationí religion under radical fundamentalist groups. On the one hand,

Sadat encouraging sight Islamic fundamentalist groups, who criticized Nasser's

socialist government; On the other hand, this increased visibility eventually lead

to attacks on Sadat as well.

"Infitah" (or "open door" policy) increased western capitalist investment in

Egypt, such as tourism, food industry and fast burner among others. This period

is a set back unfortunately Nasserís socialism, establishing the affluence and

poverty in some people. (In this sense, the late 1970s and early 1980s are

interesting parallel for the same period in the United States, especially with the

start of Reaganism). In 1977, food riots protesting subsidy cuts bread. In

November 1977: Sadat visited Jerusalem and began the process of peace. In

September 1978, the peace summit between Sadat, Jimmy Carter and Israeli

Prime Minister Menachem Begin happened, but the real deal was not signed until

March 26, 1979, in Washington DC.

Agreements required the withdrawal of troops gradually Israel from Sinai

in the past three years. In January 1980, Egypt and Israel re-established

diplomatic relations, however, relations have been strained as the Egyptians are

most sympathetic to the Palestinians. In 1981, intellectual capture, including

Saadawi, under the control of Sadat's political thought: the release of political

dissidents from prison in 1982 following the death Sadatís.

Grolier Encyclopedia reveal different readings Sadat era, wrote that

"although Sadat increased political freedom, he also periodically cracked down

on the opposition. During 1981, he was murdered by Islamic fundamentalists." In

1982, Sadat's successor, Hosni Mubarak, "honor the peace treaty with Israel but

criticized the lack of progress on the Palestinian issue." He also improved Egyptís

relationship with Arab countries, Egypt to allow re-entry in 1984 of the Islamic

Conference and the Arab League in 1989. In 1987: Mubarak's re-election, despite

criticism of the government due to the economic downturn and the increasing

influence of Islamic fundamentalism. During the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988),

Egypt help the people of Iraq (as did the United States). However, the

concordance with the policy of the United States (U.S.), he criticized the Iraqi

government after the invasion of Kuwait in 1990. In 1993: Mubarak's re-election

for a third time, this time he made accommodation with the Muslim Brotherhood,

and the cracking of the more radical groups. Sudan border conflict arises at this

time.

Bibliography

Amil Khan. 2008. The Long Struggle: The Seeds of the Muslim World's Frustration. Egypt State Information Service. p.58

Egypt on the Brink by Tarek Osman, Yale: Yale University Press, 2010, p.40

Egypt. Retrieved 2012 May 23 from http://www.umass.edu/complit/aclanet/EGYPT.html

Ibrahim, Sammar. 2008. 'Profile: Anwar Al-Sadat', Egypt: Egypt State Information Service.

Egyptian Revolution 1952. Retrieved 2012 May 23 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_Revolution_of_1952

Chapter 7

Lebanese Civil War, 1982

Introduction

Lebanese Civil War (Arabic: اللبنانية األهلية was a multifaceted civil war in (الحرب

Lebanon. War lasted from 1975 to 1990 and resulted in about 150,000 to

230,000 deaths. Another one million people (one fourth of the population)

wounded, and today approximately 350,000 people remain displaced in

Lebanon. There is also a mass exodus of nearly a million people from Lebanon.

It has been argued that the background of war can be traced back to the

conflicts and political compromises reached after the end of Lebanon's

administration by the Ottoman Empire. The Cold War had a powerful

disintegrative effect on Lebanon, which is closely related to the polarization of

the political crisis that preceded 1958. Creation of Israel and displacement of

100,000 Palestinian refugees to Lebanon (around 10% of the total population of

the country) changed the demographics of Lebanon and provided the basis for

long-term involvement of Lebanon in regional conflicts. By 1975, the presence of

foreign powers in the form of armed Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO)

guerrillas, who carries a veto on Lebanese politics, has a serious impact on

Lebanon. Military Palestinian refugee population, with the arrival of the PLO

guerrilla forces trigger an arms race among political groups that differ Lebanon.

After a short break in the fighting in 1976, due to Arab League mediation

and Syrian intervention, Palestinian-Lebanese strife continued, with fighting

focused in south Lebanon, which has been occupied by the PLO since 1969, in

violation of Cairo signed in accordance with the Lebanese government . During

the fighting, alliances shifted rapidly and unpredictably: by the end of the war,

nearly every party had allied with and subsequently betrayed every other party

at least once. 1980s especially bleak: much of Beirut destroyed destruction

caused carnage 1976 Quarantine conducted by the Lebanese Front, the Syrian

Army attack Christian neighborhood in 1978 and 1981, and the Israeli invasion of

the PLO expelled.

Taif Agreement of 1989 marked the beginning of the end of the battle. In

January of that year, a committee appointed by the Arab League, chaired by

Kuwait and including Saudi Arabia, Algeria, and Morocco, began to formulate

solutions to the conflict. However, on January 31, 1990, the Lebanese army

forces clashed again with the LF. This led East Beirut clashes, and even LF made

initial advances, the war between the Christian militia eventually fatigue the

most strength battle. In August 1990, the Lebanese Parliament, which did not

heed Aoun order to dissolve, and the new president agreed on constitutional

amendments contain some political reforms envisioned at Taif. On October 13,

1990, Syrians launched last major operation involving the army, air force and the

Lebanese allies (especially the Lebanese Army, led by General Émile Lahoud)

against Aoun stronghold around the presidential palace, where hundreds of Aoun

supporters were killed. It was later cleared of the last Aounist pocket, strengthen

hold on the capital. Aoun fled to the French Embassy in Beirut, and later into

exile in Paris.

In March 1991, Parliament passed an amnesty law that pardoned all

political crimes prior to enactment. In May 1991, the militias (except essential

Hezbollah) were dissolved, and the Lebanese Armed Forces began to slowly

rebuild themselves as Lebanon's only major non-sectarian institution. Some

violence still occurs. At the end of December 1991 a car bomb (estimated to

carry 220 pounds of TNT) exploded in the Muslim neighborhood of KRC. At least

thirty people were killed and 120 wounded, including former Prime Minister

Shafik Wazzan, who was riding in a bulletproof car. Post-war occupation of the

country by Syria was particularly politically disadvantageous Christian population

as most of their leadership was driven into exile, or had been killed or

imprisoned.

Background

Colonial rule

In 1860, foreign interests changed socio-political struggle in bitter religious

conflict. Civil war between Druze and Christians erupted in Ottoman Mount

Lebanon, and causing the death of about 10,000 people. Commission members

agreed that the partition of Mount Lebanon in 1842 between Druzes and

Christians had been responsible for the massacre.

In 1918 the Ottoman rule in Lebanon and Syria ended. These are difficult

times for Lebanon, while the rest of the world was occupied with the World War,

the people of Lebanon have suffered famine will last almost 4 years. The

outbreak of World War I in August 1914 brought the problems of Lebanon, the

Ottoman Empire allied with Germany and Austria-Hungary. Ottoman government

abolish the semi-autonomous status and appointed Djemal Pasha Lebanon, then

minister of the navy, as the commander of the Turkish forces chief in Syria, with

discretionary powers. Renowned for its rudeness, he militarily occupied Lebanon

and replaced the Armenian mutasarrif, Ohannes Pasha, with a Turk, Munif Pasha.

In February 1915, disillusioned with the failed attack on the British forces

protecting the Suez Canal, Jamal Pasha Mediterranean starting around the east

coast blockade to prevent supplies from reaching his enemies; these thousands

of deaths indirectly caused famine and devastation widespread. Lebanon

suffered as much as, or more than, any other Ottoman province. Restrictions

deprived the tourists and summer visitors, and remittances from relatives and

friends who lost or delayed for months. Turkish Army cut down trees for wood to

fuel trains or for military purposes. In 1916 the Turkish authorities executed 21

public Syria and Lebanon in Damascus and Beirut, respectively, for anti-Turkish

activities are said to be (see: Arab Revolt). Date, May 6 commemorated annually

in both countries as Martyrs 'Day and the site in Beirut has come to known as

Martyrs' Square.

In 1926, Lebanon was declared a republic, and the Constitution was

adopted. However, the constitution was suspended in 1932 due to the

turbulence: some factions demanded unity with Syria, whilst a larger number

demanded independence from France.112 In 1934, the country's first (and only

date) census was conducted. In 1936 the Christian segment of the party was

founded by Pierre Gemayel.

Independence

Lebanon was promised independence and on 22 November 1943 has been

achieved. French troops, who had invaded Lebanon in 1941 to rid Beirut Vichy

forces, left the country in 1946. Christians hold power over the country and the

economy. Parliament confession was created, where Muslims and Christians

were given quotas of seats in Parliament. As well, the President is to be a

Christian, the prime minister a Sunni Muslim and the parliament speaker Shiite

Muslims.

During the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, a mass exodus of Palestinian refugees

who fled the fighting or were expelled from their homes, arrived in Lebanon.

Palestinians came to play a very important role in the future of civil conflict

Lebanon, and the establishment of Israel radically changed the local

environment in which Lebanon found itself.

U.S. Marines on patrol in Beirut, Lebanon in 1958 during conflictIn. July 1958,

Lebanon was threatened by a civil war between Maronite Christians and Muslims.

President Camille Chamoun had attempted to break the stranglehold on

Lebanese politics exercised by traditional political families in Lebanon. These

families maintained their electoral appeal by cultivating client-patron relations

112 Lebanon: A Shattered Country: Myths and Realities of the Wars in Lebanon, 2002. Lebanon: Revised Edition Picard, Elizabeth .

with their local communities strong. But this prevented the emergence of an

educated political class into the parliament. Although he succeeded in

sponsoring alternative political candidates to enter the elections in 1957,

resulting in the traditional family to lose their positions, these families then start

a war with Chamoun, referred to as the War of Pashas. However, as usual and

due to Lebanon's open media and political society, regional tensions were used

as an excuse to mount the insurrection by employers who have issued political.

In previous years, tensions with Egypt has increased in 1956 when the

President of the Non-Aligned Camille Chamoun, did not break off diplomatic

relations with the Western powers that attacked Egypt during the Suez Crisis,

angering Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser. Chamoun has often been

called pro-Western, but he has signed several trade agreements with the Soviet

Union (see Gendzier). However Nasser had attacked Chamoun because of

suspected support for the US-led Baghdad Pact United States. Nasser felt that

the pro-western Baghdad Pact pose a threat to Arab Nationalism. Lebanon

however historically had a small cosmetic army 1 is never effective in defending

Lebanon's territorial integrity, and why in the years after the PLO guerrilla

factions had found it easy to enter Lebanon and set up base, and took over

military barracks on the border with Israel as early as 1968. Yezid Sayigh

documents the early battle which saw the army not only lose control of the

barracks to the occupying PLO but also lost many soldiers. However, before this,

the power of conscious weakness abroad, president Chamoun looked to regional

pacts to ensure protection from foreign armies.

But his Lebanese Sunni Muslim Prime Minister Rashid Karami supported

Nasser in 1956 and 1958. Lebanese Muslims pushed the government to join the

newly created United Arab Republic, a country formed from the union of Syria

and Egypt, while the majority of the Lebanese and especially the Christians

wanted to keep Lebanon as an independent state with independent parliament.

President Camille feared topple his government and asked for U.S. intervention.

At that time the U.S. was involved in the Cold War. Chamoun asked for help

declaring that communism would topple the government. Chamoun however not

only respond to the political revolt former boss, but also to the fact that both

Egypt and Syria had taken the opportunity to use a proxy to the Lebanon

conflict. Thus, the Arab National Movement (ANM), led by George Habash and

later to become the Progressive Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and

the PLO factions, were deployed to Lebanon by Nasser. ANM is a secret militias

involved in attempted coups against both the Jordanian monarchy and the Iraqi

president throughout the 1950s at Nasser's bidding. The founding members of

Fatah, including Yasser Arafat and Khalil Wazir also flew to Lebanon to use the

insurrection as a means of war can be raised towards Israel. They took part in

the fighting by directing armed forces against the government security in the

city of Tripoli according to Yezid Sayigh work.

In that year, President Chamoun was unable to convince the Christian

army commander, Fuad Chehab to use the armed forces against Muslim

demonstrators, fearing that get involved in internal politics would split a variety

of small and weak force confessions. Segment militia came to help the president

rather than to bring a definitive end to the road blockades that crippled major

cities. Encouraged by efforts during this conflict, later that year, principally

through violence and the success of the general strike in Beirut, the segment

achieved what journalists dubbed the "counterrevolution." By their actions

Phalangists overthrow the government of Prime Minister Karami and secured for

their leader, Pierre Gemayel, a position in the cabinet of four people then

formed.

However, estimates of segment membership by Yezid Sayigh and other

academic sources put them at several thousand. Non-academic sources tend to

inflate membership phalanges. What should be remembered that this rebellion

was met with widespread rejection by many Lebanese who wanted no part in

regional politics and many young men aided in the suppression of their revolt

segment, especially when many protesters were little more than proxy forces

hired by groups such as ANM and Fatah founders and hired by an employer who

was defeated in Parliament.

Demographic tensions

During the years of the 1960s, Lebanon is relatively calm, but this will soon

change. Liberation Organization Fatah and other Palestinian factions have long

been active among the 400,000 Palestinian refugees in Lebanese camps.

Throughout the 1960s, the center for armed Palestinian activities in Jordan, but

they were forced to move after being expelled by King Hussein during Black

September in Jordan. Fatah and other Palestinian groups have attempted to

launch a coup in Jordan by incentivizing a split in the Jordanian army, something

that the ANM was trying to do a decade earlier by Nasser's bidding. Jordan

however responded and expelled forces into Lebanon. When they arrived, they

created a "State within the State". This action was not welcomed by the

Lebanese government, and this shook Lebanon's fragile sectarian climate.

Solidarity for the Palestinian people have expressed through the Lebanese

Sunni Muslims but with the aim to change the political system from one of

consensus among the different sects, in which direction they will increase the

power. Certain groups in the Lebanese National Movement would like to bring

more order secular and democratic, but as this group increasingly included

Islamist groups, encouraged to join by the PLO, the more progressive demands

early agenda was dropped by January 1976. Islam does not support a secular

order in Lebanon and want to bring rule by Muslim clerics. Yezid Sayigh

documents these events, especially the role of Fatah and the Tripoli Islamist

movement known as Tawhid, change agenda being pursued by many parties,

including the Communists. This rag-tag combination is often referred to as a left-

wing, but many participants actually very elements that religious conservatives

do not share any broader ideological agenda, rather, they were brought together

by a short-term goal of overthrowing the established political order , each

motivated by dissatisfaction of their own.

These powers allow the PLO / Fatah (Fatah is 80% of the membership of

the PLO and Fatah guerrillas controlled most institutions now) to transform the

Western Part of Beirut into a stronghold. PLO had taken over the center of Sidon

and Tyre in the early 1970s, it controlled large swathes of southern Lebanon,

where the indigenous Shiite population had to suffer the insult pass despite the

entrance of the PLO and now they have to work them by force into Beirut. PLO

did this with the help of volunteers from Libya and Algeria which allegedly

shipped through the port it controlled, as well as a number of Sunni Lebanese

groups who have been trained and armed by PLO / Fatah and encouraged to

declare themselves as separate militias. However as Rex Brynen make clear in

the publication on the PLO, these militias were nothing more than "shop-fronts"

or in Arabic "Dakakin" for Fatah, armed gangs have no ideological foundation

and no organic reason for their existence except for the fact their individual

members have been placed on the payroll of the PLO / Fatah.

Strike fishermen in Sidon in February 1975 could also be considered the

first important episode that sparked an outbreak of hostilities. That event

involved a specific issue: trial of former President Camille Chamoun (also head of

the Maronite-oriented National Liberal Party) to monopolize fishing along the

coast of Lebanon. Injustices perceived by the fishermen raise sympathy from

many Lebanese and reinforced the widespread anger and resentment felt

against the state and the economic monopolies. The demonstrations against the

fishing company quickly turned into a political action supported by the political

left and their allies in the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). The state is

trying to suppress the demonstrators, and a sniper reportedly killed a popular

figure in the city, former Mayor of Sidon, Maroof Saad. He was buried in a

Palestinian flag, and in the media, the Sidon riots became somehow merged with

the Palestinian war with Israel in the minds of media watchers. However, if was

hi-raising by the Palestinians because Saad was on bad terms with the PLO.

Fatah dominated the heart of Sidon and the port and tried to finance election

campaigns of candidates competing eventually saw Saad lose both his efforts for

a parliamentary seat in 1973 and then, lose the mayor-ship. This means that the

Fatah sponsored rival had not only won Sidon, but now representing Fatah in

parliamentary intention Lebanon! When Saad died, there was bitter enmity

between him and the PLO / Fatah.

Many sources claimed that the government's non-academic killed Saad, however

there is no evidence to support such claims, and it appears that whoever had

killed him had intended for what began as a small and quiet demonstration to

evolve into something more. Sniper target Saad right at the end of the

demonstration as it was dissipating. Farid Khazen, Sidon academic local history

sources and eye witnesses, gives a run-down of events today that based on

research confounded them. Other interesting facts that Khazen reveals, based on

the Sidon academic work including that Saad was not in dispute with the fishing

consortium made Yugoslav people. In fact, the Yugoslavian representatives in

Lebanon have been negotiating with the union to make the fisherman fisherman

shareholders in the company offered to modernize the Fisherman's equipment

and buy their catch, give their fisherman is a union and annual subsidy. Saad, as

a union representative (and not the mayor of Sidon at the time because a lot of

sources claim), was offered a place on the board too. There is some speculation

that Saad's attempts to narrow the differences between the fishermen and the

consortium, and the acceptance of a place on the board that made him the

target of attacks by the conspirators who seek full fire around the small protest.

The events in Sidon contained no longer. The government began to lose control

of the situation in 1975.

Front Lebanon and the Lebanese National Movement

Most militias claimed that they are non-sectarian forces, but in fact they

recruited mainly from the community or region of their leader. During the war

most or all militias operated with little for human rights, and features some

fighting sects, made non-combatant civilians often targeted. As the war

continued, militias deteriorated ever further into mafia-style organizations with

many commanders turning to crime as their main occupation than fighting.

Finance for the war effort were obtained in one or all of three ways:

Outside support: Generally from one of the rival Arab governments, Iran or

Israel. Alliances will shift frequently.

Extortion, theft, bank robberies and random checkpoints at which

"customs" would be collected, common to all parties. During the break-fire, most

militias operated in their home areas as virtual mafia organizations.

Smuggling: During the civil war, Lebanon turned into one of the world's

largest narcotics producers, with much hashish production centered in the Bekaa

valley. But many others also smuggled, such as guns and supplies all kinds of

stolen goods, and regular trade - war or no war, Lebanon will not give up its role

as a middleman in European-Arab business. Many battles have been fought over

Lebanon's ports, to gain smugglers access to the sea routes.

Christian

Christian buy arms from Romania and Bulgaria as well as from West Germany,

Belgium and Israel, and attract supporters from the Christian population in the

north of the larger countries. They are generally right-wing in their political

views, and all the main Christian militia is dominated Maronite, and Christian

sects other secondary role.

The most powerful Christian militia is Kataeb Regulatory Forces, the

military wing Kataeb Party or phalanges, which remain under the leadership of

the charismatic William Hawi until his death during the final push against Tel el

Zaatar Camp. After the fall of Palestinian camps in East Beirut, the militia

phalanx, now under the command of Bachir Gemayel, merged with several minor

groups (al-Tanzim, Guardian Cedars, Lebanese Youth Movement) and form a

professional army called the Lebanese Forces (LF). With the help of Israel, the LF

established itself in Christian-dominated strongholds and rapidly transformed

from unorganized militia and poorly equipped armed forces into a terrifying that

now has its own armor, artillery unit commander, (SADM), a small Navy, and

highly advanced Intelligence branch. Meanwhile, in the north, Marada Brigades

served as the private militia Franjieh family and Zgharta.

Another mainly Christian Militia was the South Lebanon Army controlled by Saad

Haddad. This militia was installed in South Lebanon by Israel. Their goal was to

be a bulwark against PLO raids and attacks into Galilee Also, another notable

militia; Noumour (نمور) is the military wing of the National Liberal Party (NLP /

Ahrar) during the Lebanese Civil War. Tigers formed in Saadiyat in 1968, as

Noumour Al Ahrar (Tigers of the Liberals, األحرار under the leadership of ,(نمور

Camille Chamoun. The group takes its name from his middle name, Nemr -

"Tiger". Trained by Naim Berdkan, the unit was led by Chamoun Dany Chamoun

son. After the Civil War beginning in 1975, the Tigers, strong of 3,500 militiamen

fought the Lebanese National Movement (LNM) and Palestinian allies.

Shia Islam

Amal Movement is slow to establish and join in the battle. Initially, many Shi'a

had sympathy towards the Palestinians and some have been attracted by the

Lebanese Communist Party, but after 1970s Black September, there was a

sudden influx of armed Palestinians to the Shi'a areas. Mainly Shiite population of

southern Lebanon and the Palestinians soon set up base there for their attacks

against Israel. Palestinian movement quickly squandered its influence with Shiite

radical factions ruled by the gun that many Shiite inhabited southern Lebanon,

where the refugee camps happened concentrated, and the mainstream PLO

proved either unwilling or unable to curb them.

Secularism and behavior had alienated the Palestinian radical traditionalist

Shi'ite community; Shiites do not want to pay the price for the PLO rocket attacks

from Southern Lebanon. PLO created the state in one of the states in South

Lebanon and this sparked outrage among Lebanon's Shiites, who fear reprisals

from Israel to their homeland in the South. Shiites initially been sympathetic to

the Palestinians, but when the PLO created chaos in South Lebanon these

feelings were reversed. Shi ʿ influential in southern Lebanon in the 1960s

became an arena for Israel-Palestinian conflict. State of Lebanon, which always

avoided provoking Israel, simply leave southern Lebanon. Many people there

migrated to the suburbs of Beirut, known as the "poverty belt". Young Shi'a

migrants, who were not taking part in the prosperity of prewar Beirut, joined

many Lebanese and some Palestinian organizations. After many years without

their own independent political organizations, suddenly arose Musa Sadr's Amal

Movement in 1974-75. Islamist ideology immediately attracted the

unrepresented people, and Amal armed ranks grew rapidly. Amal against the

PLO in the early days. Then the hard-line faction would break away to join with

Shi'a groups fighting Israel to form the organization Hezbollah, also known as the

National Resistance, who to this day remains the most powerful force and orderly

Lebanon and the Middle East. Hezbollah was created as a faction split from Amal

Movement, and the Islamic organization that is considered too secular charity.

The original goal of Hezbollah, including the establishment of an Islamic state in

Lebanon.

There is a great support by Iran during the Lebanese Civil War for Shi'ite

factions, Amal Movement and Hezbollah. Hezbollah and leaders were inspired by

Ayatollah Khomeini's revolution and therefore in 1982 emerged as a faction

determined to resist the Israeli occupation of Lebanon, and the forces were

trained and organized by a contingent of Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps.

Support very satisfied by both military training and financial support.

The Lebanese Alawites, followers of the Shia sect of Islam, was

represented by the Red Knights Militia Arab Democratic Party, a pro-Syrian

Alawites for being dominant in Syria, and mainly acted in Northern Lebanon

around Tripoli.

Sunni Islam

Sunnis half received support from Libya and Iraq, and several small militias exist,

the more prominent with Nasserist or otherwise pan-Arab and Arab nationalist

tendencies, but also of Islam, such as the Tawhid Movement. Sunni leadership is

the main organization Almoravides main Beirut-based south-west. Al-Murabitoun,

led by Ibrahim Kulaylat, fought with the Palestinians against Israel during the

invasion of 1982. February was the sixth movement of other pro-Palestinian

Nasserist militia, and in favor with the PLO in the War camp.

Druze sect

Small Druze sect, strategically and dangerous sit on the Chouf in the middle of

Lebanon, had no natural allies, and so was forced to put a lot of effort into

building alliances. Under the leadership of the Jumblatt family, first Kamal

Jumblatt (LNM leader) and then son Walid, the Progressive Socialist Party (PSP)

served as an effective Druze militia, building excellent ties to the Soviet Union in

particular, and with Syria when production in southern Israel Here you are.

However, many Druze in Lebanon at the time were members of the non-religious

party, the Syrian Social Nationalist Party. Under the leadership of Kamal

Jumblatt, the PSP is the major element in the Lebanese National Movement

(LNM) which supports the Arab identity of Lebanon and sympathize with the

Palestinians. It builds a powerful private army, which proved to be one of the

strongest in the Lebanese Civil War from 1975 to 1990. It conquered much of

Mount Lebanon and the Chouf District. Its main enemy is Maronite Christian

Phalangist militia, and later the Lebanese Forces militia (which absorbed the

Phalangists). PSP suffered a major setback in 1977, when Kamal Jumblatt was

assassinated. Walid, his son succeeded him as party leader. From the Israeli

withdrawal from the Chouf in 1983 to the end of the civil war, the PSP ran a

highly effective civil administration, Public Administration Mountain, in the area

under control. Toll imposed on PSP militia checkpoints provided a major source of

revenue for the administration.

PSP plays an important role in what is known as the "Mountain War" under

the lead Walid Jumblatt: after the Israeli Army retreated from the Lebanese

Mountain, important battles between the PSP and Christian militias. PSP armed

members accused of several massacres that occurred during the war (August 31,

1983: 36 members of the public on Bmarian, 7 September 1983: 200 Christian

civilians killed in Bhamdoun, 10 September 1983: 64 in Bireh, 10 September

1983: 30 Ras el-Matn, 11 September 1983: 15 in Maasser Beit ed-Dine, 11

September 1983: 36 in Chartoun, 13 September 1983: 84 in Maasser el-Chouf,

and other more ...).

Progressive Socialist Party (or PSP) (Arabic: التقدمي االشتراكي al-Hizb ,الحزب

al-taqadummi al-ishtiraki) is a political party in Lebanon. Leader Walid Jumblatt is

now. It is practice-led and supported mostly by followers of the Druze religion.

Secular groups

Some Syrian Social Nationalist Party militia, although the Lebanese claim to be

secular, most little more than vehicles for sectarian interests. However, there are

some non-religious groups, particularly but not exclusively the left and / or Pan-

Arab right.

An example of this is the Lebanese Communist Party (LCP) and the

Organization of Communist Action, more radical and independent (COA). Another

famous example is the Party of the pan-Syrian Syrian Social Nationalist (SSNP),

which promoted the concept of Greater Syria, in contrast to Pan-Arab nationalism

or Lebanon. SSNP is generally aligned with the Syrian government, although it

did not ideologically approve of Ba'thist regime (however, this has changed

recently, under Bashar Al-Assad, the SSNP was permitted to impose political

activity in Syria as well). SSNP various confessions was led by Inaam Raad, a

Catholic and Abdallah Saadeh, Greek Orthodox. It is active in North Lebanon

(Koura and akkar), West Beirut (around Hamra Street), Mount Lebanon (High

Metn, Baabda, Aley and Chouf), in Southern Lebanon (Zahrani, Nabatieh,

Marjayoun and Hasbaya) and Beqqa Valley (Baalbeck , Hermel and Rashaya).

Two competing Baath party factions were also involved in the early stages

of the war: a nationalist one known as "pro-Iraqi" headed by Dr. 'Abdul-Majeed

Al-Rafei (Sunni) and Nicola Y. Ferzli (Greek Orthodox Christian), and a Marxist-

called "pro-Syrian" headed by Assem Qanso (Shiite). Syrian pro-Arab Ba'ath

Socialist Party of Lebanon now has two seats in the parliament.

Kurdistan Workers Party during that time has coached camps in Lebanon,

where they received support from Syria and the PLO. During the Israeli invasion

PKK units were ordered to fight the Israeli army. A total of 11 PKK fighters died in

the conflict. Mahsum Korkmaz PKK commander of all forces in Lebanon. Originals

Armenian Marxist-Leninist militias were established in the territory of the PLO-

dominated West Beirut in 1975. This militia was led by revolutionary fighters

Monte Melkonian and group-founder Hagop Hagopian. Alinged closely with the

Palestinians, originals fought many battles in the Lebanese National Movement

and the PLO, the most prominent of the Israeli army and their right-wing allies

during the 1982 phase of the war. Melkonian was commander during the battle

field, and assisted in the defense of West Beirut PLO. 113

Palestine

Moved most of the Palestinian movement fighting strength to Lebanon at the end

of 1970, after being fired from Jordan in the events known as Black September.

Umbrella organization, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) denied itself

the most potent fighting force in Lebanon at the time was little more than a loose

confederation, but a leader, Yasser Arafat, controlled all factions by buying their

loyalties. Arafat allowed little oversight to be implemented over the PLO fund he

is the ultimate source of all decisions made in directing financial matters. Rex

113 Melkonian, Markar (2005). My Brother's Road: An American's Fateful Journey to Armenia. New York: I. B. Tauris.

Brynen provide a detailed account of how this works. Arafat's control of funds,

channeled directly to the oil producing countries like Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and

Libya meant that he had little real functional opposition to his leadership and

although ostensibly rival factions in the PLO existed, this cover 1 stable loyalty

towards Arafat so long as he was able to dispense financial rewards to his

followers and members of the PLO guerrilla groups. Unlike the people of

Lebanon, the Palestinian people are not sectarian. Palestinian Christians

supporting Arab nationalism during the civil war in Lebanon and against the

Lebanese Christian militia.

PLO mainstream was represented by Arafat's powerful Fatah, which

launched a guerrilla war but did not have a strong core ideology, except the

claim for the liberation of Palestine. As a result, they gained broad appeal with a

refugee population with conservative Islamic values (who opposed the secular

ideology). Tribes over ideology, however, including the Popular Front for the

Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and the splinter, the Democratic Front for the

Liberation of Palestine (DFLP). Fatah actually instrumental in splitting the DF

from the PFLP in the early days of the formation PFLPs to reduce the appeal and

PFLP competition poses to Fatah. Smaller role played by the Palestinian

Liberation Front gripe (PLF) and another one-off fraction of the PFLP, Syria

aligned Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - General Command (PFLP-

GC). To complicate the situation, the system Ba'thist Syria and Iraq both set up

Palestinian puppet organizations within the PLO. As Sa'iqa Syrian militias

controlled, parallel with the Arab Liberation Front (ALF) under Iraqi command.

The Syrian government also can count on the Syrian brigades of the Palestinian

Liberation Army (PLA), formally but not work regular army PLO. Some PLA units

sent by Egypt under the leadership of Arafat.

