BIRDS of PREYNorma Jean Venable

West Virginia UniversityExtension Service

Fall 1996

BIRDS of PREYNorma Jean Venable

West Virginia UniversityExtension Service

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REVIEWERS:

LeJay Graffious, president,Brooks Bird Club;

Jim Phillips, naturalist,Pipestem Resort State Park.

ARTISTS:

Debbie Dennis, owl illustration on cover;

Doug Pifer, Pennsylvania GameCommission, raptor drawings;

Cindie Brunner, drawings of red-tailedhawk, American kestrel, andgreat horned owl. APPRECIATION IS EXPRESSED TO...

Edmond B. Collins, WVU ExtensionService division leader, foradministrative support for thenatural resources publications;

Joyce Bower, Extension Servicepublications specialist, for editing;

Brandon R. Vallorani , Extension Servicegraphic artist, for layout and design.

Norma Jean Venable is a natural resourcesspecialist with the WVU Extension Serviceand author of the publications in the NaturalResources Series.

Programs and activities offered by the West Virginia University Extension Service are available to all personswithout regard to race, color, sex, disability, religion, age, veteran status, sexual orientation or national origin.

Issued in furthurance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with theU.S. Department of Agriculture. Director, Cooperative Extension Service, West Virginia University-- Fall 1997

Printing Cost: $6.00

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION............................ 1

BIRDS OF PREY

THROUGH THE AGES ................... 3

HAWKS ...................................... 7

Vultures ............................................... 10

Turkey Vulture ...............................10

Black Vulture ................................12

Eagles ................................................. 13

Bald Eagle ....................................13

Golden Eagle ................................14

Osprey................................................. 15

Harrier ................................................. 17

Northern Harrier or Marsh Hawk17

Accipiter Hawks ................................. 19

Sharp-Shinned Hawk ....................19

Cooper’s Hawk .............................20

Northern Goshawk........................20

Buteo Hawks ...................................... 22

Red-Shouldered Hawk ..................22

Red-Tailed Hawk ..........................23

Broad-Winged Hawk.....................24

Rough-Legged Hawk ....................25

FALCONS.................................... 27

American Kestrel ................................ 27

Peregrine ............................................. 28

Merlin ................................................. 29

OWLS ........................................ 31

Barn Owl ............................................ 34

Eastern Screech Owl ........................... 35

Great Horned Owl .............................. 36

Barred Owl ......................................... 37

Long-Eared Owl ................................. 38

Short-Eared Owl ................................. 38

Northern Saw-Whet Owl .................... 39

Snowy Owl ......................................... 41

CONSERVATION OF

BIRDS OF PREY........................... 43

Attracting Birds of Prey...................... 43Owling ................................................ 48

Raptor Surveys ................................... 48

Raptor Rehabilitation Centers ............ 48

Hawk Migration Counts ..................... 49

Hawk Migration Data Sheet ............... 50

REFERENCES............................... 51

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INTRODUCTION

DEFINITION OF BIRDS OF PREY

Owls, hawks, and hawklike birds includingvultures, osprey, eagles, harriers, andfalcons, are birds of prey. Birdsof prey, especially hawks andtheir relatives, are also calledraptors, a Latin wordmeaning “plunderer.”

CLASSIFICATION

Hawks belong to an order orgroup of birds with the scientificname Falconiformes. This orderincludes vultures, osprey, harriers, kites(southern hawks), accipiter and buteohawks, eagles, and falcons.

Hawks are called “diurnal,” meaning theyare active during daylight. Worldwide, thereare about 280 species of diurnal birds ofprey, ranging from the small 3- to 8-ouncesharp-shinned hawk, which lives fromAlaska to the southern United States, to theimmense 20-pound harpy eagle of SouthAmerica. More than 35 hawk species occurin North America. Sixteen kinds of hawkscan be found in West Virginia.

Owls belong to an order or group of birdswith the scientific name Strigiformes. Theyare nocturnal birds, meaning they hunt atnight, filling the nightime feeding niche.Worldwide, there are over 130 species ofowls, 18 of which live in North America.Eight kinds of owls live in West Virginia.

Hawks and owls are not closely related,although they have similar adaptations forhunting.

ADAPTATIONS FOR HUNTING

Birds of prey have special characteristicsand adaptations for hunting that set themapart from other birds. Raptors arecharacterized by strong legs, powerful feetwith sharp talons, a hooked beak used to tearprey, keen eyesight, and excellent flyingability.

Birds of prey are sexually dimorphic,meaning female and male birds differ

in size. Females are up to a thirdlarger than males. The male

bird of prey is called atiercel, from the Latin word

tertius, meaning third.Because of their larger size,

females are more aggressivehunters than males. Their

superior strength and hunting ability makethem preferred birds for use in falconry.

Other birds—including warblers, vireos, andshrikes that catch insects and herons thatcatch fish—are not considered birds of preybecause they lack true raptor characteristics.

PREDATION

Hawks and owls are predatory birds.Predation is an interaction between twospecies in which one species becomes foodfor the other. Predation has evolved throughthe ages, acting as a natural way to keeppopulations balanced.

Raptors are a diverse bird group, with eachspecies adapted to prey on animals smallerthan itself. Prey includes mammals,amphibians, reptiles, insects, fish, and birds.The type of prey consumed differs accordingto the individual species. Bald eagles andosprey are fish-eaters; broad-winged hawksconsume primarily insects and snakes; red-tailed hawks prey heavily on mammals;

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sharp-shinned and Cooper’s hawks preyextensively on birds; harriers catch mice,rats, frogs, snakes, and insects; and kestrelstake mice, birds, bats, and insects. Owls eatmice, rats, small- and medium-sizedmammals, birds, and insects.

PELLETS

Hawks and owls disgorge undigested partsof their prey in the form of a pellet. Pellets

usually consist of fur, feathers, bones, teeth,hard exoskeleton of insects, and otherindigestible parts. Pellets are usually gray orbrown, oval or oblong, and 1 to 3 incheslong, depending on the size of the bird. Ananalysis of the pellet contents providesinformation about the raptor’s cuisine.

A unique group of birds, raptors play animportant environmental role in keepingprey populations balanced and add regalsplendor to West Virginia’s skyways.

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BIRDS OF PREY INANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS

Birds of prey have played an important partin the life and culture of ancientcivilizations. Eagles, hawks, falcons,vultures, and owls were associated withdeities and religious rites symbolic of kingsand great power. The ancientcivilizations of westernAsia, includingSumeria,Babylonia, andAssyria, reveredand worshipedeagles for theirgreat strength andpower. In Egypt, as long as 10,000 yearsago, the falcon image was an importanttheme. Falcons were depicted in Egyptianhieroglyphics, often representing kings.Egyptians worshiped falcons in theirtemples and buried falcons in their tombs.

Birds of prey were also important in Greekand Roman civilizations. Coins dating fromthe fourth century B.C. show Alexander theGreat with a falcon on his fist, indicating theuse of falcons for hunting in Grecian times.For the Romans, owls—perhaps because oftheir nocturnal habits and stealthy huntingpatterns—were symbols of misfortune anddeath. Even today, owls are associated withmystery and ghostly happenings.

Birds of prey were also important to NewWorld civilizations. Drawings of birds ofprey, such as hawks, eagles, and condors,have been found on textiles and stonesculptures of the ancient cultures of theAndes in South America. In North America,the Pueblo Indians kept birds of prey incaptivity, using their molted feathers for

decorations and in religious rites. TheMaya and Aztecs of Mexicoused birds of prey to representtheir deities. Some PlainsIndians thought that hawk andeagle feathers had magicalpowers.

THE MIDDLE AGES AND

FALCONRY

Birds of prey, especially falcons,are associated with the art of falconry,

or the use of raptors for hunting. At itsheight in Europe from 500 to 1500 A.D., thispastime was popular with all classes ofsociety.

Falconry still is practiced today and is legalin many states. Before they are licensed,falconers must undergo extensive training inthe care and handling of the birds.

The origins of falconry are obscure, but itprobably originated in China, wherecormorants were trained to dive into the

BIRDS of PREYTHROUGH the AGES

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water and catch food for their humanowners. The first falconer may have beensomeone who captured a falcon or eagle andrealized the raptor, like the cormorant, mightbe useful for catching food. So, birds of preywere trained and then used to catch birds.Thus falconry actually started as a methodof hunting. In time, falconry developed intoa sport. In the times of Gengis Khan, eagleswere used to chase and capture wolves. InJapan, emperors and shoguns rode onmagnificently decorated horses to engage infalconry.

Falconry became popular in Europe duringmedieval times in the 11th, 13th, and 14thcenturies, when Crusaders returning fromthe East brought back trained falcons.Falconry was so popular during these timesthat nuns carried birds of prey to chapel, anda 14th-century French husband advised hiswife to take her “hawk” with hereverywhere, even to church.

The art of falconry was at its zenith duringthe Renaissance, from the 14th century tothe 16th century.

FALCONRY AND SOCIAL STATUS

During those times, there were distinctsocial classes. Falconry was popular with allsocial sets from servants to kings. Thespecies of bird used for falconry reflectedsocial status. Majestic and mighty eagleswere reserved for emperors. Kings huntedgyrfalcons (the Norse word means “spearfalcon”), largest of the falcons at 22 inchesin length, with plumage varying from whiteto black and brown. These beautiful,excellent hunters nest in Greenland and theArctic.

Peregrine falcons were prized by royalty andused for hunting by princes, earls, dukes,and barons. Noted for their strength andhunting ability, peregrines are THE hunting

bird. Peregrines occur worldwide and arefound on every continent except Antarctica.There are some 22 species. Peregrines arethe fastest and most aerial of the predatorybirds and may reach over 200 miles per hourin a “stoop” or dive after a bird.

Merlins, about 12 inches long, nest in NorthAmerica, Canada, Russia, and Finland.They were milady’s falcon, carried on alady’s fancy bejeweled glove. Mary, Queenof Scots—who was ordered beheaded by hersister, Queen Elizabeth I of England—probably flew merlins. Mary was evenallowed out of captivity to go on falconexpeditions.

Last on the social order were knaves,persons of humble birth. Knaves flew thecommon kestrel, a small falcon 13 incheslong. Kestrels are one of the most commonfalcons in the world, nesting in theAmericas, Africa, the Middle East, andCentral Asia.

Falconry was an elaborate affair. Expedi-tions were conducted on horseback onextensive estates. Hunting parties werelavish.

The sport was so popular that a book waswritten describing the art of falconry. Fromthis book, it is known that early devices fortraining falcons are still in use amongfalconers today. Today’s falconer, like hiscounterpart of old, fits a hood over the bird’shead. Birds so hooded cannot see, remainquiet, and usually are easier to handle. Silveror brass bells placed on the bird’s legs areheld on by thin leather strips called bewits.Jesses, leather straps about 8 inches long,are placed on the hawk’s legs below thebells. The free end of the jesse is passedthrough a swivel to which the leash isattached. The leash is used to attach the birdto its block, so it cannot fly away. Intraining, the falconer uses the lure andfeathered lure, pieces of leather containing

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meat, which serves as dummy prey. Thefalcon is carried on the gloved fist (the gloveis called a gauntlet) by holding the jessesbetween the fingers. When the bird isreleased to hunt, the jesses and bells stay onthe bird’s legs.