First Phase 1975-1977

Sectarian violence and massacre

Throughout the spring of 1975, a small battle in Lebanon has been building

towards all-out conflict, the Lebanese National Movement (LNM) pitted against

the segment, and ever-weaker national government skeptical of the need to

maintain order and fill in the constituency. On the morning of 13 April 1975,

unidentified gunmen in a speeding car opened fire at a church in the Christian

East Beirut suburb of Ain El Rummaneh, killing four people, including two

Maronite Phalangists. Hours later, Phalangists led by Gemayels killed 30

Palestinians in Ain El Rummaneh trip. Citywide battle erupted in response to the

"Bus Massacre". Hotels war that began in October 1975, and lasted until March

1976.

On December 6, 1975, the day that became known as Black Saturday,

killing four members bring phalanx phalanx quickly and temporarily set up

roadblocks around Beirut where identity cards were inspected for religious

affiliation. Many Palestinians or Lebanese Muslims who pass through roadblocks

were killed immediately. Additionally, the segment took hostages and attack

Muslims in East Beirut. Muslim and Palestinian militias retaliated with force,

increase the number of death counts between 200 and 600 civilians and militia.

After this point, all started out fighting between militias.

In a vicious circle of sectarian violence, the public is an easy target. On

January 18, 1976 about 1,000 people were killed by Christians in Murder

Quarantine power, counter strike immediately followed by Damour by Palestinian

militias. Both massacres prompted a mass exodus of Muslims and Christians, as

those who fear punishment fled to areas under the control of their own sect.

Ethnic and religious layout of the residential areas of the capital to promote this

process, and East and West Beirut were increasingly transformed into what is in

effect the Christian and Muslim Beirut. Also, the number of Christian leftists who

had allied with the LNM, and Muslim conservatives with the government,

dropped sharply, as the war reveals itself as a truly conflict sect. Another effect

of genocide is to bring in Yasser Arafat's Fatah armed with good and with the

Palestine Liberation Organization on the side of the LNM, as Palestinian

sentiment was now feuding with Lebanese Christian forces.

Syrian occupation of Lebanon

Christianity has a lot of anxiety exacerbated by the Damour massacre, and both

sides feel the importance has been raised above mere political power. Syria

responded by ending combination before the Palestinian Rejectionist Front and

began supporting the Maronite-dominated government. This technically put Syria

on the same side as Israel, because Israel had already begun to supply Maronite

forces with arms, tanks, and military advisers in May 1976. Syria had its own

political and territorial interests in Lebanon, which harbored cells and anti-

Ba'thist Muslim Brotherhood, as well as a possible route to attack Israel.

At the request of the President, Syrian troops entered Lebanon, occupying

Tripoli and the Bekaa Valley, easily brushing aside the LNM and Palestinian

defenses. Cease-fire was imposed, but it ultimately failed to stop the conflict, so

Syria added to the pressure. With Damascus supplying arms, Christian forces

managed to break the defense of Tel al-Zaatar refugee camp in East Beirut,

which had long been under siege. The massacre of about 2000 Palestinians

followed, which release heavy criticism against Syria from the Arab world.

On October 19, 1976, the Battle Aishiya happens, when a combined force

of PLO and Communist militia attacked Aishiya, an isolated Christian village in

the mostly Muslim region. Israel Defense Forces Artillery Corps release 24 shells

(66 kg TNT each) from the US-175-millimeter field artillery unit in striker chase

their first attempt. However, the PLO and the Communists back in the evening,

when low visibility made Israeli artillery far less effective. Christian residents fled

the village. They returned in 1982.

In October 1976, Syria has accepted the Arab League proposal summit in

Riyadh. This gave Syria a mandate to keep 40,000 troops in Lebanon as most of

the Arab deterrent Team imposed by disentangling the combatants and restoring

calm. Other Arab countries are also part of the ADF, but they lost interest

relatively soon, and Syria once again left in sole control, now with the ADF as a

diplomatic shield against international criticism. The Civil War officially ended at

this point, and quiet settled over Beirut agitated and most other Lebanese. In the

south, however, the climate began to deteriorate as a result of the gradual

return of PLO combatants, who were required to vacate central Lebanon under

the terms of the Riyadh Agreement.

Quiet Not Comfortable

Green Line (Green Line) that separates the east and west Beirut, 1982The

country is now effectively divided, with southern Lebanon and the western half of

Beirut became the basis of the PLO and Muslim-based militias and Christians in

control of East Beirut and the Christian section of Mount Lebanon. The main

confrontation line in divided Beirut known as the Green Line.

In East Beirut, in 1976, the leaders of the Christian National Liberal Party

(NLP), Kataeb Party and the Lebanese Renewal Party joined in the Lebanese

Front, a political counterpoint to LNM. Their militias - the Tigers, Kataeb

Regulatory Forces of Malaysia (KRF) and guardian Cedars - entered a coalition

known as the Lebanese Forces, to form a military wing for the Lebanese Front.

From the beginning, the Kataeb Regulatory Forces and militias', under the

leadership of Bashir Gemayel, dominated the LF. During the year 1977-80,

through absorbing or destroying smaller militias, he both consolidated control

and strengthened the LF into the dominant Christian force.

In March of the same year, Lebanese National Movement leader Kamal Jumblatt

was assassinated. Murder widely blamed on the Syrian government. While

Jumblatt role as leader of the Druze Progressive Socialist Party was filled

surprisingly smoothly by his son, Walid Jumblatt, LNM disintegrated after his

death. Although anti-government alliance leftists, Shi'a, Sunni, Palestinians and

Druze would stick together for a few more, they are wildly divergent interests

that tore at opposition unity. Recognizing the opportunity, Hafez al-Assad

immediately began splitting both Christian and Muslim coalitions in a game gap

and conquest.

The second phase 1977-1982

Hundred Days War

Hundred Days War was a conflict in sub Lebanese Civil War, which took place in

the Lebanese capital Beirut between February and April 1978. It was fought

between the Christian Lebanese Forces (LF) militia, under the command of

President Bashir Gemayel Kataeb Party, and the Syrian army Arab prevention

team (ADF). This conflict resulted in the expulsion of Syrian troops from East

Beirut, the end of the task Force in Lebanon and the Arab barrier breaking the

alliance between Syria and the Lebanese Front. Conflict has caused 160 dead

and 400 injured.

Israel's intervention in South Lebanon, 1978

1981 PLO attacks from Lebanon into Israel in 1977 and 1978 increased tension

between the countries. On March 11, 1978, 11 Fatah fighters landed on a beach

in northern Israel and proceeded to hijack two buses full of passengers on the

Haifa - Tel-Aviv road, shooting at passing vehicles in what became known as the

massacre of Beach Road. They killed 37 and wounded 76 Israelis before killed in

clashes with Israeli troops. Israel invaded Lebanon four days later in Operation

Litani. Israeli troops occupying the southern area of the Litani River. The UN

Security Council passed Resolution 425 calling for immediate Israeli withdrawal

and creating the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), charged with trying to

bring peace.

Safety Zone

Map showing the line of demarcation Blue Line between Lebanon and Israel,

which was established by the UN after the Israeli withdrawal from southern

Lebanon in 1978 teams. Israeli withdrew later in 1978, but maintained control of

the southern region by managing 12 miles (19 km) wide "zone" along the border

security. This was held by the allies of Israel, Southern Lebanon Army (SLA),

Christian-Shiite militia under the leadership of Major Saad Haddad. Israel

supplied the SLA with arms and resources, and posted "advisers" to help the

militia. Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin's Likud over the fate of the

Christian minority in southern Lebanon (then about 5% of the population in SLA

territory) to European Jews during World War II. Violent exchange between the

PLO and alliances connect Israeli / SLA. PLO attacking SLA while it continues to

strengthen its power along the Lebanon-Israel border. PLO also continued firing

rockets into northern Israeli towns, and Israel retaliated with air strikes against

PLO positions.

Constant tension between the PLO and the PLO IsraelThe frequently

attacked Israel during the cease-fire, with over 270 documented attacks. People

in Galilee to leave their homes during the shellings. Documents captured in PLO

headquarters after the invasion showed they had come from Lebanon.

In addition, Arafat refused to condemn attacks occurring outside of

Lebanon, on the grounds that the cease-fire is only associated with theater in

Lebanon. Arafat's interpretation emphasizes the fact that the ceasefire

agreement do nothing to address ongoing violence between the PLO and Israel in

other theaters. Israel continued to weather PLO attacks throughout the cease-

fire. On July 17, 1981, Israeli aircraft bombed multi-story apartment buildings in

Beirut that contained offices of PLO associated groups. Representative of

Lebanon to the United Nations Security Council of the United Nations reported

that 300 civilians had been killed, and 800 injured. Bombing led to condemnation

around the world, and restrictions while U.S. aircraft exports to Israel. 114

In August 1981, Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin re-elected, and in

September, Begin and Defense Minister Ariel Sharon began to lay plans for a

second invasion of Lebanon for the purpose of driving the PLO. Sharon's

intention was to "destroy the PLO military infrastructure and, if possible, the PLO

leadership itself, which means attacking West Beirut, where the PLO

headquarters and command bunkers lie".

114 "The Bombing of Beirut". Journal of Palestine Studies 11 (1): 218–225. 1981.

Sharon also wanted to make sure that president Bashir Gemayel in

Lebanon. In return for Israeli assistance, Sharon expected Gemayel, once

installed as president, to sign the first peace treaty with Israel, may stabilize the

northern border of Israel. [Citation needed] began to bring Sharon's plan before

the Knesset in December 1981; however, after strong objections were raised,

Begin felt compelled to set the plan apart. But Sharon continued to press the

issue. In January 1982, Sharon met with Gemayel on board 1 in the waters of

Lebanon and Israel discuss 1 plan "that would bring Israeli forces as far north as

the edge of Beirut International Airport". In February, with Begin's input,

Yehoshua Seguy, head of military intelligence, was sent to Washington to discuss

the issue of Lebanon with Secretary of State Alexander Haig. In the meeting,

Haig "stressed that there can not be a major unprovoked attack from Lebanon"

Safra massacre

Safra massacre, known as the Long Knives days, occurred in the coastal city

Safra (north of Beirut) on July 7, 1980, during the civil war in Lebanon, as part of

an effort to consolidate all Bashir Gemayel. Christian fighters under his

leadership in the Lebanese Forces. Phalangist forces launched a surprise attack

on the Tigers, 500 militia who are armed Liberal National Party former Lebanese

President Camille Chamoun. The attack claimed the lives of about 83 people.

Zahleh Campaign

Zahleh campaign occurred between December 1980 and June 1981. Within

seven months, the city of Zahle weathered some political and military

frustration. Against the top players on the one hand, LF (Lebanese Forces) who is

assisted by Zahlawi city population, and on the other hand, the Syrian Army are

also known as the Arab ADF barrier, assisted by some tribes PLO (Palestine

Liberation Organization).

In terms of demographics, Zahleh is one of the largest cities in the mostly

Christian Lebanese. Adjacent to the suburbs, the Bekaa valley, along the length

of the Syrian border. Given the near Zahle Bekaa Valley, Syria Army feared the

potential of the alliance between Israel and the LF in Zahle. This alliance could

potentially threaten not only the presence of Syrian troops in the Bekaa Valley,

but was considered a threat to national security from the point of view of the

Syrians, as between Zahle and Damascus near the highway.

Therefore, as a strategy to clamp down, Syrian forces controlled the main

road leading in and out of the city and enriched throughout the Valley. Around

December 1980, tensions grew between the Lebanese Forces and the Syrian

Zahlawi leftist militants are supported. From April to June 1981, over a period of

four months, a handful of LF, assisted by local opposition Zahlawi, confronted the

Syrian army and defend the city from invasion of Syria and potential aggression.

Nearly 1,100 people were killed on both sides during the conflict. This campaign

paved the way for Bachir to reach the presidency in 1982.

Third phase 1982-1983

The Israeli invasion of Lebanon

On June 3, 1982, Abu Nidal Organization, a splinter group of Fatah, trying to kill

Israeli ambassador Shlomo Argov in London. As a result, Ariel Sharon and

Menachem Begin ordered the air counter-attack on PLO and PFLP targets in West

Beirut that led to over 100 casualties. PLO responded by launching a

counterattack from Lebanon, without consulting with the Lebanese government,

with rockets and cannon, which is also a clear violation of the ceasefire. This is

the reason immediately after Israel's decision to attack.

Meanwhile, on the 5th of June, the Security Council of the United Nations

unanimously passed Resolution 508 calling for all parties to the conflict to cease

immediately and simultaneously all military activities within Lebanon and across

the Lebanese-Israeli border and no later than 0600 hours local time on Sunday,

June 6, 1982.

Israeli troops in southern Lebanon, June 1982. Israel launched Operation

Peace for Galilee on 6 June 1982, attacking PLO bases in Lebanon. Israeli troops

quickly drove 25 miles (40 km) into Lebanon, moving into East Beirut with the

tacit support of Maronite leaders and militia. When the Israeli cabinet convened

to authorize the invasion, Sharon described it as a plan to advance 40 kilometers

into Lebanon, demolish PLO stronghold, and establish an expanded security zone

that would put northern Israel out of range of PLO rockets. In fact, Israeli chief

staff Rafael Eitan and Sharon had ordered troops to attack to head straight for

Beirut, in line with Sharon's blueprint dating to September 1981. After the

invasion had begun, the UN Security Council passed a resolution on June 6, 1982,

Resolution 509, which confirms UNSCR 508 and "demands that Israel withdraw

all troops immediately and unconditionally to the border of Lebanon's

internationally recognized". So far the U.S. has not used the veto. However, on

June 8, 1982, the United States vetoed a proposed resolution that "reiterated the

demand that Israel withdraw all military forces forthwith and unconditionally to

the border internationally recognized Lebanon", thereby giving implicit assent to

Israeli aggression.

Siege of Beirut

An aerial view of the stadium being used as ammunition supply site for the PLO

after Israeli air strikes in 1982. On June 15, 1982, Israeli units were entrenched

outside Beirut. United States called for PLO withdrawal from Lebanon, and

Sharon began to order bombing raids West Beirut, targeting about 16,000, the

PLO fedayeen who had retreated to a strong defensive position. Meanwhile,

Arafat attempted through negotiations to salvage politically what was clearly a

disaster for the PLO, an effort that ultimately succeeded when the multinational

force arrived to evacuate the PLO.

Fighting in Beirut killing more than 6,700 people, a majority are civilians.

PLO fighters were killed, including 500, more than 400 Lebanese, over 100

Syrians and 88 Israelis. Fierce artillery duels between the IDF and the PLO

attacks, and the PLO Christian neighborhood of East Beirut at the outset gave

way to increasing the IDF aerial bombardment beginning on 21 July 1982. It is

commonly estimated that during the entire campaign, approximately 20,000

were killed on all sides, including many civilians, and 30,000 people were injured.

For Armistice negotiations

On June 26, a UN Security Council resolution was proposed that "demands the

immediate withdrawal of Israeli forces engaged round Beirut, to a distance of 10

kilometers from the outskirts of the city, as a first step towards a full withdrawal

of Israeli forces from Lebanon, and the simultaneous withdrawal of the armed

Palestinian gunmen from Beirut, which shall retire to the existing camps have ";

United States vetoed the resolution because it was" a transparent attempt to

preserve the PLO as a viable political force ", However, President Reagan made

an emotional appeal to Prime Minister Begin to end the siege. Began to be called

back within a few minutes to tell the President that he had given the order to end

the attack. 115

115 "Ronald Reagan on War & Peace". Ontheissues.org. Retrieved 2012-02-23. http://www.ontheissues.org/Celeb/Ronald_Reagan_War_+_Peace.htm.

Finally, in the midst of growing violence and civilian casualties, Philip Habib was

once again sent to restore order, which he reached on 12 August on the heels of

IDF intensive, day-long bombardment of West Beirut. Habib-ceasefire

negotiations called for the production of elements of both Israel and the PLO, as

well as a multinational team consisting of U.S. Marines along with French and

Italian units that would ensure the departure of the PLO and protect defenseless

civilians.

Recovery International: Multinational Force in Lebanon

U.S. Navy Amphibian arrived in Beirut, 1982. Army's first multinational force

landed in Beirut on August 21, 1982 to oversee the PLO withdrawal from

Lebanon and U.S. mediation resulted evacuation of Syrian troops and PLO

fighters from Beirut. The agreement also provided for the deployment of a

multinational force composed of U.S. Marines along with a unit of French, Italian

and British. However, Israel reported that some 2,000 PLO militants hiding in

Palestinian refugee camps on the outskirts of Beirut.

Bachir Gemayel was elected president under Israeli military control on Aug. 23.

Many, especially in the Muslim circles, feared relationship with Israel. He was

killed on September 14, however, by Habib Tanious Shartouni Maronite

Christians.

The massacre of Sabra and Shatila

Kahan Commission was established by the Israeli government to investigate the

circumstances of genocide, in which about 3500 Muslim civilians were killed by

Lebanese Christian forces under the full knowledge and support the Israeli

authorities. Defense Minister, Ariel Sharon, was found to bear personal

responsibility "for ignoring the danger of bloodshed and revenge" and "not

taking appropriate measures to prevent bloodshed". Sharon's negligence in

protecting the civilian population of Beirut, which had come under Israeli control

amounted to meet not the obligation with the Defence Minister was charged.

Commission arrived to the same conclusion with the Chief of Staff, Lt. Gen.

Rafael Eitan, finding his actions are considered as a breach of duty is the

responsibility of the Chief of Staff. The Commission proposes that Sharon

resigned as Defense Minister, which he did, although he remained in the

government as an influential Minister without Portfolio.

Opening Amin Gemayel, Beirut 1982. Massacre made headlines around the

world, and hear the call of the international community to assume responsibility

for stabilizing Lebanon. As a result, multinational forces have begun to leave

Lebanon after the PLO's evacuation returned as peace keepers. With U.S.

backing, Amine Gemayel was chosen by the Lebanese parliament to succeed his

brother as President and a new focus for the withdrawal of Israeli and Syrian

forces.

May 17 Agreement

On May 17, 1983, Lebanon Amine Gemayel, Israel, and the United States signed

an agreement text on Israeli withdrawal conditioned on the departure of Syrian

troops; reported after the United States (U.S.) and Israel's severe pressure on

Gemayel. The agreement states that "the state of war between Israel and

Lebanon has been terminated and no longer exists." Therefore, the agreement in

effect amounted to a peace agreement with Israel, and additionally seen by

many Lebanese Muslims as an attempt for Israel to gain freehold in South

Lebanon. Much agreement on May 17 as described in the Arab world imposed

surrender, and Amine Gemayel was accused of acting as President traitor;

tensions in Lebanon significantly harder. Syria strongly opposed the agreement

and refused to discuss military spending, effectively stalemating further

progress.

In August 1983, Israel withdrew from the Chouf District (southeast of Beirut),

thus removing the buffer between the Druze and the Christian militias and

triggering another round of brutal fighting, Battle Mountain (Lebanon). By

September, the Druze had gained control over most of the Chouf, and Israeli

forces had pulled out from all but the southern security zone. IDF would remain

in this zone until 2000.

Violence

Lebanese Army in February 1984, following the defection of Muslim and Druze

units to militias that much, is a big blow to the government. With U.S. Marines

seem ready to withdraw, Syria and Muslim groups stepped up pressure on

Gemayel. On March 5, the Lebanese Government canceled May 17 Agreement,

and the Marines departed a few weeks later.

This period of chaos witnessed the beginning of attacks against U.S. and

Western interests, such as the 18 April 1983 suicide attack on the U.S. Embassy

in West Beirut, which killed 63. Following the bombing, the Reagan White House

"ordered naval bombardments Druze positions, which caused many victims,

mostly non-combatant," was a suicide attack. Then, on October 23, 1983, suicide

bombing in Beirut devastating targeting the headquarters of the United States

(U.S.) and French forces, killing 241 Americans and 58 French soldiers. On

January 18, 1984, American University of Beirut President Malcolm Kerr was

murdered. After U.S. forces withdrew in February 1984, the anti-US attacks

continued, including the bombing of the U.S. embassy additional second in the

East Beirut on September 20, 1984, which killed 9, including 2 U.S. servicemen.

The situation became serious enough to compel the U.S. State Department to

revoke U.S. passports for travel to Lebanon in 1987, a travel ban that was only

lifted 10 years later in 1997.

This year, Hezbollah emerged from a loose combination of the Shiite

Muslim group that opposes the Israeli occupation, and broke away from the main

Shiite movement, Amal movement Nabih Berri. The group found inspiration for

revolutionary Islamism in the Iranian Revolution in 1979, with the help of Iran

and Shiite refugees big pond unfaithful to draw support, Hezbollah quickly grew

into a strong fighting force.

Fourth phase 1984-1990

The Increasingly Poor Conflict and Crisis: War Camp

USS New Jersey fires salvo against the forces of anti-government in the Shouf,

January 9, 1984. Anatar 1985 and 1989, sectarian conflict worsened as various

efforts at national reconciliation failed. Heavy fighting occurred in the 1985-86

War Camps as Syrian-backed coalition headed by the Amal militia trying to rout

the PLO from their Lebanese strongholds. Many of the dead Palestinians, and the

refugee camps of Sabra, Shatila and Bourj el-Barajneh largely destroyed.

The main battle back to Beirut in 1987, when Palestinians, leftists, and

Druze fighters allied against Amal, eventually attracting more Syrian

intervention. Violent confrontation flared up again in Beirut in 1988 between

Amal and Hezbollah. Hezbollah swiftly seized command Amal-held parts of some

cities, and for the first time emerged as a powerful force in the capital.

Kingdom

Aoun Meanwhile, Prime Minister Rashid Karami, head of a national unity

government that was formed after the failed peace efforts of 1984, was killed on

June 1, 1987. Samir Geagea accused of murder when in coordination with the

Lebanese army, but not proven. President Gemayel period expired in September

1988. Before the retreat, he appointed another Maronite Christian, Lebanese

Armed Forces Commanding General Michel Aoun, as acting Prime Minister,

violated the National Alliance. Conflict in this period also exacerbated by

increasing Iraqi involvement, Saddam Hussein, find a proxy battlefield for the

Iran-Iraq War. To counter Iran's influence through Amal and Hezbollah, Iraq's

Christian support groups, Saddam Hussein has helped Aoun and the Lebanese

Forces led by Samir Geagea between 1988-1990.

Muslim groups rejected violate the National Pact and pledged support to

Selim al-Hoss, who had succeeded Karami Sunni. Lebanon is divided between the

Christian military government in East Beirut and the civilian government in West

Beirut.

On March 14, 1989, Aoun launched what it called a "war of liberation"

against the Syrians and the Lebanese militia allies. As a result, Syrian pressure

the Lebanese Army and militia pockets in East Beirut grew. Still, Aoun continued

in the "liberation war", denouncing the regime of Hafez al-Assad and claiming

that he fought for the independence of Lebanon. While he seems to have had

significant Christian support for this, he is still considered a sect leader among

others by the Muslim population, who distrusted his agenda. He also faced with

the challenge to his legitimacy put forward by the government of Western-

backed Syrian Beirut Selim al-Hoss. Military, this war did not achieve its goals.

Instead, it causes great damage to East Beirut and raised massive emigration

among the Christian population.

Taif Agreement

An estimate of the distribution of major religions of Lebanon, 1991, based on the

map by Global Taif Agreement of 1989 marked the beginning of the end of the

battle. In January of that year, a committee appointed by the Arab League,

chaired by Kuwait and including Saudi Arabia, Algeria, and Morocco, began to

formulate solutions to the conflict. This led to a meeting of Lebanese

parliamentarians in Ta'if, Saudi Arabia, where they agreed to the national

reconciliation agreement in October. Agreement provided a large role for Syria in

Lebanese affairs. Back to Lebanon, they confirmed the deal on November 4, and

elected Rene Mouawad as President the following day. Military leader Michel

Aoun in East Beirut refused to accept Mouawad, and denounced the Taif

Agreement.

Mouawad was assassinated 16 days later in a car bombing in Beirut on 22

November as the motorcade returned from Lebanese independence day

ceremony. He was replaced by, Elias Hrawi (who remains in office until the year

1998). Aoun again refused to accept the election, and dissolved Parliament.

Arguments in East Beirut: Massacre October 13

On January 16, 1990, General Aoun ordered all Lebanese media to cease using

terms like "President" or "Minister" to describe Hrawi and other participants in

the Taif government. Lebanese Forces, which has grown into a rival power broker

in the Christian parts of the capital, protested by suspending all posts. Tension

with the LF grew, as Aoun feared that the militia had planned to connect to the

administration Hrawi.

On January 31, 1990, the Lebanese army forces clashed with LF, after

Aoun has stated that it is in the national interest for the government to "unite

weapon" (ie that the LF must submit to the authority as acting head of state).

This led East Beirut clashes, and even LF made initial advances, the war between

the Christian militia eventually fatigue the most strength battle.

In August 1990, the Lebanese Parliament, which did not heed Aoun order

to dissolve, and the new president agreed on constitutional amendments contain

some political reforms envisioned at Taif. National Assembly expanded to 128

seats and for the first time divided equally between Christians and Muslims.

As Saddam Hussein focused attention on Kuwait, Iraqi supplies to Aoun reduced.

On October 13, Syria launched the first major operation involving the army, air

force (for the first time since the siege of Zahle, in 1981) and Lebanese allies

(particularly the Lebanese Army led by General Émile Lahoud) against

strongholds around the presidential palace Aoun, where hundreds of Aoun

supporters were killed. It was later cleared of the last Aounist pocket, strengthen

hold on the capital. Aoun fled to the French Embassy in Beirut, and later into

exile in Paris. He will not return until May 2005.

William Harris claims that the Syrian operation could not take place until

Syria had reached agreement with the United States, in exchange for the support

of the Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein in the Gulf War, it would convince Israel

not to attack Syrian aircraft approaching Beirut. Aoun claimed in 1990 that the

United States "has sold Lebanon to Syria".

End, Warin March 1991, Parliament passed an amnesty law that pardoned all

political crimes prior to enactment. Amnesty was not extended to crimes

perpetrated against foreign diplomats or certain crimes referred by the cabinet

to the Higher Judicial Council. In May 1991, the militias (except essential

Hezbollah) were dissolved, and the Lebanese Armed Forces began to slowly

rebuild themselves as Lebanon's only major non-sectarian institution.

Some violence still occurs. At the end of December 1991 a car bomb (estimated

to carry 220 pounds of TNT) exploded in the Muslim neighborhood of KRC. At

least thirty people were killed and 120 wounded, including former Prime Minister

Shafik Wazzan, who was riding in a bulletproof car.

Post-war occupation of the country by Syria's Christian population

especially political disadvantage as most of their leadership was driven into

exile, or had been killed or imprisoned.

After Effects of Terrorism

The war damaged buildings still standing in Beirut, 2006. Since the end of the

war, Lebanon has held several elections, most of the militias have been

weakened or disbanded, and the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) have extended

central government authority over about two-thirds of the country. Following the

armistice that ended on July 12, 2006 Israeli-Lebanese conflict, the army has for

the first time in over three decades moved to occupy and control the southern

areas of Lebanon.

Lebanon still bears deep scars from the civil war. In all, it is estimated that

more than 100,000 people were killed and another 100,000 permanently

handicapped by injuries. About 900,000 people, representing one-fifth of the pre-

war population, were displaced from their homes. Perhaps a quarter million

emigrated permanently. Thousands of land mines remain buried in the

previously contested areas. Some Western hostages kidnapped in the middle of

the 1980s were held until June 1992. Lebanese victims of kidnapping and

wartime "disappeared" number in the tens of thousands.

Car bombs became the weapon of choice in violent groups worldwide, following

their frequent, and often effective, use during the war. In 15 years of strife, there

were at least 3641 car bombing, which left 4386 people dead and thousands

injured. Other favorite weapons AK-47 and rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs).

Germany fraud within 1981, was established during the Lebanese Civil

War, based on a 1979 novel of the same name by Nicolas Born

Beyroutou el Lika by Borhane Alaouié, 1981, was screened at the Berlin

International Film Festival 32nd. Little war (film) by Maroun Baghdadi, 1982 was

screened at the Cannes Film Festival in 1982. From Life by Maroun Baghdadi,

1991, was awarded the Jury Prize at the 1991 Cannes Film Festival. Lebanese

movie drama Beyrout al Gharbyya (English: West Beirut, French: À l'Abri les

enfants) from 1998 is a story of two Muslim boys and orphaned Christian girl that

divided Beirut in 1975. Civilisés by Randa Chahal in the 1999 Venice Film Festival

selection. Danielle, Arbid on the battlefield was screened at the Cannes Film

Festival 2004. Lebanese-Swedish film Zozo, 2005, is about a boy whose parents

were killed during the civil war, and who later moved to Sweden. Animated

drama Waltz With Bashir 2008 exploring scan a soldier of the war.

Canada's Oscar nominated Incendies, 2010, by Denis Villeneuve after

playing with Wajdi Mouawad focus on this tragedy and all the wars and has many

scenes set at various times during the course of the entire war. In 2009, Saleh

Barakat curated the "Peace Road" exhibition at the Beirut Art Center. The

exhibition features paintings, photographs, drawings, prints and sculptures by

artists Lebanon during the war. The title comes from a series of prints depicting

the Aref Rayess Lebanon war survivors. 116 Jalan Damai featured Rafic Charaf,

Elkoury Fouad, Paul Guiragossian, Hassan Jouni, Khaddage Samir, Manoukian

SETA, Saloua Raouda Choucair, Mohammad RAWAS, Aref Rayess and others.

Conclusion

Israel to strengthen their control in the Chouf and Aley on November 16, 1982.

Leaders in the mountains called Amine Gemayel who seems determined to

speed up the solution of the crisis in the region Druze-Christian. Lebanese forces

and armed groups Progressive Socialist Party started a war without mercy in

cazas Aley and Chouf.

Bibliography

116 Harris William W (1997). Faces of Lebanon: Sects, Wars, and Global Extensions. New York: Princeton Series on the Middle East

Bregman, Ahron and El-Tahri, Jihan (1998). The Fifty Years War: Israel and the

Arabs. London: BBC Books. Penguin Books.

Bulloch John. (1977). Death of a country: The civil war in Lebanon. Lebanon:

Lebanese Civil War

Elizabeth, P. (2002)Lebanon: A Shattered Country: Myths and Realities of the

Wars in L ebanon, London: Revised Edition Picard.

Harris William W (1997) Faces of Lebanon: Sects, Wars, and Global Extensions.

London: Princeton Series on the Middle East.

Hiro, D (1993) Lebanon: Fire and Embers: A History of the Lebanese Civil War.

Lebanon:

Lebanese Civil War

Salibi Kamal S. (1976). Crossroads to Civil War: Lebanon 1958-1976. London:

O'Ballance Edgar

Chapter 8

The Iranian Revolution, 1979

Introduction

The Iranian Revolution (also known as the Islamic Revolution or 1979 Revolution;

Persian: انقالب اسالمی, Enghelābe Eslāmi or انقالب بیست و دو بهمن) refers to events

involving yangmenggulingkan monarchy (Pahlavi dynasty) under Shah of Iran

Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and its replacement with a Islamic republic under

Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the revolution.