When falconry was in its heyday, falcons orthe “noble hawks” were among the mostvalued possessions of the aristocracy. Therewere strict rules and laws about ownership.Harsh punishments were given to those whoharmed wild falcons, robbed eyries (nests),or stole other people’s hawks. Every manorhad a place for hawks, and falconersprobably took better care of the birds thanthey did of themselves. The office offalconer held high rank.

For a thousand years, birds of prey enjoyedpopularity and some protection from humanmolestation.

RECENT TIMES

The development of guns for hunting andthe intensive management of game preservesbrought changes at the end of theRenaissance and the beginning of the 17thcentury, which led to a decline in thepopularity of falconry. Throughout the 18th,19th, and 20th centuries, birds of prey wereless venerated and considered “vermin” bygamekeepers and their landlords in Europe.Waterfowl hunters in North America killedthousands of birds. Birds of prey were shot,poisoned, and trapped, and their eggs and

young destroyed. Some states offeredbounties to hunters for killing hawks, addingto the destruction. Shooting hawks wasconsidered sport. Peregrines, merlins,kestrels, and other hawks fell to hunters’guns at such infamous shooting grounds asHawk Mountain in Pennsylvania. After theslaughter of large numbers of birds,conservationists intervened, purchasedHawk Mountain, and formed the HawkMountain Sanctuary in 1933. This usheredin a new era of enacting hawk protectionlaws and programs. The protection ofmigrant raptors was made part of the 1972Migratory Bird Treaty between the UnitedStates, Canada, and Mexico, providingfederal protection for all raptors. It is illegalto kill hawks.

Even with protection, populations of birds ofprey declined in the 1950s and ’60s due tothe use of pesticides, especially DDT, whichaffected calcium production, causing thinegg shells. This resulted in broken eggs asthe birds tried to incubate. Populations ofosprey, sharp-shinned hawks, and peregrinefalcons were exterminated in parts of theirrange because the birds could not raiseyoung.

With the banning of DDT in 1972,restrictions on pesticide use, conservationmeasures, and hawk reintroductionprograms—including osprey and peregrinereintroduction efforts in West Virginia—birds of prey once again soar over theirnative skies.

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Red-Tailed Hawk

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their numbers to maintain balancedpopulations.

A hawk’s plumage is usually blended graysand browns on the back, with pale, whitishfeathers on the underside, sometimes withstreaks or bars. (Streaks are vertical; bars arehorizontal.) A hawk’s eyes—which areusually yellow, orange, red, or brown—arelarge, with little movement in the sockets.The bird’s fierce appearance is heightenedby a bony shield over the eyes. Its eyesightis possibly the keenest of any animal. Maleand female hawks tend to look alike, withthe exception of harriers.

IDENTIFICATION

Hawks are identified by special markings,such as the rufous on the tail of a red-tailedhawk, wing and tail shape, calls, behavior,and habitat.

The first step in hawk identification is tomake sure that the bird is actually a hawk.Hawks are soaring birds; they tend to soar incircles, either gliding for long times withoutflapping their wings (such as a red-tailed) orflapping for a few beats, then gliding (suchas a Cooper’s hawk). Most hawks appearbrown or dark above and light below. Otherbirds that soar include ravens, swallows,herons, gulls, terns, and sometimes crows.

During the day, hawks often can be seensoaring in the sky or perched in a tree, inmany kinds of habitats, from woods andforests to suburban areas.

HAWK CHARACTERISTICS

All members of the hawk family have astrong, hooked beak for tearing flesh.Nostrils, small and slitlike, open in the softpart of the upper beak, which is call the sereand often is brightly colored. The neck isshort and strong; the head is round. Feet arestrong and usually yellow, with sharp curvedtalons adapted to strike and capture prey.Raptors “mantle” prey after killing it,crouching and spreading their wings,making a shield to hide the prey from otherpredators. Raptors may feed on the groundor carry their meal to a special feeding spot,often a post or tree limb, where the bird tearsthe meat apart with its beak. Hawks tear uptheir food, unlike owls which swallow foodwhole or in large chunks.

Different kinds of hawks eat different kindsof prey. Large soaring hawks consume rats,mice, rabbits, squirrels, and other smallmammals. Over half of the diet of red-tailedand rough-legged hawks consists of miceand rats, giving them the name “livingmousetraps.” These hawks feed on rats andmice and also consume birds. This eating ofsmall birds is nature’s way of controlling

HAWKS

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The best way to learn how to recognizehawks is to study their silhouettes andmarkings and have actual experience in thefield.

FALL HAWK MIGRATION

An excellent time to see hawks is duringtheir fall migration.

Hawks in the northeastern United States andCanada migrate in the fall and return in thespring because less food is available inwinter. For instance, broad-winged hawksprey on snakes and insects that hibernate ordie with the onset of cold temperatures.Sharp-shinned and Cooper’s hawks preymostly on insect-eating songbirds, whichalso migrate south to get enough to eat.Fish-eating raptors, such as osprey and baldeagle, must migrate where the waters are notfrozen.

Migration does not occur all at once. Mostfall migration takes place from September toNovember. Spring migration northwardoccurs between March and May, althoughsome hawks may migrate each month of theyear in the Northeast as they seek betterhabitat.

Different species have different migrationtimes, and some migrant birds can be seenfrom late August until December. Rough-legged and red-tailed hawks are seenmoving south well into December.

Migratory hawks have an internalmechanism that lets them know that theangle of the sun and the amount of daylightreaching the earth’s surface indicate it’s timeto migrate. In general, good hawk flights inautumn occur after the passage of a coldfront. Why this is so is not known, but birdsare reluctant to fly in squall lines associatedwith frontal activity; the birds back upbehind the front. When the cold front passes,the birds begin to move. It also is possiblethat the birds are taking advantage of afavorable tail wind. Whatever the reason, thetime to look for migrating hawks in fall isafter the passage of a cold front inassociation with northwesterly winds.(During spring migration, more birds areseen in association with a warm front.)

Once hawks begin to migrate, stimulated byclear skies and following winds, theirmovements are influenced by weather andtopography—birds tend to avoid squalls andbad weather, remaining earthbound until

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fronts pass. They orient visually to certainroutes, such as mountain ridges andcoastlines. These geographic features arecalled “leading lines.”

The system of ridges running northeast tosouthwest in the Appalachian Mountains isone such line that attracts many hawks, whichfrequently travel from midmorning throughmidafternoon, primarily to take advantage ofair currents.

One such air current is termed a “thermal.”This is a bubble of air warmed from theearth’s surface. Thermals are initiated whenthe sun raises the surface temperature, usuallyat midmorning. The bubble of air, beingbuoyant, rises. Thermals consist of a series ofrising air bubbles. Soaring birds takeadvantage of the expanding air bubble forlong distance travel, using the updraft of thethermal to climb, then glide, then climbagain. Large soaring birds may achieve aglide ratio (the ratio of forward speed tosinking speed) of 12 to 1, illustrating theenergy-saving success of this method oftravel. At times, hundreds of hawks can beseen in a single thermal. With outstretchedwings and fanned tails, hawks soar higher andhigher. Broad-winged hawks are noted

especially for this behavior, which is termed“kettling.”

Another type of air current, a deflective aircurrent, results from the forced ascent of airover mountains. Soaring birds utilize theseair currents when possible, typicallyfollowing north-south mountain chains totake advantage of both thermals anddeflective air currents. Soaring birds—especially eagles, vultures, and hawks withtheir long, broad wings—are speciallyadapted to take advantage of these aircurrents. However, birds of prey are capableof sustained flight without these special aireffects.

Ideal conditions for hawk watching includeclear skies, recent passage of a cold front,and a time from about midmorning to lateafternoon when there are thermals andmaximum visibility. Between 11:30 a.m. and1:30 p.m., hawks tend to fly too high to beseen, however.

The southward migration of thousands ofhawks over West Virginia’s mountain ridgesis a spectacular sight, providing watchers thebest opportunity to see the 16 speciesoccurring in the state.

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Turkey Vultures

VULTURES

FAMILY CATHARTIDAE

Vultures, large, dark birds with long wings,often are seen soaring in circles in the sky.Vultures are primarily scavengers, butoccasionally take live prey. They aresometimes called buzzards, an incorrectterm applied by early settlers who thoughtvultures were related to European hawks.

Active in the daytime, vultures search forcarrion to eat. Sometimes they perch in treesor stand on the ground, usually near a deadanimal. Vultures are social, tending to roostand feed together. When perched, they oftenspread their wings, appearing to sunthemselves or dry their feathers.

West Virginia has two species of vultures:turkey vulture and black vulture. The turkeyvulture, found in most of the United States,is most common, while the black vulture is asouthern species. The third and largest NorthAmerican raptor is the California condor,now extremely rare.

TURKEY VULTURE

CATHARTES AURA

Length about 30 inches, with a wingspan to6 feet.

Adults weigh between 4-1/2 and 5-1/2pounds.

DESCRIPTION

The main avian scavenger in West Virginia(and the United States), turkey vultures areblack-brown, and the male and female lookalike. Seen from underneath, the turkeyvulture’s wings appear two-toned, the flightfeathers lighter in color than the rest of thefeathering. The primary or main flightfeathers are often separated as shown in theillustration. Turkey vultures soar with wingsheld above the horizontal, forming a Vshape. The big birds rock and tilt in the air.The two-toned, V-shaped wings and rockingmotion quickly identifyturkey vultures evenfrom a distance.

The head andneck of theturkey vultureare unfeathered, toallow the bird to probeinto carrion and avoidgetting messy. Inyoung birds, theseskin areas are dark.Adult birds havenoticeable reddish

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heads and necks. The bill has a sharp hookat the end for tearing, and the turkeyvulture’s toes have strong, curved talons.

Vultures do not have voices, as they lack asyrinx, or voice box, but they can hiss andgrunt. Unlike many birds, vultures havelarge olfactory organs, giving them a keensense of smell. This along with excellentvision helps them locate carrion.

HABITAT

Turkey vultures are seen throughout WestVirginia in various habitats.

NEST

Preferred nesting habitat includes remoteareas, such as caves, cliffs, and hollow logsor stumps in dense thickets to deterpredators. They also may nest in abandonedfarm buildings and dead trees or snags.There is little or no nest, other than gravel,sawdust, or debris on the ground. Nests arehard to find. The birds sit tight on the nestand are silent.

EGGS

Usually 1-3, with dull white shells andirregular brown spots.

INCUBATION

Both parents incubate, 30-40 days, andyoung remain in the nest 4 weeks. Theyoung birds eat carrion regurgitated to themby the parents.

FEEDING HABITS

Diet for vultures includes carrion of all sorts,including road-kills, domestic animals, fish,

slaughterhouse refuse, and whatever elsemight be dead. Both captive and wild turkeyvultures have been seen killing smallerbirds.

NATURAL HISTORY

Vultures are gregarious, and groups of 10 to30 birds including adults and young maysoar together or roost in trees. At eveningyou often can see vultures flying in to join acommunal roost.

Turkey vultures are excellent at soaring,their long, broad wings keeping them aloftlike sailplanes. In a rising current of aircalled a thermal, a vulture can keep or evenincrease altitude without flapping its wings.Along with other hawks and falcons,vultures migrate along mountain ridges,using updrafts to keep airborne. They aregraceful flyers. Life-span is at least 20 years.

STATUS

Formerly a more southern species, turkeyvultures have extended their range intoCanada during this century. Increasingpopulations of white-tailed deer and theproliferation of garbage dumps may befactors in range extension. Turkey vulturesare fairly common summer residents in WestVirginia and populations are increasing.There are nest records from several counties.

Fall migration takes place late—in Octoberand November. Wintering grounds includethe southern United States and Mexico.Flocks of vultures often are seen at autumnhawk watch stations, although during theearly fall they may not be migrating birds.

In southern West Virginia and some northernlocations, turkey vultures are year-roundresidents.

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Black Vulture

BLACK VULTURE

CORAGYPS ATRATUS

Length, about 2 feet, with a 5-footwingspan; weight, 4-1/2 to 6 pounds.

DESCRIPTION

Smaller than the turkey vulture, the blackvulture has a short tail and a black head (notred). Airborne, it shows distinctive whitepatches on the undersides of the wings nearthe tips. These white patches are verynoticeable in flight. Wings are held morehorizontally than the turkey vulture’s.

Behavior, food, and nesting habits aresimilar to the turkey vulture. Eggs, usually 2per clutch, are slightly larger than the turkeyvulture’s and are gray-green, bluish white, ordull white, with brown blotches. Incubation,by both sexes, takes 28-39 days. Blackvultures sometimes place bits of trash and

broken glass in their nest areas. They are notas good at soaring as turkey vultures, and flyusing several rapid wing flaps followed by ashort sail. Although found primarily in thesoutheastern United States, black vulturesoccasionally can be seen as far north asMaine.

STATUS

Black vultures are local summer residents inthe state; we have nesting records from theEastern Panhandle. They are winterresidents, also. Black and turkey vulturesmay be seen together.

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Immature Bald Eagle

Adult Bald Eagle

Bald Eagle

EAGLES

FAMILY ACCIPITRIDAE

Eagles are large birds ofprey, with broadwings and broad,round tails. There are 4species of eagles in NorthAmerica. West Virginia has 2kinds of eagles, bald andgolden, both widespread inNorth America.

BALD EAGLE

HALIAEETUS LEUCOCEPHALUS

Adult birds can reach a length of 30 to 40inches long and a wingspan of 7 feet.Females weigh 10 to 14 pounds, and malesweigh 8 to 10 pounds. Bald eagles are thelargest eastern raptor. Eagles are distin-guished in flight profile from other raptorsby their large size. An immature is shown atthe right to help you identify young eagles.

DESCRIPTION

The head of a mature bald eagle iscovered with gleaming whitefeathers. Its tail is white. The bodyand wings are dark brown. Fulladult plumage is attained whenthe bird is 5 years old. Immatureslack the white head and tail,having some white only in thewing linings.

HABITAT

Since bald eagles are fish-eaters, they arefound mostly along rivers, lakes, andshores.

NEST

An eagle’s nest is called an eyrie.Constructed of sticks and branches with alining of moss, grass, and weeds, it is about5 inches deep and 20 inches in diameter. Apair of eagles may use the same nest yearafter year, adding new layers of branches,until the nest becomes quite large. Nest sitesare near lakes, rivers, andreservoirs. Nest buildingcan begin as early asFebruary.

EGGS

1-3, dull white, andunmarked.

INCUBATION

By both parents, forabout 35 days. Bothparents feed the young eaglets. A largehatchling may kill a small, weaker one.

FEEDING HABITS

Bald eagles feed mainly on fish, whichcomprise 60 percent to 90 percentof their diet, either living or ascarrion. They also eat birds and

small mammals. Eagles soar abovewater or sit on a perch, and when theysee a fish, swoop down and snatch it

in their talons. Talons are used forkilling prey, and their heavy bills tear

the prey apart. Eagles are also opportun-istic feeders. Eagles will follow

vultures, ravens, and crows to findcarcasses.

NATURAL HISTORY

Young bald eagles begin to fly at 3 monthsold, leaving the parents in the autumn to

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begin several years of wandering, sometimestraveling hundreds of miles. When a baldeagle is 4 to 5 years old, it chooses a matewith whom it remains for several years orlife. Eagles begin their southward migrationwhen ice appears in the fall. They findplaces with open water and enough food forwinter. When the weatherbegins to warm in the spring,they head north, oftenreturning to the nest used theprevious year. Bald eagles are seensoaring, often with other eagles. Thewings are held flat, but sometimeswith a slight dihedral or V-shape. Voiceis a series of harsh cackles. Bald eaglescan live to 30 years.

STATUS

In 1782 when the ContinentalCongress designated the bald eagleour national bird, it probably nestedin every state and throughout NorthAmerica in suitable habitat. Itsbreeding range traditionally covered all ofNorth America south of the Arctic Circle.Loss of habitat, draining of wetlands,indiscriminant shooting, and pesticidescontributed to low populations by themid-1900s. The pesticide DDT wasperhaps the most serious causeof the decline.

The first bald eagle nest inWest Virginia wasdocumented in 1981.Currently, there areseveral nest sites, alllocated in the EasternPanhandle. There arerecords of non-breeding bald eaglesfrom most areas ofthe state. Bald eaglepopulations haveincreased in recentyears.

Immature Golden Eagle

GOLDEN EAGLE

AQUILA CHRYSAETOS

Body length is 30-40 inches; the wingspan is6-1/2 to 7-1/2 feet. Females weigh from 9-13 pounds; males from 8-10 pounds.

DESCRIPTION

Golden eagles have rich, dark brownbody plumage, with gold-tipped

feathers on the neck and head.The legs have feathers down to

the toes. Adults resembleimmature bald eagles, but

golden eagles are darker.Immature goldens havewhite wing patches

and, for their firstseveral years, a broad

white band at the base ofthe tail. The call is a seriesof rapid, sharp chirps.

Prey includes small rodents,rabbits, birds, reptiles, fish,and carrion. Golden eagles

are birds of remote mountainous areas. Theyare reported as reaching a flight speed ofover 100 miles per hour.

STATUS

Golden eagles are rare fall migrants, rarewinter visitants, and rare local permanentresidents, seen in mountainous areasthroughout the year. They are reported fromhawk-watching stations from late Septemberto early October. While it is possible that thebirds nest here, the species is not listed inthe West Virginia Breeding Bird Atlas.

Adult Golden Eagle

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OSPREY

FAMILY PANDIONIDAE

OSPREY

PANDION HALIAETUS

Ospreys are large, eaglelikehawks nesting from Alaskaand Newfoundlandsouth along the coasts.They are widespreadin the NorthernHemisphere and inAustralia.

Ospreys are 21-24inches from bill totail, and standingheight is 1-1/2 feet.Wing span is from 4-1/2 to 6 feet. Male andfemale are closer in size than other hawks.They weigh about 2-4 pounds.

DESCRIPTION

Plumage is dark on the back, and white onthe undersides. The head is largely white,with a black patch across each cheek. Aconspicuous crook in the wings and black“wrist” marks—visible from below—aregood field identifiers. Call is a series of loudrather high-pitched whistles, sounding like“cheeep, cheeep.” The sexes are similar inplumage, but females are somewhat larger.Immatures are similar to adults but the backhas a “scaly” look because of white featheredges.

HABITAT

Ospreys inhabit seacoasts and areas nearlarge rivers and lakes. In West Virginia, theyshow up along rivers, and creeks, and

around wetlands such as Canaan Valley.Ospreys are often seen during late summerand during fall migration.

NEST

Ospreys build bulky nests of sticks andtwigs, lined with grasses and bark.Sometimes they add cans, bits of rope and

fishnet, shells, and other items.The prominent nests are

placed in trees; on man-made structures,

including poles,buoys, billboards,and chimneys; andon the ground.Nests are used year

after year and can becomelarge.

EGGS

2-4, usually 3; white or pinkish white withbrown blotches.

INCUBATION

The female incubates 32 days, and youngleave the nest when they are 51-59 days old.

FEEDING HABITS

Ospreys primarily eat fish, including carp,pike, perch, and trout, but like an occasionalturtle, bird, or small mammal. Waterwaysmust be able to produce enough fish tosupport osprey populations.

NATURAL HISTORY

Ospreys hover 50-150 feet high, then plungeto the water with a great splash for their fishprey, sometimes going under the water.Ospreys carry the captured fish head first.

16

The osprey’s foot has spicules on its toes forgripping slippery fish and reversible innertoes for carrying prey.

The birds are able to take offfrom the water’s surface aftera dive, shaking themselves toremove water. Sometimes thebirds swoop down and dragtheir feet through the water,perhaps to clean them.The male performscourtship flights,usually whilecarrying a fish andcalling constantly. When theyoung are in the nest, for about 2months, the male brings fish to the femalewho tears the fish and feeds the young. Life-span is 20 years.

STATUS

The West VirginiaDivision of NaturalResources’ Nongame WildlifeProgram has released osprey inseveral places to try to establishbreeding populations in the state. Thebirds are banded for identification, andthen placed in a “hack box.” “Hacking”is a falconer’s term for teaching youngbirds of prey to hunt. The hackboxes are large, open-frontedplywood boxes with raccoonguards. The young birds are feda pound of fish per day throughfood tubes in the back of the boxes.

Food tubes are used so young birds do notassociate food with humans. Aboutmidsummer, the young ospreys are able tofly; by late August or September, they willmigrate to Central and South America,where they remain 2 to 3 years until mature.

The birds then migrate back north to areaswhere they learned to fly to find mates andbegin nesting.

Osprey have been released at various sites inthe state, including Blennerhassett Island inthe Ohio River, South Branch of thePotomac, and Tygart Lake Dam.

The osprey has not been a common nestingbird in the state, probably due to lack ofextensive wetlands. Several nesting siteshave been confirmed in the EasternPanhandle.

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HARRIER

FAMILY ACCIPITRIDAE

Harriers are medium-sized, long-legged, andlong-tailed raptors, with an owl-like facialdisk and usually a conspicuous white rumppatch. Adult male and female have differentplumages. There is one species in NorthAmerica, nesting as far north as Alaska.

NORTHERN HARRIER OR

MARSH HAWK

CIRCUS CYANEUS

Harriers are 19-24 inches long, with awingspan of 50-56 inches, weighing around1-1/2 pounds.

DESCRIPTION

Adult males have pale, bluish gray backs,white underparts, and a gray tail with darkbands. Females have brown backs,undersides with light brown and darkstreaks, and tail barred with black and tan.Young birds resemble the female. Harriershave a white rump patch conspicuous from adistance, which helps with identification.They hold their wings in a V-shape and oftenfly close to theground seekingprey. They arebirds of open country.Voice is a weak, nasal “pee,pee, pee.”

HABITAT

Harriers live in marshes, wetmeadows, bogs, and flat open farmland.

NEST

The nest is on or near the ground, sometimesin fields and sometimes on a branch overwater. Nest is made of straw, sticks, andgrasses lined with feathers.

EGGS

About 5, oval, dull white to pale blue.

INCUBATION

Mostly by the female, for about a month.

FEEDING HABITS

These hawks hunt with adistinctive quartering flight,flying low over the ground andattacking when they see prey,

including mice, small birds,insects, and rabbits. Males prey

more on birds and females more onmammals. Harriers are reported todrown waterfowl. Northern harrierscan locate prey by sound, aided bythe feathers on the facial disk, in the

same manner as owls.