Demonstrations against the Shah commenced in October 1977, developed

into a campaign of civil resistance, which is partly secular and partly religious,

and intensified in January 1978. Between August and December 1978 strikes and

demonstrations paralyzed the country. Shah left Iran for exile in mid-January

1979, and in the resulting power vacuum two weeks later Ayatollah Khomeini

returned to Tehran to a greeting by several million Iranians. Royal regime

collapsed shortly after on February 11 when guerrillas and rebel troops

overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting. Iran voted by

national referendum to become an Islamic Republic on 1 April, 1979, and

approved a new democratic hybrid-theocratic constitution which Khomeini

became Supreme Leader of the country, in December 1979.

Revolution was unusual for the surprise it created throughout the world: it

does not have a lot of custom source revolution (defeat at war, financial crisis,

peasant rebellion, or disgruntled military) produced profound change at great

speed; was large-popular scale, and replace the monarchy with Theocracy

westernising based Islamic scholar Care (or velayat-e faqih). It results-Islamic

Republic "under the guidance of an extraordinary religious scholar from Qom", as

one scholar put, "explained an incident that had to be explained".117

Background and Reasons for the Iranian Revolution

Iran overly centralized royal power structure of the state, which has been widely

covered by the lavishly financed army and security services. Revolution is a

conservative reaction against Westernization and secularizing efforts of Western-

backed Shah, and a liberal response to social injustice and other shortcomings

Ancien regime.

Western-backed shah quickly became popular and the Ayatollah Khomeini, who

was an outspoken critic, was exiled. Shah was perceived by many beholden to -

if not a puppet of Western foreign powers (the United States) a new culture

117 Benard, Cheryl and Khalilzad, Zalmay (1984). "The Government of God" – Iran's Islamic Republic. Columbia University Press. P 18.

affecting that of Iran. The Shah's regime who became oppressive, brutal, corrupt,

and transgress; it also suffered from basic functional failures - 1 program over-

ambitious economy brought economic bottlenecks, shortages and inflation.

That the revolution replaced monarchy and Shah Pahlavi with Islamism

and Khomeini, rather than another leader and ideology, is credited part of the

spread of the Shia version of the Islamic revival that opposed Westernization,

saw Ayatollah Khomeini as following the footsteps of the beloved Shi'a Imam

Husayn ibn Ali and Husayn Shah in enemy , hated tyrant Yazid I. Also thought

responsible underestimate Khomeini's Islamic movement by both the Shah's

regime - who considered them minor threat compared to Marxists and Islamic

socialists and by the secularist opponents of the regime think Khomeinists

indispensable.

Historical Background

Shi'a clergy (Ulema) have a significant influence on most Iranians, who tend to

be religious, traditional, and opposed to any process of Westernization. The

priest began to show themselves as a great power politics in opposition to Iran's

monarch in 1891 Tobacco Protest boycott that effectively destroyed an

unpopular concession granted by the Shah giving a British company a monopoly

over buying and selling Tobacco in Iran.

Decades later, the monarchy and the clerics clashed again, this time

monarchy holding the upper hand. Shah Pahlavi's father, army general Reza

Pahlavi, replaced Islamic laws with western ones, and forbade traditional Islamic

clothing, separation of sexes and the veiling of women (hijab). Police forcibly

removed and tore chadors off women who defy the ban on public hijab. In 1935,

dozens were killed and hundreds injured when a rebellion by pious Shi'a at the

most holy Shi'a shrine in Iran was crushed on his instructions.

In 1941, Reza Shah was sacked and his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, was

installed by an allied attack British and Soviet troops. In 1953, foreign powers

(American and British) again came to the Shah, after-Shah fled the country, the

British MI6 aided American CIA operative in organizing a military coup d'etat to

overthrow Prime Minister Mohammad elected nationalist and democratic

Mossadegh.

Shah Pahlavi maintained a close relationship with the government of the

United States (U.S.), both regimes shared opposition to the expansion of the

Soviet Union, powerful northern neighbor Iran. As his regime, Shah Pahlavi was

known for autocracy, focus on modernization and Westernization and for

disregard for religious and democratic measures in Iran's constitution. Leftist

groups, nationalists and Islamists attacked government (often from outside Iran

as they were suppressed within) for violating the Iranian constitution, political

corruption, and political oppression by the SAVAK (secret police).

The rise of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini

Post-revolutionary leader - Shia cleric Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini - first came to

political prominence in 1963 when he led opposition to the Shah and his "White

Revolution", a program of reforms to break the land owned (including those

owned by religious foundations) and allow religious minorities government office.

Khomeini was arrested in 1963 after declaring the Shah "wretched

miserable man" who had "start (the way) the destruction of Islam in Iran." Three

days of major riots throughout Iran followed with Khomeini supporters claiming

15,000 dead from police fire. However, much lower estimates of 380 killed and

wounded were later made. Khomeini was released after eight months of house

arrest and continued his agitation, condemning the Israeli regime and the close

cooperation of capitulations, or extension of diplomatic immunity to American

government personnel in Iran. In November 1964 Khomeini was re-arrested and

sent into exile where he remained for 14 years until the revolution.

Ideology of the Iranian Revolution

In this interim period "disloyal calm" the budding Iranian revival began to

undermine the idea of Westernization as progress that was the basis of Shah's

secular regime, and to form an ideological revolution in 1979. Ideas Jalal Al-e-

Ahmad, from Gharbzadegi - that Western culture is one disease or one drunk to

be destroyed Ali Shariati's vision, Islam as the one true liberator of the Third

World from the oppression of colonialism, neo-colonialism, capitalism and the

Shia faith popularized Morteza Motahhari , all spread and gained listeners,

readers and supporters.

Very important Ruhollah Khomeini, Khomeini preached that revolt, and

especially martyrdom, against injustice and tyranny was part of Shia Islam, and

that Muslims should reject the influence of liberal capitalism and communism

with the slogan "No East, nor West - Islamic Republic!"

Away from public view, Khomeini expand velayat-e faqih ideology (care of

the jurist) as government, that Muslims in all material facts necessary "care," in

the form of rule or supervision by a member of the Islamic law or leading

scholars. The rules are ultimately "more necessary even than prayer and fasting"

in Islam, as it would protect Islam from deviation from traditional sharia law, and

in so doing eliminate poverty, injustice, and "robbery" Muslim land by people

who foreign non-believers.

The idea of this rule of Islamic jurists was spread through the Government of the

Islamic book, mosque sermons, smuggled cassette speeches by Khomeini,

among Khomeini's opposition network of students (talabeh), former students

(able clerics such as Morteza Motahhari, Mohammad Beheshti, Mohammad-Javad

Bahonar, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and Mohammad Mofatteh), and traditional

business leaders (bazaari) in Iran. 118

Revolutionary Organization of Iran

Other opposition groups, including constitutionalist liberals - the democratic,

reformist Islamic Freedom Movement of Iran, headed by Mehdi Bazargan, and

the more secular National Front. They are based in the middle class town, and

wanted the Shah of Iran to comply with the Constitution of 1906 rather than to

replace him with a theocracy, but a lack of cohesion and organization of

Khomeini power.

Marxists groups - primarily the communist Tudeh Party of Iran and guerrilla

Fedaian - was very weak by government repression. Even so guerrillas do help

play an important role in the final February 1979 overthrow delivering "the coup

regime." The most powerful guerilla group - the People's Mujahedin - was leftist

Islamist and opposed the influence of the clergy as reactionary.

Large number of ministers who do not follow Khomeini. Top cleric Mahmoud

Taleghani support the left, while perhaps the most senior cleric in Iran and

influential - Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari - first remained aloof from politics

and then came out to support the democratic revolution.

Khomeini worked to unite this opposition behind him (with the exception of the

unwanted `Marxist atheist`), focusing on the socio-economic regime (corruption

and unequal income and development) Shah, while avoiding specific in the

community general that may divide the groups, especially the plan to write rules

that he believed most Iranians had become prejudiced against as a result of

propaganda campaign by Western imperialists.

118 Taheri, Amir (1985). The Spirit of Allah. Tehran: Adler & Adler.

In the post-Shah era, some revolutionaries who clashed with the theocracy and

were suppressed by his movement complained of people fooled, but in the

meantime anti-Shah unity is maintained.

Some Events 1970-1977

In 1971, the anniversary of the 2500, the founder of the Persian Empire at

Persepolis, organized by the Shah's regime, was attacked for its extravagance.

"As a foreign reveals drinks forbidden by Islam, Iranians were not only excluded

from the festivities, some were starving." Five years later the Shah angered

pious Iranian Muslims by changing the first year of the Iranian solar calendar

from the Islamic Hijri to rise to the throne by Cyrus the Great. "Iran jumped

overnight from the Muslim year 1355 royalist year 2535."

Oil boom of the 1970s produced "alarming" increase in inflation and waste and

"accelerating gap" between the rich and poor, city and country, along with the

presence of tens of thousands of skilled foreign workers who are not popular.

Iran many are also angry with the fact that the family shah is a leading

beneficiary of the income generated by oil, and the line between state earnings

and family earnings blurred. By 1976, the shah had accumulated upward of one

billion dollars from oil revenue; family including 63 princes and princesses-had

accumulated between five and twenty billion dollars, and the family foundation

controlled approximately three billion dollars By mid-1977 economic savings

measures measures to fight inflation disproportionately affected the thousands

of poor and unskilled male migrants to the cities working construction. Cultural

and religious conservatives, many went on to form the core of revolution

demonstrators and "martyrs".

All Iranians were required to join and pay fees to the new one political party, the

party Rastakhiz - all other parties being banned. That the party is trying to fight

inflation with populist "anti-profiteering" campaigns -. Fining and arrest

merchants for high prices - angry and politicized merchants while black market

fuel.

In 1977 the Shah responded to the "polite reminder" interest political rights by

the new American President, Jimmy Carter, to grant amnesty to some prisoners

and allowing the Red Cross to visit prisons. Through 1977 liberal opposition

formed organizations and issued open letters denouncing the regime.

That year also saw the death of the popular and influential modernist Islamist

leader Ali Shariati. This both angered his followers, who considered him a martyr

at the hands of SAVAK, and removed a potential revolutionary rival to Khomeini.

Finally, in October Khomeini's son Mostafa died of a heart attack, his death also

blamed SAVAK. Next memorial service for Mostafa in Tehran put Khomeini back

in the spotlight.

The Iranian Revolution

Background and causes of the Iranian Revolution

Consolidation of the Iranian Revolution

Casualties of the Iranian Revolution

Revolutionary leaders

Ruhollah Khomeini

Ahmad Khomeini

Hussein-Ali Montazeri

Ali Shariati

Mahmoud Taleghani

Mehdi Bazargan

Sadegh Ghotbzadeh

Ebrahim Yazdi

Mortaza Motahhari

Mohammad Beheshti

Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani

Mohammad Ali Rajai

Abulhassan Banisadr

Hassan Habibi

Mohammad Javad Bahonar

Mostafa Chamran

Ali Khamenei

Mehdi Karroubi

Strong supporters of Mir-Hossein Mousavi

Zahra Rahnavard

Strong supporters of Mousavi Ardabili

Mahdavi Kani

Yadollah friend

Revolutionary parties and organizations:

Islamic Republic Party

Freedom Movement of Iran

Fighter Clergy Association

Tudeh Party of Iran

Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution Organization

OIPFG

IPFG

People's Mujahedin of Iran

Muslim Student Followers of Imam Line

Iranian guerrilla group

Revolutionary administration and official institutions:

Interim Government of Iran

Islamic republic

Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps

Basij

Installation Experts for Constitution

Event

Movement of 15 Khordad

Black Friday

Iran hostage crisis

Cultural Revolution

Ideology of the Iranian Revolution

Islamic scholars Care

Demonstration In Late 1977

The demonstration was one of militant anti-Shah was in October 1977, after the

death of Khomeini's son Mostafa. Khomeini's activists numbered "perhaps 1100

some overall", but in the coming months they grew to a mass of several

thousand demonstrators in most cities of Iran.

The first victim suffered massive demonstrations against the Shah came in

January 1978. Hundreds of Muslim students and religious leaders in the city of

Qom angry over a story in the government-controlled press they felt was

libelous. Troops were sent in to disperse demonstrations and killing several

students (8:58 according to the government, 70 or more according to the

opposition).

According to the Shi'ite customs, memorial services (called Arba'een) was

held 40 days after the person's death. In mosques across the nation, calls were

made to honor the dead students. Thus on February 18 groups in a number of

cities marched to honor the fallen and protest against the Shah.

In May, government commandos burst into the home of Ayatollah Kazem

Shariatmadari, a leading cleric and political moderate, and shot dead one of his

followers in front of him. Shariat Madari leave quiet stance and joined the

opposition to the Shah.

Shah and the United States face a revolution, the Shah appealed to the

United States for support. Because of Iran's history and strategic location, it is

important for the United States. Iran shares a long border with the U.S. Cold War

rival, the Soviet Union, and is the largest, most powerful country in the Persian

Gulf's oil-rich. Shah had long been pro-American, but the Pahlavi regime had also

recently publicized uncertainty in the West for its human rights record. In the

United States, Iran was not considered in danger of revolution. A CIA analysis in

August 1978, just six months before the Shah fled Iran, had concluded that the

country is "not in a revolutionary or pre-revolutionary."

Meeting Shah (left) with members of the Iranian government of the United

States (U.S.): Alfred Atherton, William Sullivan, Cyrus Vance, Jimmy Carter, and

Zbigniew Brzezinski, 1977.According history Nikki Keddie, the administration of

President Carter followed "no clear policy "on Iran. U.S. Ambassador to Iran,

William H. Sullivan, recalls that the U.S. National Security Advisor, Zbigniew

Brzezinski "repeatedly assured Pahlavi that the U.S. supported him fully." On

November 4, 1978, Brzezinski called the Shah to tell him that the United States

would "back him to the hilt." But at the same time, some high-level officials in

the State Department and White House staff believed the revolution was

unstoppable but largely went unheard until Ambassador Sullivan issued the

"thinking thought" telegram, which formally discussed policy options if the Shah

failed to extinguish spirit. After visiting the Shah in the autumn of 1978, Treasury

Secretary W. Michael Blumenthal complained, Shah emotional collapse,

reporting, "You've got a zombie out there." Brzezinski and Energy Secretary

James Schlesinger insisted in their assurance that the Shah would receive

military support.

Sociologist Charles Kurzman argues that instead of a doubt, or

sympathetic to the revolution, Carter administration was consistently supported

the Shah and urged the Iranian military to stage "last resort coup d'etat" even

after the regime cause is hopeless.

Many Iranians believe the lack of intervention and the sympathetic speech

about the revolution by high-level American officials indicate the U.S. "was

responsible for Khomeini's victory." Another position asserts that the Shah's

overthrow was the result of a "sinister plot to topple the king nationalist,

progressive and independent-minded."

Summer

By the summer of 1978 the level of protest has been on a steady state for four

months - about ten thousand participants in each major city (with the exception

of Isfahan where protests were larger and Tehran where they were smaller). This

amounted to a "network of mosques," almost fully mobilized "pious Iranian

Muslims, but a small number of more than 15 million adults in Iran. Bad for the

momentum of the movement, on June 17, 1978 40-day mourning cycle of

mobilization of protest - where demonstrators were killed every 40 days as they

mourn dead earlier demonstrations - ended with a call for calm and stay at home

strike by moderate religious leader Shariatmadari. In order to appease

discontent the Shah made appeals to the moderate clergy, firing his head SAVAK

and promising free elections coming June.

But by August protests had "kick ... in high gear," and the number of protesters

grew to the hundreds of thousands. Two factors blamed. In order to reduce

inflation the Shah's regime cut spending, but cutting the lead to a sharp rise in

layoffs - particularly among young people, workers, unskilled men living in urban

slums. By summer 1978, these workers, often from traditional rural backgrounds,

joined the street protests in large numbers.

Fire Cinema Rex in Abadan

Another factor is the August 1978 Cinema Rex Fire in Abadan where over 400

people died. Cinema has been a regular target of Muslim protesters but it is

distrust of the regime and the effectiveness of communication skills enemies

who many believed SAVAK had burned in an effort to trap the opposition. The

next day 10,000 relatives and sympathizers gathered for a mass funeral and

march shouting, 'burn the Shah', and 'the Shah is the guilty one.'

Black Friday and Beyond

Anti-Shah demonstrators, marching near shopping street in Tehran, Dec. 27,

1978.A new prime minister, Jafar Sharif-Emami, was installed at the end of

August and reversed some policies Shah. Casinos were closed, the imperial

calendar abolished, activity by political parties legalized in - to no avail. By

September, the country rapidly destabilizing, and major protests were becoming

a regular occurrence. Shah introduced martial law, and banned all

demonstrations but on September 8 thousands of protesters gathered in Tehran.

Security force shot and killed dozens, in what became known as Black Friday.

The clerical leadership declared that "thousands have been massacred by

Zionist troops," but in retrospect it has been said that "the main victims" of

filming is "any hope for compromise" between the protest movement and the

regime Shah's. Army is actually ethnic Kurds who have been fired on by snipers,

and post the same revolutionary Martyrs Foundation of people killed as a result

of demonstrations throughout the city on that day found a total of 84 dead.

However, the mean time, the appearance of government brutality alienated

many of the people of Iran and the Shah's allies abroad.

By late summer 1978 the movement to overthrow had become "viable in

the minds of many Iranians," boosting support that much more. General strike in

October resulted crippled economy, with vital industries closed, "attached to the

Shah's fate". By autumn popular support for the revolution was so powerful that

those who still opposed it became reluctant to speak out, According to one

source "victory may be dated to mid-November 1978." Military government

headed by General Gholam Reza Azhari replaced conciliatory prime minister

Sharif Emami.

Ayatollah Khomeini in Neauphle-le Chateau surrounded by journalists in an

attempt to weaken Ayatollah Khomeini's ability to communicate with his

supporters, the Shah urged Iraq deport Khomeini. Iraqi government work and on

October 3, Khomeini left Iraq Kuwait, but not allowed to enter. Three days later,

he went to Paris and took up residence in the suburbs Neauphle-le-Château.

Although far from Iran, telephone connections with the home country and access

to the international media is far better than in Iraq.

Muharram protests

On December 2, the Islamic month of Muharram, over two million people filled

the streets of Tehran Azadi Square (then Shahyad Square), to demand the

removal of the Shah and return of Khomeini.

Mass demonstrations in TehranA week later on December 10 and 11,

"total 6-9000000" anti-shah demonstrators marched throughout Iran. According

to one historian, "even a discount for exaggeration, these figures may represent

the largest protest event in history."

More than 10% of the country marched in anti-shah demonstrations on 10

and December 11, 1978.

In late 1978 the Shah was the prime minister and find a job offer to a

series of liberal oppositionists. While "several months earlier they would be

considered the appointment a dream come true," they now "considered it futile".

Finally, in the last days of 1978, Dr. Shapour Bakhtiar, a long-time opposition

leader, accepted and immediately submit expelled from the opposition

movement."

Victory Revolution and the Fall of the Monarchy

By mid-December the position of the Shah had declined to the point where he

"wanted only allowed to live in Iran." He was rejected by the opposition. At the

end of December, "he agreed to leave the country temporarily; still he was

rejected." On January 16, 1979 the Shah and the empress left Iran. Scenes of

spontaneous joy followed and "within hours almost every sign of the Pahlavi

dynasty" was destroyed.

Bakhtiar dissolved SAVAK, freed political prisoners, ordered the army to

allow mass demonstrations, promised free elections and invited Khomeinists and

other revolutionaries into a government "of national unity". After stalling for a

few days Bakhtiar allowed Ayatollah Khomeini to return to Iran, asking him to

create a Vatican conditions as in Qom and called on the opposition to help

preserve the constitution.

Khomeini's return and fall of monarchy Monarchy

On February 1, 1979 Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Tehran on 1 certified French

air force Boeing 747. The public is welcome several million Iranians was so large

he was forced into a helicopter after the car he was being transported from the

airport was overwhelmed by the crowd enthusiastically welcomed. Khomeini was

now not only a revolutionary leader, he has been the so-called "semi-divine"

figure, greeted as he descended from the plane with cries of 'Khomeini, O Imam,

we respect you, peace to you. " Voluntary, now known chant "Islam, Islam,

Khomeini, We Will Follow You," and even "Khomeini for King."

On the day of his arrival Khomeini made clear fierce rejection Bakhtiar

regime in a speech promising 'I shall kick their teeth.'

Iranian Prime Minister Mehdi Bazargan was an advocate of democracy and

civil rights. He also opposed the cultural revolution and U.S. embassy

takeover.Khomeini appointed his own competing interim prime minister Mehdi

Bazargan on February 4, 'with the support of the nation' and ordered Iran to

comply with Bazargan as a religious duty.

Through care 'Velayat' I have the 'sacred law giver' [Prophet], I hereby

announce Bazargan as the Ruler, and since I have appointed him, he must be

obeyed. The country must obey him. This is not a normal state. It is a

government based on Islamic law. Opposing this government means opposing

the Islamic Sharia ... Revolt against God's government is a revolt against God.

Revolt against God is blasphemy.

As Khomeini's movement gained momentum, soldiers began to defect to

his side. On February 9 about 10 pm a fight occurred between loyal Immortal

Guards and the pro-Khomeini rebel Homafaran elements of Iran Air Force,

Khomeini declared jihad on loyal soldiers who did not surrender. Revolutionaries

and rebel soldiers gained the hand and began to take over police stations and

military installations, distributing arms to the public. Final collapse of the

provisional non-Islamic government came at 2:00 February 11 when the

Supreme Military Council declared itself "neutral in the current political

disputes ... in order to prevent further disorder and bloodshed." Revolutionaries

took over government buildings, TV and radio stations, and palaces of Pahlavi

dynasty.

This period, from February 1 to 11, is celebrated every year in Iran as the

"Decade of Fajr." February 11 "Day of Victory of the Islamic Revolution.", 1 a

national holiday with state sponsored demonstrations in every city.

Casualties of the Iranian Revolution

The number of protesters and revolutionaries killed during the Revolution

between 3,000 to 60,000. Ayatollah Khomeini stated that "60,000 men, women

and children were martyred by the Shah's regime," but estimates compiled by a

researcher 1 (Emad al-Din Baghi) at the Martyrs Foundation (Bonyad Shahid)

come only 2.781 were killed in the 1978 and 1979 clashes between

demonstrators and the Shah's army and security forces, which if true means that

Iran suffered remarkably few injuries compared to contemporary events such as

the South African anti-apartheid movement.

Consolidation of power by Khomeini: Consolidation of the Iranian Revolution

From early 1979 to either 1982 or 1983 Iran was in a "revolutionary crisis mode".

Economic and state apparatus had collapsed, military and security forces are in

disarray. However, by 1982 Khomeini and his supporters had crushed the rival

groups, defeated local rebellions and consolidated power. The event made both

crisis and resolution of the Iranian hostage crisis, the invasion of Iran by Saddam

Hussein's Iraq, and the president expelled Banisadr.

Conflicts among observers revolution. Some people believe "what began

as a genuine revolutionary and anti-dictatorial popular broad-based coalition of

all the forces of the anti-Shah soon was transformed into an Islamic

fundamentalist power-grab," [136] that except for his core supporters , members

of the coalition thought Khomeini intended to be a spiritual guide than a ruler,

Khomeini was his mid-70s, having never held public office, from Iran for over a

decade, and have to question things like "speaker religious princes do not want

to rule. "

Another view Khomeini had "promote ideological, political and

organizational hegemony," and non-theocratic groups never seriously challenged

Khomeini's movement in popular support. Regime supporters themselves have

claimed that Iranians who opposed Khomeini were "fifth columnists" led by

foreign countries attempting to overthrow the Iranian government.

Khomeini and his loyalists in the revolutionary organizations implemented

design Khomeini's velayat-e faqih for 1 Islamic Republic led by himself as

Supreme Leader by exploiting temporarily allies, (such as the Provisional

Government of Mehdi Bazargan, Iran), and eliminating from Iran's political stage

both they and their enemies one by one.

Revolutionary Organization of Iran

Shah and his wife fled the country on January 16, 1979. The bodies of the most

important revolution Revolutionary Council, Revolutionary Guards, Revolutionary

Tribunal, the Islamic Republic Party, and Revolutionary Committees (komitehs).

While moderate Bazargan and the government (temporarily) reassured

the middle class, it became clear they had no power over the bodies

"Khomeinist" revolutionary, especially Revolutionary Council ("real power" in the

revolutionary state), and then the Islamic Republican Party. Not inevitable,

overlapping authorities Revolutionary Council (which had the power to pass laws)

and Bazargan government is the source of conflict, despite the fact that both

have been approved by and / or put in place by Khomeini.

This conflict lasted only a few months anyway. The provisional

government fell shortly after American Embassy officials were taken hostage on

4 November 1979. Bazargan resignation received by Khomeini without

complaint, saying "Mr. Bazargan ... a little tired and preferred to stay outside for

a while." Khomeini later described his appointment of Bazargan as a "mistake."

Revolutionary Guard, or Pasdaran-e Enqelab, was established by Khomeini

on May 5, 1979 as a counterweight both to the armed groups of the left, and the

Shah's army. Controllers eventually evolved into "large-scale" military force, to

be "strong institutional revolution."

Serving under the Pasdaran / is Mostaz'afin Baseej-e, ("oppressed

Mobilization") volunteers in everything from earthquake emergency

management to attacking opposition demonstrators and newspaper offices.

Later Islamic Republican Party fought to establish theocratic government by

velayat-e faqih.

Thousands komiteh or Revolutionary Committees served as the "eyes and

ears" of the new regime, and are credited by critics with "many arbitrary arrests,

executions and confiscations of property". Also enforce requirements Hezbollahi

regime (Party of God), "strong-arm thugs" who attacked demonstrators and

offices of newspapers critical of Khomeini.

Two major political groups formed after the fall of the shah that clashed

with, and were eventually suppressed by, pro-Khomeini was a moderate religious

Muslim People's Republican Party (MPRP) which was associated with Grand

Ayatollah Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari, and the secular leftist National

Democratic Front (NDF).

Khuzestan uprising Kurdish revolt in 1979 and 1979 in Iran

Following the events of the revolution, Marxist guerrillas and federalist parties

revolted in some regions comprising Khuzistan, Kurdistan and Gonbad-e Qabus,

resulting in a battle between them and the team members revolution. This

rebellion started in April 1979 and the last between a few months to the year,

depending on the region.

The establishment of the Islamic Republic

Referendum 12 Farvardin. On March 30 and 31 (Farvardin 10, 11) a referendum

was held on whether to replace the monarchy with an "Islamic Republic" - a term

that is not defined on the ballot. Khomeini called for a massive turnout and only

the National Democratic Front, Fadayan, and several Kurdish parties opposed the

vote. It was announced that 98.2% had voted in favor.

Writing Constitution

In June 1979, the Freedom Movement issued a draft constitution of the Islamic

Republic that it has been working since Khomeini was in exile. They include

Guardian Council veto unIslamic legislation, but had no caretaker government of

laws. Leftist people found the draft too conservative and in need of major

changes but Khomeini declared it `correct. To approve a new constitution and

prevent leftist alterations, a relatively small 73 member House of Experts for

Constitution was elected that summer. Critics complained that "vote fraud,

violence against candidates and unwanted dissemination of false information"

was used to produce an extreme rally dominated by clergy loyal to Khomeini. "

Khomeini now rejected the constitution - notwithstanding accuracy -

"100% on Islam" and Khomeini declared that the new government should be

based on:

In addition to the president, the new constitution included a more powerful

post of guardian jurist ruler intended for Khomeini, with control of the military

and security services, and power to appoint several top government and judicial

officials. It increases the power and number of clerics on the Council of

Guardians and gave it control over elections as well as laws passed by the

legislature. The new constitution also reported extreme approved by

referendum, but with more opposition and smaller work clothes.

Hostage Crisis

Helping to pass the constitution, suppress medium and otherwise radical

revolution is holding 52 American diplomats hostage for over a year. In late

October 1979, the Shah was exiled and dying has put the United States for

cancer treatment. In Iran there was an immediate outcry and both Khomeini and

leftist groups demanding the return of the Shah of Iran for trial and execution.

On November 4, 1979 youthful Islamists, calling themselves Muslim Student

Followers of Imam Line, invaded the embassy compound and seized its staff.

Revolutionaries were reminded of how 26 years before the Shah had fled abroad

while the Embassy-based American CIA and British intelligence organized a coup

d'etat to overthrow the nationalist opponents.

Holding companies hostage is very popular and continued for months even after

the death of Shah. As Khomeini explained to Banisadr President in the future,

This action has many benefits. This has united our people. Our opponents

do not dare act against us. We can put the constitution to the people's vote

without difficulty.

With great publicity the students produce documents from the American

embassy or "nest of spies," showing moderate Iranian leaders had met with U.S.

officials (similar evidence of high ranking Muslim who has done so as not to see

the light of day). Among the victims of the hostage crisis was Prime Minister

Bazargan and government who resigned in November unable to enforce the

government's order to release the hostages.

Prestige of Khomeini and the hostage taking was further enhanced with

the failure of the hostage rescue attempt, many credited to divine intervention.

It ended with the signing of the Algiers Agreement in Algeria on January

19, 1981. Hostages were formally released into United States custody the

following day, just minutes after the new American president Ronald Reagan was

sworn. Hostages held at the U.S. embassy in Tehran for 444 days.

Repression of Opposition

In early March, Khomeini announced, "do not use this term, 'democratic.' That is

the Western style, "giving pro-democracy liberals (and later leftists) a taste of

disappointments to come.

Consecutive National Democratic Front was banned in August 1979, while

the government was disempowered in November, the Republican Party of

Muslims banned in January 1980, the People's Mujahedin of Iran guerillas came

under attack in February 1980, the first university purge has begun in March

1980, and leftist Islamist challenged Banisadr expelled in June 1981.

After the revolution human rights groups estimate the number of

casualties suffered by protesters and prisoners of the new regime a few

thousand. The first implemented is a member of the old regime - senior generals,

followed by over 200 senior civil Shah, as punishment and to eliminate the

danger of coup d'etat. A short test of the defense lawyers, judges, transparency

or opportunity for the accused to defend themselves, were held by revolutionary

judges such as Sadegh Khalkhali, Sharia judge. By January 1980 "at least 582

people have been executed." Among those executed was Amir Abbas Hoveida,

former Prime Minister of Iran.

Between January 1980 and June 1981, when Bani-Sadr was impeached, at

least 900 executions occur, for everything from drug and sexual offenses'

corruption on earth, `from plotting counter-revolution and spying for Israel to

membership in opposition group. In the 12 months after that Amnesty

International documented the death penalty in 2946, with several thousand more

killed in the next two years according to the anti-regime Mujahedin guerrilla

Iranians.