NATURAL HISTORY

Harriers get their name from the word“harrier,” meaning to plunder. Unlike mosthawks, harriers have an unusual huntingflight flying only about 20 feet above the

Harrier

18

ground, flapping the wings and gliding backand forth searching for a meal. Becausethese birds hunt primarily in fresh-watermarshes and open grasslands, it is oftenpossible to see them from a great distance.Unlike other hawks, harriers do not usuallyperch in high trees, but prefer fence postsand low stumps. They sometimes havecommunal roosts, like vultures, duringwinter. Males have a spectacular courtshipflight, rising hundreds of feet into the air,then divebombing to within 10 feet of thefemale, then sweeping back up. The malefeeds the female while she is incubating; the

female flips on her back to catch with hertalons the food dropped by the male. Mostharriers do not return to their nestinggrounds year after year as do other hawks.Life-span is to at least 16 years.

STATUS

This bird is almost out of its range in WestVirginia, perhaps because of limitedwetlands. There are a few nesting records,and the bird can be seen in suitable habitatand during fall migration.

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ACCIPITER HAWKS

FAMILY ACCIPITRIDAE

Accipiters are woodland hawks.The word “accipiter” meansbird of prey. Accipiter hawkshave long tails (as opposed tobuteo’s rounded tails) and short,rounded wings. The long tail acts as arudder, permitting quick turns through

woods as the hawks chase prey. Flightpattern is severalquick wing beats

followed by a glide.Three kinds of accipiters livein the United States and in

West Virginia.

SHARP-SHINNED HAWK

ACCIPITER STRIATUS

This hawk is similar to the Cooper’sHawk, but is smaller,10-14 incheslong, with awingspan of 20-27inches. Females average 7ounces and males 4 ounces,about robin size.

DESCRIPTION

Adults have blue-gray upperparts, withwhite underparts heavily barred with red-brown. Legs are yellow. Eyes (iriscolor) are scarlet. The tail issquare at the end or slightlynotched (the Cooper’shawk has a roundedtail). Call is similar tothe Cooper’s hawk,but higher—”kikkik kik.”

HABITAT

This hawk prefers large, remote woods.

NEST

Made of sticks and twigs, about 2 feetacross, usually in a conifer 10-60 feet high; or the birds mayuse a nest of a squirrel or crow

or may nest in a rock crevice. Theyoften select a new nest site each year.

EGGS

March-July, usually 4-5, white or pale blue,with brown blotches.

INCUBATION

Both adults share duties during incubation,about 34 days. The young fly a couple ofweeks after hatching.

FEEDING HABITS

Diet consists mostly of small birds,including pigeons, and occasionally mice,moths, and insects.

NATURAL HISTORY

Although these jay-sized hawks are small,they will chase birds larger than themselves,including herons and screech owls. Theirmain way of hunting is to pounce from treesonto prey. Life-span is at least 10 years.

STATUS

Uncommon permanent resident; commonfall migrant. They can be seen throughoutthe year.

– long square or notched tail– rusty chest

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COOPER’S HAWK

ACCIPITER COOPERII

Crow-sized, 14-21inches long,wingspan of 27-36inches. Femalesaverage 20ounces, males13 ounces.

DESCRIPTION

Adults have blue-grayupperparts. The top of thehead is blackish, andunderparts are cross-barred white and red-brown. The tail iscrossed by 5 or more grayish bars. Eyes (iriscolor) are yellow to red. Immature birdshave brown upperparts, and thebelly is streaked withbrown. Voice is a rapid“kek, kek, kek”; thebirds are noisy aroundthe nest.

HABITAT

Mixed woodland.

NEST

Platform of sticks and bark in a tree 10-60feet above the ground; sometimes in acrow’s nest. Cooper’s hawks do not toleratethe smaller and competitive sharp-shinnedhawks in the same woodland.

EGGS

April-June, usually 4-5, white to green-white.

INCUBATION

Mostly by the female, about 24 days.

FEEDING HABITS

When hunting, Cooper’s hawks fly throughthe woods in low swift flight, catching preyin the air or on the ground with their talons.This bird is the “chicken hawk,” known forattacking farm poultry. These hawks eatsmall mammals, such as chipmunks; birds,

including starlings and doves; and fish.Cooper’s hawks may drown their prey inany nearby water source.

NATURAL HISTORY

During the 1950s and ’60s, this bird’snesting success was threatened bypesticides, and it is still not a common birdin West Virginia. Life-span is at least 10years.

STATUS

Rare to uncommon permanent resident;fairly common fall migrant; occasionalwinter visitor. Cooper’s hawks occurthroughout the state, widely distributedthrough farmlands, if there are woods fornesting. They prey on small birds at birdfeeding stations. Cooper’s hawks are notcommon at higher elevations.

NORTHERN GOSHAWK

ACCIPITER GENTILIS

Northern goshawks areslightly larger than crows,19-27 inches in length, witha wingspan of 40-47 inches;females average 37ounces, males 29 ounces.

-long, round tail-rusty chest

21

DESCRIPTION

Adults have a black head with a white lineabove the eye. The back is slate-blue, andunderparts are pale blue-gray with fine blackbarring and some vertical black streaking.The tail is darkgray, with 3 or4 indistinctdark bands. Theeye (iris color) is deep red.Legs are yellow. Cere isgreenish yellow. When thebird is perched, wingtips extend halfway tothe tail tip. Young birds have brown headsand a pale eyebrow line. Their eyes (iriscolor) are yellowish. The back is brown,with cream colored underparts with heavyblack-brown streaks. Voice is a harsh “ca caca ca,” especially around the nest.

HABITAT

Wooded areas.

NEST

75 feet up in a tree; nests are bulky, 3 or 4feet in diameter. Pair often uses the samenest year after year.

EGGS

3-4, off-white, and usually unmarked.

INCUBATION

36-38 days by the female. Goshawks defendtheir nests fiercely and are vocal aroundthem.

FEEDING HABITS

Goshawks eat birds and small mammals,often pursuing their prey on foot throughthick underbrush.

NATURAL HISTORY

Also known as the blue darter, the goshawkis the largest of its family in North America,and well known for its hunting ability.Unlike raptors, which feed at the top of thefood chain and thus take in the highestconcentrations of pesticides and toxins,goshawks avoid some chemical poisoningby feeding lower on the food chain. Theycatch birds, including crows, doves, andgamebirds, and such mammals as squirrels.Goshawks protect their nests, mountingfierce attacks on intruders. Life-span is to 20years.

STATUS

This northern bird nests in Canada andAlaska, reaching the southern extent of itsrange in West Virginia. Goshawks areexpanding their range, perhaps because ofthe increase in wooded lands. There areseveral nesting records in West Virginia.

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BUTEO HAWKS

FAMILY ACCIPITRIDAE

Buteos are large,stocky hawks withbroad wings andwide, rounded tails. Theysoar high in wide circles. Sexesare similar in color. “Buteo” is Latin

meaning a kind ofhawk or falcon. Ofthe 13 species of

buteo hawks living inthe United States, 4 occur

in West Virginia.

RED-SHOULDERED HAWK

BUTEO LINEATUS

17-24 inches long; wingspan of 32-50inches. Females average 1 pound, 8 ounces;males average 1 pound, 3 ounces.

DESCRIPTION

The adults have a brownback and underparts barredwith red, brown, and white. Areddish patch on eachshoulder is not always visible.In flight, the wings appear two-toned, with a translucent“window” or patch at the baseof the primaries (flightfeathers), although thiswindow is not alwaysvisible. The tail has heavy

dark bands. Immature birds have underpartsheavily streaked with brown, with little orno red shoulder patches. The voice is a 2-syllabled scream, “kee-yer.”

HABITAT

Swamps, wooded river bottoms, remoteareas, and farming country.

NEST

Made of sticks, twigs, and bark; often deep,20-60 feet up in a hardwood or conifer. Inspring, the adult pair is noisy, uttering loud,rapidly repeated calls. The pair or suc-ceeding generations may occupy the sameterritory for dozens of years.

EGGS

March-June, usually 3-4, white splotchedwith brown.

INCUBATION

By both sexes, for about 28 days. Youngleave the nest when they are 35-42 days old.

FEEDING HABITS

Red-shouldered hawks often use an old nestas a feeding platform. They eat mice,shrews, rabbits, birds, frogs, grasshoppers,beetles, spiders, and snails.

NATURAL HISTORY

This hawk needs large areas of forestinterspersed with wetlands. The nest tree isoften near water. They avoid roads andbuildings. The red-shouldered hawk is not aswidely distributed in West Virginia as thered-tailed. Life-span is at least 20 years.

–tail bands–red breast–white wing “windows”

23

STATUS

Permanent resident; sometime wintervisitant and summer resident; anduncommon migrant. In summer, they aredistributed throughout the state.

RED-TAILED HAWK

BUTEO JAMAICENSIS

19-25 inches long; wingspan of 46-58inches. Females weigh 3 pounds, 8 ounces;males, 2 pounds, 8ounces.

DESCRIPTION

Adults have dark brown backs and whiteundersides, with brown streaks on the lowerneck and a broad band of darkstreaking across a whitebelly. The upper side of thetail is rufous red, which canbe seen when the bird veersin flight. From below, thetail is pale but transmits ahint of red. Immaturebirds have dark gray tails.There is much variation inthe red-tail’s plumage.Some birds have novisible belly streaking;others are dark oroccasionally albino. Whenthe red-tail is perched in a tree or on a post,its white breast is distinctive and anidentifying characteristic. The call is awheezy “keeer—k,” slurring downward,often delivered when soaring overhead.

HABITAT

Open country and mountains.

NEST

Large, bulky, 2-1/2 feet across, built ofsticks and twigs, and lined with bark; oftenbuilt in oak and pine trees, 15-70 feet abovethe ground; often in the tallest tree near awood’s edge.

EGGS

February to June, usually 2-3, dull white,with some brown spots.

INCUBATION

Mostly by the female, but the male providesfood for her on the nest for about 30 days.The young fly when about 45 days old.

FEEDING HABITS

Red-tails often watch for prey from a perchon a tree or post, taking off, then gliding,and snatching prey from the ground withtheir talons. Prey is mostly rodents andincludes house mice, field mice, rats,rabbits, shrews, skunks, small birds, snakes,lizards, crickets, beetles, and fish. This hawkis an important natural source of rodent andinsect control.

NATURAL HISTORY

Red-tailed hawks are thought to mate forlife, and pairs tend to claim the sameterritories year after year. In courtship, thepair soar about, screaming. The smaller malemay dive from great height at the female andthe two engage in mock combat. Courtshipflights may occur anytime of the year. Red-tails have lived in captivity to 29 years old.

–belly band–red tail (adult)

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STATUS

Red-tails breed throughout the state, but aremost numerous in lowlands and farmingareas where there are trees for nesting andhabitat for prey species. Red-tails are oftenvictims of indiscriminant shooting. Red-tailsare frequently seen in migration, usuallysingle, or in 2s and 3s; peak migrationoccurs in October. Some red-tails winterthroughout the state.

BROAD-WINGED HAWK

BUTEO PLATYPTERUS

13-19 inches long; wingspan of 32-39inches; females average 1 pound, 1 ounce;males average 15 ounces.

Broad-winged hawks, the smallest of theAmerican buteos, are about crow size.

DESCRIPTION

Broad-wingedhawks arechunky,with darkbrownupperparts,and underpartsbarred with brown-red. The wingundersides are silver-white with black tips.The tail has conspicuous bands, usually 3black and 2 white, about equally wide.Immature birds have cream-coloredunderparts with dark blotches, and morenumerous tail bands. The call is a high-pitched, shrill “pweee.”

HABITAT

Extensive hardwood forest or mixedconifers/hardwoods around lakes, streams,and swamps.

NEST

Usually near water in the woods; built byboth members of the pair of twigs and barkand lined with lichens; 14-21 inches indiameter, 20 or more feet above the ground.Broad-wings may use an old squirrel’s orcrow’s nest.

EGGS

Mid April-June, usually 2 to 3, whiteblotched with purple and brown.

INCUBATIONS

Done by both parents, for about 25 days;young leave the nest after about 41 days.

FEEDING HABITS

These hawks often sit quietly on a low limbin the woods, watching for prey, whichincludes toads, frogs, snakes, chipmunks,small birds, beetles, earthworms, ants, anddragonflies.

NATURAL HISTORY

Except during migration, these birds arefound mainly in forested areas. They arevery protective of their nests and will attackhuman intruders. Life-span is to at least 7years.

STATUS

Common spring and fall migrant; commonsummer resident; and winter visitant. Frommid- to late September, flights of broad-

–crow size–tail bands

25

wings occur along mountain ridges to theeast, such as over Dolly Sods in TuckerCounty. As many as 7,000 birds have beencounted in a single day; it’s the only raptorknown to migrate in large flocks. Broad-wings winter in Central and South America,although some stay in Florida and Cuba.During the summer months, broad-wingscan be found in woodlands throughout thestate. Range is restricted to easternNorth America.

ROUGH-LEGGED HAWK

BUTEO LAGOPUS

19-24 inches long; wingspan, 50-56 inches;weight, 2 pounds.

DESCRIPTION

Rough-legged hawks have two morphs orcolor phases: Light Phase: light buff towhite upperside, with brown streaks,and white underparts, with abrown “wrist mark” part way outthe wing and a brown bandacross the abdomen.

Dark Phase: black or sooty brown, withwhite at the base of the underside of the tail.It is the only buteo with the black belly andwhite tail with dark band. The feet arefeathered to the toes, giving it the name“rough-legged.” This hawk often hoversover fields, beating its wings rapidly like akestrel. Call is a slurred “keeer” andwhistles.

Rough-legged hawks prefer open country,feeding on such small rodents as lemmings.Low populations of prey animals duringsome years result in the hawks moving southto find alternative food sources.

STATUS

This large buteo nests in the far north in theArctic, but is sometimes seen in WestVirginia during fall migration and during thewinter at such locations as Canaan Valley.–black belly

–black tail tip

26

American Kestrel

27

ledges, or suitable nests made by otherraptors or crows. They also use man-madestructures, including nest boxes, bridges, andledges on buildings. Falcons are birds ofopen country and seldom found in woods.

Nine species of falcons occur in the UnitedStates, 3 of which live in West Virginia.

AMERICAN KESTREL

FALCO SPARVERIUS

This robin-sized bird is the smallest andmost common North American falcon, 9-12inches long, with a wingspan of 20-24inches;femalesaverage 4.5ounces, males about3.5 ounces.

DESCRIPTION

Adults have a short neck; a smallhead with black-and-white pattern and dark,vertical, whiskerlike marks on the sides ofthe head; slender, pointed wings; and rufousred tail, with black subterminal band andnarrow white tip. Male and female arecolored differently. Females have rufousbacks and wings barred black; males haverufous backs and blue-gray wings. Call is arapid “klee, klee” or “killy, killy.”

FAMILY FALCONIDAE

Members of the falcon family resemblehawks with hooked bills and taloned feet.However, falcon’s beaks are notched,enabling them to kill vertebrate prey bysevering the spinal cord.

Falcons havelong,pointedwings, with medium tolong tails. The eyes aredark, in comparison withhawk’s eyes, which areyellow or orange in older birds. Falconfeathers are hard and firm, while hawk’splumage is softer. Falcons are activepredators; some, especially the peregrine,are noted for theirswooping powerdives. Falcons feedprimarily on otherbirds, often flying atconsiderable heights, thendescending at rapid rates (called a stoop)to deliver a violent strike with the hind talonthat may smote prey dead in the air. Falconsmay capture prey in midair, or retrieve itfrom the ground. Hawks, on the other hand,hunt by stealth, perching motionless on abranch or snag, then gliding swiftly throughthe trees, taking quarry by surprise. Falconssometimes eat carrion. They do not buildtheir own nests, but use tree cavities, cliff

FALCONS

–light brown tail

28

HABITAT

Kestrels favor open habitat, borders ofwoods, and farm country.

NEST

Prefers nesting cavities of flickers andhollows in trees, but will nest in bird boxesbuilt for it, typically 10 to 30 feet offthe ground.

EGGS

April to June, usually 4-5, cream or palepink with brown blotches.

INCUBATION

Mostly by the female, about 30 days; themale calls the female from the nest to feedher. Young leave the nest about 31 daysafter hatching.

FEEDING HABITS

Kestrels hunt mostly in morning andmidafternoon, and fly with rapid wingbeatand short glides, often hovering in midairwith rapidly beating wings—a keyidentification feature. Kestrels swoop tograsp prey and fly to a perch to eat it. Whenperched, the bird often flicks its tail—another identification feature. These littlefalcons eat insects, bats, mice, birds,and frogs.

NATURAL HISTORY

Once known as the sparrow hawk, this is thesmallest North American falcon. It often isseen in populated areas, where it perches onutility poles and wires. Often they are foundaround open farm lands, hovering above theground in search of prey. Kestrels will

sometimes nest under eaves and in holes inbuildings. Their range is all of NorthAmerica except Alaska. Those in thenorthern part of their range migrate to thesouthern states to winter. They can live to atleast 6 years, but usually less in the wild.

Status

Kestrels nest throughout the state, but areless common in heavily forested areas. Thespecies has declined in the last decade.

PEREGRINE

FALCO PEREGRINUS

Length of 15-20 inches; wingspan of 38-46inches; 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 poundsin weight.

DESCRIPTION

Peregrines are slateblue, barred darkly onthe back. The head hasa black cap and“mustache” markbelow the eye.Young birds aremore brown andheavily streakedbelow. Peregrineshave long,pointed wingsand fly with quick,rowing wingbeats. Voice is a repeated “we-chew,” or a rapid “cack, cack, cack.” Thereare 3 North American forms, differing insize and plumage.

HABITAT

Open country, but this bird has adapted tocity conditions and nests on building ledgesin cities, where it preys on pigeons.

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NEST

On cliffs, crevices, ledges of buildings.

EGGS

4-5, whitish with reddish markings.

INCUBATION

30 days, by the female.

FEEDING HABITS

Peregrines can dive at speeds of over 200miles per hour, striking prey with theirtalons. The prey usually is killed instantlyand falls to the ground, where the falconretrieves it and carries it to a perch.

NATURAL HISTORY

Peregrines nested in the state in some places,but breeding populations in West Virginiaand the East were considered extinct in 1965due partly to egg shell thinning caused byDDT. After DDT was banned in 1972, aprivate foundation called the Peregrine Fundwas founded with the mission of restoringperegrines to their former range. Severalstate and federal agencies participated in thiseffort. In 1987, West Virginia’s NongameWildlife Program personnel began releasingcaptive-hatched peregrine chicks at the NewRiver Gorge using hacking techniques.Additional chicks were released from 1988-1990 at other hack sites, including Grant andPendleton counties. Subsequently, pere-grines have been seen along North ForkMountain, the New River Gorge, theBluestone Gorge, and the Blackwater Gorge.Life-span is at least 20 years.

STATUS

Although peregrines occasionally are seen inthe state, they are not listed as nesting birdsin the West Virginia Breeding Bird Atlas.

MERLIN

FALCO COLUMBARIUS

Merlins look like smallperegrines, are 10 to13 inches in length,and have a wingspan of 24 to26 inches.

DESCRIPTION

Males are blue-gray abovewith black bands on the tail. Femalesand young birds are dusky brown above andwhite below. Voice is arasping chatter.Merlins preymostly onbirds, but takesmall mammalsand insects. Theyprefer open woodsor heavy timber inwild places,preferablywith cliffsfor nesting.

NATURAL HISTORY

Names for this bird inclue “bullet hawk” and“blue streak,” indicating the ability of thislittle falcon to maneuver and turn in flight.They hunt throughout the day, but are mostlikely to be active in the late afternoon.

STATUS

Merlins nest in northern and western NorthAmerica. In West Virginia, they are raremigrants and casual winter visitants.

–tail with black bands–streaks on chest

30

Great Horned Owl

31

Subject of many a myth and legend of thenight, owls have fascinated the humanimagination for thousands of years. Owls’nocturnal habits and distinctive appearance,with large head and eyes, short neck, softfeathers, and chunky body, set them apartfrom other birds.

OWL CHARACTERISTICS

Owls are well adapted for huntingand capturing prey at night. Eyesare very large, allowing them tosee in limited light. Their eyesare also set close together in thehead and face forward. Thisprovides binocular, or three-dimensional vision—that is,vision in which both eyes seethe same scene, from slightlydifferent aspects. This helps in depthperception.

Because their eyes are set so close together,owls have a narrow field of view, but theycompensate for this with their remarkableability to rotate their head about 270degrees. A specialized set of muscles and 14neck vertebrae provide this flexibility ofmovement. Owls can’t swivel their eyes theway mammals do. Instead, they must turntheir head and stare directly at an object.This posture of staring directly at an objectconveys a feeling of concentrated attention,giving the “wise old owl” impression.

Owls supplement their excellent vision withequally exceptional hearing. Using thisrefined hearing, barn owls can capture preyin the total absence of light. Barn owls canperceive frequencies as high as 20,000cycles per second (8,500 cycles per secondis the highest audible sound for humans).This acute hearing is made possible byadaptations in ear structure. Owls do nothave small round ear openings, as do mostbirds, but instead have two long vertical slitsin the skull. In many owls, the two ear

openings differ in size and shape. Theright ear opening may be higher than theleft and formed differently. Thesedifferences help the owl to detect moreaccurately the distance and directionfrom which sound is coming.

In addition, the ear openings aresurrounded by deep, soft feathers, whichthe owl can move to control the size of

the ear opening. This enables the bird toscan for sound, somewhat similar to theway rabbits wiggle their ears. The forest thatseems silent to the human listener may be achorus of nocturnal sound to the owl.

Since this keen hearing would not be usefulif owls were noisy flyers and warnedpotential prey of their approach, owlfeathers have special modifications in theirstructure to allow silent flight. Owl feathersare long and soft, which helps eliminatenoise. Also, the leading edge of the first

OWLS

Saw-Whet Owl

32

flight feather has a soft, wavy edge, whichreduces noise made by the passage of airover the wings. Owls are also lightweightand have a large wing area, giving them abuoyant, effortless flight and eliminating theneed for noisy wing flapping.

Owls’ legs and toes are usually covered withfeathers, which helps add insulation in coldweather. Owls have four toes on each foot.An owl may perch with either two toesforward and two back, or with three forwardand one back, the way songbirds do. Owlsstrike prey on the ground or from the airwith their powerful talons, carrying preyback to their roost to eat.

As is the case with most hawks and falcons,female owls are somewhat larger thanmales. This sexual dimorphism helps themexploit various food sources. The male owlcan utilize his smaller size and agility tomaneuver to catch smaller prey. Thestronger female can catch larger prey.

THREAT DISPLAYS

Owls are efficient predators at the top of thefood chain, but they still must defendthemselves against predators, includingother owls. In the threat display pose, theowl lowers its head and fans its wings andtail. The extended wings and fluffed feathersmake the owl appear threateningly large.Glaring eyes and bobbing head add to theferocity of the threat display posture. If moreaction is called for, the owl can snap its billby pulling the lower part of the beak underthe hooked upper beak. Owls can hiss, also.The combination of threat display, billsnapping, and hissing presents a formidableaspect to a would-be attacker.