Press Coverage

In mid-August, shortly after the election of the constitution-writing assembly,

several dozen newspapers and magazines opposing Khomeini's idea of

theocratic rule by jurists were shut down. When protests were organized by the

National Democratic Front (NDF), Khomeini angrily denounced them saying, "we

thought we were dealing with human beings. It proved we were not." After the

revolution every few thousand corrupt elements executed in public and burnt,

and the story ends. They are not allowed to publish newspapers. 119

Hundreds were injured by "rocks, clubs, chains and iron bars" when

Hezbollahi attack protesters, and not long after, a warrant was issued for the

arrest NDF leaders.

Islamic People's Republican Party

Kazem Shariatmadari

In December the moderate Islamic Muslim People's Republican Party (MPRP), and

spiritual leader Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari had become a rallying point for

Iranian one who wanted democracy not theocracy. Riots broke out in

Shariatmadari Azeri home region with members of the MPRP and Shariatmadari

followers seized Tabriz television station, and use the "broadcast demands and

grievances." The regime reacted quickly, sending Revolutionary Guards to retake

the TV station, mediators to defuse complaints and activists to stage a massive

pro-Khomeini counter-demonstration. The party was suppressed and in 1982

Shari'atmadari "demoted" from the rank of Grand Ayatollah and his many

followers clerical removed.

119 Moin, Baqer (2000). Khomeini: Life of the Ayatollah. Thomas Dunne Books. P 219.

Left Islam

Banisadr expelled in January 1980 was elected president of Iran. Though an

adviser to Khomeini, he is a leftist who clashed with another ally of Khomeini,

theocratic Islamic Republic Party (IRP) - the power control in the new parliament

Banisadr in 1958. At the same time, erstwhile revolutionary allies of Khomeini -

the modernist Muslim Mujahedin of Iran guerillas (or Mek) - is being suppressed

by Khomeini's revolutionary organizations. Khomeini attacked Mek as monafeqin

(hypocrites) and kafer (unbelievers) Hezbollahi people attacked meeting places,

bookstores, newsstands leftist Mujahideen and other driving them underground.

Universities were closed to purge their opponents of theocratic rule as a part of

"Cultural Revolution", and 20,000 teachers and nearly 8,000 military officers

deemed too Western have been rejected.

By mid-1981 matters came to a head. An attempt by Khomeini to forge a

reconciliation between Banisadr and IRP leaders had failed and now it is Banisadr

which are a rallying point "for all in doubt and opposition" theocracy, including

Mek.

When the leaders of the National Front called for a demonstration in June

1981 in favor of Banisadr, Khomeini, leader threatens death penalty for apostasy

"if they did not repent." Iran Freedom Movement leaders have been forced to

make and publish an open apology to support Barisan appeal. Those attending

the rally were menaced by Hezbollahi and Revolutionary Guards and intimidated

into silence.

Mek respond with a campaign of violence against the IRP. At June 28,

1981, 1 IRP office bombing that killed around 70 high-ranking officials, cabinet

members and members of parliament, including Mohammad Beheshti, the

secretary-general of the party and head of the judicial system in the Islamic

Republic. The regime responded with thousands of arrests and hundreds of

executions. In spite of these and other murders hoped for a massive rebellion

and armed struggle against Khomeiniists been destroyed.

Mek bombing not only violent opposition Khomeinist regime. In May 1979,

the Furqan Group (Thunder-i Furqan) assassinated an important lieutenant of

Khomeini, Morteza Motahhari. 120

Impression

120 The political thought of Ayatullah Murtaza Mutahhari By Mahmood T. Davari. Retrieved 2012 May 25 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Revolution.

History of the Islamic Republic of Iran

Differing views on the impact of the revolution. For some, it is "the most

important event, hope, and deep in the whole history of contemporary Islam,"

while other Iranians believe that the revolution was a time when "for a few years,

we all lost our minds", and that "promises to us heaven, but ... created a hell on

earth. "

International

Initial impact is huge revolution. In the non-Muslim world, it changed the image

of Islam, generating much interest in Islam - both sympathetic and hostile and

even speculation that the revolution might change "the world balance of power

more than any political event since Hitler's conquest of Europe."

The Islamic Republic positioned itself as a revolutionary beacon under the

slogan "not East and West" (ie non-Soviet or American / West European models),

and called for the overthrow of capitalism, American influence, and social

injustice in the Middle East and the rest of the world. The leader of the revolution

in Iran give and get support from non-Muslim causes in the Third World - eg

Sandinistas in Nicaragua, IRA in Ireland and anti-apartheid struggle in South

Africa. even point in favor of non-Muslim revolutionaries over Islamic causes such

as the neighboring Afghan Mujahideen.

Persian Gulf and the Iran-Iraq War

In the region, Iranian Islamic revolutionaries called specifically for the overthrow

of the monarchy and their replacement with Islamic republics, many small alarm

fled Sunni Arab neighbors Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and other Persian Gulf

States - most of them are monarchies and all of they have quite a large Shiite

population. It is one of these regimes that the Iran-Iraq War, which killed

hundreds of thousands and dominated life in the Islamic Republic for the next

eight years, has occurred. Although Iraq invaded Iran, most of the wars that took

place after Iran have returned most of the land back and after the Iraqi regime

had offered a truce. Khomeini rejected, announcing the only condition for peace

was that "the regime in Baghdad must fall and must be replaced by the Islamic

Republic," but ultimately the war ended with no Islamic revolution in Iraq.

In September 1980, the Arab Nationalist and Sunni Muslim-dominated

regime of Saddam Hussein, Iraq's neighbors to attack Iran in order to take

advantage of revolutionary chaos and destroy the revolution in its infancy. Iran

was "galvanized" and Iranians rallied behind their new government helping to

stop and then reversing the Iraqi advance. By early 1982 Iran back almost all the

territory lost to the invasion.

As the hostage crisis, the war served in part as an opportunity for the

regime to strengthen revolutionary spirit and revolutionary groups. [210] such as

the Revolutionary Guard and committees at the expense of the remaining allies-

turned-opponents. Although most costly and destructive, the war "rejuvenate [d]

the drive for national unity and Islamic revolution" and "prevent debate and

dispute grunt" in Iran.

Relationship with the West / US-Iran

In other countries in the Middle East and the Islamic world, especially in the early

years, it sparked a passion and doubled opposition to western intervention and

influence. Islamist insurgents rose in Saudi Arabia (1979), Egypt (1981), Syria

(1982), and Lebanon (1983).

Although ultimately only the Lebanese Muslims succeeded, other activities

have a longer term effect. Ayatollah Khomeini's 1989 fatwa calling for the

murder of Indian-born British citizen Salman Rushdie had international impact.

Islamic revolutionary government itself is credited with helping establish

Hezbollah in Lebanon and the Supreme Council of Islamic Revolution in Iraq.

On the other hand, at least one observer thinks that despite great effort

and expense the only countries outside Iran the revolution had a "measure of

lasting influence" in Lebanon and Iraq. Others claimed destroy the Iran-Iraq War

"mortally wounded ... the ideal spread Islamic revolution," or the pursuit of

ideology rather than a "nationalist, pragmatic" foreign policy has weakened the

Islamic Republic "place as a great regional power" of Iran.

Iran National Indoor

Expand the revolution has brought education and health care for the poor, and

particularly governmental promotion of Islam, and eliminate secularism and

American influence in government. Little change has occurred in terms of

political freedom, governmental honesty and efficiency, economic equality and

self-sufficiency, or even popular religious devotion. Opinion election and

observers reported dissatisfaction extensive, including "fracture" between the

revolutionary generation of young Iranians who find "impossible to understand

what their parents are so passionate about."

Literacy Development

Humans have continued to increase under the Islamic Republic which uses

Islamic principles, By 2002 illiteracy rates dropped by more than half. Maternal

and infant mortality rate has also significantly cut the population growth has

been encouraged, but not discouraged after 1988. Overall, Iran's Human

development Index rating has increased significantly from 0.569 in 1980 to

0.732 in 2002, on par with neighbor Turkey.

Government and Politics of Iran

Iran has chosen governmental bodies at the national, provincial and local.

Although these bodies are lower than theocracy - which has veto power over who

can run for parliament (or Islamic Consultative Assembly) and whether the bill

can become law - they have more power than equivalent organs in Shah's

government. Iran's Sunni minority (about 8%) has seen some unrest. Despite

Iran's non-Muslim minorities that small does not have the same rights, five of the

290 parliamentary seats allocated to their communities.

Definitely not protected have been members of the Baha'i Faith, which

was declared a heretic and subversive. More than 200 Baha'is have been

executed or killed, and many more were imprisoned, lost their jobs, pensions,

businesses, and educational opportunities. Baha'i holy places have been

confiscated, damaged or destroyed. More recently, Bahá'ís in Iran have been

deprived of education and work. Several thousand young Bahai members

between the ages of 17 and 24 were expelled from universities for no particular

reason.

Whether the Islamic Republic has brought more or less severe political

repression disputed. Grumbling once done about the tyranny and corruption of

the Shah and the court is now directed against "the mullahs." SAVAK has been

replaced by the Revolutionary Guards, and other religious revolutionary

enforcers. Violations of human rights by the theocratic regime is said by some

people to even worse than during the monarchy, and in any case very grave.

Reports of torture, imprisonment of dissidents, and the murder of prominent

critics have been made by human rights groups. Refinery operated by the

Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance, without official permission, "no books

or magazines published, no cassettes are distributed, no movies are shown and

no cultural organization is established. All forms of popular music that bans men

and women are not allowed to dance or swim with one another."

Women's Rights in Iran

Women, especially those from traditional backgrounds - participated on a large

scale in demonstrations leading up to the revolution. Since the revolution

university enrollment and the number of women in public service and higher

education has risen (to the alarm. Several regime authorities), and some women

have been elected to the Iranian parliament.

However, the ideology of the revolution against equal rights for women. In

1967 the founder of the Islamic Republic, Family Protection Law was repealed,

female government workers began to observe the Islamic dress code, women

were barred from becoming judges, beaches and sports sex-segregated, the

marriage age for girls was reduced to 13 and married women were barred from

attending regular schools. Women who began immediately to protest and have

won some reversals of policies in the years since. Inequality of women in

inheritance and other areas of the civil code remain. Segregation of sexes, from

"classroom to ski slopes to public buses", is strictly enforced. Girl caught by

revolutionary officials in a mixed-sex situation can be subject to virginity tests.

All forms of physical contact in public is illegal, in imprisonments, or death

consequences. Women can also be fined, beaten, or even death if they are found

to have engaged in sexual intercourse before marriage, or recreational sex

during marriage, except for the sole purpose of producing and reproducing

children.

Iran's economy

Iran's economy has not grown rapidly since the revolution. Dependence on

petroleum exports is still strong. Per capita income fluctuates with the price of

oil. Reported falling at a point 1/4 of what it was before the revolution and has

not yet reached pre-revolution levels. Unemployment among Iran's youth has

steadily increased, with economic sanctions and internal corruption to blame.

Gharbzadegi ("westoxification") or western cultural stubbornly remains,

brought by music recordings, videos, satellite dishes, fast food, and bacon

products. One post-revolutionary opinion poll found 61% of students in Tehran

chose "Western artists" as their role models with only 17% choosing "Iran's

officials." 121

Conclusion

Despite economic growth, the opposition against the Shah Mohammad Reza, and

how he used the secret police, SAVAK, to control the country. Strong opposition

to the Shah's Shi'a, and nations come close to a civil war situation. The

opposition was led by the Ayatollah Khomeini, who lives in exile in Iraq and later

in France. His message was distributed through music cassettes, which were

smuggled into Iran in small numbers, and then copied, and spread throughout

the country. This is the beginning of the Iranian revolution.

On 16 January 1979, the Shah left Iran. Shapour Bakhtiar as the new prime

minister with the help of the Supreme Military Council can not control the

situation in the country again. Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Iran on February 1.

Ten days later Bakhtiar went into hiding, eventually to find exile in Paris. Shah

began the process of supporters, and hundreds were executed. On April 1, after

a landslide victory in the national referendum in which only one option is offered

(Islamic Republic: Yes or No), Ayatollah Khomeini declared an Islamic republic

with a new constitution that reflects the ideals of Islamic government.

Ayatollah Khomeini became supreme spiritual leader (Valy-e-Faqih) Iran.

Then many demonstrations were held to protest the new regulations, such as

excessive regulations on women's dress code. On November 4: Iranian Muslim

Students stormed the U.S. embassy, taking 66 people, the majority of Americans,

as hostages. 14 were released before the end of November. In November: the

republic's first prime minister Mehdi Bazargan resigned. In 1980 expelled Beni

Sadr was elected to president. On September 22: Iraq's massive attack on Iran,

with the belief that Iran's military is too weak to fight back. Iraq claimed the

territory inhabited by Arabs (Southwestern Iran's oil-producing region called

Khouzestan), and the rights of Iraq over the Shatt el-Arab (Arvandroud). Some

battles have been won in favor of Iraq, but Iran's military that supposedly weak

defense startling success.

In 1981, on January 20, hostage in the U.S. Embassy has been released,

after long negotiations, in which the United States admit to transfer money, as

well as the export of military equipment to Iran. In June, Beni Sadr was removed

121 ‘Political Inclinations of the Youth and Students,’ Asr-e Ma, n.13. April 19, 1995 in Brumberg, Reinventing Khomeini (2001), pp. 189–90.

from power by the Ayatollah Khomeini, and fleed to France in July. Former Prime

Minister Mohammad Ali Rajai elected president. On 30 August, President Rajai

and Prime Minister were killed in the bombing. In October, Hojatoleslam Seyed

Ali Khamenei was elected president.

Press Hashemi Rafsanjani. Khamenei was one of the founders of the

Islamic Republican Party, which dominated the Council (the state legislature)

after the 1979 revolution. He was appointed to the Council of the Islamic

Revolution in 1979, and between 1979 and 1981, he was a member of the

Council, served as deputy defense minister, commander of Revolutionary

Guards, and representation on the Supreme Council of Defence. He also served

several times as secretary-general of the Islamic Republican Party.

By the summer of 1982, early gains Iraqi territory was recaptured by the

Iranian military that hard to Revolutionary Guards. Iraqi forces were driven out of

Iran. War assigned to shoot a boat in the Persian Gulf, in an attempt to affect the

other country's oil exports. As required by the constitution, he resigned the

presidency in 1989. On August 20, 1988, the armistice was signed between Iran

and Iraq. Both sides accepted UN Resolution 598. Following the death on June 3,

1989 of a heart attack Ayatollah Khomeini, Khamenei took over the role of the

great spiritual leaders. Assembly of Experts (Ulama) met in emergency session

on June 4 and was elected President Khamenei the new Valy-e-Faqih (supreme

spiritual leader), at the same time to encourage his clergy status. And

Hojatoleslam Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, speaker Majles (parliament) was

elected president.

He graduated in 1950 as Hojatoleslam, Shiite clerical rank just below the

scholar. Opposed, like his mentor, the rule of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi,

Rafsanjani became the chief agent of the exiled Khomeini in Iran, has been

arrested several times, and spent three years in prison (1975-1977) for activity.

Bibliography

Benard, Cheryl and Khalilzad, Zalmay (1984). "The Government of God" – Iran's Islamic Republic. Columbia University Press. P 18.

Moin, Baqer (2000). Khomeini: Life of the Ayatollah. Thomas Dunne Books. P 219.

Political Inclinations of the Youth and Students,’ Asr-e Ma, n.13. April 19, 1995 in Brumberg, Reinventing Khomeini (2001), pp. 189–90.

Taheri, Amir (1985). The Spirit of Allah. Tehran: Adler & Adler.

The political thought of Ayatullah Murtaza Mutahhari By Mahmood T. Davari.

Retrieved 2012 May 25 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Revolution.

Chapter 9

Iraq - Iran war, 1980-1988

Introduction

Iran-Iraq War (also known as the First Persian Gulf War and by various other names) was an armed conflict between the armed forces of Iraq and Iran, which lasted from September 1980 to August 1988, making the longest conventional war of the 20th century. Initially referred to in English as the "Persian Gulf War" before the "Gulf War" of 1990. The war began when Iraq invaded Iran, launching

one simultaneous attack by air and land into Iranian territory on 22 September 1980 following a long history of border disputes 1, and Shi'ite Muslim rebellion concern among the majority of Iraq's Shiite-length block is influenced by the Iranian Revolution. Iraq also meant to replace Iran as the dominant Persian Gulf state. Although Iraq hoped to take advantage of the revolutionary chaos in Iran and attacked without formal warning, they are only limited progress into Iran and quickly repelled by the Iranians who back almost all the territory lost in June 1982. For the next six years, Iran is an attack.

Despite calls for a ceasefire by the Security Council of the United Nations, the war continues to occur until August 20, 1988. The war ended with a ceasefire sponsored by the United Nations in the Security Council of the United Nations (UN) Resolution 598 which was accepted by both sides. It took several weeks for the Iranian armed forces to evacuate Iraqi territory to honor pre-war international borders between the two countries (see the 1975 Treaty of Algeria). The last prisoners of war were exchanged in 2003.

War came at a great cost in lives and economic damage-half a million Iraqi and Iranian soldiers as well as civilians are believed to have died in the war with many more injured, but it carries no compensation or change in boundaries. The conflict is often compared to World War I, that the tactics used closely resemble those that conflict, including large scale trench warfare, machine guns operated posts, bayonet charges, use of barbed wire across trenches, human wave attacks across the land, not No man, and extensive use of chemical weapons such as mustard gas by the Iraqi government against Iranian troops and civilians as well as Iraqi Kurds. At that time, the Security Council of the United Nations issued a statement that "chemical weapons were used in war." However, the UN statement was never made clear that it was only Iraq that was using chemical weapons, so it has been said that "the international community remained silent as Iraq's weapons of mass destruction against Iraq and Iraqi Kurds." 122

Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988)

Iran-Iraq War permanently changed the course of Iraqi history. It strained Iraqi political and social life, and lead to severe economic dislocations. Viewed from a historical perspective, the outbreak of hostilities in 1980, in part, just another phase of the ancient Persian-Arab conflict that has driven the border disputes of the 20th century. However, many observers believe that Saddam Hussein's decision to attack Iran is personal miscalculation based on ambition and a sense of vulnerability. Saddam Hussein, despite significant progress in developing Iraqi countries, fearing that the new leadership of the Iranian revolution would threaten Iraq SunniShia balance and would exploit Iraq's geostrategic vulnerabilities - Iraq's minimal access to the Persian Gulf, for example. In this case, Saddam Hussein's decision to attack Iran have previous history; ancient

122 Brogan, P. (1989). World Conflicts Why and Where They Are Happening, Bloomsbury: London.

kings of Mesopotamia, fearing internal divisions and foreign conquest, also engaged in frequent battles with people in the highlands.

Iran-Iraq war are diverse and include religious schism, border disputes, and political differences. Conflict contributed to the outbreak of hostilities between centuries-old Sunni-versus-Shiite and Arab dispute-versus-Persian religious and ethnic, to personal animosity between Saddam Hussein and the Ayatollah Khomeini. Above all, Iraq launched a war in order to strengthen the growing power in the Arab world and to replace Iran as the dominant Persian Gulf state. Phebe Marr, an analyst who observed the affairs of Iraq, stated that "the war is over immediately as a result of poor judgment and political miscalculation on the part of Saddam Hussein," and "the decision to invade, taken at the time of Iran's weakness, is Saddam ".

Iraq claimed the territory inhabited by Arabs (Southwestern Iran oil producing region called Khouzestan), and the rights of Iraq over the Shatt el-Arab (Arvandroud). Iraq and Iran have engaged in fighting border for years and was revived dormant waterway Shatt al Arab dispute in 1979. Iraq claims to channel 200 yards to shore up Iran as a territory, while Iran insisted that the thalweg - a line of water running down the street last negotiated in 1975, is the official border. The Iraqis, especially the Baath leadership, considers the agreement in 1975 as only an armistice, not a final solution.

The Iraqis have also considered the Iranian revolution Islamic agenda as threatening their pan-Arabism. Khomeini, more bitter eliminated from Iraq in 1977 after 15 years in Najaf, vowed to avenge Shia victims of Baathist repression. Baghdad became more confident, however, as they look once invincible Imperial Iranian Army disintegrate, because most of the top officials were sentenced to death. In Khuzestan (Arabistan to the Iraqis), Iraqi intelligence officers incited riots over a labor dispute, and the Kurdish region, a new rebellion cause severe disturbances Khomeini government.

For example Baathists plan their military campaigns, they have every reason to feel confident. Not only is there a lack of leadership cubic Iran, but the Iranian armed forces, according to intelligence estimates of Iraq, also lack of spare parts for their equipment made in America. Baghdad, on the other hand, possessed equipped and trained forces. Have high moral conduct. Against Iranian forces, including the Pasdaran (Revolutionary Guards) troops, led by religious mullahs who had little or no military, the Iraqi people can gather twelve complete mechanized division, equipped with the latest Soviet equipment. With the buildup of Iraqi forces by the end of the 1970s, Saddam Hussein has amassed 190,000 man army, coupled with 2200 tanks and 450 aircraft.

In addition, the area across the Shatt al Arab pose any major obstacles, especially for the military, equipped with Soviet river-crossings. Iraqi commanders correctly assumed that crossing sites Khardeh and Karun rivers were lightly armored mechanized division defended against them, moreover, the Iraqi intelligence sources report that the Iranian military in Khuzestan, which formerly included two parts which are distributed among Ahvaz, Dezful, and

Abadan, now consists of only a few ill-equipped battalion-sized formations. Tehran further disadvantaged because the area was controlled by 1 Regional Corps headquarters in Bakhtaran (formerly Kermanshah), whereas control operations were directed from the capital. In the years after the overthrow of the shah, only a few units were operative company-sized tanks, and other armored equipment has been poorly maintained.

For planners Iraq, uncertainty only air force capabilities against Iran, which is equipped with some of the most sophisticated aircraft made in America. Although the implementation of the air force commander and pilot, importantly, Iranian air force has demonstrated its strength during local riots and demonstrations. Air forces are also active in the failed attempt to rescue American hostages at the U.S. in April 1980 United. This show of force was impressed Iraqi decision makers to the extent that they decided to launch a massive air assault prior to the Iranian air bases in joint ventures with the state of Israel to work in June 1967 Arab-Israeli War.

Iraq offense, 1980-1982

Despite concerns of the Iraqi government, the eruption of the Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979 did not immediately destroy the Iraqi-Iranian rapprochement that has been around since 1975 Algiers Agreement. As a sign of Iraq's desire to maintain good relations with the new government in Tehran, President Bakr sent a personal message to Khomeini offering "greetings of the people after the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran." In addition, by the end of August 1979, the Iraqi authorities extended an invitation to Mehdi Bazargan, the first president of the Islamic Republic of Iran, to visit Iraq with the aim of improving bilateral relations. Fall moderate Bazargan government in late 1979, however, and the rise of militant Islam teaches expansionist foreign policy bitter Iraq-Iran relations.

Major events affecting the rapid deterioration in relations occurred during the spring of 1980. In April, Iran supported ad missionary trying to kill Iraqi foreign minister Tariq Aziz. Shortly after the failed grenade attack on Tariq Aziz, The missionary was suspected of attempting to kill a leader of Iraq, the Ministry of Culture and Information Latif Jasim Nayyif. In response, the Iraqis immediately rounded the members and supporters of The missionary and sent home to thousands of Shiite Iran comes from Iran. In the summer of 1980, Saddam Hussein ordered the death penalty is considered Advertise missionary leader Ayatollah Sayyid Muhammad Baqr as Sadr and his sister.

In September 1980, the border clashes erupted in the center near Qasr-e Shirin, the exchange of artillery fire by both sides. A few weeks later, Saddam Hussein officially cancel the agreement in 1975 between Iraq and Iran and announced that the Shatt al Arab was returning to Iraqi sovereignty. Iran rejects this action and the increasing hostility as the two sides exchanged bombing raids into the

territory of each other, starting what became a protracted war, and very expensive.

Baghdad originally planned a quick victory on Tehran. Saddam expected invasion in Arabic, this oil-rich Khuzistan Arab revolt against Khomeini's Islamic fundamentalist regime. This revolt did not materialize, however, and the Arab minority remained loyal to Tehran.

On September 22, 1980, the formation of the Iraqi MiG-23s and MiG21s attack Iran at Mehrabad air base and Doshen-Tappen (both near Tehran), and Tabriz, Bakhtaran, Ahvaz, Dezful, Urmia (sometimes named as Urumiyeh), Hamadan, Sanandaj, and Abadan. Their aim is to destroy the Iranian air force on the ground - the lessons learned from the Arab-Israeli War of June 1967. They managed to destroy runways and fuel depots and ammunition, but many Iranian aircraft inventory is maintained. Iran's defense was caught by surprise, but the attack failed because the jet Iran Iraq were protected in a special hangar strengthened and as a bomb designed to destroy runways not totally incapacitate Iran's huge airport. In a few hours, Iranian F-4 Phantom took off from the same base, managed to strike targets of strategic importance close to the major cities of Iraq, and came back with very little loss.

At the same time, six Iraqi soldiers entered the Iranian part of the three angles in a surprise attack was initially successful, where they drove as far as eight kilometers inland and occupied 1,000 square kilometers of Iranian territory.

As a diversionary move in front of the north, the mountains of Iraq mechanized infantry overwhelmed the border garrison at Qasr-e Shirin, a border town in Bakhtaran (formerly known as Kermanshähan) Province, and occupied territory 30 kilometers east of the Zagros mountains basis. This area is strategically important because major highways impassable Baghdad-Tehran.

At the center, Iraqi forces captured Mehran, in the Zagros Mountains of western plains Ilam Province, and pushed eastward to the mountain base. Mehran occupy an important position in the north-south main street, close to the Iranian border.

The main thrust of the attack was in the south, where the five parts of Khuzestan armor and mechanized attack on two axes, one crossing over the Shatt al Arab near Basra, which led to the siege and eventual occupation of Khorramshahr, and the second title for Susangerd, which has Ahvaz, basic army major in Khuzestan, as objectives. Iraqi armored units easily crossed the Shatt al Arab waterway and entered the Khuzestan province of Iran. Dehloran and several other cities have been targeted and rapidly occupied to prevent reinforcements from Bakhtaran and Tehran. By mid-October, a full division advanced through Khuzestan toward Khorramshahr and Abadan and the strategic oil fields nearby. Other parts toward Ahvaz, the provincial capital and the site of the air base. Supported by heavy artillery fire, the army made rapid and significant advance - almost 80 yards in the first few days. In the battle for Dezful in Khuzestan, where the main air base is located, the local Iranian military commanders requested air support to avoid defeat. Therefore, President Bani Sadr was released from prison

authorized many pilots, some of them were suspected of still loyal to the shah. With the increased use of air forces of Iran, Iraq progress quite limited.

The main advantage of the last Iraqi region occurred in early November 1980. On 3 November, the Iraqi forces reached Abadan but were repulsed by a Pasdaran units. Although they are surrounded on three sides Abadan and occupy part of the city, the Iraqi people are not able to overcome stiff resistance; parts of the city still under the control of Iran has resupplied by boat at night. On 10 November, Iraq captured Khorramshahr after a bloody fight from house to house. This victory is a high price for both sides, about 6,000 victims in Iraq and even more so for Iran.

Iraqi attacks on Iranian troops disorganized and demoralized led many observers to think that Baghdad would win the war in a few weeks. Indeed, Iraqi forces have captured the Shatt al Arab and not seize strip 48 kilometers across the territory of Iran.

Iran may have prevented Iraq victory quickly by a rapid mobilization of volunteers and loyal Pasdaran power consumption further. Besides registering drivers Iran, the new revolutionary regime also recalled the old imperial military veterans, although many experienced officers, most of whom were trained in the United States, have been excluded. Furthermore, the Pasdaran and Basij (so-called by Khomeini's "Army of Twenty Million" or People's Militia) took at least 100,000 volunteers. About 200,000 soldiers were sent to the front by the end of November 1980. They are ideologically committed troops (some members even carried their own shrouds forward in anticipation of martyrdom) that fought bravely despite inadequate armor support. For example, on November 7 commando unit plays an important role in sea and air, in attacks on Iraq's oil export terminals at Mina al Bakr and Al Faw. Iran hopes to reduce Iraq's financial resources by reducing oil production. Iran also attacked the northern channel in the early days of the war and persuade Syria to close the Iraqi pipeline that crosses its territory.

Iranian opposition at the start of the Iraq invasion was unexpected strong, but it is not good and not equally successful in all areas. Iraq easily advanced in the north and center of the Pasdaran and crush resistance scattered. Iraqi troops, however, faced resistance tireless in Khuzestan. Iraqi President Saddam Hussein may think that the Arabs are about 3 million Khuzestan would join Iraq against Tehran. Instead, many associated with the Iranian armed forces organized and not organized and fighting in the war in Dezful, Khorramshahr, Abadan. Soon after capturing Khorramshahr, the Iraqi army lost their initiative and started digging along those lines first.

Tehran rejects a settlement offer and held the line against the superior military power of Iraq. It refused to accept defeat, and slowly start counteroffensives series in January 1981. Both volunteer and regular armed forces eager to fight, the latter saw an opportunity to regain lost prestige because of their association with the shah regime.

Iran's first major response fails, however, for reasons of political and military. President Bani Sadr was involved in a power struggle with major religious figures and politicians eager to gain support among the armed forces of direct involvement in military operations. Lack of military expertise, he started his premature attack by three armored regiments fixed without the help of the Pasdaran. He also failed to take into account that the land near Susangerd, muddied by the previous rainy season, will make it difficult resupply. Due to tactical decisions, Iranian forces have surrounded on three sides. In a long exchange of fire, many Iranian armored vehicles were destroyed or had to be abandoned because they are either stuck in the mud or need minor repairs. Fortunately for Iran, however, Iraqi forces failed to follow up with another attack.