NESTING

Owls are not particularly efficient nestbuilders. Usually they appropriate anabandoned woodpecker’s hole or natural treecavity or an abandoned crow’s or hawk’snest. Some owls begin nesting activitiesduring the early winter. In West Virginia, thegreat horned owl may begin courtship andnesting activities in January. An incubatinghorned owl may be coated with snow duringa blizzard, but the long, fluffy feathers of theowl keep the eggs warm. Barred and screechowls also may begin nesting activities inJanuary and February. Owls are vocal duringthe nesting season. They may exchangecourtship and territorial calls that bothenhance the pair bond necessary to raise theyoung owls and discourage otherintruding owls.

There are reasons why nesting activitiesbegin so early. It takes owls a long time togrow up. Incubation requires a month beforethe owlets emerge from the eggs. Owlets,covered with white down, are born (unlikehawks and eagles) with their eyes closed,and it may take two months before youngowls can fly. Even then, the owl parents helpfeed the young until late summer and earlyfall when the young have learned to huntsuccessfully on their own. Perhaps it isnecessary for the survival of these raptorsthat they begin nesting early enough so theyoung owls will have enough strength andhunting ability to enable them to meet thedemands of a harsh winter or to migrate ifnecessary to find suitable habitat. Anotherreason for early nesting is that when theyoung owlets are hatched and especially asthey grow, the food supply is increasing andbecoming more plentiful with the returnof spring.

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YOUNG OWLS

Nestlings found in the same nest are ofdifferent sizes. This is because the femalestarts incubation as soon as the first egg islaid, whereas most birds begin incubatingonly after all eggs are laid. As much as twoweeks may elapse between the laying andhatching of the first and last egg. If the foodsupply is adequate, all the young owls willbe fed by the parents. If the food supply isinadequate, the older and stronger owletswill receive the most food and have a betterchance of survival.

OWL PELLETS

As with other raptors, owls regurgitateremains of their prey in the form of a pellet,usually cast several hours after a meal. Onemouse results in one pellet. Larger owlshave larger pellets. Since owls have weakstomach muscles, pellets contain intactskeletons of the owl’s prey. Identification ofthe skeletons can indicate the owl’s diet.Examination of owl pellets indicates thatowls consume many rats and mice and otherrodents as well as insects. Thus owls serveas an important natural control formany pests.

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OWLS

FAMILIES

TYTONIDAE AND STRIGIDAE

Of the 18 species of owls thatreside in North America, 8 canbe found in West Virginia, aseither year-round residents orseasonal visitors. Barn owlsbelong to the family Tytonidae,while the other West Virginiaowls are members of theStrigidae family.

BARN OWL

TYTO ALBA

Up to 20 inches long; wingspan of 44-47inches; weight averages 17-22 ounces.

DESCRIPTION

Barn owls are in a different family fromtypical owls because barn owls have longlegs and a facial disk that is triangular orheart-shaped (typical owls have a roundfacial disk). The inner edge on the claw ofthe middle toe is serrated(toothed). The barn owl is alight-colored bird with awhite, heart-shaped face, anda cinnamon wash on theupper breast, the head, andupperparts. The feathers onthe underparts are mainlywhite with dark speckling.Calls include an array ofhisses, snores, and whistles.The pale color of this owlgives rise to the myths aboutowls and ghostly happenings.

HABITAT

Barn owls live in open country, includingfarms, grasslands, and woods.

NEST

Nests can be in barns, hollow trees, oldbuildings, and church towers.

EGGS

Usually 5-7; usually white (most owleggs are white).

INCUBATION

About 33 days; both parents feed the young,which can eat their weight in foodevery night. The young leave the nest

at 9-12 weeks old.

FEEDING HABITS

Barn owls hunt with silent, mothlike flightover roads, barns, and buildings aroundfarmland, towns, and cities. Prey includesrats, mice, shrews, small birds, insects, andrabbits. Barn owls are welcome residentsbecause of their taste for rodents.

NATURAL HISTORY

The species is declining in West Virginiabecause of habitat loss as farm land revertsto forest and because modern farm buildingsoffer few cavities for nesting. Barn owls alsocollide with vehicles in open areas, which iswhere barn owls hunt. Life-span is to at least17 years.

STATUS

Uncommon permanent residents, barn owlsnest in the state at a few locations, especially

Barn Owl

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in the Eastern Panhandle. Barn owls arefound throughout the United States andmuch of Europe, primarily in warm areas.Lengthy periods of snow cover limit barnowl range.

EASTERN SCREECH OWL

OTUS ASIO

Length, 7-10 inches; wingspan, 18-24inches; weight averages 3-6 ounces.

DESCRIPTION

This is a small owl with eartufts. The eastern screechowl has 2 color phases:gray and rufous red. Thecolor phases are notrelated to age or sex. Thegray phase is morecommon in WestVirginia,and thered phase ismore common in the southern states.Plumage is streaked and barred with whiteand dark markings. Bill is pale, and the eyesare yellow. Voice is a high, whinny, whistledtremolo, on one pitch. It does not sound likea screech.

HABITAT

Woods, orchards, towns, and suburban areas.

NEST

This owl nests in trees in natural cavities andholes made by flicker or pileatedwoodpeckers, usually 15 to 20 feet off theground. Screech owls will use nest boxesbuilt for them, and will nest in suburbanareas with suitable habitat.

EGGS

3-7, but usually 4 or 5. The eggs are laid atintervals of 2 or more days.

INCUBATION

About 26 days, by the female; the maleprovides food.

FEEDING HABITS

These owls eat mice, insects (includingcockroaches and beetles), cutworms,spiders, snails, reptiles, rats, bats, shrews,chipmunks, pigeons, lizards, and earth-worms. Screech owls drink water freely, liketo bathe, and may bathe at night in backyardbirdbaths.

NATURAL HISTORY

Males tend to maintain a territory for about10 months of the year. The size of theterritory varies. Winter territory may be onlyone-third of a square mile. The males maybe solitary or loosely paired from Septemberto early winter. Courtship begins inFebruary. The female may select 1 of thewinter roosting cavities—usually there are 1or 2 winter roosts—as a nest site, duringwhich time the owls may be quite vocal.Screech owls tolerate the presence of peopleand may nest close to homes and buildings.Parent birds are protective of their young,which are fed by the adult birds for 5 or 6weeks. Life-span is to at least 13 years.

STATUS

This owl nests throughout the state, exceptperhaps in the high mountain areas.

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GREAT HORNED OWL

BUBO VIRGINIANUS

This is the common largeowl, twice the size of a crow,with prominent ear tufts.Females are up to 25 inches inlength with wingspan to 60inches; males are up to 23inches, having awingspan to 52 inches.Weight averages 8-9ounces.

DESCRIPTION

Plumage is overallgray-brown to tawny,with barring on thebelly. There is a whitethroat patch. The eartufts are prominentand widely spaced, andeyes are yellow. Call is a rhythmicpattern of hoots, “hooo, hooo,hooo.” Male and female call ondifferent pitches.

During courtship and pair bonding inDecember and January, it is possible to hearthem calling each other. Later in the spring,the young owlets also emit calls begging forfood.

HABITAT

Varied, including woods, wetlands, forests,and urban parks. They will live in morefragmented habitat than the barred owl.

NEST

Horned owls do not usually build or repairnests, but often select the nest of a red-tailedhawk, crow, or squirrel to use for their own.They also will nest in a hollow tree and use

a nest platform. They prefer trees offeringcover, such as white pine, beech, or oak,where the leaves remain over the winter.

EGGS

Usually 2-3, but up to 6.

INCUBATION

26-35 days, by both sexes.

FEEDING HABITS

Because of their large size and strength,horned owls can take large prey, includingwoodchucks, Canada geeese, and domesticcats. Prey includes rabbits, squirrels, mice,rats, bats, songbirds, frogs, fish, crickets,and grasshoppers—almost anything they cancatch. They use a feeding roost near theirnest where they tear up and eat larger prey.

NATURAL HISTORY

Given suitable habitat, including nest androosting sites, adequate food supply, andwooded areas, horned owls winter and nestin the same vicinity year after year. One orboth adult birds maintain a home range, untilone dies and the survivor attracts a newmate, or other owls move in. Great hornedowls are thought to mate for life. Owls maybe paired in in early winter. Courting andnesting may begin in January. The owlsselect and defend a nesting territory close toor identical with winter hunting and roostingareas. The feeding range is usually within aquarter-mile of the nest. Depending onavailable food and habitat, there may be apair of owls per 6 square miles (opencountry and wood), or given more optimalhabitat, 1 to 3 pairs per square mile. Theseowls are long-lived, barring accidents; onein captivity lived to be 29 years old.

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STATUS

This owl may live in every county, but nestrecords are few, probably because of theowl’s nocturnal habits.

BARRED OWL

STRIX VARIA

17-24 inches in length;wingspan of 40-50inches; weight of 7-8 ounces.

DESCRIPTION

This is a largeowl, with no eartufts. Plumage isgray-brown, barredand spotted with buff,brown, and white.Eyes are brown. Thecall is a distinct seriesof hoots that translatesinto “who cooks for you-aa.” These owls are vocal and sometimeshunt and call in late afternoons, as they arenot completely nocturnal.

HABITAT

The barred owl prefers unbroken tracts ofwoodland, although it will hunt in openareas.

NEST

Usually in a tree cavity or in a hollow in topof a broken trunk; sometimes they will usean old hawk’s or squirrel’s nest. Preferrednest sites are in densely wooded areas, withconifers.

EGGS

2-3.

INCUBATION

21-28 days, mostly by the female.

FEEDING HABITS

Prey consists of mice, rabbits, flyingsquirrels, mink, opossums, shrews, bats,songbirds, smaller owls, snakes, snails,beetles; they may go into the water afterfish.

NATURAL HISTORY

These owls tend to be permanent residentsin suitable habitat and may use the same nestspot and territory year after year. They mayhave a feeding roost or nest to which theycarry prey. Courtship activities may begin inJanuary; eggs are laid in January toFebruary. The young leave the nest at 4 or 5weeks old, and fly 40 days after hatching.They probably are fed by the parents duringthe summer. At 4 months old, young stillhave their juvenile plumage, but they havefull winter plumage by early fall. Barredowls may come from 50 yards away inresponse to squeaking, mouselike sounds ordistress calls. They are long-lived; one incaptivity lived for 23 years.

STATUS

This owl is fairly common in forest areas,and is probably found in every county. Thereare many nesting sites.

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LONG-EARED OWL

ASIO OTUS

Slender, crow-sized, 13-17 inches long, witha 36- to 42-inch wingspan; weight averages7-8 ounces.

DESCRIPTION

This owl has ear tufts setclose together and longwings that extendbeyond its tail. The facialdisk is orange-chestnut,and the breast is brown-gray with irregularwhite spots. Eyes areyellow. Flight isbuoyant and erratic, like abutterfly. The dovelike “hoo,hoo, hoo” call is repeatedevery 3 seconds or so. During the nestingseason, it utters low-pitched hoots, shrieks,whines, and “wreck-wreck-wreck” alarmnotes.

HABITAT

Habitit for this owl is restricted to denseevergreens and pine forests.

NEST

Usually in an old crow’s or hawk’s nest.

EGGS

3-8.