Iraqi military to stop Iran Karun River and the limited military stocks, launched human wave "attacks, which used thousands of Basij (Popular Mobilization Army or People's Army) volunteers. After Bani Sadr was removed as president and chief commander of Iran acquiring 1 The primary victory, when, as a result of Khomeini's initiative, the army and the Pasdaran suppressed their rivalry and work together to force Baghdad to lift the long siege of Abadan in September 1981. Iranian team beat Iraq in the Qasr-e Shirin in December 1981 and January 1982. Iraqi armed forces were affected by their refusal to maintain a high casualty rate and is therefore reluctant to start a new attack

Despite the success of Iraq caused significant damage to Iran's missile vulnerable and fuel dumps in the early days of the war, the Iranian air force existed at the beginning of the air war. One reason is that the Iranian plane can carry two or three times as many bombs or rockets from their Iraqi counterparts. Furthermore, Iranian pilots show considerable expertise. For example, Iran's air force attacked Baghdad and major Iraqi air base as early as the first weeks of the war, who are trying to destroy the system of supply and support. Attack on Iraqi oil field complex and air base at Al Walid, base of the T-22 and Il-28 bombers, was a coordinated attack. Target is more than 800 kilometers from the Iranian air bases near the Urumiyeh, so 4s F had to refuel in midair for a mission. Iranian air force depending on F-4s and F-5s to attack and some F-14s as a scout. Although Iran was using Maverick missiles effectively against ground targets, lack of spare airplane forcing Iran to replace helicopters for close air support. Helicopter that served not only as gunships and soldiers but also as a carrier transport emergency supplies. In the mountainous area near Mehran, helicopters proved advantageous in finding and destroying targets and maneuvering against antiaircraft guns or man portable missile. Operations during Operation Karbala Karbala Five and Six, Iran reportedly involved in a massive operation carried by helicopter in the south and center, respectively. Chinooks and smaller Bell helicopters, such as the Bell 214A, accompanied by a Marine Cobra choppers.

In confronting the Iraqi air defenses, Iran will realize that the low-flying two, three or four next F-4s could hit targets almost anywhere in Iraq. Iranian pilots overcome Iraqi SA-2 and SA-3 antiaircraft missiles, using U.S. tactics developed

in Vietnam, they were less successful against Iraqi SA-6s. Western-made air defense system Iran seems to be more effective than its counterpart from Iraqi Soviet-made. However, Iran experienced difficulty in handling and maintaining Hawk, Rapier, and Tigercat missiles and instead use antiaircraft guns and missile-man portable.

Withdrawal of Iraq, 1982-1984

Iranian high command passed from regular military leaders to clergy in mid-1982.

In March 1982, Tehran launched Operation undeniable victory, which marked a major turning point, as Iran penetrated "impenetrable" lines of Iraq, Iraqi forces split, and to force Iraq to withdraw. Iraqi forces near Susangerd line break, separating Iraqi units in northern and southern Khuzestan. Within a week, they managed to destroy most of the three parts of Iraq. This operation, a combined military efforts, Pasdaran, and Basij, was a turning point in the war because the strategic initiative transferred from Iraq to Iran.

In May 1982, Iranian units finally back Khorramshahr, but with high casualties. After this victory, Iran maintains pressure on the balance of forces of Iraq, President Saddam Hussein announced that Iraqi units would withdraw from Iranian territory. Saddam ordered the production of the international border, believing that Iran will agree to end the war. Iran does not accept this as the final production of the conflict, and to continue the war in Iraq. In late June 1982, Baghdad has expressed a willingness to negotiate a settlement of the war and to withdraw its troops from Iran. Iran refused.

In July 1982, Iran launched Operation Ramadan on Iraqi territory, near Basra. Although Basra was within Iranian artillery, the clergy used "human-wave" attacks by the Pasdaran and Basij against the defense of the city, seem to wait coup to topple Saddam Hussein. Tehran uses Pasdaran forces and Basij volunteers in one of the largest land battle since 1945. Between the age of just nine to more than fifty, these soldiers are quite enthusiastic but untrained hit minefields and fortifications to clear safe passage for tanks. All the attacks faced by the Iraqi artillery fire and received heavy toll. Iran maintains immmense number of victims, but they allow Iran to recover some territory before the Iraqis can fend off most of the attacking forces.

By the end of 1982, Iraq has been resupplied with new Soviet materiel, and ground war entered a new phase. Iraq used newly acquired T-55 tanks T-62 tanks, BM-21 Stalin Organ rocket launcher, and the Mi-24 helicopter gunships to provide three types of Soviet defense line, filled with obstacles, minefields, and a strong defensive position. Combat Engineer Corps proved to be effective in

building bridges across water obstacles, in laying minefields, and in providing new lines and fortifications.

During 1983, the two sides showed their ability to absorb and to cause severe damage. Iraq, in particular, proved adroit at building strength in defense and flood low-lying areas to stymie Iran's core, preventing the progress of machine units. Both sides also have difficulty in effectively using their shields. Maneuver rather than shield them, they tend to dig in and use their tanks as artillery pieces. Furthermore, the two sides failed to master tank gunsights and fire controls, making themselves vulnerable to antitank weapons.

In 1983, Iran launched a major three, but to no avail, humanwave offensives, with huge losses, along the border. On February 6, Tehran, using 200,000 "last reserve" Pasdaran troops, attacked the 40-kilometer near Al Amarah, about 200 miles southeast of Baghdad. Supported by air, armor and artillery support, the core six Iran is strong enough to penetrate. In response, Baghdad using massive air attacks, with more than 200 methods, many of which were flown by helicopter attack. More than 6,000 Iranians were killed on that day, at the same time achieve gains just minutes. In April 1983, the Mandali-Baghdad Northcentral sector witnessed fierce fighting, repeatedly attack Iran halted by machine parts and Iraqi infantry. Casualties are very high, and by the end of 1983, about 120,000 Iranians and 60,000 Iraqis have been killed. Despite this loss, in 1983 Iran held a distinct advantage in order to launch and eventually win the attrition war.

Starting in 1984, the goal changed from controlling Baghdad military region Tehran Iran denies any major gains in Iraq. Furthermore, Iraq's attempt to force Iran to the negotiating table with a variety of ways. First, President Saddam Hussein tried to increase the workforce and economic costs of war into Iran. For this purpose, Iraq buying new weapons, especially from the Soviet Union and France. Iraq also completed the construction of what became known as the "killing zone" (which consists mainly of artificial flooding areas near Basra) to stop Iranian units. In addition, according to Jane's Defence Weekly source etc., Baghdad concentration of chemical weapons against Iranian soldiers and launched attacks on many economic centers. Despite Iraqi determination to halt further progress of Iran, Iranian units in March 1984 captured the Majnun Islands, an oil field that has economic and strategic value.

Second, Iraq turned to diplomatic and political means. In April 1984, Saddam Hussein proposed to meet Khomeini personally in a neutral location to discuss peace talks. But Tehran rejected the offer and restated his refusal to negotiate with President Hussein.

Third, Iraq tried to involve the major powers as a means to end the war. Iraqis believe that this objective can be achieved by attacking Iranian shipping. Initially, Baghdad using borrowed French Super Etendard aircraft armed with Exocets. In 1984 Iraq's plane back to France and bought about 30 Mirage F-1 fighters equipped with Exocet missiles. Iraq launched a series of attacks on the new shipping on February 1, 1984.

Slip War, 1984-1987

In 1984 it was reported that some 300,000 Iranian soldiers and 250,000 Iraqi soldiers were killed or wounded. Most of the foreign military analysts feel that Iran is not Iraq and the efficient use of modern equipment. Frequently, sophisticated equipment was left unused, when modern mass attack, wins the battle for any party. Tanks and armored cars dug out and used as artillery pieces, and not maneuvered to lead or to support the attack. William O. Staudenmaeir, a seasoned military analyst, reported that "the views of computerization of land in Iraq the tanks are rarely used. More low accuracy of the T-62 World War II standards." In addition, both parties often leave heavy equipment in a war zone because of their lack of technical skilled staff needed to carry out minor repairs.

Analysts also pointed out that the armies of the two states show little coordination and a number of units in the field were left to fight their own especially. In this protracted war attrition, soldiers and officers alike failed to show initiative or professional expertise in combat. Difficult decisions, which should get immediate attention, has been referred by the commander of the section to the mother for action. Except for the predictable bursts on important anniversary, by the mid 1980's stalemated war.

In early 1984, Iran has begun Operation Dawn V, which aims to break the 3rd Army Corps Iraq and 4th Army Corps near Basra. Early in 1984, about 500,000 Pasdaran and Basij forces, using shallow boats or on foot, moving to within a few kilometers of strategic waters of the Basra-Baghdad. Between February 29 and March 1, in one of the biggest battles of the war, the two sides clashed and are more than 25,000 deaths each other. Without armor and air support themselves, Iran facing Iraqi tanks, mortars, and helicopter gunships. Within a few weeks, Tehran opened another front in shallow lakes Hawizah Marshes, just east of Al Qurnah, Iraq, near the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Iraqi forces, using Soviet-made helicopter gunships France, imposed severe injuries to five Iranian brigades (15,000 men) in this war Majnun.

Lack of equipment to open a safe passage through Iraqi minefields, and having too little tank, again using the instructions Iranian human wave tactics. In March 1984, the Eastern European journalist claimed that he "saw tens of thousands of children, summoned together in groups of about twenty to prevent the faint-hearted from deserting, make such an attack." Iran makes little, if any, progress despite these sacrifices. Perhaps as a result of this performance, Tehran, for the first time, use the regular army units, 92 Armored Division, at the Battle of the Marshes, a few weeks later.

In the four weeks between February and March 1984, Iraqis were reported killed 40,000 Iranians and lost 9,000 of their own men, but is also regarded as unacceptable ratio, and in February the Iraqi command ordered the use of chemical weapons. Despite Iraq's denials, between May 1981 and March 1984, Iran charged Iraq with forty chemical weapons. 1984 closed with some of the Majnun Islands and some regions of Iraq in the hands of Iran. Casualties

notwithstanding, Tehran maintains military posture, while Baghdad has re-evaluate the whole strategy.

The main development in 1985 was increased targeting population centers and industrial facilities by both fighters. In May, Iraq began aircraft attacks, long-range artillery attacks, and missile attack surface-to-surface in the cities of Tehran and other major Iranian. Between August and November, Iraq invaded Khark Island 44 times in a futile attempt to destroy the installation. Iran responded by launching air strikes and missile attacks on Baghdad and other Iraqi cities. In addition, systematic Tehran periodic stop-and-search operations, which were carried out to verify the contents of the cargo ship in the Persian Gulf war and seize equipment destined for Iraq.

Iraqi Air Force's strategic bombing campaign first, so-called war cities, aimed violate public morals and interfere with military targets. Two Iraqi efforts early in 1985, from March 14 to April 7 and May 25 to June 15, was reported to be highly effective. Resistance of Iran Air Force is ignored does not exist, Iraqis hit air bases and military and industrial targets across Iran (in Tabriz, Urmia, Rasht, Bakhteran, Hamadan, Tehran, Isfahan, Dezful, Ahvaz, Kharg, Bushehr, and Shiraz). Although Iraq's lumbering old Tu-16 bombers were getting through, maybe with the MiG-25 and Mirage F-1 escort, as the Iraqis hit targets far as Kashan, more than 360 kilometers from their own base. Iranian daily Kayhan official confirmed this, reporting that Tehran was bombed by "Tupolevs (Tu-16 Badger and Tu-22 Blinder bombers) flying at very high altitudes." Load bombing Iraq, suffered by nearly 600 small aircraft battle of Iraq, has fallen in Tehran in an effort to destroy the Iranian. Iraq boasted a 180-plane raids on the capital of Iran. Antiwar feeling in Tehran is at a high level all the time, as the Iraqis hit the city average of two times a day and two times, six times. Hit among the Bagh-e Saba Revolutionary Guard barracks, Tehran's main power station, Army Staff College, Military Academy, the main military barracks, and Abbas Abbad Force Base. Locomotive works south of Tehran and heavy industrial areas near Javadieh also hit, and even three military airports that are supposed to protect the city-Mehrabad, jey, and Qual'eh Murgeh-have been repeatedly attacked with impunity.

Iraqi air force and STIKES 'Scud' in the cities of the Islamic Republic of Iran refuse to find a comparable response. Iran Iran-Iraq War starting with SSM but failed to import 'Scud B' SS-1 (R-17Es) in 1985 from Libya and in 1986 from Syria. Revolutionary Guard Corps, which took over their weapons used against Iraq between 1985 and 1988. Iran 'Scud B' used by Syria, Libya and North Korea possibility of major cities, including Baghdad and Basra. During the war's first cities, the depth of Iran's strategic missile prevent Iraq from achieving key targets such as Tehran. However, in 1988, Iraq has developed a variety of advanced 'Scud', al-Hussein, and took Iran by surprise by the attack on urban conurbations key. In the spring of 1988, Iraq launched up to 200 SSMS against Tehran, Qom and Isfahan. Although only 2000 people have been killed in these attacks, they cause panic population and hundreds of thousands fled the cities.

During the war, Iranian leaders often exaggerated their capabilities in the field of missiles. Although the 'Scud B' they can hit Baghdad, less precision weapons or destructive power to do great damage. In addition, Iran is not able to match the quantity of Iraqi missiles. Iraq release 'Scud B' 361 in Iran from 1982 to 1988 and an estimated 160 al-Hussein in Tehran early in 1988. Instead, Iran release 117 'Scuds' during the war, including a possible 60 that are released in Baghdad.

The only major ground offensive, involving about 60,000 Iranian soldiers, took place in March 1985, near Basra, once again, the attack did not take exception to prove serious harm. However, in 1986, Iraq suffered heavy losses in the southern provinces. On 9 February, Iran launched a successful surprise attack amphibians across the Shatt al Arab and captured the abandoned Iraqi oil port of Al Faw. Occupation of Al Faw, a logistical achievement, involving 30,000 regular Iranian military rapid self contained. Saddam Hussein vowed to eliminate the bridgehead "at all costs," and in April 1988 the Iraqis succeeded in regaining the Al Faw peninsula.

Later, in March 1986, the UN secretary general, Javier Perez de Cuellar, formally accused Iraq's use of chemical weapons against Iran. Citing a report of four chemical warfare experts that the UN had been sent to Iran in February and March 1986, the Secretary-General called on Baghdad to end grave abuses of 1925 Geneva Protocol on the use of chemical weapons. UN report concluded that "the Iraqi army has been using chemical warfare against Iranian forces" weapons used included both mustard gas and nerve gas. The report also states that "the use of chemical weapons appear to be greater in 1981 than in 1984." Iraq attempted to deny the use of chemicals, but the evidence, in the form of severe burn injuries much flown to hospital Europe, is very encouraging. According to a British representative at the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva in July 1986, the "Iraqi chemical warfare was responsible for about 10,000 victims." In March 1988, Iraq once again be the main use of chemical warfare while retaking Halabjah, a Kurdish city in northeastern Iraq, near the Iranian border.

Failed in 1986, to dislodge Iran from Al Faw, Iraq went on the attack they captured the city of Mehran May, the only loss in July 1986. 1986 saw another small hit-and-run attacks by both sides, while the Iranians had gathered nearly 500,000 troops to another "final offensive," promised that did not happen. But the people of Iraq, maybe for the first time since the outbreak of hostilities, embark integrated air strike campaign in July. Heavy attack on Khark Island forced Iran depends on the installation while further south in the Gulf at Sirri Island and Island Larak. Afterward, Iraqi jets, refueling in midair or use Saudi military base, hit Sirri and Larak. Both belligerents also attacked 111 neutral ships in the Gulf in 1986.

Meanwhile, to help defend itself, Iraq has built an impressive fortress along the 1,200 mile front war. Iraq devote special attention to the southern city of Basra, where concrete-roofed bunkers, tanks and artillery-firing positions, minefields, barbed wire and stretches, all protected by flood-made lake 30 kilometers long

and 1800 meters wide, was built. Most visitors to the area recognize the effective use of engineering Iraq battle to erect these barriers.

By the end of 1986, rumors of Iranian attack on Basra manifold end. On 08 January 1987, Operation Karbala Five began with Iranian units pushing westward between Fish Lake and the Shatt al Arab. This annual "final assault" city Duayji arrested and charged 20,000 victims of Iraq, but at the cost of 65,000 victims of Iran. In this intensive operations, Baghdad also lost 45 aircraft. Try to capture Basra, Tehran launched several attacks, some of them disguised as a diversion attack operations and Operation Karbala Karbala Six Seven. Iran eventually cancel operations Karbala Five on February 26, 1987. Despite Iran's insistence about to break the last line of defense east of Basra, Iraq, Tehran could not score a decisive breakthrough required to win outright victory, or even to get a relative gain over Iraq.

In late May 1987, just when the war seemed to have reached a complete stalemate on the southern front, reports from Iran indicate that the conflict has intensified in Iraq's northern front. This assault, Operation Karbala Ten, is a joint effort by the Iranian and Iraqi units Kurdish rebels. They surrounded the garrison at Mawat, endangering Iraq's oil fields near Kirkuk and the northern oil pipeline to Turkey.

Believing that it can win the war simply by holding the line and impose an unacceptable loss of attacking Iran, Iraq initially adopted static defensive strategy. This was successful in that drove successive Iranian offensives until 1986 and 1987, when the Al-Faw peninsula was gone and Iran's army at the gates of Al-Basrah. Embarrassed by the loss of the peninsula and the second largest threat to the city, Saddam ordered a change in strategy. From defensive posture, where operations only annoying part is the counter-attack to relieve forces under pressure or exploit failed attack Iran, Iraq adopted an offensive strategy. More decision-making authority-was entrusted to senior military commanders. This change also showed the Iraqi military capability maturity and an increase in the effectiveness of the armed forces. The success of this new strategy, including changes in doctrine and procedures attendant, virtually eliminating Iran's military capability.

Because of the ongoing war, Iran is getting short of spare parts for aircraft damaged and had lost a large number of airplanes in combat. As a result, by late 1987 Iran had become less able to mount an effective defense against the Iraqi air force resupplied, not to mention the aerial counter-attack. 123

Tank War, 1984-1987

Most of Iraq's export capacity was lost during the Iran-Iraq war, whether war-related damage or for political reasons. In 1982, for example, Syria (allied with

123 Iran-Iraq War 1980-1988. Retrieved 2012 May 26 from http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/iran-iraq.htm

Iran at the time) closed 500-mile, 650,000-bbl / d capacity Banias pipeline, which has become an important route in Iraq to the Mediterranean Sea and European oil market. By 1983, Iraq's export capacity is only 700,000 barrels, or less than 30% of field capacity in operation at the time.

Revenue shares fell after the Iranian Revolution of Iran 1978/79 shortly after, followed by the Iran-Iraq War for many years of the 1980s and have not recovered since]. All onshore crude oil production and output of Iran Forozan field (which is mixed with the raw stream from Abuzar and Doroud fields) exported from Kharg Island terminal located in the northern Gulf. The original capacity of the terminal 7 million bbl / d was nearly wiped out by more than 9,000 bombing raids during the Iran-Iraq War.

Tanker war seems likely to precipitate a major international event for two reasons. First, about 70 percent of Japanese, 50 percent of Western Europe, and 7 percent of U.S. oil imports come from the Persian Gulf in the early 1980s. Second, attacks on tankers involved neutral shipping and the vessels of war states.

Tanker war had two phases. The first phase of a relatively obscure beginning in 1981, and publicized second phase began in 1984.

The first phase of a relatively obscure beginning in 1981, and publicized second phase began in 1984. As early as May 1981, Baghdad has unilaterally declared a war zone and had officially warned all ships heading to or returning from Iranian ports in the northern zone of the Gulf to stay away or, if they go, to proceed at risk their own. The main target in this phase is the port city of Khomeini and Bandar-e-e Mashur; very little ship was hit outside this zone. Although the nearby port of Iraq, the Iraqi navy did not play an important role in the operation. Instead, use the Super Frelon helicopter Baghdad equipped with Exocet missiles or Mirage F-1s and MiG-23s to destroy the target. Naval operations come to a standstill, presumably because Iraq and Iran have lost much of their ships, by early 1981; lull in the fighting lasted for two years.

In March 1984, the tanker war entered its second phase when Iraq begin a sustained naval operations in its own maritime exclusion zone declared in 1126-kilometers, extending from the mouth of the Shatt al Arab to Iran's port of Bushehr. In 1981, Baghdad had attacked Iranian ports and oil complexes as well as neutral tankers and ships sailing to and from Iran, in 1984 Iraq expanded the so-called tanker war by using Super-Etendard combat aircraft armed with French Exocet missiles .

In March 1984 the Iraqi Super Etendard Exocet fired missiles at the southern Greek tanker Khark Island. That until the attack of March, Iran had not intentionally attacked the ships public Gulf.Neutral merchant ships became favorite targets, and long-range Super-Etendards flying sorties farther south. Merchant ships were attacked seventy-one in 1984 alone, compared with 48 in

the first three years of the war. Iraq's motives in increasing the tempo included a desire to break the deadlock, possibly with cut Iran's oil exports and by thus forcing Tehran to the negotiating table. Repeated Iraqi efforts failed to put Iran's oil export terminal in Khark Island major commissions, however.

The new wave of invading Iraq, however, cause Iran to retaliate. In April 1984, Tehran launched its first attack against public commercial shipping carrier attack India. Iran attacked a Kuwaiti oil tanker near Bahrain on May 13 and then a Saudi tanker in Saudi waters five days later, making it clear that if Iraq continued to interfere with Iranian shipping, no Gulf country will be safe. Most observers assume that the Iraq invasion, however, overcome the invasion of Iran by three to one. Iranian counter-attack was largely ineffective due to the limited number of aircraft equipped with long-range antiship missiles and ships with surface-surface long-range missiles had been deployed. Moreover, despite repeated Iranian threats to close the Strait of Hormuz, Iran itself dependent on sea lanes for vital oil exports.

These ongoing attacks reduce Iran's oil exports in half to reduce shipping in the Gulf by 25 per cent, lead, Lloyd's of London insurance rate increase on the tanker, and slow the Gulf oil supplies to the whole world, even more so, the Saudi decision in 1984 to Iranian Phantom jets shoot down the intruding in Saudi territorial waters play an important role in ending both attempts to internationalize the war is being fought tankers. Iraq and Iran accept the moratorium in 1984, sponsored by the UN on the attack civilian targets, and Tehran later proposed an extension of the moratorium, including Gulf shipping, Iraq rejected the proposal unless it is for their own including the Gulf ports.

Iraq began ignoring the moratorium soon after its entry into force and increase air attacks on tankers serving Iran and Iranian-oil-exporting facilities in 1986 and 1987, attacking even vessels that belonged to the conservative Arab states of the Persian Gulf. Iran responded by increasing attacks on shipping serving Arab ports in the Gulf. Considering most Kuwaiti ship target in the counter-attack, the government of Kuwait to seek shelter from the international community in the fall of 1986. Soviet Union responded first, agreeing to charter several Soviet tankers to Kuwait early in 1987. Washington, who was approached first by Kuwait and which had postponed its decision, eventually followed Moscow's leadership. Malaysian American involvement was signed by May 17, 1987, the Iraqi missile attack on the USS Stark, which thirtyseven crew members were killed. Baghdad apologized and claimed that the attack was a mistake. Ironically, Washington using the Stark incident to blame Iran for the growing war and sent its own ships to the Gulf escorting Kuwaiti tankers 11 "reflagged" with the American flag and had American crews. Iran did not attack the U.S. naval directly, but it uses various forms of harassment, including mines, hit and run attacks by small patrol boats, and periodic stop and search operations. Several times, Tehran release Silkworm missiles made in China on the Kuwait Al Faw peninsula. When Iranian forces hit the reflagged tanker Sea Isle City in October 1987, Washington retaliated by destroying 1 oil platform in the Rostam field and

the Sea in the United States Navy., Air, and Land (Seal) commandos to blow up to 1 1 2 nearby.

Within a few weeks Stark incident, Iraq continued raids on tankers but moved offensive further south, near the Strait of Hormuz. Washington played a key role in drafting the UN Security Council Resolution 598 on the Gulf War, which was approved unanimously on 20 July; Western attempts to isolate Iran has been frustrated, however, as Tehran rejected the resolution because it did not meet the requirement that Iraq should be punished for initiate conflict.

In early 1988, the Gulf crowded theater of operations. At least ten Western navies and eight regional navies patrolling the area, the site of a weekly event where merchant ships were crippled. Arab Ship Repair Yard in Bahrain and his counterpart in Dubayy, United Arab Emirates (UAE), can not keep up with the repairs required by the ships damaged in the attack.

Great Power involvement gradually

Iran's military gains in Iraq after 1984 is a major reason for the increased involvement of major powers in the war. In February 1986, the Iranian units captured the port of Al Faw, which has oil facilities and is one of Iraq's main oil exporting ports before the war.

In early 1987, the two major powers have expressed an interest in the security of the region. Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister Vladimir Petrovsky visit Middle East countries expressed concern over the effects of the Iran-Iraq War. In May 1987, the United States Assistant Secretary of State Richard Murphy also toured the Gulf Arab states friendly to emphasize the commitment of the United States in the region, the first commitment has to be suspect due to the transfer of Iranian weapons Washington, formally as one incentive for them to assist in the release of American hostages held in Lebanon. In other diplomatic efforts, the two great powers that support the resolution of the Security Council of the United Nations to apply end of the war.

War appears to be entering a new phase in which the great powers have become more involved. For example, the Soviet Union, which had ended military supplies to both Iran and Iraq in 1980, resumed large-scale arms shipments to Iraq in 1982 after Iran banned the Tudeh and tried and executed many of the leaders. After that, though neutral admit, the Soviet Union was the main supplier of advanced weapons into Iraq. In 1985 the United States began to secretly direct and indirect negotiations with Iranian officials that resulted in some shipments of arms to Iran.

At the end of spring 1987, the great powers become more directly involved because they fear that the fall of Basra might lead to a pro-Iranian Islamic republic in a large population of Shiite southern Iraq. They also worry about the war ship tanks intensified.

Special Weapons

To avoid defeat, Iraq seek every possible weapon. This includes developing a self-sustaining capability to produce meaningful quantities of military chemical warfare agents. In defense, chemical weapons integration offers many solutions and Posdoran Basif lightly armed. Chemical weapons are effective when used alone in the troop rally and artillery support. When conducting offensive operations, routine support Iraq attack with chemical fire in the fire and integrated into the defensive front, command posts, artillery positions, and logistics facilities.

During the Iran-Iraq War, Iraq developed the ability to produce, store, and use of chemical weapons. Chemical weapons, including H-series blister and G-series nerve agents. Iraq build these agents into various types of ammunition, including rocket offensive, artillery shells, aerial bombs, and warheads at Al Hussein variant of the Scud missile. During the Iran-Iraq war, Iraqi warplanes attack user Bime mustard-filled and filled 250 kilogram bombs and mustard-filled 500 kilogram bombs on Iranian targets. Other reports indicate that Iraq may have also mounted spray tank to an unknown number of helicopters or falling 55-gallon drums filled with agents not known (probably mustard) from low altitude.

Iran launched a failed attack on Iraq's Osirak nuclear reactor on 30 September 1980. On June 7, 1981, Israel began air strikes on Iraq's Osirak reactor similar, destroy it. Iraq has launched seven air strikes on Iran's nuclear reactor at Bushehr between 1984 and 1988 during the Iran-Iraq War, which eventually destroyed the facility.

In response to the Iranian missile attacks against Baghdad, some 190 missiles were fired by the Iraqi people in a six week period at Iranian cities in 1988, during the War of Cities'. Iraqi missile attack caused little damage, but their warheads have a psychological and political - Iraq inspired at the same time cause nearly 30 percent of the population fled the city of Tehran. Capital rocketing threat Iran with missiles capable of carrying chemical warheads have been mentioned as an important reason why Iran accept disadvantageous peace agreement.

War Termination

Four main battle takes place from April to August 1988, in which the people of Iraq that is routed or beat Iran. In the first attack, named Blessed Ramadan, the Iraqi Republican Guard units and regular Army recaptured the Al-Faw peninsula. 36-hour battle was conducted by means of sophisticated military with two main thrusts, supported by heliborne and amphibious landings, and low levels of fixed-wing attack sorties. In this struggle, the people of Iraq effectively use chemical weapons (CW), using nerve and blister agents against Iranian command and control facilities, gun positions, and logistics points. Three subsequent operations followed much the same pattern, although they are somewhat less complex. After training, Iraq launched an attack against Iran a successful team in Lake Fish and Shalamjah area near Al-Basrah and recaptured the oil-rich Majnun Islands.

Further north, the last major engagement before the August 1988 cease-fire, armored and mechanized forces penetrated deep into Iraq Iran, Iranian forces beat and capture a large amount of armor and artillery.

In the autumn of 1988, the people of Iraq in Baghdad displayed Iranian weapons arrest of more than three-quarters of Iran's inventory of armor and artillery pieces and nearly half of the armored personnel carrier.

Iran-Iraq war for nearly eight years, from September 1980 to August 1988. It ended when Iran accepted United Nations (UN) Security Council Resolution 598, which led to the August 20, 1988 cease fire.

Casualty figures are uncertain, though estimates suggest more than one and a half million victims of war and war-related - perhaps as many as a million people died, many more injured, and millions have become refugees. Iran acknowledged that nearly 300,000 people die in war; estimate the Iraqi dead range from 160,000 to 240,000. Iraq suffered about 375,000 victims, equivalent to 5.6 million for the size of the United States population. Another 60,000 were taken prisoner by Iran. Iran may have included the loss of more than 1 million people were killed or maimed.

Without reducing either the horrors of war, the loss of Iran in the eight year Iran-Iraq war seem modest compared with those of the European participants in the four years of World War I, to shed some light on Iran tolerance limit to martyrdom. War claimed at least 300,000 Iranian lives and injured more than 500,000, of the total population by the end of the war is almost 60 million. During the Great War, the loss is more than 1.7 million Germans were killed and more than 4.2 million injured (out of a total population of over 65 million). German losses, compared with the total population of the country, at least five times higher than Iran. France suffered more than 1.3 million deaths and 4.2 million injuries. Percentage of the pre-war population of dead or injured is 9% from Germany, 11% from France, and 8% in Great Britain.

At the end, there is almost no issues usually blamed for the war has been resolved. When it ended, the conditions that existed at the beginning of the war remained virtually unchanged. Although Iraq won the war militarily, and has significant military advantage over Iran in 1989, the 1991 Persian Gulf War reduced Iraq's ability to the point where rough parity existed between Iran and Iraq and conditions similar to those found in 1980. UN ceasefire arranged simply put an end to the fighting, leaving the two isolated states to pursue the arms race with each other, and with other countries in the region. Iraqi military machine of more than one million men with arms wide CW, extended range Scud missiles, air force and one of the major forces in the larger world - emerged as a major force armed in the Persian Gulf region. In the Middle East, only Israel Defense Forces have better capabilities.

Ayatollah Khomeini died on June 3, 1989. Assembly of Experts - an elected body of senior clerics - pick out the president of the republic, Ali Khamenei, to be his successor as national religious leader in what proved to be a smooth transition.

In August 1989, Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, the speaker of the Senate, was elected President by a large majority. Write new regime has given priority over national interests of Iran Islamic doctrine. 124

Conclusion

Various humanitarian issues unresolved from the Iran-Iraq war, including the failure to identify fighters were killed in clashes and exchange information about those who were killed or disappeared. Iran agreed to release the 5584 Iraqi POW in April 1998, and news organizations reported occasional meetings throughout the remainder of the year between Iranian officials and the Iraqi government to achieve final agreement on the remaining POWs held by each side. The Iranian government pledged to resolve the remaining issues with Iraqi POW in 1999. And search operations along the Iran-Iraq has begun to identify the remains of those missing in action.

Bibliography

Brogan, P. (1989). World Conflicts Why and Where They Are Happening,

Bloomsbury: London.

Bulloch, J & Morris, H. (1989). The Gulf War Its Origins, History and

Consequences, Methuen: London,.

Iran-Iraq War 1980-1988. Retrieved 2012 May 26 from

http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/iran-iraq.htm

Karsh, E. (2002). The Iran-Iraq War, 1980-1988, Osprey: London.

124 Ibid

Chapter 10

Gulf War, 1990-1991

Introduction

Persian Gulf War (August 2, 1990 - 28 February 1991), named Operation Desert

Storm (January 17, 1991 - 28 February 1991), commonly referred to as simply

the Gulf War, was a war waged by a UN team is authorized a combination of 34

countries led by the United States against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and

conquest of Kuwait.

War is also known under other names, such as the First Gulf War, Gulf War

I, or the Iraq War, before the term "War on Iraq" to be identified instead with the

2003 Iraq War (also referred to in the U.S. as "Operation Iraqi Freedom" ).

The invasion of Kuwait by Iraqi troops that began 2 August 1990 was met

with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions

against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. U.S. President George HW

Bush deployed American forces to Saudi Arabia, and urged other countries to

send their own forces to the scene. Various nations joined the coalition. The bulk

of the armed forces in the coalition were from the United States, with Saudi

Arabia, the United Kingdom and Egypt as leading contributors, in that order.

Around U.S. $ 36 billion cost of U.S. $ 60 billion was paid by Saudi Arabia.

The war marked the beginning of live news on the front line in the fight, with

priority U.S. network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game

War after the daily broadcast images on board the American bombers during

Operation Desert Storm.

Initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with aerial

bombardment on 17 January 1991. This was followed by a ground assault on

February 23. This is a decisive victory for the coalition forces, which freed Kuwait

and advanced into Iraqi territory. The coalition ceased their initial, and declared

a cease-fire 100 hours after the ground campaign started. Air and ground battle

was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, and areas on the border of Saudi Arabia. However,

Iraq launched Scud missiles against targets combined forces in Saudi Arabia and

against Israel.

Background

Throughout much of the Cold War, Iraq had allies of the Soviet Union, and there

is a history of friction between it and the United States. United States with

respect to the position of the Israeli-Palestinian politics of Iraq, and the peaceful

nature of rejection between Israel and Egypt. The United States also does not

like Iraqi support for militant groups such as Abu Nidal, which led the U.S. to

develop a list of entries in the State Sponsors of Terrorism on December 29,

1979 Arabs and Palestinians. U.S. remained officially neutral after the invasion of

Iran in 1980, which became the Iran-Iraq War, although it provides resources,

political support, and aircraft some "non-military". In March 1982, however, Iran

began Operation Victory successful counteroffensive - is undeniable, and the

United States to increase support for Iraq to prevent Iran from forcing

submission. In the U.S. effort to open full diplomatic relations with Iraq, the

country was removed from the U.S. list of State Sponsors of Terrorism.

Supposedly this is due to the increase in records regime, although former United

States Assistant Secretary of Defense Noel Koch later stated, "No one has any

doubts about Iraq's continued involvement in terrorism ... The real reason was to

help them succeed in the war against Iran." With Iraq's newfound success in the

war, and Iran rejects peace offer in July, arms sales to Iraq reached a record

dramatically in 1982. When Iraqi President Saddam Hussein expelled Abu Nidal

to Syria at the request of the United States in November 1983, the Reagan

administration had sent Donald Rumsfeld to meet President Hussein as a special

envoy and to cultivate ties. By the time the ceasefire with Iran was signed in

August 1988, Iraq is a lot of debt-ridden and tension in society has increased.

Most of the debt owed to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Iraq urged both nations to

forgive the debts, but they refused.

Iraq-Kuwait dispute also involved Iraqi claims to Kuwait as a territory of

Iraq. After achieving independence from the United Kingdom in 1932, the Iraqi

government immediately declared that Kuwait was entitled to the territory of

Iraq, as it has been linked to the creation of the British Basra Kuwait after World

War I and thus stated that Kuwait is one of British imperialist invention . Kuwait

has become the first part of the province of the Ottoman Empire. from Basra,

Iraq claimed something that made it the right Iraqi territory. The ruling dynasty,

al-Sabah family, had concluded a protectorate treaties in 1899 which was given

the responsibility for foreign affairs to Britain. Britain draw the border between

the two countries in 1922, making Iraq a virtual land. Iraq's attempts to obtain

further provisions in this region has been rejected by Kuwait.

Iraq also accused Kuwait of exceeding OPEC oil production quotas. In order

for a cartel to maintain the desired price $ 18 per barrel, the discipline required.

United Arab Emirates and Kuwait are consistently overproducing and the second

was at least in part to repair the damage caused by the invasion of Iran in the

Iran-Iraq War and to pay scandal economic losses. The result is the first decline

in oil prices - as low as $ 10 per barrel -. With 1 resulted in the loss of $ 7 billion a

year to Iraq, similar to the 1989 balance of payments deficit struggled revenue

to support the cost basis for the government, let alone repair the damaged Iraqi

infrastructure. Jordan and Iraq both looked more discipline, with little success.

The Iraqi Government described it as a form of economic warfare, which it

claimed was aggravated by Kuwait slant-drilling across the border into Iraq's

Rumaila oil field. At the same time, Saddam find a close relationship with the

Arab states that supported Iraq in the war. This is supported by the United

States, who believe that the relationship with the pro-Western Iraqi Gulf

countries will help bring and keep Iraq in the U.S. sphere of influence.

In 1989, it emerged that Saudi Arabia-Iraq relations, strong during the war,

will be maintained. Non-intervention pact and not aggressive signed between the

countries, followed by Kuwait-Iraq agreement for Iraq to provide Kuwait with

water for drinking and irrigation, although demand for Umm Qasr Iraq Kuwait

lease was rejected. Development projects supported by Saudi Arabia have been

affected by a large debt Iraq, even with the demobilization of 200,000 troops.

Iraq also look to increase production to become an exporter of weapons,

although the success of these projects has also been hindered by the obligations

of Iraq in Iraq, dissatisfaction with OPEC controls installed.

Iraq's relations with its Arab neighbors Egypt in particular - is degraded by

mounting violence in Iraq to the expatriates, working during the war, by

unemployed Iraqis, among them soldiers demobilized. These events have not

taken outside the Arab world because of events that move quickly in Eastern

Europe. United States, however, began to condemn Iraq's human rights record,

including the well-known use of torture. Britain also condemned the execution of

Farzad Bazoft, 1 journalist working for the British newspaper The Observer.

Gerald Bull's Murder, 1 a nuclear scientist, and the arrest of several men at

London Heathrow Airport for allegedly trying to smuggle parts needed for Iraq's

nuclear capabilities 1, is a symptom slide 1 in Iraqi relations with the West. For

parts, Iraq invaded arrest alleged smugglers' as part of the "Western-Zionist

plot" to facilitate the Israeli attack on Iraq. Following the declaration by Saddam

that "binary chemical weapons" to be used against Israel if it uses military force

against Iraq, Washington stop financing part. UN mission to the territories

occupied by Israel, where Palestinian riots resulted in death, has been vetoed by

the United States, Iraq deeply skeptical of making U.S. foreign policy aims in the

region, combined with U.S. dependence on Middle East energy reserves .

In early July 1990, Iraq complained about Kuwait's behavior, such as not

respecting their quota, and openly threatened to take military action. On the

23th, the CIA reported that Iraq had moved 30,000 troops to the Iraq-Kuwait

border, and the U.S. naval fleet in the Persian Gulf have been placed on high

alert. Saddam believe one conspiracy has developed an anti-Iraq-Kuwait has

begun negotiating with Iran, and Syria (Iraq rivals) have arranged to visit Egypt.

On 15 July 1990, the government of Saddam put out protest combined with the

Arab League, including the cost of the policy move Iraq $ 1 billion a year, that

Kuwait still use Rumelia oil fields, that the loans made by the UAE and Kuwait

can not be treated as debt to "Arab brothers" who. Discussion in Jeddah, Saudi

Arabia, between the Arab League by Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, was held

on July 31 and led Mubarak to believe that peace can be established courses.

On July 25th, Saddam Hussein met with April Glaspie, the American

ambassador, in Baghdad. According to one Iraqi transcript of the meeting, the

delegation Glaspie to Iraq, "We have no opinion of the Arab-Arab conflicts."

According to Glaspie's own account, he said in reference to the precise border

between Kuwait and Iraq, "that he had served in Kuwait 20 years before; 'then,

as now, we do not take a position on Arab affairs'." Glaspie equally believe that

the war will not happen. 125

Invasion of Kuwait

Jeddah is the result of negotiations Iraqi request for $ 10 billion to cover the lost

revenue from the Rumaila; Kuwait bullish response is to offer a $ 9 billion, so do

not give all he wanted Saddam. Iraq's response was immediately ordered the

invasion.

On August 2, 1990, Iraq launched the invasion by bombing Kuwait City,

the Kuwaiti capital. Despite saber-rattling Iraq, Kuwait does not have the power

alert; standing army on 19 July. At the time of the invasion, Kuwait reliable force

numbered 16,000 men, organized into. 3 shield, an arm of the infantry and 1

artillery brigade under strength. Iraqi commandos infiltrated the Kuwaiti border

125 Finlan, Alastair (2003). The Gulf War 1991. Osprey.

first major unit ready to start the attack on the stroke of midnight. Iraqi attack

had two prongs, with the primary attack force driving south straight for Kuwait

City down the main highway, and a supporting attack entering Kuwait's far west,

but then turning and driving east, cutting off the capital city from the southern

half of the country. Kuwaiti armored battalion Commander, 35 Armoured

Brigade, deployed them against the Iraqi attack and was able to conduct a

robust defense (Battle of the Bridges), near Al Jahra, west of Kuwait City.

Pre-war strength Kuwait Air Force Kuwait is around 2,200 staff, with 80

aircraft and 40 helicopters. Random plane to fulfill energy attack, but about 20%

were lost or captured. An air battle with the Iraqi air force helicopter has

occurred over Kuwait City, inflicting heavy losses on the Iraqi elite troops, and

some battle sorties flown against Iraqi ground forces. 126

The main thrust Iraq into Kuwait city was conducted by commandos used

by helicopters and boats to attack the city from the sea, while other divisions

seized the airports and two airbases. The Iraqis attacked Dasman Palace, the

Royal Residence Emir of Kuwait, Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, which was

defended by the Emiri Guard supported with M-84 tanks. In the process, the

Iraqis killed Fahad Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, the Emir of Kuwait's youngest

brother.

In the past 12 hours, most of the resistance was over in Kuwait and the

royal family fled, leaving Iraq to control most of Kuwait. After two days of intense

fighting, most of Kuwaiti Armed Forces either overrun by the Iraqi Republican

Guard, or had escaped to neighboring Saudi Arabia. Emir and prime minister who

can go out and head south along the highway refuge in Saudi Arabia. Iraqi

ground forces consolidated their control on Kuwait city, then headed south and

stationed along the border of Saudi Arabia. After the decisive Iraqi victory,

Saddam Hussein initially installed a puppet regime known as the "Provisional

Government of Free Kuwait" before installing his cousin Ali Hassan al-Majid as

the governor of Kuwait on August 8.

War

Diplomatic way

Within hours of the invasion, Kuwaiti and U.S. delegations requested a

meeting of the UN Security Council, which passed Resolution 660, condemning

126 Cooper, Tom; Sadik, Ahmad (16 September 2003). "Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait; 1990". Air Combat Information Group. Retrieved 17 April 2010. http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_213.shtml.

the invasion and demanding the withdrawal of Iraqi troops. On 3 August the Arab

League passed its own resolution, which called for a solution to the conflict from

within the League, and warned against outside intervention, Iraq and Libya are

only two countries in the Arab League which opposed a resolution for Iraq

withdraw from Kuwait. PLO against Arab nations of Yemen and Jordan - which

borders Iraq's Western allies and the country dependent on economic support -

also opposed military intervention from countries non-Arab, Arabs, Sudan also

aligned itself with Hussein.

On 6 August UN Resolution 661 put economic sanctions on Iraq. Security

Council of the United Nations Resolution 665 followed soon after, allowing naval

blockade to enforce the economic sanctions against Iraq. It said the use of

"measures commensurate to the specific circumstances as may be necessary ...

to halt all maritime shipping in and out to check and verify their cargoes and

destinations and to ensure strict implementation of resolution 661."

President Bush visited American troops in Saudi Arabia on Thanksgiving

Day, 1990. From the beginning, U.S. officials insisted on total Iraqi pullout from

Kuwait, without any connection to other Middle Eastern problems, fearing any

concessions would strengthen Iraqi influence in the region for years to come.

On August 12, 1990, Saddam Hussein called for compromise via Baghdad

radio and the former Iraqi News Agency. Hussein "propose that all cases of

occupation, and those cases that have been portrayed as occupation, in the

region, settled simultaneouly". Specifically, he called for Israel to withdraw from

occupied territories in Palestine, Syria and Lebanon, Syria withdrew from

Lebanon, and "mutual withdrawal by Iraq and Iran and arrangement for the

situation in Kuwait." He also called for the replacement of U.S. troops that

mobilized in Saudi Arabia in response to the invasion of Kuwait by "Arab force",

as long as the power does not involve Egypt. In addition, he called for

"immediate freeze of all boycott and siege decisions" and normalization of

relations with Iraq. From the beginning of this crisis, President Bush strongly

opposed to "bridge" of any of the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait and the Palestinian

issue.

Saddam Hussein retained some of the West, with video footage shown on

state televisionOn August 23 Saddam Hussein appeared on state television with

Western hostages that he has refused exit visas. In the video he asks British boy

named Stuart Lockwood whether he is getting milk, and went on to say, through

the interpreter, "We hope your presence as guests here will not be too long. Your

presence here, and in places others, is meant to prevent the scourge of war. "

Another Iraqi proposal communicated in August 1990 was delivered to

National Security Advisor Brent Scowcroft by an unidentified Iraqi official.

Formally presented to the White House that Iraq would "withdraw from Kuwait

and allow foreigners to leave" provided that the UN lifted sanctions, allowed

"guaranteed access" to the Persian Gulf through the Kuwaiti island of Bubiyan

and Warbah. ", And allowed Iraq to" gain Full control of the oil field that extends

slightly alRumila into Kuwaiti territory ". The proposal also "include the offer to

negotiate first oil deal with 'satisfactory to both the United States national

security interests,' develop a joint plan 1 'to alleviate Iraq's economical and

financial' and 'jointly work on the stability of the bay."

In December 1990, Iraq made a proposal to withdraw from Kuwait

provided that their forces are not attacked as they left, and that a consensus has

been reached regarding the ban on WMD in the Palestinian region. The White

House rejected the proposal. Yasser Arafat, the PLO stated that neither he nor

Hussein insisted that solving the Israel-Palestinian issue should be a pre-

condition to resolve the issues in Kuwait, though he has acknowledged the

"strong link" between these problems.

Ultimately, the U.S. stuck to a hard line position that there would be no

negotiations until Iraq withdrew from Kuwait and that they should not give

concessions Iraq, so that they give the impression that Iraq benefited from the

military campaign. Also, when Secretary of State James Baker met with Tariq

Aziz in Geneva for last minute peace talks in early 1991, Aziz reportedly made no

concrete proposals and did not outline any hypothetical Iraqi moves. On 29

November 1990 the UN Security Council passed resolution 678 which gave Iraq

until January 15, 1991 to withdraw from Kuwait and empowered states to use "all

necessary means" to force Iraq out of Kuwait after the deadline.

On January 14, 1991, France has proposed that the Security Council of the

United Nations calls "fast production and large-scale" from Kuwait along with a

statement to Iraq that Council members would bring "active contribution" to the

solution other problems in the region, "in particular, the Arab-Israeli conflict and

in particular to the Palestinian problem by creating, at the appropriate time, an

international conference" to assure "the security, stability and development of

this region of the world." French proposal was supported by Belgium (currently a

rotating member of the Security Council), Germany, Spain, Italy, Algeria,

Morocco, Tunisia, and several non-aligned countries. United States, Great Britain,

and the Soviet Union, refused. American UN Ambassador Thomas Pickering

stated that the French proposal was unacceptable, because it went beyond

previous UN Security Council resolutions on the Iraqi invasion.

Military means "Operation Desert Shield" redirects here. For operation in

2006 by the Iraqi insurgency, see Operation Desert Shield (Iraq). One of the main

concerns to the West is a great threat Iraq poses to Saudi Arabia. Following the

conquest of Kuwait, the Iraqi army was within easy draw Saudi oil fields. Control

of these fields, along with Kuwaiti and Iraqi reserves, have given Hussein control

over the majority of the world's oil reserves. Iraq also had a number of

grievances with Saudi Arabia. Arabia, which has lent Iraq some 26 billion dollars

during the war with Iran. Arabia in support of Iraq, as they feared the influence of

Shia Iran's Islamic revolution on its own Shia minority. After the war, Saddam felt

he should not repay the loans due to the help he has given Saudi Arabia by

fighting Iran.

F-15Es placed in Operation Desert Shield. Once, after the conquest of

Kuwait, Hussein began verbally attacking the Saudi government. He argues that

the U.S. supported Saudi state is invalid and caregivers are not eligible holy

cities of Mecca and Medina. He combined the language of Islamic groups that

recently fought in Afghanistan with the rhetoric Iran had long used to attack

Saudi Arabia.

Acting in accordance with the policy Carter Doctrine, and out of fear the

Iraqi army could launch an attack on Saudi Arabia, U.S. President George HW

Bush quickly announced that the United States would launch a mission "of

defense" to prevent Iraq from invading Saudi Arabia under Operation Desert

Shield codename. Operation Desert Shield began on 7 August 1990 when U.S.

troops were sent to Saudi Arabia due also to king, King Fahd, who had earlier

called for U.S. military assistance. This "state-owned defense" doctrine quickly

abandoned when, on August 8, Iraq declared Kuwait to be the 19th province of

Iraq and Saddam Hussein named his cousin, Ali Hassan al-Majid as the military

governor.

U.S. Navy sent two naval battle groups built around the aircraft carrier

USS Dwight D. Eisenhower and USS Independence to the Gulf, where they

finished on August 8. The U.S. also sent the battleship USS Missouri and USS

Wisconsin to the region. A total of 48 U.S. Air Force F-15s from the 1st Fighter

Wing at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia, landed in Saudi Arabia, and

immediately commenced round the clock air patrols Arabia-Kuwait border and

Iraq to discourage further Iraqi military advances. They were joined by 36 F-15 A-

Ds from the 36th TFW at Bitburg, Germany. Bitburg contingent was based at Al

Kharj Air Base, approximately 1 hour southeast of Riyadh. TFW 36 are

responsible for 11 confirmed Iraqi Air Force aircraft shot down during the war.

There are also two Air National Guard units stationed at Al Kharj Air Base, the

South Carolina Air National Guard (169th Fighter Wing) flew bombing missions

with 24 F-16 flew 2,000 combat missions and lost 4 million pounds of weapons,

and the New York Air National Guard 174th Fighter Wing from Syracuse flew 24

F-16s on bombing missions. Military buildup continued from there, eventually

reaching 543,000 troops, twice the number used in the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

Much of the material was shipped by air or brought to areas that organize

through Sealift ship immediately, allowing quick buildup.

Creating A Series Alliance

A UN Security Council resolutions and Arab League resolutions were passed with

respect to the invasion of Kuwait by Saddam Hussein's Iraq. One of the most

important was Resolution 678, passed on November 29, 1990, which gave Iraq

withdrawal deadline until January 15, 1991, and authorized "all necessary means

to uphold and implement Resolution 660," and a diplomatic formulation

authorizing the use of force if Iraq failed to comply.

H. Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr. and President George HW Bush visit U.S.

troops in Saudi Arabia on Thanksgiving Day, 1990.The United States assembled a

combination of opposing forces to participate in the invasion of Iraq, which

consists of teams from 34 countries: Argentina, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh,

Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Egypt, France, Greece, Italy, Kuwait, Morocco,

Netherlands, New Zealand, Niger, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Portugal, Qatar,

South Korea, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Spain, Syria, United

Arab Emirates, United Kingdom and the United States itself. U.S. Army General

Norman Schwarzkopf was designated to be the commander of coalition forces in

the Persian Gulf region.

Although they did not contribute any forces, Japan and Germany made

financial contributions totaling $ 10 billion and $ 6.6 billion respectively. U.S.

troops represented 73% of the 956,600 coalition troops in Iraq.

Many coalition forces were reluctant to join. Some felt that the war is

internal Arab affair, or did not want to increase U.S. influence in the Middle East.

However, in the end, many countries have been persuaded by Iraq's belligerence

towards other Arab states, offers of economic aid or debt forgiveness, and

threats to withhold aid.

Justification for Intervention

Cheney meets with Prince Sultan, Minister of Defence and Aviation in Saudi

Arabia to discuss how to deal with aggression KuwaitThe United States and the

United Nations (UN) gave several public justifications for involvement in the

conflict, the most famous being the Iraqi violation of Kuwaiti territory integrity .

In addition, the United States moved to support its allies Saudi Arabia, which is

important in this region, and as a major supplier of oil, great geopolitical

importance. Shortly after the Iraqi invasion, Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney,

the first several visits to Saudi Arabia where King Fahd requested U.S. military

assistance. During a speech in a special joint session of the U.S. Congress given

on 11 September 1990, U.S. President George HW Bush summed up the reasons

with the following statement: "Within three days, 120,000 Iraqi troops with 850

tanks had poured into Kuwait and moved to south to threaten Saudi Arabia. It

was then that I decided to act to check that aggression.”

The Pentagon claimed that satellite photos showing the formation of Iraqi

forces along the border is the source of this information, but this was later

proved to be false. A reporter for the Saint Petersburg Times acquired two

commercial Soviet satellite images made at the time in question, which showed

nothing but empty desert. However, serious questions are raised later when it

was revealed that the satellite image is actually an image of Soviet soldiers, not

private commercial image, and it will be impossible for the Soviets to share the

image source without compromising the security of classified images. The

images were, in fact, no different magnification of the original image source area

in question, but separate images taken at any time and in different locations.

Soviets have invested heavily in Iraq and made various attempts to stop the

combination of attacking Iraq, through diplomacy and through deceptive

propaganda, and in this case it is the Christian Science Monitor, not Saint

Petersburg Times that broke the story, as erroneously reported in the article This

and other publications.

Gen. Colin Powell (left), General Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr., and Paul

Wolfowitz (right) listen as Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney, addressing

reporters regarding the 1991 Gulf War.Other justifications for foreign

involvement included Iraq's history of human rights abuses under President

Saddam. Iraq is also known to possess biological weapons and chemical

weapons, which Saddam had used against Iranian troops during the Iran-Iraq

War and against its own Kurdish population in the Al-Anfal Campaign. Iraq is also

known to have a nuclear weapons program, but a report from January 1991 have

been reclassified in part by the CIA on May 26, 2001.

Although there are human rights abuses committed in Kuwait by the

forces attacking Iraq, the most famous in the United States is the creation of a

public relations firm hired by the government of Kuwait to influence opinion

supporting the U.S. military intervention. Shortly after the Iraqi invasion of

Kuwait, the organization Citizens for a Free Kuwait was formed in the United

States to hire a public relations firm Hill & Knowlton for about $ 11 million, paid

by the Kuwaiti government. Among the many other ways the United States

influenced opinion (distributing books on Iraqi atrocities to U.S. soldiers deployed

in the region, 'Free Kuwait T-shirts and speakers to college campuses, and

dozens of video news releases to television stations) firm, arranged for

appearance before a group of members of the U.S. Congress in which a woman

identifying herself as a nurse working in the Kuwait City hospital described Iraqi

soldiers draw baby incubators and letting them die on the floor.

The story was an influence in tipping public and Congress towards a war

with Iraq: six Congress said the testimony was enough for them to support

military action against Iraq and seven Senators referenced the testimony in

debate. Senate votes to support military action in 52-47. A year after the war,

however, this allegation was revealed to be a fabrication. Women who had

testified was found to be a member of the Kuwaiti Royal Family, in fact the

daughter of Kuwait's ambassador to the U.S.. He never lived in Kuwait during the

Iraqi invasion.

Contact details of the Hill & Knowlton public campaign, including the

incubator testimony, were published in a John R. Second Front MacArthur:

Censorship and Propaganda in the Gulf War (Berkeley, CA: University of CA

Press, 1992), and came to the attention of people around when the Op-ed by

MacArthur was published in the New York Times. This prompted re-examination

by Amnesty International, which initially was promoted accounts claiming

greater numbers of babies torn from incubators than the original fake testimony.

After finding no evidence to support, the organization issued a retraction.

President George HW Bush, then repeat the incubator allegations on television.

At the same time, Iraqi forces have committed some crimes that are

documented during the occupation of Kuwait, such as the summary execution

without trial of three brothers after their bodies were stacked in a pile and left to

decay in a public street. Iraqi troops also ransacked and looted private Kuwaiti

homes, one residence was repeatedly defecated. Resident later commented,

"everything is violence for the sake of violence, destruction for the sake of

destruction ... Imagine a surrealistic painting by Salvador Dalí".

Early battles: Air Campaign

An F-14A Tomcat from VF-32, two EA-6B Prowlers, and KC-135 Stratotanker

during the Gulf War Desert Storm. The onset of extensive aerial bombing

campaign on 17 January 1991. Coalition flew over 100,000 sorties, dropping

88,500 tons of bombs, and widely destroying military and civilian infrastructure.

Air campaign was commanded by USAF Lieutenant General Chuck Horner, who

briefly served as Commander-in-Chief -. Ahead of the U.S. Central Command

while General Schwarzkopf was still in the United States.

A day after the deadline set in Resolution 678, the coalition launched a

massive air, which began the general offensive called Operation Desert Storm.

The first priority for Coalition forces was the destruction of the Iraqi air force and

anti-aircraft facilities. Sorties were launched mostly from Saudi Arabia and the

six Coalition aircraft carrier battle (CVBG) in the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea.

An Iraqi T-54A or Type 59 tank lies in ruins after the Allied bombing attack

during Operation Desert next target combination Storm.The command and

communication facilities. Saddam Hussein had closely micromanaged the Iraqi

forces in the Iran-Iraq War, and initiative at lower levels is not recommended.

Coalition planners hoped that Iraqi resistance would quickly collapse if deprived

of command and control.

The third and largest phase of the air campaign targeted military targets

throughout Iraq and Kuwait: Scud missile launchers, weapons research facilities,

and naval forces. About one-third of the Coalition airpower devoted to attacking

Scuds, some of which were on trucks and therefore difficult to find. About U.S.

and British special forces teams had covertly inserted into western Iraq to help in

the search and destruction of Scuds.

Iraqi antiaircraft defenses, including MANPADS, is surprisingly ineffective

against coalition aircraft and the coalition suffered only 75 aircraft losses in over

100,000 sorties, 44 of which are the result of Iraqi action. Two of these losses are

the result of aircraft colliding with the ground while avoiding Iraqi ground fired

weapons. One of these losses is authentic air-air victory.

Iraqi missile attacks this section needs additional citations for verification.

Please help improve this article by adding citations reliable sources. Unsourced

material may be challenged and removed. (January 2012)

Scud Transporter Installer Launcher (TEL) with missile in a vertical

position.The Iraqi government made no secret that it would attack Israel if

attacked. Before the start of the war, Tariq Aziz, Iraq's English-speaking Foreign

Minister and Deputy Prime Minister of the State, was asked after the failed peace

negotiations the U.S. and Iraq in Geneva, Switzerland by a reporter. "Mr. Minister

of Foreign Affairs, if war starts ... will you attack Israel?" His answer was, "Yes, of

course, yes."

Five hours after the first attacks, Iraq's state radio broadcast a voice

identified as Saddam Hussein declaring that "The great duel, the mother of all

battles has begun to dawn of victory nears as this great showdown begins." Iraq

responded by launching eight Al Hussein missiles at Israel the next day. Missile

attacks on Israel during the war to continue. A total of 42 Scud missiles fired by

Iraq into Israel during the seven weeks of the war.

The Iraqis hoped that they would provoke a military response from Israel.

It is expected that many Arab nations would withdraw from the coalition, as they

would be reluctant to fight alongside Israel. Following the attack, the Israeli Air

Force jets were deployed to patrol the airspace north of Iraq, and Israel is ready

to respond with military force, as the basis for forty years before had always

been a reaction. However, President Bush urged Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak

Shamir not to respond and remove the Israeli jets, afraid if Israel attacked Iraq,

and the Arab states will either be left out of the coalition or join Iraq. It is also

feared that if Israel uses Syrian or Jordanian airspace to attack Iraq, they will

intervene in the war on Iraq or Israeli attack. Israel has promised that the

Coalition will be sending Patriot missiles to defend Israel if it does not respond to

the Scud attacks.

Israeli civilians taking shelter from Scud missiles targeting Israel

rocketsThe fairly ineffective, as firing at extreme range resulted in a dramatic

reduction in accuracy and capacity. Missile attack killed two Israeli civilians and

causing several others to suffer a fatal heart attack. About 230 Israelis were

injured. Of the injuries, 10 are considered moderate injuries, while one was

considered a severe injury. Widespread property damage resulted, and some

4000 Israelis were left homeless. It is feared that Iraq would be fired missiles

filled with nerve agents or sarin. As a result, the Israeli government issued gas

masks to its citizens. When the first Iraqi missiles hit Israel, some people inject

themselves with the antidote for nerve gas.

After Al-Hussein to strike the U.S. response Barracks. In threat Scuds on

Israel, the United States quickly send Patriot missile air defense artillery battalion

to Israel along with two batteries of MIM-104 Patriot missiles to protect civilians.

Coalition air forces are also widely implemented in "Scud hunts" in the Iraqi

desert, trying to find the camouflaged trucks before they fired their missiles at

Israel or Saudi Arabia. On the ground, also infiltrated the Iraqi special forces,

tasked to find and destroy Scuds. As soon as the special operations were

combined with air patrols, the number of attacks dropped sharply, then rose

slightly as Iraqi forces aligned to the combination of tactics. At one point, Israeli

commandos have been loaded into the helicopter ready to fly to Iraq, but the

mission was called after a phone call from United States Secretary of Defense

Dick Cheney, reported that up to Coalition efforts to destroy Scuds and stressed

that Israeli intervention could endanger U.S. troops.