INCUBATION

25 days, by the female.

FEEDING HABITS

Meadow and house mice, rats, shrews,moles, bats, squirrels, rabbits, birds, insects,and snakes.

NATURAL HISTORY

By day, long-eared owls roost in densegroves, pines, or vine-covered trees andthickets. They hunt over open ground andare mainly nocturnal. In captivity, they canlive for 27 years.

STATUS

These are uncommon owls in West Virginia,which is the southern limit of their range.Nocturnal habits and daytime concealmentmake them hard to find. There are a fewnesting records, mostly from along the OhioRiver, and winter migration records fromMonongalia, Grant, Morgan, Summers,Upshur, and Webster counties. This speciesis considered imperiled in this state, possiblybecause it is out of its range, and becauseopen area used for foraging are disappearingas the state becomes reforested.

SHORT-EARED OWL

ASIO FLAMMEUS

Crow-sized, 13-17inches long, havinga 38- to 44-inchwingspan; weightsaverage 12 ounces.The female is notalways larger than themale.

DESCRIPTION

Upper plumage is streaked and tawny orbuff-brown, with large buffy areas on the

39

upper wing surfaces. The breast is pale andstreaked with brown. Facial disks are tawny,and there are dark eye patches. It has blackwrist patches on the lower surface of thewings. The small ear tufts are difficult tosee. This owl appears big-headed andneckless in its buoyant, mothlike flight. Callis a raspy, barked “yip! yip! yip!”

HABITAT

Open areas including marshes, grasslands,fields, moorland.

NEST

Usually in a slight depression on the groundor in sand, lined with grass, weeds, andfeathers. They may nest in colonies, startingin March. This is one of the few owls thatbuilds its own nest.

EGGS

Up to 14, but usually 4-7.

INCUBATION

By the female for about 23 days.

FEEDING HABITS

75 percent of the diet of these owls consistsof mice and voles; they also eat shrews andbirds.

NATURAL HISTORY

These owls roost on the ground, often inlarge colonies. They may hunt over marshesand fields in large numbers. They hunt in theafternoon as well as at night, avoidingwoodland and preferring open lands andfreshwater marshes. The male performsspectacular aerial courtship displays, flyinghigh, then swooping while clapping his

wings together; he concludes the displaywith a series of downward somersaults.Life-span is to at least 10 years.

STATUS

One of the most widespread owls in theworld, occuring on every continent exceptAustralia, short-eared owls are rare migrantsand rare winter visitants in this state. Thereare no known nest records in West Virginia.They do nest in Pennsylvania and should bewatched for in suitable habitat. A good timeto look for them is late afternoon, whenseveral may hunt together.

NORTHERN SAW-WHET OWL

AEGOLIUS ACADICUS

At 8 inches in length with an 18-inchwingspan, this is the smallest of the easternowls, weighing around 3-4 ounces.

DESCRIPTION

Plumage is chocolate-brown, spottedwith white. Undersides arewhite, spottedwith dark brown.Head, eyes, andfacial disk arerelatively large. It isthe only tiny owl withno ear tufts. Young havea white triangular patchon the forehead. Voiceis a series of toots orwhistles, 2 or 3 notes per second,resembling the rasping of a saw. The call isheard during the nesting season.

HABITAT

Dense woods and swamps; prefers to nest inconifers; also deciduous woodlands andedges.

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NEST

In natural tree cavities or abandonedwoodpecker or flicker holes. They also nestin flicker-sized nest boxes.

EGGS

4-7.

INCUBATION

28 days, by the female.

FEEDING HABITS

They eat insects, rats, birds, bats.

NATURAL HISTORY

Saw-whet owls spend the day hidden in theirfavorite roost, usually a pine or conifer tree

where it is well concealed. These owls aretame, as owls go, and it is possible toapproach close to a saw-whet if it is roostingon a low limb. Life-span is to at least 17years.

STATUS

These owls are residents from Alaska andQuebec to California and Pennsylvania,wintering between the Carolinas andMexico. In West Virginia, they areapproaching the southern limits of theirrange, and are rare and local permanentresidents at such places as CranesvilleSwamp and Dolly Sods. The species maynest at low altitutes, but it is primarily a birdof colder climates and higher elevations.The remote nesting habitat and strictlynocturnal habits of this owl make ithard to find.

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SNOWY OWL

NYCTEA SCANDIACA

Large, 20-27 inches in body length, with awingspan between 54 and 66 inches; weighsabout 3 pounds.

DESCRIPTION

Adults are white,barred with gray-brown. Femalesand young havemany darkpatches. Theeyes (iris)are yellow.There areno eartufts.Females

are usually darker than males so that duringnesting they blend in with the tundra groundcover.

Snowy owls are inhabitants of Canada andthe Alaskan tundra, where they huntlemmings. Since there are no trees in thetundra and since the sun seldom sets in theArctic during the nesting season, snowyowls have adapted to nesting and roostingon or near the ground, and to hunting duringdaylight hours. When prey populations arelow, snowy owls may migrate south andoccasionally enter West Virginia, where theyare sometimes seen sitting on a low perch orguardrail along a road in an open situation.Life-span is to at least 14 years.

STATUS

Snowy owls are casual winter visitors toWest Virginia and have been seen from earlyNovember to mid-April from the NorthernPanhandle south to Kanawha County.

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Predatory birds are extremely important asnatural controls on populations of such smallmammals as rats and mice, as well as insectsand other prey. These birds may eliminatethe need to use chemical pesticides.

In the larger picture, predation can be seenas a method of establishing a balance amongpopulations, with the relationship betweenpredators and prey forming a natural systemof checks and balances. It should be notedthat predators seldom eliminate all theirprey. First, the prey population increasesfaster than the predators. Second, predatorsdo not always have successful hunts, oftenmissing their intended catch. Third, whenprey populations decline, so do thepredators.

Backyard bird feeders may attract birds ofprey, especially the Cooper’s and sharp-shinned hawks. Sometimes people feedingsongbirds become concerned when theunexpected backyard raptors swoop anddive after feeder birds. Those feedingsongbirds should remember that thepresence of predatory hawks indicates ahealthy environment of predator-preyrelationships, and that hawks and songbirdshave existed together for thousands of years.Far more serious threats to songbirds includehabitat loss, predation from cats, nestparasitism by cowbirds, and insecticides.

Birds of prey are protected by federal law. Itis illegal to kill them, and it is illegal to have

a bird of prey without a permit. Despite this,birds of prey are threatened by habitat loss,pesticides, and indiscriminant killing andshooting.

Some conservation measures, includinghabitat improvement and land managementpractices, can help attract birds of prey. Alsoindividuals and groups can participate ineducational and monitoring activities to helpprotect raptors and learn more about thesebirds and their management.

ATTRACTING BIRDS

OF PREY

Perches help attract birds of prey. The birdsuse less energy hunting from perches thanflying in the air. They use perches wheneverthey can, especially in dead trees or snags.Snags should be left standing for the birds’use in suitable areas.

Perches also can be built, either by addingextensions or crossbars to fence or otherposts, or by placing a crossbar on top of apole. The pole should be oriented so thebirds can land on it against the prevailingwind. One perching pole every 200 feetaround a field or per acre provides birdswith enough perches for optimum hunting.

CONSERVATION of

BIRDS of PREY

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Maintaining wooded and open areas isnecessary so that birds of prey and otherwildlife have sufficient cover, food sources,water, and nesting sites.

Source: Washington State University Extension Service

KESTREL NEST BOX

The diagram below shows plans for a kestrelnest box.

The nest box can be placed in open fieldsand groves of trees. Face the openings southor toward the sun to collect warmth duringearly spring. Approximately 1 box per 20acres is needed to attract kestrels to a park oropen area.

Nest sites can enhance habitat. Nest boxescan be placed for raptors that use them,including the American kestrel and thescreech owl.

Remove unwanted birds, such as starlingsand house sparrows, from the boxes as soonas possible if they begin to build nests in theboxes. Clean and repair the nest boxes at theend of the nesting season.

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SCREECH OWL

NEST BOX

Screech owls nest in urban and surburbanlocations and prey on small mammals andinsects. They require nesting cavities intrees, but if the trees have been cut down,putting up nest boxes in suitable areas canreplace this lost habitat.

The diagrams below show details of ascreech owl nest box.

-put up no later than mid-January as screechowls begin courtship in January and February(late autumn would be preferable forinstalling boxes);

-fastened to the tree with strong wire runthrough a hose, and tightened withturnbuckles, to protect the tree; and

PLANS

The screech owl nest boxshould be:

-built of fir (exteriorplywood), or cedar, andnot painted or stained;

-placed 15 to 20 feet up inthe tree;

-placed in a hardwoodtree (put in conifer treeonly if there are noobstructing branches);

-oriented so it’s easy forthe owl to fly in and out,with no obstructing branches; Plans for screech owl nest box by Michael Kridle, WVU Extension Service

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-cleaned once a year before nesting season(squirrels will use the boxes and their nestingmaterials will discourage the owls).

Screech owls like to bathe, so you might wantto put a birdbath with clean water near thenest.

INSTRUCTIONS

1. Dimensions are approximate and dependon wood thickness.

2. Nails act as hinges to swing one side openfor cleaning.

3. Entrance area is 20 x 8 inchdes, with 2-inch side strips to support the side swingdoor. For a front swing door, entrance can be24 x 8 inches without the side supports.

4. Drill water drainage holes on the floor.

5. Place the box so that the entrance is facingaway from prevailing winds.

SPECIAL CAUTION

Young owls that have fledged recentlycannot fly well and usually climb and perchamong branches. They are seen in broaddaylight. When the parents are not seen withthem, there is the temptation to think thatthey are orphans. This is NOT so!Discourage anyone from thinking that younganimals are orphans unless, of course, theirnest has been destroyed and they aredefinitely injured. If young owls hiss, snaptheir bills, and fluff their feathers, they are infine shape! Do not take them home.

The reason is that young animals, andespecially young owls, “imprint” during thissensitive, critical period of their lives. Ifthey have face-to-face human contact, theywill grow up thinking that they are humansfor the rest of their lives! They cannot bereleased to the wild since they will attemptto seek out humans, make a nuisance ofthemselves, and may be killed (most humansare not very nice!). Further, they will notsocialize with their own kind. Imprinting (asa human) is a very serious psychological andsocial disorder of owls that can be avoided ifthe young are left alone.

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BARN OWL BOX

The following nest box plans will help thebarn owl. You can help by building a nestbox or by simply allowing the barn owlaccess to old buildings by unscreening awindow, removing a slat, or making a 6-inchhole. Barn owls will nest in city or countryas long as there is open habitat to hunt.

Instructions

1. Dimensions are approximate and dependon the wood’s thickness.

2. Nails act as hinges to swingsides open for cleaning.

3. Entrance hole is 6 inches indiameter and 12 inches from thefloor.

4. Make indentations or roughthe wood inside and under thehole to enable the young toclimb out of the nest.

24"

24"

24"

26"26"

24"

24"

6"

2"

24"

32"

22" 12"

26"

24"

24"

24"

24"

26"26"

24"

24"

20"2"

24"

32"

22" 16"

26"

24"BARRED OWL BOX

Nest box is 24 x 24 x 24 inches, withsloping sides and roof. Opening is 20 x8 inches.