Royal Netherlands Air Force also deployed Patriot missiles in both Turkey

and Israel to counter the Scud threat. Dutch Ministry of Defense later stated that

the military use of the Patriot missile system was largely ineffective, but the

psychology is high, even though the Patriot missiles caused more injuries, and

property damage from Scuds themselves did. It has been suggested that the

strong construction techniques used in Israeli cities, coupled with the fact that

Scuds just launched at night, played an important role in limiting the number of

casualties from Scud attacks.

Three Scud missiles and a coalition Patriot that serves hit Ramat Gan on

January 22, 1991, injuring 96 people, and possibly causing the deaths of three

elderly people who died of a stroke.

In addition, 47 Scud missiles were fired into Saudi Arabia, and one missile

was fired at Bahrain and another at Qatar. Missiles have been released in both

military and civilian targets. A Saudi civilians have been killed, and 78 others

were injured. No injuries were reported in Bahrain or Qatar. Saudi government to

remove all of the people and expatriates to use a gas mask if Iraqi missiles with

chemical or biological warheads. Government broadcasting signal and the 'all

clear' message on television to warn people during scud attack.

On February 25, 1991, Scud missile hit U.S. Army barracks of the 14th

Quartermaster Team, of Greensburg, PA, stationed in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia,

killing 28 soldiers and wounding more than 100.

Battle Of Khafji

Military Operations During the Liberation Khafji

On January 29 Iraqi forces attacked and occupied the lightly defended Saudi city

of Khafji with tanks and infantry. Battle of Khafji ended two days later when the

Iraqis were driven back by the Saudi Arabian National Guard and United States

Marine Corps, supported by Qatari power. Coalition forces provided close air

support and used extensive artillery fire.

Heavy Casualties on both sides, although Iraqi forces suffered more dead

and captured than the allied forces. Eleven Americans were killed in two

separate friendly fire incidents, an additional 14 U.S. pilots were killed when an

American gunship AC-130 was shot down by a missile surface-to-air Iraq (SAM),

and two American soldiers captured in battle. Saudi and Qatari forces had a total

of 18 people were killed. Iraqi forces in Khafji had 60-300 dead and 400

captured.

Khafji was a strategically important city immediately after the Iraqi

invasion of Kuwait. Iraqi reluctance to commit several armored division to the

occupation, and the subsequent use of Khafji as a launching pad into the initially

lightly defended east of Saudi Arabia is considered by many academics. A

strategic mistake [citation needed]. Not only would Iraq have gotten the majority

of Middle Eastern oil supplies, but it will find itself better able to threaten the

subsequent U.S. deployment along superior defensive lines.

Land Campaign

Movement of ground troops 24 to 28 February 1991 during Operation Desert

Coalition forces dominated the air Storm.The with their technological

advantages, but the army is considered to be more evenly matched. Allied forces

have a significant advantage to operate under the protection of air supremacy

that has been achieved by their air forces before the start of the main ground

offensive. Allied forces also had two key technological advantages:

Coalition tanks main battle, such as the U.S. M1 Abrams, British

Challenger 1, and Kuwaiti M-84AB much Chinese Type 69 and domestically built

T-72 tanks used by the Iraqis, with crews better trained and armored doctrine

better well developed.

The use of GPS made it possible for Coalition forces to navigate without

reference to roads or other fixed signs. Along with air reconnaissance, allowed

them to fight the battle of maneuver rather than a battle of encounter: they

knew where they were and where the enemy, so that they could attack a specific

target rather than searching on the ground for the enemy.

Liberation of Kuwait

American decoy attacks by air attacks and naval gunfire the night before the

liberation of Kuwait were designed to make the Iraqis believe the main coalition

ground attack would focus on Central Kuwait. U.S. tanks from the 3rd Armored

Division along the line of departure. Iraqi Type 69 tanks on the road to Kuwait

City during the Gulf War. Two Iraqi tank is left near Kuwait City on 26 February

1991.For months, American units in Saudi Arabia are under Iraqi artillery fire

almost constant, as well as threats from Scud missile or chemical attacks. On

February 23, 1991, the 1st Marine Division, 2nd Marine Division, and 1st Armored

Light Infantry crossed into Kuwait and headed for Kuwait City. They face the

trenches, barbed wire, and minefields. However, this position is less defended,

and were overrun in the first few hours. Several tank battles took place, but

apart from that, Coalition troops face minimal resistance, as most Iraqi troops

surrendered. General pattern is that the Iraqi people will have to make a short

presentation before submitting. However, Iraqi air defenses shot down nine U.S.

planes. Meanwhile, a team from the Arab countries move to Kuwait from the

east, facing little resistance and suffering few.

Despite the success of Coalition forces, it was feared that the Republican

Guard would escape into Iraq before it could be destroyed. It was decided to

send British armored forces into Kuwait 15 hours ahead of schedule, and to send

American forces after the Republican Guard. Coalition advance was preceded by

a barrage of heavy artillery and rocket fire, after which 150,000 troops and 1500

tanks begin their advance. Iraqi forces in Kuwait counter-attack (counter

attacked) U.S. troops, acting on a direct order from Saddam himself. Despite

fierce fighting, the United repulsed Iraq and continue to advance towards Kuwait

city.

Kuwait army was deployed to liberate the city. Iraqi troops offered only

light resistance. Kuwait lost one soldier killed and one plane shot down, and

quickly to liberate the city. On 27 February, Saddam ordered a retreat from

Kuwait, and President George HW Bush declared it releases. However, Iraqi units

in Kuwait International Airport appeared not get the message, and resisted

intense. U.S. Marines had to fight for hours before getting the airport, after which

Kuwait was declared secure. After four days of fighting, Iraqi forces were

expelled from Kuwait. As part of a Scorched-earth policy, they set fire to nearly

700 oil wells, and placed land mines around the wells to make fire fighting more

difficult.

Early Step Into Iraq

Iraqi T-62 was knocked out by the 3rd Armored Division fireThe phase of land has

been given the official war Operation Desert Sabre.

The first units to move into Iraq were three patrol squadrons B British Special Air

Service, call signs Bravo One Zero, Bravo Two Zero, and Bravo Three Zero, in

late January. This eight-man patrols landed behind Iraqi lines to gather

intelligence on the movements of Scud missile launchers portable, which can not

be detected from the air, because it was hidden under bridges and camouflage

netting during the day. Other objectives included the destruction of the

launchers and their fiber-optic communications arrays located in pipelines and

relayed coordinates to the TEL operators that were launching attacks against

Israel. Operations were designed to prevent any possible Israeli intervention.

Due to the lack of sufficient ground cover to carry out their assignment, One

Zero and Three Zero abandoned their operations, while Two Zero remained, and

then tolerate, with only Sergeant Chris Ryan escaping to Syria.

Elements of the 2nd Brigade, 1st Battalion 5th CAV U.S. Army Cavalry

Division 1 direct attack into Iraq on February 15, 1991, followed by one in force

on 20 February that led directly through 7 parts of Iraq that has caught ready

required. From February 15 to 20, the Battle of Wadi Al-Batin took place inside

Iraq, this was the first of two attacks by 1 Battalion 5th Cavalry 1st Cavalry

Division. It is hypocrisy attack, designed to make the Iraqis think that a coalition

invasion would take place from the south. Intense Iraqi people against, and

America finally withdrew as planned back into the Wadi Al-Batin. Three American

soldiers were killed and nine wounded as well with only 1 M-2 IFV turret

destroyed, but they had taken 40 prisoners and destroyed five tanks, and

managed to fool the people of Iraq. This attack led the way for the XVIII Airborne

Corps sweep behind CAV 1 and attack Iraqi forces to the west. On February 22,

1991, Iraq agreed to a proposed ceasefire agreement with the Soviets. The

agreement called for Iraq to withdraw troops pre-invasion positions within six

weeks following a total cease-fire, and called for monitoring the ceasefire and

withdrawal overseen by the Security Council of the United Nations.

Coalition rejected the proposal, but said that retreating Iraqi forces will not

be attacked, and gave 24 hours for Iraq to begin producing power. On 23

February, fighting resulted in the arrest 500 Iraqi soldiers. On 24 February, the

British and American armored forces crossed the Iraq border / Kuwait and

entered Iraq in large numbers, taking hundreds of prisoners. Iraqi resistance was

light, and 4 Americans were killed.

Entering the Allied Forces Iraq

Destroyed Iraqi civilian and military vehicles on the Highway of Death. Aerial

view of the tanks destroyed Iraqi T-72, BMP-1 and Type 63 armored personnel

carriers and trucks on Highway March 8, 1991. Oil is the result of a fire caused

Scorched earth policy of Iraqi military forces retreating from KuwaitShortly later,

the U.S. VII Corps, full strength and spearheaded by the 3rd Squadron of the 2nd

Armored Cavalry Regiment (3/2 ACR), launched an attack into Iraq early on

shield February 24, just to the west of Kuwait, taking Iraqi forces by surprise. At

the same time, the U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps launched a sweeping "left-hook"

attack across the largely desert without warranty of southern Iraq, led by the 3rd

Armoured Cavalry Regiment (3rd ACR) and the 24th Infantry Division

(Mechanical). The left wing of this movement was protected by armored French

Daguet Section 6.

French forces quickly overcome Iraqi Infantry Division 45, suffered minor

injuries and taking a large number of prisoners, and took office block to prevent

Iraqi counter-attack on Confederate flank. Right-wing movements have been

protected by the British 1st Armoured Division. When the allies had penetrated

deep into Iraqi territory, they turned eastward, launching a flank attack against

the elite Republican Guard before it could escape. Iraq resisted competition from

digging in position and moving vehicles, and even mounted armored charges.

In contrast to many previous commitments, the destruction of the first

Iraqi tanks did not result in large-scale surrender. The Iraqis suffered massive

losses and lost dozens of tanks and vehicles, while American casualties is

relatively low, with a single Bradley knocked out. Allied forces pressed another

ten kilometers into Iraqi territory, and captured their objective within three

hours. They took 500 prisoners and inflicted heavy losses, defeating the Iraqi

26th Infantry Division. An American soldier was killed by Iraqi land mine, another

five by friendly fire, and 30 wounded in the battle. Meanwhile, British forces

attacked the Iraqi Medina Division and a major Republican Guard logistics base.

In nearly two days of some of the fiercest battles of war, the British destroyed 40

enemy tanks and captured an the commander.

Meanwhile, American troops attacked the village of Al Busayyah, meet

fierce resistance. They were not injured, but destroyed much of the military

equipment and take prisoners.

On February 25, 1991, Iraqi forces fired missiles shot at the American

barracks in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Missile attack killed 28 American military

personnel.

The combination of advances is faster to do a lot of the U.S. generals had

expected. On February 26, Iraqi troops began retreating from Kuwait, after they

had set the oil fields on fire (737 oil wells were burned). Long convoy of

retreating Iraqi troops formed along the main highway Iraq-Kuwait. Although

they were retreating, this convoy was bombed so extensively by Coalition air

forces that came to be known as the Highway of Death. Hundreds of Iraqi

soldiers were killed. Forces from the United States, the United Kingdom, and

France continued to pursue retreating Iraqi troops on the border and back into

Iraq, eventually moving to within 150 miles (240 km) of Baghdad before

withdrawing back to the Iraqi border with Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.

One hundred hours after the ground campaign started on 28 February,

President Bush declared a ceasefire, and he also declared that Kuwait was

liberated.

Analysis of Postwar Military

Although it is said in Western media at the time that Iraqi troops numbered

approximately 545,000 to 600,000, most experts today believe that both the

qualitative and quantitative descriptions of the Iraqi army at the time were

exaggerated, as they included both temporary and additional support element.

Many young Iraqi army, under-resources, and poorly trained conscripts.

Coalition committed 540,000 troops, and a further 100,000 Turkish troops

were deployed along the Turkish-Iraqi border. This resulted in significant dilution

of military force to compel Iraq to use forces along the border. This allowed the

main thrust by the U.S. to possess not only a very significant technological

advantage, but also superiority.

Widespread support for Iraq during the Iran-Iraq war equipped Iraq with

military equipment from the world's major arms dealers. This causes a lack of

standardization of this large heterogeneous force, which supplements suffer from

poor training and poor motivation. The majority of Iraqi armored forces old

Chinese Type 59s and Type 69s, Soviet-made T-55s from the 1950s and 1960s,

and some poor quality Asad Furthermore will the tank (domestic tank mounted

on the hull of the T-72 with the Polish- other parts are still used the original mix).

These machines are not equipped with the latest equipment such as thermal

sights or a laser range Finders, and their effectiveness in modern combat is very

limited.

The Iraqis failed to find an effective countermeasure to the thermal sights

and the sabot rounds used by the Coalition tanks. This equipment allows them to

engage and destroy Iraqi tanks from more than three times the range that Iraqi

tanks could appoint a tank mix. Iraqi crews used old, cheap steel Penetrators

advanced Chobham Armour of the United States (U.S.) and British tanks, with

ineffective results. The Iraqis also failed to exploit the advantages that can be

gained from using urban warfare delete in Kuwait City - which could be a big

sacrifice for the invading forces. Urban combat reduces range where battles

were fought, and can negate some of the advantages of technology complete

powers.

The Iraqis also tried to use Soviet military doctrine, but the implementation failed

due to lack of skill of their commanders, and the preventive coalition air attack

communication centers and bunkers.

Type 69 main battle tanks Iraq war stand on the battlefield after being

destroyed by the Allied Forces during Operation Desert Storm. Iraqi Tank Type

69 near Kuwait City during the Gulf War. Tanks Iraq sits on the road after

abandoned during the Gulf War.

Iraqi T-62 destroyed near Ali Al Salem Air Base during Operation Desert

Storm, 18 April 1991. Tanks destroyed Iraqi T-72 in southern Iraq. Colin Powell,

then head of U.S. President George HW Bush and his advisors on the progress of

the ground war.

Oil storage tank at a refinery that was attacked by a combination of

aircraft during Operation Desert Storm continues to burn days after the air

attack. Type 69 tanks after the invasion of Iraq by the United Kingdom Armored

1 Division during Operation Desert Storm.

Type 69 Iraqi tanks in the limelight United Kingdom Armored Division 1. The

main fight tanks in Al Pass Mutla Iraq, destroyed by Army Tiger Brigade and air

force attack during Operation Desert Storm.

End of Active Hostilities

Public and combined armed forces of Saudi Arabia Kuwait waving flags as they

celebrate the retreat of Iraqi forces from Kuwait as a result of Operation Desert

Storm. Persian Gulf Veterans National Medal U.S. militaryIn Iraqi territory was

occupied by the coalition, the peace conference was held where a ceasefire

agreement negotiated and signed by both parties. At the conference, Iraq was

approved to fly armed helicopters on the border while, ostensibly for government

transit due to the damage done to public infrastructure. Soon after, these

helicopters and many Iraqi armed forces were used to fight the rise of the Shia in

the south. Rebellion encouraged by the broadcast "Voice Free Iraq" on 2

February 1991, which broadcast from a radio station run the CIA from Saudi

Arabia. Arabic service of the Voice of America supported the revolt, stating that

the rebellion was large, and that they would soon be liberated from Saddam. 127

In the North, Kurdish leaders took American statements that they would

support the uprising to heart, and began fighting, hoping to trigger a coup d'etat.

However, when no American support came, Iraqi generals remained loyal to

Saddam and brutally crush the Kurdish rebellion. Millions of Kurds fled across the

mountains to Kurdish areas of Turkey and Iran. These events later resulted in no-

fly zone established in Northern and Southern Iraq. In Kuwait, the Emir was

restored, and suspected Iraqi collaborators were repressed. Eventually, over

400,000 people were expelled from the country, including a large number of

Palestinians, due to PLO support of Saddam Hussein. Yasser Arafat did not

apologize for the support of Iraq, but after his death the Fatah under the

authority of Mahmoud Abbas will formally apologized in 2004.127 Hawley., T. M. (1992). Against the Fires of Hell: The Environmental Disaster of the Gulf War .

New York u.a.: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

There is some criticism of the Bush administration, as they chose to allow

Saddam Hussein to remain in power instead of pushing to capture Baghdad and

overthrowing the government. In co-written 1998 book, A World Transformed,

Bush and Brent Scowcroft argued that such a course will be broken alliances, and

will have a lot of unnecessary political and human costs associated with it.

In 1992, U.S. Secretary of Defense during the war, Dick Cheney, made the

same point:

I would guess if we had gone in there, we still have power in Baghdad

today. We will run the country. We will not be able to get everyone out and bring

everybody home. And the final point that I think needs to be made is this

question of the victim. I do not think you can do all that without additional U.S.

casualties are significant, and while the sudden everyone was impressed with

the low cost of conflict (1991), for the 146 Americans who were killed in action

and for their families, it was not a cheap war. And the question in my mind is,

how many additional American casualties Saddam (Hussein) worth? And the

answer is, not that damned many. So, I think we got it right, both when we

decided to expel him from Kuwait, but also when the president made the

decision that we'd achieved our objectives and we were not going to go get

bogged down in the problems of trying to take over and govern Iraq. - Dick

Cheney128

Instead greater military involvement itself, the United States hoped that

Saddam Hussein was overthrown in a coup d'etat interior. The Central

Intelligence Agency to use its assets in Iraq to organize the revolt, but the Iraqi

government defeated the effort.

On March 10, 1991, 540,000 American troops began to move out of the

Persian Gulf War combined involvement. Combined forces of Egypt, Syria, Oman,

France and Kuwait during Operation Desert Storm goods.

Gulf War Coalition

Coalition members include Argentina, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belgium,

Canada, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Egypt, France, Greece, Honduras, Hungary,

Italy, Kuwait, Malaysia, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Niger, Norway,

Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Saudi Arabia,

Senegal, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates,

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States.

128 Bolkom, Christopher; Pike, Jonathan. "Attack Aircraft Proliferation: Areas for Concern". Retrieved 4 December 2005. http://www.fas.org/spp/aircraft/part08.htm.

Germany and Japan provided financial assistance and donated military

hardware, but did not send direct military assistance. This later became known

as checkbook diplomacy.

United Kingdom

British Army Challenger 1 main battle tank during Operation Desert Storm.The

United Kingdom do the largest contingent of any European nation that

participated in the combat operations of the war. Operation Granby was the

codename for the operations in the Persian Gulf. British Army regiments (mainly

with the British Armoured Division 1), the Royal Air Force squadrons and Royal

Navy vessels deployed on the Gulf. Royal Air Force, the use of a variety of

aircraft, operating from airbases in Saudi Arabia. Almost 2,500 armored vehicles

and 43,000 troops were shipped for action.

Chief Royal Navy vessels deployed to the bay including some Broadsword-

class frigates, and Sheffield-class destroyers, other RN and RFA ships were also

deployed. Light aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal is not deployed to the Gulf area,

but was deployed to the Mediterranean Sea.

British Special Forces, SAS, have been deployed in some of squadrons. The

story of the most widely known of their involvement is Bravo Two Zero. Patrol

member Andy McNab and Chris Ryan both wrote books about their experiences,

Bravo Two Zero and That Got Away (So named because Chris Ryan was the only

member of the patrol to successfully avoid capture).

France

French and American soldiers inspect Iraqi Type 69 tank destroyed by the French

6th Light Armored during Operation Desert Storm.The second largest European

contingent of France, which committed 18,000 troops. Operation on the left flank

Air Corps United States (U.S.) XVIII, the main French army force The 6th Light

Armoured, including troops from the French Foreign Legion. Initially, the French

operated independently under national command and control, but coordinated

closely with the Americans, Arabia and CENTCOM. In January, the Division was

placed under the tactical control of the U.S. Air Corps (U.S.) XVIII. France also

deployed several combat aircraft and naval units. French called their contribution

Daguet operations. 129

129 Crocker III, H. W. (2006). Don't Tread on Me. New York: Crown Forum.

Canada

Canada is one of the first nations to condemn Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, and it

quickly agreed to join the coalition led. In August 1990, Prime Minister Brian

Mulroney committed the Canadian Forces to deploy a Naval Task Group.

Destroyers HMCS Terra Nova and HMCS Athabaskan to join the maritime

interdiction supported by HMCS Protecteur supply. Canadian Task Group led

coalition forces in the Persian Gulf maritime logistics. A fourth ship, HMCS Huron,

arrived in-theater after hostilities had ceased and was the first allied ship to visit

Kuwait.

Following the adoption of the United Nations (UN) authorized force against

Iraq, the Canadian Forces deployed CF-18 Hornet and Sikorsky CH-124 Sea King

squadron with support personnel, as well as a field hospital to deal with

casualties from the ground war. When the air war began, Canada's CF-18s were

integrated into the coalition force and were tasked with providing air cover and

attacking ground targets. This is the first time since the Korean War that the

Canadian military had participated in offensive combat operations. The only CF-

18 Hornet to win an official during a conflict is an aircraft involved in the Battle of

Bubiyan beginning of the Iraqi Navy. Canadian governments in the Middle East is

Commodore Ken Summers.

Australian contribution to the 1991 Gulf War

Australia contributes Naval Task Group, which formed part of the multi-national

fleet in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, under Operation Damask. In addition,

medical teams were deployed aboard a U.S. hospital ship (U.S.), and naval

clearance diving facilities participated in de-mining Kuwait's port following the

end of combat operations.

Australia is a member of the international coalition which contributed

military forces to the 1991 Persian Gulf War. While the Australian team did not

see combat, they have played an important role in enforcing the sanctions put in

place against Iraq after the invasion of Kuwait, as well as other small support

contributions to Operation Desert Storm. After the end of the Persian Gulf War,

Australia deployed a medical unit on Operation Habitat northern Iraq as part of

Operation Provide Comfort.

Public crash

The increasing importance of air attacks from both warplanes and cruise missiles

led to controversy over the number of civilian deaths caused during the initial

stages of the war. In the first 24 hours of the war, more than 1,000 sorties were

flown, many against targets in Baghdad. Heavy bombing of the city is a target,

because it is the seat of power for President Saddam Hussein and the Iraqi

military command and control. This ultimately led to civilian casualties.

In a note the incident, two USAF stealth planes bombed the fort in

Amiriyah, causing the death of 408 civilians in the shelter at the time. Half

burned and disfigured body was later broadcast, and controversy arose on the

status of the bunker, with some stating that it is the public sanctuary, while

others insist that it is the center of Iraqi military operations, and that the public

has been deliberately moved there to act as human shield.

An investigation by Beth Osborne Daponte estimate the amount of civilian

deaths at about 3,500 from bombing, and some 100,000 of the effects of war.

Exact numbers of Iraq

Victims of Iraq's battle is not known, but it is believed to have been heavy. Some

estimate that Iraq suffered between 20,000 and 35,000 deaths. [100] A report

commissioned by the U.S. Air Force, estimated 10.000 to 12.000 Iraqi combat

deaths in the air campaign, and as many as 10,000 casualties in the ground war.

This analysis based on Iraqi prisoner of war reports.

Saddam Hussein's government and provide public high casualty figures

bring support from Islamic countries. The Iraqi government claimed that 2,300

civilians died during the air campaign. According to the Defense Alternatives

study project, 3664 Iraqi civilians, and between 20,000 and 26,000 military

personnel, were killed in the conflict, while 75,000 Iraqi soldiers were injured.

Reported that the U.S. military suffered 148 battle-related deaths (35 friendly

fire), with one pilot listed as MIA (bodies were found and identified in August

2009). Another 145 Americans died in non-combat accidents. In the United

Kingdom suffered 47 deaths (9 friendly fire), France two, and the other countries,

not including Kuwait, suffered 37 deaths (18 Arabia, Egypt 1 6 UAE, and 3 Qatar).

At least 605 Kuwaiti soldiers still missing 10 years after their capture.

Single largest loss of life among Coalition forces happened on February 25,

1991, when Iraqi Al Hussein (missile) hit a U.S. military barracks in Dhahran,

Saudi Arabia, killing 28 U.S. Army reserves from Pennsylvania. In all, the

combination of 190 soldiers have been killed by Iraqi fire during the war, 113 of

whom are American, from a total of 358 deaths combined. A total of 44 soldiers

were killed and 57 wounded, by friendly fire. 145 soldiers dead shells explode, or

non-combat accidents.

The largest accident among Coalition forces happened on March 21, 1991,

C-130H Royal Saudi Air Force crashed in heavy smoke on approach to Ras Al-

Mishab Airport, Saudi Arabia. 92 Senegalese soldiers were killed.

Number of coalition wounded in combat seems to have been 776,

including 458 Americans.

190 Coalition troops were killed by Iraqi combatants, the rest of the 379

deaths combined from friendly fire or accidents. This number is lower than

expected. Among the American dead three female soldiers.

The death toll among Coalition forces engaging Iraqi combatants was very

low, a large number of deaths caused by accidental attacks from units related to

another. Of the 148 American troops who died in battle, 24% were killed by

friendly fire, a total of 35 service personnel. A further 11 died in detonations

associated weapons. Nine British service personnel were killed in a friendly fire

incident when a United States Air Force A-10 Thunderbolt II attacked a group of

two Warrior IFVs.

Controversy Gulf War

Many returning soldiers reported illnesses combined result of their actions in the

Gulf War, a phenomenon known as Gulf War syndrome or Gulf War illness. There

is widespread speculation and disagreement about the causes of illness and the

reported birth defects. Some factors considered as possibilities include exposure

to uranium, chemical weapons, anthrax vaccines given to deploying soldiers, and

/ or infectious diseases. Home Michael Donnelly, a former USAF officer during the

Gulf War, helped publicize and support the rights of veterans syndrome in this

case.

Uranium effects

Health considerations Fish of diminishing uranium (DU) has been used in the Gulf

War in tank kinetic energy Penetrators and 20-30 mm cannon cannon. Heavy

metals, DU is pyrophoric, genotoxic, and teratogenic. Many have cited the use

during the Gulf War as a contributing factor civil population to a few examples of

health issues in both veterans of the conflict and its environs. However, scientific

opinion on the risks mixed.

Highway Deaths

On the night of February 26 to 27, 1991, some Iraqi forces began leaving Kuwait

on the main highway north of Al Jahra in a column of about 1,400 vehicles.

Patrolling E-8 Joint STARS aircraft observed retreating forces and convey

information to the DDM-8 air operations center in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Vehicles

and then attacked the soldiers retreated, the 60 km stretch of highway strewn

with debris-the Highway of Death.

Chuck Horner, Commander of U.S. and allied air operations has written:

February 26, 1991, the people of Iraq completely gave up and began to withdraw

from occupied Kuwait, but the air force and Iraqi military caravan stopped

hijackers fled towards Basra. The event was later called by the media "Highway

of Death." Certainly many of the vehicles dead, but not so many Iraqis dead.

They will have learned to scamper out into the desert when we started attacking

aircraft. However, some people support home one choose to believe that we are

cruel and unusual punish our enemies already whipped.

By February 27, the talk was to the end of hostilities. Kuwait is free. We

are not interested in governing Iraq. So the question became "How do we stop

the killing."

Bulldozer attack

Another incident during the war highlighted the question of Iraq combat deaths

on a large scale. This is the "bulldozer assault", where two brigades of the 1st

Infantry Division (machine) has to deal with a range of large and complex trench,

as part of the many fortified "Saddam Hussein Line." After some deliberation,

they opted to use anti-mine plows mounted on tanks and combat earthmovers

just plow and bury Iraqi soldiers defending. One newspaper story reported that

the U.S. commanders estimated thousands of Iraqi soldiers surrendered,

escaping live burial during the two-day strike 24 to 26 February 1991. Patrick

Day Sloyan Newsday reported, "Bradley Fighting Vehicles and Vulcan armored

carriers straddled the trench lines and fired into the Iraqi soldiers as the tanks

covered them with mounds of sand. I came through right after the main

company, '[Col. Anthony] Moreno said.' What you are seeing is a bunch of buried

trenches with human arms and the things that come out of them ... ' However,

after the war, the Iraqi government claimed to have found only 44 bodies. In his

book The Wars Against Saddam, John Simpson says that the U.S. military tried to

cover this event. After the incident, the commander of the 1st Brigade, said: "I

know people like to plant a sounds pretty nasty, but it would be much nastier if

we had to put our troops in trenches and clean them with bayonets. "

The expulsion of Palestinians from Kuwait 1991

Kuwait expulsion policy was a response to alignment of Palestinian leader Yasser

Arafat and the PLO with Saddam Hussein, who had earlier invaded Kuwait.

Before the Gulf War, Palestinians about 30% of Kuwait's population of 2.2 million.

Migration occurred in one week in March 1991, following Kuwait's liberation from

Iraqi occupation. Kuwait expelled about 450,000 Palestinians from its territory,

an event, which has become the second largest displacement of Palestinian

Arabs ever, and related as an ethnic cleansing. By 2006, only a few had returned

to Kuwait and today the number of Palestinians living in Kuwait is less than

40,000 (under 3% of the population).

Infrastructure Coalition bombing

On June 23, 1991 edition of the Washington Post Iraqi civilians, reporter Bart

Gellman wrote: "Many targets were chosen only secondarily to contribute to the

defeat of the Iraqi military .... Military planners hoped the bombing would amplify

the economic and psychological impact of international sanctions on Iraqi society

.. .. They deliberately did great harm to the ability to support itself as an

industrial society .... Iraq ". In edition Oxford Group Jan / February 1995 Foreign

Affairs, French diplomat Eric Rouleau wrote: he Iraqi people, who are not

consulted about the attack, has paid the price for their government's

madness .... Iraq to understand the validity of military action to drive their army

from Kuwait, but they have difficulty understanding the rationale for the use of

airpower Allied to systematically destroy or cripple Iraqi infrastructure and

industry: electric power stations (92 percent of installed capacity destroyed),

refineries (80 percent of production capacity), petrochemical complexes,

telecommunications centers (including 135 telephone networks), bridges (more

than 100), roads, highways, railroads, hundreds of locomotives and boxcars full

of goods, radio and television broadcasting stations, cement and aluminum

factories, textiles, electric cables, and medical supplies.

Abuse

During the conflict coalition crew shot down over Iraq were displayed as POWs on

TV, with the signs of abuse. Among the testimonials some poor treatment, Royal

Air Force Tornado crew John Nichol and John Peters both claimed that they were

tortured during this time. Nichol and Peters were forced to make statements

against the war in front of television cameras. Member of the British Forces

Special group named Bravo Two Zero captured in addition to providing

information about the first Iraqi Supply line of Scud Missiles to coalition forces,

only one, Chris Ryan, avoided arrest while the other surviving members of the

violent persecution. Flight surgeon (later General) Rhonda Cornum was molested

by a Blackhawk Pak him after he was riding was shot down while searching for

downed F-16 pilot.

Operation Southern Watch

Since the Gulf War, the U.S. has had a continued presence of 5,000 troops

stationed in Saudi Arabia - the figure rose to 10,000 during the 2003 conflict in

Iraq, Operation Southern Watch enforced no fly zone over southern Iraq set up

after 1991, oil exports through the shipping lanes Persian Gulf were protected by

the U.S. Fifth Fleet, based in Bahrain.

Since Saudi Arabia houses the holiest sites in Islam (Mecca and Medina)

Islam in the presence of many soldiers remain disappointed. The continued

presence of U.S. troops after the Gulf War in Saudi Arabia was one of the stated

motivations behind the September 11 terrorist attacks, the Khobar Towers

bombing, as well, the date chosen for the 1998 United States embassy bombings

(7 August), was eight years to the today that American troops were sent to Saudi

Arabia. Osama Bin Laden interpreted the Prophet Muhammad as banning

"permanent presence of infidels in Arabia". In 1996, bin Laden issued a fatwa,

calling for American soldiers out of Saudi Arabia. In an interview with Rahimullah

Yusufzai December 1999, bin Laden said he felt that Americans were "too near to

Mecca" and consider this first provocation to the entire Muslim world.

Gulf War sanctions

UN Security Council Resolution 661 of the United Nations

On August 6, 1990, after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, the UN Security Council

adopted Resolution 661 which imposed economic sanctions on Iraq, providing

full trade embargo, excluding medical supplies, food and other items

humanitarian needs, is to be determined by the committee Security Council

sanctions. From 1991 until 2003 the effects of government policy and sanctions

regime led to hyperinflation poverty, widespread malnutrition.

At the end of the 1990s the UN considered relaxing the sanctions imposed

because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis. According to UN estimates,

between 500,000 and 1.2 million children died during the years of the sentence.

Draining Qurna Marshes

Qurna Marshes draining the irrigation project in Iraq during and immediately

after the Gulf War, to drain a large swamp in the Tigris-Euphrates river system.

Formerly covering an area of around 3000 square kilometers, the large complex

of wetlands were almost completely emptied of water, and the local Shiite

population moved, following the Gulf War and the 1991 revival. By 2000, the

United Nations Environment Programme United Nations estimates that 90% of

the marsh has been lost, resulting in desertification over 7,500 square miles

(19,000 km2).

Many international organizations such as the UN Human Rights

Commission, the Supreme Council of Islamic Revolution in Iraq, the International

Wildfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau, and Middle East Watch described the

project as a political attempt to force the Marsh Arabs out of the area through

water diversion tactics .

Spill Gulf War

On January 23, Iraq dumped 400 million U.S. gallons (1,500,000 m3) of crude oil

into the Persian Gulf, causing an offshore oil spill the largest in history at the

time. It has been reported as natural resources deliberate attack to keep U.S.

Marine forces from coming ashore (Missouri and Wisconsin had shelled Failaka

Island during the war to reinforce the idea that there would be an amphibious

assault attempt). Approximately 30-40% of this came from Allied raids on Iraqi

coastal targets.

Kuwait Oil Fires

Kuwait oil fire caused by a burning Iraqi army 700 oil wells as part of the

Scorched earth policy while retreating from Kuwait in 1991 after the capture of

the country but being driven by Coalition forces. The fire began in January and

February 1991 and the last one was extinguished by November 1991.

The resulting fire burned for hazard control sending crews deletion. Land

mines have been placed in areas around the oil wells, and the military clearance

is necessary before the fires can be extinguished. Place around 6 million barrels

(950,000 m3) of oil were lost each day. Finally, delete the private contract fire

crews, with a total cost of U.S. $ 1.5 billion to Kuwait. At that time, however, the

fire had burned for approximately ten months, causing widespread pollution.

Cost

War to the United States was calculated by the Congress of the United States $

61,100,000,000 About $ 52 billion of the amount was paid by different countries

around the world: $ 36 billion by Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries

of the Persian Gulf; $ 16 billion by Germany and Japan (which sent no combat

force because their constitution). About 25% of Saudi Arabia's contribution was

paid in-kind services to the troops, such as food and transportation. U.S. troops

represented about 74% of the energy mix, and the global cost is higher.

Impact On Developing Countries

Away from the effects of the Gulf of America itself, resulting in economic

disruptions after the crisis affected many countries. ODI undertook a study in

1991 to assess the impact on developing countries and the response of the

international community. Briefing Paper finalized on the day that the conflict

ended draw on their findings which had two main conclusions: Many developing

countries were severely affected and while there is a considerable response to

the crisis, the distribution is highly selective.

ODI elements about the 'cost' which included Oil imports, remittance

flows, re-settlement costs, loss of export earnings and tourism. For Egypt the

cost totaled: 1bn - 3% of GDP. Yemen has been hit hard by the cost of 1 billion -

10% of the GDP, while the cost Jordan 2bn, 32% of GDP.

International response to the crisis on developing countries came with the

channeling aid through the Gulf Crisis Financial Coordination Group. They were

24 countries, comprising most of the OECD countries plus some Gulf countries:

Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar and Kuwait. The members of this

group agreed to disperse 14bn in development assistance.

The World Bank responded by accelerating an existing project loan

payments and adjustments. The International Monetary Fund adopted two

lending facilities - Facilities Enhancement Structure Adjustment (Esau) and

compensation & Contingency Financing Facility (CCFF). European Community

offers 2 billion clarification needed help.

Media coverage examples and perspective in this section may not represent a

worldwide subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk

page. (January 2010)

Media coverage of the Gulf War

Persian Gulf War was a war of heavy television. For the first time people around

the world can watch live pictures of missiles hitting their targets and fighters

take off from aircraft carriers. Allied forces were keen to demonstrate the

accuracy of their weapons.

In the United States, the "big three" network anchors led the network

news coverage of the war: ABC's Peter Jennings, Dan Rather CBS, and NBC, Tom

Brokaw anchoring their evening news when air strikes began on January 16,

1991. ABC News correspondent Gary Shepard, reporting live from Baghdad, told

Jennings lonely city. But, moments later, Shepard was back in the air as flashes

of light appear on the horizon and tracer fire was heard on the ground.

On CBS, viewers were watching a report from correspondent Allen Pizzey,

who was also reporting from Baghdad, when the war began. Rather, after the

report was finished, announced that there were unconfirmed reports of flashes in

Baghdad and heavy air traffic at bases in Saudi Arabia. "NBC Nightly News",

correspondent Mike Boettcher reported unusual air activity in Dhahran, Saudi

Arabia. Moments later, Brokaw announced to the audience that the air attack

had started.

Still, it was CNN which gained popularity for their coverage, and indeed

war coverage is often cited as one of the historical events in the development

network. CNN correspondents John Holliman and Peter Arnett and CNN anchor

Bernard Shaw relayed audio reports from the Al-Rashid Hotel as the air strikes

began. Network has convinced the Iraqi government to allow installation of

permanent audio circuit in their temporary bureau. When the phone all the other

Western TV correspondents went dead during the bombing, CNN is the only

service able to provide live reports. After the initial bombing, Arnett remained

behind and was for a time, only American TV correspondent reporting from Iraq.

In Britain, the BBC devoted the national FM radio stations speech BBC

Radio 4 18h rolling news format to create Radio 4 News FM. The station was

short lived, ending shortly after President Bush declared a ceasefire and the

liberation of Kuwait. However, it paved the way for the introduction of the then

Radio Five Live.

Two BBC correspondent John Simpson and Bob Simpson (who, despite

sharing a family name, is not related), challenging their editor and remained in

Baghdad to report on the progress of the war. They are responsible for the

report, including "famous cruise missile that traveled down the road and turn left

at the traffic light." 130

Newspapers around the world also covered the war and Time magazine

published a special issue dated 28 January 1991, the headline "WAR IN BAY

WATERS" emblazoned on the cover over a picture of Baghdad taken as the war

began.

U.S. policy regarding media freedom was much more restrictive than in

the Vietnam War. This policy was stated in the Pentagon document entitled

Annex Foxtrot. Most of the press information came from briefings organized by

the military. Only selected journalists were allowed to visit the front line or

conduct interviews with soldiers. They appear to be always carried out in the

presence of officers, and subject to the approval of both the first by the military

and censorship afterward. This was ostensibly to protect sensitive information

from lowered into Iraq. This policy was heavily influenced by the military

experience of the Vietnam War, in which public opposition in the United States

increased during the war. It not only limits the information in the Middle East, the

media also restricting what was shown about the war with more graphic picture

as Ken Jarecke image of a burnt Iraqi army pulled from the American AP wire

while in Europe has given extensive coverage.

At the same time, the coverage of this war was new in the

instantaneousness (that said, unlike any other news ever done). About halfway

through the war, the Iraqi government decided to allow live satellite transmission

from the country by Western news organizations, and U.S. journalists returned

en masse to Baghdad. Tom aspell NBC, Bill Blakemore ABC, and Betsy Aaron CBS

News filed reports, subject to acknowledged Iraqi censorship. Throughout the

war, footage of incoming missiles published immediately.

130 Hiro, Dilip (1992). Desert Shield to Desert Storm: The Second Gulf War. NY: Routledge.

British crew from CBS News (David Green and Andy Thompson), equipped

with satellite transmission equipment traveled with the front line forces and,

having transmitted live TV pictures that occur in the course of fighting, the day

before the forces in Kuwait City, broadcasting live television from the city and

covering the entrance of the Arab force the next day.

Alternative media outlets provided views in opposition to the Gulf War.

Deep Dish Television compiled segments from independent producers in the U.S.

and abroad, and produced a series of 10-hour distributed internationally, called

the Gulf Crisis TV Project. The first program of this series War of Oil and Power

was compiled and released in 1990, before the war broke out. News World Order

was the title of another program in the series, it focuses on media accomplices in

promoting the war, as well as the American reaction 'to the media coverage. In

San Francisco, as a local example, Paper Tiger Television West produced a

weekly cable television show with emphasis on large-scale demonstrations,

action artist, lectures, and protests against mainstream media coverage at

newspaper offices and television stations. Local media outlets in cities across the

country show the same opposition media.

Justice organizations and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR) critically analyzed

media coverage during the Gulf War in articles and books and many, such as the

1991 Gulf War Coverage: The Worst Censorship was at Home131

Conclusion

First, it is necessary to look at the background of the turbulent history of this

region of the World. Although we tend to call the conflict 1990-1991 Gulf War is

not the first Gulf war in the region. From 1980 to 1988 a bloody war against

neighboring Iraq against Iran. In 1980, Iraq attacked a border dispute over the

ownership of the Shatt Al Arab waterway which borders both countries. For the

increasingly shaky Iraq against Iran numerical stronger, but the technology is

lower. In 1988, Iraq changed tactics and the use of chemical weapons, massive

artillery bombardments and Republican Guard make rapid progress rolling back

when the war ended Iran until they've got 500 miles of territory. Water canal

clogged with mud and debris it is now useless. War left Iraq with debt mainly to

Kuwait worth more than $ 80 billion. It is this chemical tactics and artillery

131 Yusufzai, Rahimullah (26 September 2001). "Face to face with Osama". The Guardian (London). Archived from the original on 19 January 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080119011449/. Retrieved 30 June 2010. http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,3604,558075,00.html.

bombardment, the Confederate forces during the Gulf War and then expect, and

this debt, the seeds of future conflict that.

By 1990, Iraq was in severe financial trouble is the low oil prices and Iraq

depend on this as the main source of income. It accuses Kuwait overproducing

and flooding the market with cheap oil. Kuwait agreed to lower production, but

this failed to calm Sadamm Hussain. He has a second complaint with Kuwait that

Rumalia oilfield in northern Kuwait. Iraq owes half of this oil field and want

another, so they accused Kuwait of stealing oil half of Iraq's oil fields.

With the Western powers focused on Europe and the end of the Cold War

gave some much attention to the Iraqi threat to Kuwait "Rich, vulnerable small

states". Even when the conflict looks likely thought that if they did not attack it

will be limited objectives such as oil wells, (this is what Gen Schwarzkopf

believe). Intelligence agencies to predict the attack is only the CIA and then it

was on the day before the Iraqis invaded, (not use a lot).

On August 2, 1990 100,000 Iraqi troops invaded Kuwait, led by three

Republican Guard division. It is organized by Heli-bounds and amphibious attack,

the Special Forces landing on the main site and ground controllers disguised as

civilians occur in the future to order Armour. Resistance quickly disintegrate.

Saddam Hussein, then make the first big mistake, his troops stopped at the

border of Saudi Arabia. He had 130,000 men and 800 tanks in 1200 to only

72,000 rifles Arab, if he had invaded it provoked strong international response,

but the airport and port and Arabs in hand, it will be the release of any very

difficult indeed. Maybe he can not afford to support military logistics? Maybe he

was afraid of retaliation? No one knows, but this is likely to be the only chance to

win the war. By December 1990, it is clear the people of Iraq have dug in, and

the whole combination of the following building stupid he left their forces in

Saudi Arabia without persecution.

Bibliography

Bolkom, Christopher; Pike, Jonathan. "Attack Aircraft Proliferation: Areas for Concern". Retrieved 4 December 2005. http://www.fas.org/spp/aircraft/part08.htm.

Cooper, Tom; Sadik, Ahmad (16 September 2003). "Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait; 1990". Air Combat Information Group. Retrieved 17 April 2010. http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_213.shtml.

Crocker III, H. W. (2006). Don't Tread on Me. New York: Crown Forum.

Finlan, Alastair (2003). The Gulf War 1991. Osprey.

Gulf War. Retrieved 2012 May 28 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War

Hawley., T. M. (1992). Against the Fires of Hell: The Environmental Disaster of the Gulf War. New York u.a.: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Hiro, Dilip (1992). Desert Shield to Desert Storm: The Second Gulf War. NY: Routledge.

Iraqi Gulf War. Retrieved 2012 May 28 from http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/wars_gulf1990.html#iraqi

Yusufzai, Rahimullah (26 September 2001). "Face to face with Osama". The Guardian (London). Archived from the original on 19 January 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080119011449/. Retrieved 30 June 2010. http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,3604,558075,00.html.

Chapter 11

The Palestinian Intifada, 1987-1991

Introduction

Intifada

Intifada (Arabic (intifadat انتفاض¡¡ة (variant spelling: Intifadeh, Intifada) means

"shaking" or "shook up." It is often used to rise in the modern era include:

* March Intifada - uprising against the British presence in Bahrain

March 1965.

* Zemla Sahara Intifada against Spanish rule from 1970.

* First Intifada, the Palestinian uprising against Israeli Arabs from 1987 to about

about 1991.

* 1990s Intifada, the rise in Bahrain demanding democratic rule.

* 1991 uprisings in Iraq against Saddam Hussein.

* Cedar Revolution or Independence Intifada, the events in Lebanon after the

assassination

Rafiq Hariri in 2005.

* Independence Intifada, demonstrations and rioting in Morocco and Western

Sahara early

May 2005.

* French Intifada, is sometimes used to denote the riots in France in

the fall of 2005.

* Second Intifada or Al-Aqsa Intifada, violent Palestinian-Israeli conflict that

began in

September 2000.

This chapter is about the First Intifada, the most famous, and was probably

named for many others.

Since the Six Day War Israel occupied Jerusalem, the West Bank and the

Gaza Strip. After some initial violence in 1970, the occupied territories are silent.

Open borders. Israel went shopping in the West Bank and Gaza. Thousands of

Palestinians to work in Israel every day. From Israel's point of view, it seems as

though reality can last forever. However, the Palestinian people are not satisfied

with the job. They see their land slowly disappear, especially after the right-wing

Likud party took power in 1977. Israel has not implemented such a solution for

the region within the framework of the signed peace with Egypt - the

negotiations came to nothing. Jordan handwashing Palestinian territory in 1987

and the medium has lost its influence there. PLO has failed to achieve anything

for the Palestinians. The bulk of the Palestinian people, especially in the West

Bank, is in favor of compromise with Israel, rather than the sterile and grandiose

dreams "liberate Palestine" (which, liquidating Israel) offered by the PLO.

Palestinian Intifada claimed that the brutal repression of the protest

againstIsrael including extra judicial killings, mass detentions, house demolitions,

indiscriminate torture, deportations, land theft and other abuses. Egyptian

production if their demands to leave Gaza and the West Bank, Jordan may have

influenced events.

Palestinians, especially in Gaza, has a very high birthrates - a remarkable even

for the poor. Israeli occupation has led to a rise in the standard of living stable,

but around 1987, there was a recession and some increase in unemployment.

Palestinians feel abandoned by their Arab allies. On the one hand, the PLO

has failed to destroy Israel and establish a Palestinian state in place as they

promised. Instead, the PLO had managed to damage Israel's efforts to resettle

refugees and blocked Israel tried to call elections in the territory. When Israel

was holding local elections and did not like the results, they fired several mayors.

For many Palestinians it seems they may certainly remain politically impotent

forever unless they take their own destiny in their hands. 132

Imam using Friday sermons to incite the Israeli government. It may be

that the founders of the Hamas extremists in 1987 played a role in popularizing

the "resistance." Similarly, there are few incidents of violence against

Palestinians Israeli public. The first intifada began in December 1987 according

to the official history, although there is no clear peak in Israel that followed the

date of death is "official" and may be associated with. For some reason, the

exact date varies according to different accounts. On December 6, 1987ref Ref,

(or December 4 ref ref)) 1 plastic salesman Israel, Shlomo Sakal, fatally stabbed

while shopping in Gaza. On December 6, there seems to be a riot in Gaza. Two to

four days after the stabbing (December 6 or 8 suitable for different accounts),

four residents of Jabalya refugee camp in Gaza have been killed in a road

accident. Rumors spread that the four were killed by the Israelis as a deliberate

act of revenge. Massive riots occurred in Jabalya in the morning of December 9.

The 17-year-old threw a Molotov cocktail at the military patrol and was killed by

IDF soldiers. Death called a trigger large-scale riots that swept the West Bank,

Gaza and Jerusalem. Unlike the Second Intifada, the first Intifada turned out to be

planned, and there is less violence. PLO is quite weak in the occupied territories.

It is headquartered in Tunis and is concerned with the survival of the

organization after being expelled from Lebanon.

The first intifada characterized mainly by pamphlets and throwing stones,

especially because the Palestinians do not have a lot of weapons. Doubt that

132 Hiltermann, Joost R. (1991). Behind the Intifada: Labor and Women's Movements in the Occupied Territories (1993 reprint ed.). Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. Retrieved 2012 May 30 from http://books.google.com/books?id=m2fdWT3CuyQC.

many Palestinians have the philosophy of non-violence involved, and they

generally support the violent attacks carried out by militant organizations. The

image below may be quite common first Intifada.133

Palestinians in the first Intifada organization

Palestinians in the first Intifada organization

Palestinian organization - the militant group first played little or no role in the

first intifada, which has attracted the PLO by surprise. Sari Nusseibeh Fatah

(Once Upon a Country 1) related that he and other partners will set up an

underground printing press and distribution network, but there is no organized

source of weapons. One group that may have been known as the "National

Integrated Leadership rebellion was" put "communiqués" and calls to action that

has been followed by the Palestinians.

The demonstration proved evolved from a random mob to events more

regularly. Hamas and Islamic Jihad initiated incidents of violence and kidnapping

soldiers, and in fact, 1987 marks the out come of Hamas as a terrorist group.

Some events may have accelerated the Intifada including 19 April, 1988

PLO leader Abu Jihad assassination by agents of Israel's massacre, on May 20,

1990 at least 7 Palestinians wait to work at the bus stop in Israel by Ami Popper,

Israeli extremists have been dishonorably discharged from the IDF.

Death in the first Intifada

Overall Palestinians suffered about 2,000 deaths in this period, and Israel in the

neighborhood of 160-300. Approximately 886 Palestinians were killed according

133 Intifada. Retrieved 2012 May 30. http://mideastweb.org/Middle-East-Encyclopedia/intifada.htm

to figures Betselem the 1987-1991 period, which is often regarded as the

Intifada "official". Until the signing of the Oslo agreement, have been killed in all

of 1100. Approximately an additional 1,000 Palestinian deaths as murder

allegedly by Palestinian collaborators (Zachary Lockman, Joel Beinin (1989)

Intifada: Palestinian Revolt Against Israeli Occupation South End Press, pp. 38),

although some claim that this murder is really reply revenge killing or tribal

warfare. The exact numbers depend on who does the counting and reporting and

the calculated. As can be seen in the table below, there appear to be

inconsistencies and unexplained dramatic between Btselem report (Btselem

group Human Rights 1 Israel accused of having a pro-Palestinian bias) and that

reported by the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA). However, these

differences are not systematic, since Btselem over-report the death of the First

Intifada, Israel while under-reporting, and the opposite is true during the Intifada.

Data for Palestinian deaths before 1988 are not available.

It is very interesting that there is no dramatic increase in mortality Israel

proper in the first Intifada, and the two sources agree that there is no substantial

decrease in the death of Israel in 1992, when there were supposedly no Intifada.

Please note that Betselem only provide data from December 9, 1987 and up. We

do not have figures for the entire year either to Palestine or Israel from

Betselem. During the "official" end of the Intifada in 1991, a total of 84 Israelis

were killed by Betselem. In the 2 years following the "quiet", 95 Israelis have

been killed! Within two years after the first full year of the Oslo process, 120

Israelis were killed. In less than 3 months at the end of 1993, after the signing of

the Oslo agreement, 19 Israelis were killed. According to Israeli figures, it is less

dramatic. 121 Israelis were killed from 1987 to 1991, but only 110 if we exclude

deaths before the start of the Intifada - 110 deaths in 4 years full-year average of

28. In the following two years, another 79 Israelis were killed - almost 40 per

year. During the year 1995-96, 85 Israelis were killed according to Israeli deaths

From the point of view, there is no way to determine the end of the first and

beginning of the Intifada should be relaxed, because there is no such term. 1991

was relatively low point, but the number of deaths is not as low as it is in the

quietest years in 1980. For Palestinian deaths, 1990 and 1991 is relatively low

points, but after years of producing more deaths. Again, looking only at death,

the numbers do not support the idea that the First Intifada really began or ended

at a certain point, even if 1991 is the year of the quietest in the Intifada.

Intifada process, whatever it was, was not associated with the violence.

Palestinians. who has shown no particularly those who have killed Israelis and

have not been adjusted proven terrorist groups. 1988, the first full year of the

Intifada, has no unusual number of Israeli deaths. 1985 saw 27 Israeli deaths as

reported by the Israeli Ministry of Foriegn Affairs. , 1983, 21. In 1980, 16 Israelis

died, the same number as in 1988. 1994, the first full year of the Oslo peace

process, is worse than any of the previous in terms of Israeli deaths. We do not

have figures for deaths prior to the start of Arab First Intifada. 134

Violent Incidents Within the First Intifada

This is the record of major violent incidents in this period and earlier. The first

major attack in 1987 occurred before the beginning of the Intifada should be,

although it might have inspired. Frequency and impact of these incidents do not

seem to be much worse than those that occurred in previous years. There are

however, a period of calm compared in Israel after Misgav Am attack, until 1987.

This may reflect the neutralization of the militant organization by the peace

process with Egypt. During the Intifada "official", there are two major terrorist

incidents in Israel. This is the exception rather than the 1980s, but rarely as bad

as the unending flow of attack before the 1980's.

July 22, 1968 - Rome, Italy

Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) carry loot 1, remove the El Al

flight to Algiers. 32 Jewish passengers held hostage for 5 weeks.

September 4, 1968 - Tel Aviv, Israel

1 killed and 71 wounded by 3 bombs exploded in the city center.

October 1968 - Hijacking planes El Al travel to Algeria.

November 22, 1968 - Jerusalem, Israel

12 killed and 52 wounded by car bomb in Mahaneh Yehuda market.

Dec 26, 1968 - Athens, Greece

1 killed and 1 wounded in shooting attack El Al aircraft at the airport, which is

run by the PFLP.

February 18, 1969 - Zurich, Switzerland

A pilot and three passengers were killed by the terrorists who attacked the El Al

Boeing 707 on the runway.

134 King, Mary Elizabeth (2007). A Quiet Revolution: The First Palestinian Intifada and Nonviolent Resistance. New York: Nation Books.

February 21, 1969 - Jerusalem, Israel

2 killed and 20 injured by a bomb detonated in a crowded supermarket.

Oct 22, 1969 - Haifa, Israel

4 killed and 20 injured in a terrorist bombing in 5 apartments.

February 10, 1970 - Zurich, Switzerland

1 killed and 11 wounded by 3 Arab terrorists who unsuccessfully tried to seize

one El Al flight at Zurich airport.

May 22, 1970 - Avivim, Israel

Terrorists attacked a school bus killing 12 (9 of them are children), and wounding

24.

September 6, 1970 - Dawson's Field, Jordan

3 aircraft holds 400 passengers was hijacked and taken to the airport by the

PFLP Jordan. Hostages freed in exchange for terrorists held in Germany,

Switzerland and England.

May 8, 1972 - airport LOD, Israel

1 and 5 passengers who were killed during the Israeli military rescue operation

by Israeli commandos on a hijacked plane Belgium; 4 Palestinian Black

September terrorists killed. Hostages were released.

May 30, 1972 - LOD airport

26 were killed and 78 others were injured after a fire PFLP and the Japanese Red

Army terrorists open the passenger terminal.

September 5, 1972 - Munich, Germany

11 members of the Israeli Olympic wrestling team and one German policeman

were killed by Fatah terrorists after a failed rescue attempt by West German

authorities.

April 11, 1974 - Kiryat Shemona, Israel | 18 killed, 8 of them were children,

by PFLP terrorists detonated their explosives during a failed rescue attempt by

Israeli authorities.

May 15, 1974 - Maalot, Israel

27 killed, 21 of them were children, and 78 wounded by PFLP terrorists in a

school, after a failed rescue attempt.

Mar 5, 1975 - Tel Aviv, Israel

Terrorists take over the Savoy hotel, 4 people were killed.

July 4, 1975 - Jerusalem, Israel

14 killed and 80 wounded in a bombing attack Zion Square, where a bomb

hidden in a refrigerator.

June 27, 1976 - Entebbe, Uganda

An Air France plane was hijacked by a group of joint German / PFLP terrorists, the

flight diverted to Entebbe airport. About 258 passengers and crew hostage until

all non-Israeli passengers were released. All the terrorists have been killed, and

three passengers and operations leader Lieutenant-Colonel Jonathan Netanyahu.

August 11, 1976 - Istanbul, Turkey

4 killed and 20 wounded by PFLP and the Japanese Red Army terrorist attack at

the airport in Istanbul.

Mar 11, 1978 - Glilot intersection

36 killed, and more than 100 injured in bus hijacking by Palestinian terrorist gang

led by women.

April 7, 1980 - Kibbutz Misgav-Am, Israel | children's homes Terrorist attack on

the kibbutz, leaving 3 dead, one of them is a child.

June 3, 1982 - London, England

Abu Nidal organization was trying to kill Israeli ambassador to London, Shlomo

Argov, severely injuring him.

Oct 7, 1985 - PLFP attack Achille Lauro ship on the way to Israel, killing one of

the passengers (an American).

September 6, 1986 - Istanbul, Turkey

Abu Nidal organization Neveh Shalom synagogue attack, killing 22 people.

November 25, 1987 - Northern Border, Israel (near Kiryat Shemona)

2 Palestinian terrorists crossed into Israel from Lebanon on hang gliders, killing

six Israeli soldiers and wounded eight.

August 21, 1988 - Haifa

25 injured in bomb attack in Haifa shopping center.

July 6, 1989 - Tel Aviv

14 Islamic Jihad militants were killed when a bus driving (Bus 405) into a ravine

outside Jerusalem-Tel Aviv highway.

March 17, 1992 Buenos Aires

The bombing of the Israeli Embassy by "Islamic Jihad" in Buenos Aires, Argentina:

29 killed, 242 wounded.

First Intifada Fatalities

 Israeli Deaths Palestinian

DeathsYear MFA Btselem

1980 16    

1981 14    

1982 6    

1983 21    

1984 9    

1985 27    

1986 14    

1987 11   22

1988 16 12 310

1989 40 31 305

1990 33 22 145

1991 21 19 104

1992 34 34 138

1993 45 61 180

1994 65 74 152

1995 29 46 45

1996 56 75 74

Israeli reaction to the First Intifada

Given the nature of the challenges undramatic Palestinians, Israel's response is

totally inexplicable. Israel killed a large number of Palestinians in the early part

of the Intifada, and most of them were apparently killed in protests and riots. It is

easy to claim it is due to cruelty or insensitive, but most aspects of policy are not

actually productive. Palestinians Brutalization and mass arrests can only sow the

seeds of the next Intifada.

Israel's continuing announcements and official rhetoric about "terrorism" is

also strange. There are many demonstrations, but no deaths have been in many

more than the previous year. Perhaps there are many more non-fatal violent

attack. However, it is in Israel's interest to downsize Intifada, since the more

publicity it has, the more it seems that the Palestinian "David" was successfully

challenged the Israeli "Goliath." Large number of Palestinian deaths bring

condemnation UN (Security Council Resolution 605) early in the Intifada. It helps

to draw world attention to the plight of Palestine and created growing anti-Israel

lobby and the anti-occupation throughout the world.

Mass arrests and administrative detentions in the first Intifada is a

breeding ground for terrorism. Israel captured about 120,000 Palestinians in this

period and held by them for various periods. Some parties have committed

serious offenses. It is unlikely that 120,000 Palestinians are responsible for less

than 200 Israeli deaths. 15 year old go to the "demonstration." He has no

particular ideology. Each person is throwing stones, so he threw stones. He was

arrested and imprisoned for several months. He "graduated" as a member of a

terrorist group with a violent ideology and revenge. -Ami Isseroff, November 11,

2008. 135

Conclusion

The First Intifada (also known as simply "Intifada" is the Palestinian uprising

against the Israeli occupation of the Palestinian territory, which lasted from

December 1987 to 1993. Uprising began in Jabalia refugee camp and quickly

spread throughout Gaza, the West Bank and East Jerusalem.

Palestinian actions primarily included nonviolent civil disobedience and

resistance, and it is the first time that Palestinians act together and as a nation.

There are general strikes, boycotts on Israeli products, refusal to pay taxes,

graffiti, and the causeway, but the Palestinian demonstrations that included

stone throwing by youths against the Israel Defense Forces (Israeli Defence

Force) defined violence much.

Intra-Palestinian violence was a prominent feature of the Intifada, with

widespread executions of alleged Israeli collaborators. While Israeli forces killed

about 1100 Palestinians and Palestinians killed 164 Israelis, Palestinians killed

135 Ibid

about 1,000 other Palestinians as alleged contributory, although less than half

had any proven contact with the Israeli authorities.

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http://books.google.com/books?id=m2fdWT3CuyQC.

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Acknowledegemen to Yahoo, Google and other search engines sources, images

& etc.