5. Drill water drainage holes on the floor.

6. Drill small holes at the top of the sidesfor ventilation.

7. Place the box so that the hole faces awayfrom prevailing winds.

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RAPTOR SURVEYS

The American Birding Association—incooperation with the U.S. Forest Service,National Park Service, U.S. Fish andWildlife Service, and other agencies—publishes a book listing states wherevolunteers can participate in bird and raptorcounts, atlasing, and monitoring. Hawkwatches, and osprey and northern goshawksurveys are among those in which volunteerscan participate throughout the United Statesand Canada.

For more information, contact the AmericanBirding Association, PO Box 6599,Colorado Springs, CO 80934.

RAPTOR

REHABILITATION

CENTERS

Raptor rehabilitation centers, also calledraptor centers, have been establishednationwide, including West Virginia.

Raptor rehabilitation centers are placeswhere injured birds of prey can be taken andtreated until they can be released back intothe wild. Injuries that birds of prey mostoften suffer include broken wings and otherdamage suffered from collision with carsand buildings, gunshot wounds, poorcondition due to harsh weather or otherfactors, and orphaned young due to death orinjury of the parent birds.

When such a bird is found, the finder shouldremember that raptors have sharp talons andpowerful beaks. A blanket or jacket placedover the bird will help protect the handlerand keep the bird quiet. In some cases,

OWLING

Owling, or looking for owls at night, is apopular activity for individuals and groupsinterested in these night birds. The firstrequirement for successful owling is findingplaces where owls live, usually woodedareas. Sometimes owls can be located byfinding their pellets under trees or perches.Owl pellets usually have lots of bones andeven intact skeletons of small mammalsbecause owls swallow their prey whole.Hawk pellets tend to have more fur andfeathers, because they tear their prey. Otherbirds, including shorebirds, crows, jays,starlings, shrikes, warblers, swallows, andswifts, also cast pellets, so care is needed todifferentiate which bird has cast the pellet.

In addition to finding the right kind ofpellets, one can sometimes locate owls byimitating their calls or the calls of smallbirds, rabbits, and other animals. A curiousowl may come in fairly close to investigatethe calls. Care should be taken not to call insmall owls such as screech owls in thevicinity of the larger great horned owl,which will happily make a meal of thesmaller owl. Also, owls should not bedisturbed with calls during the nestingseason because parent birds need the time tocare for their young.

Another way to locate owls is to observe thebehavior of other birds. Crows and jays willmob or chase owls, including great hornedowls, during the day, thus giving a clue tothe presence of the nocturnal hunters. Onereason for mobbing hehavior may be towarn other birds of the proximity of ahungry owl. (You need to exercise caution,however, not to lead crows and jays to theowl.)

After owls have been located, populationscan be monitored and checks made to findyoung.

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securing the legs to the body may benecessary. The bird should then be put in aplace where it can remain quiet and notfurther injure itself by struggling. Shoeboxesoften are used to hold raptors. The localraptor rehabilitation center should becontacted, and a volunteer will pick up thebird and take it to the center. A veterinarianwill determine proper treatment for theinjury. Badly injured birds are humanelydestroyed. Those that are treated are placedand fed in special cages until they are wellenough to be released into the wild. Smallbirds such as screech owls can be kept insmall cages, while larger birds such as red-tailed hawks need larger areas.

Birds of prey most often treated at centersinclude screech, barred, and great hornedowls; red-tailed and sharp-shinned hawks;and sometimes eagles and peregrines.

Many raptor rehabilitation centers arestaffed by volunteers, who donate their timeto daily feeding, cleaning cages, securingfood, and other duties. Land and facilities tohouse raptor centers often are donated byvolunteers.

Some raptor centers are affiliated with localeducational facilities, whose wildlifemanagement or veterinary students workwith the birds as part of their career training.

Raptor centers usually conduct educationalprograms to help people learn about birds.Some badly injured birds that cannot bereturned to the wild are kept as “educationalbirds” and taken to schools to help educateyouths about these unique animals. Afterreceiving proper training in the handling ofwild raptors, volunteers take the birds toclassrooms and other educational settings,explaining raptor biology and care tointerested viewers.

In order to help raise funds to feed and carefor the injured birds, some centers have

adopt-a-bird programs. Individuals andgroups interested in working with andlearning more about raptors can volunteer tohelp at raptor centers.

There are two raptor centers in West Virgina:

West Virginia Raptor Rehabilitation Center,PO Box 333, Morgantown, WV, 26507. (Ifyou find an injured bird of prey, the toll-freenumber to call is: 1-800-540-6390.)

The Three Rivers Raptor Center, HC 74,Box 279, Brooks, WV 25951; telephone:1-800-721-5252.

HAWK MIGRATION

COUNTS

There is increased public interest in raptors,as evidenced by the thousands of visitorswho visit hawk watching stations during theautum to view migrating raptors.

Places to hawk watch in West Virginiainclude:

(1) Bear Rocks in the Dolly Sods Wildernessarea, Tucker County: Counts of broad-wingscan exceed 5,000 a day. Many other raptorscan be seen. (2) East River Mountain nearBluefield. (3) Hanging Rocks on PetersMountain in Monroe County: Daily countsof hundreds of hawks are common.

If you need directions to these places orwant to join other hawk watchers, contactthe Brooks Bird Club, 707 Warwood Ave.,Wheeling, WV 26003, or Bibbee NatureClub, 126 Fincastle Lane, Bluefield, WV24701.

Other eastern hawk watch areas includeHawk Mountain, Kempton, Pennsvlvania,and Cape May, New Jersey.

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If you want more information about hawkcounts, contact the Hawk MigrationAssociation of North America, P.O. Box3482, Rivermount Station, Lynchburg, VA24503.

During migration, bird banding groups,hawk watchers, and those concerned aboutraptors keep counts of the types and

HAWK MIGRATION DATA SHEET

BROAD-WINGED HAWK __________ ______

RED-TAILED HAWK _____________ ______

ROUGH-LEGGED HAWK __________ ______

AMERICAN KESTREL ____________ ______

MERLIN _____________________ ______

PEREGRINE ___________________ ______

UNIDENTIFIED BUTEO____________ ______

UNIDENTIFIED ACCIPITER _________ ______

UNIDENTIFIED FALCON ___________ ______

UNIDENTIFIED RAPTOR___________ ______

COMMENTS ____________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

TOTALS ______________________ ______

numbers of hawks they see, and maintainannual records to document changes in hawkpopulations.

The hawk watch form above lists the hawksthat can be seen in West Virginia duringmigration. Data can be kept from year toyear to help assess population trends andnumbers of migrating hawks.

Location _____________________________

% Cloud Cover _________

Date _________ Observers ___ Air Temp ___

Minutes Observed ________

Wind Direction & Speed _________

TOTALS

BLACKVULTURE _______________ ______

TURKEY VULTURE ______________ ______

OSPREY______________________ ______

BALD EAGLE __________________ ______

GOLDEN EAGLE ________________ ______

NORTHERN HARRIER ____________ ______

SHARP-SHINNED HAWK __________ ______

COOPER’S HAWK _______________ ______

NORTHERN GOSHAWK ___________ ______

RED-SHOULDERED HAWK _________ ______

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REFERENCES

Alcorn, Gordon Dee, Owls, An Introductionfor the Amateur Naturalist, Prentice HallBooks, New York, 1986. Containsdetailed species accounts of NorthAmerican owls. 176 pages.

Brent, Arthur Cleveland, Life Histories ofNorth American Birds of Prey, 2 Volumes,Dover Publications, 1937, reprint, 1961.A classic work on the life histories ofbirds of prey. Text for each speciesincludes notes on behavior, migration,food, eggs, distribution, nesting. IncludesCalifornia condor, vultures, kites, eagles,hawks, osprey, falcons, caracaras, owls.Over 800 pages, with many illustrations.

Brett, James, The Mountain and theMigration, Cornell University Press,1991. Tells the history of how HawkMountain, near Kempton, Pennsylvania,became a hawk sanctuary. Also containsmuch information on hawk identificationand migration.

Bucklew, Albert, and George Hall, The WestVirginia Breeding Bird Atlas, Universityof Pittsburgh Press, 1994. Provides listsand maps of breeding birds in the state.215 pages.

Cade, Tom. The Falcons of the World,Cornell University Press, 1982. Standardreference on falcons; covers classifi-cation, distribution and migration,feeding, hunting, behavior, and completespecies descriptions. Color illustrations,maps. 188 pages.

Clark, Neal, Eastern Birds of Prey, NorthCountry Press, 1983. Covers naturalhistory of major raptors found east of theMississippi River; includes hunting

techniques and prey, migration, mating,habitat, ecological status. Illustrated. 174pages.

Clark, William, and Brian Wheeler, A FieldGuide to the Hawks of North America,Peterson Field Guide Series, HoughtonMifflin Co., 1987. One of the standardfield guides to hawks; has pictures,illustrations, descriptions of colormorphs, references. 198 pages.

Craighead, John, and Frank Craighead, Jr.,Hawks, Owls, and Wildlife, DoverPublications, 1956. This is a classic studyon the predatory behavior of hawks andowls. Includes winter ranges, fall andwinter populations, winter food, springand summer food habits, and the functionof predation. 443 pages.

Dunne, Peter, Debbie Keller and ReneLochenberger, Hawk Watch, a Guide forBeginners, Cape May Bird Observatory,1984. An excellent introduction to hawksand hawk watching; covers identification,how to observe hawks, interpreting hawkwatch data, glossary, places to watchhawks. 80 pages.

Eckert, Allan, The Owls of North America,Crown Publishers, New York, 1987.Comprehensive treatment of many owlspecies, excellent illustrations. 278 pages.

Glasier, Phillip, Falconry and Hawking, B.T. Batsford Ltd., 1989. A comprehensivepublication on falcons. Covers all phasesof falcons, the art of falconry, andequipment used. Well illustrated. 322pages.

Grossman, Mary, and John Hamlet, Birds ofPrey of the World, Bonanza Books. Astandard reference on birds of prey.Covers birds of prey and man’s effect on

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them; provides complete descriptions ofraptors, classification, distribution maps,70 color illustrations, 425 range maps.496 pages.

Hall, George, West Virginia Birds, CarnegieMuseum of Natural History, 1983. 180pages.

Harwood, Michael, The View from HawkMountain, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1973.Tells the story of Hawk Mountain,Pennsylvania, one of the most notedhawk watching areas in the East. 191pages.

Heinrich, Bernd, One Man’s Owl, PrincetonUniversity Press, 1987. Describes theauthor’s experiences with a great hornedowl. Interesting and informative. 224pages.

Heintzelman, Donald, A Guide to HawkWatching in North America, KeystoneBooks, 1985. A standard guide to hawkwatching; covers hawk identification,field equipment, migration seasons,mechanics of hawk flight. 284 pages.

International Council for Bird Preservation,Conservation Studies on Raptors,Technical Publication # 5, 1985.Technical reports on status of birds ofprey throughout the world. 482 pages.

O’Brien, Dan, Rites of Autumn, aFalconer’s Journey Across the AmericanWest, Doubleday Books, 1924, 1952. Amust read for anyone interested in birds,peregrine falcons, the natural world andwhat is happening to it. 187 thought-intensive pages.

Tyler, Hamilton, and Phillips, Don, Owls byDay and Night, Naturegraph Publishers,Happy Camp, California, 1988. Containsmuch information on owls and adap-tations for hunting. 208 pages.

Ure, Stellanie, Hawk Lady, Doubleday &Company, Inc., 1980. Author’s fasci-nating personal experiences withrehabilitating injured birds of prey. 215pages.