IPIECA: playing an active role in urban air quality … · The IPIECA Urban Air Quality Ma n a g e...

UNEP Industry and Environment January – June 2000 ◆ 71

Urban environmental management

IPIECA is an industry association with an inter-national membership of over 40 petro l e u mcompanies and related trade organizations. It s

p r i m a ry aims are to develop industry - g ove r n m e n tp a rtnerships in order to tackle global enviro n-mental problems, and to identify practical, scien-tifically sound and cost-effective solutions to thesep roblems. IPIECA currently runs programmes onoil spill pre p a redness and response, global climatechange, biodiversity and urban air quality man-agement. Through a Strategic Issue AssessmentFo rum, it also helps members identify new globale n v i ronmental issues and assess their potentialimpact on the oil industry. These programmes arecarried out in cooperation with industry, gove r n-ment, re g u l a t o ry bodies, international agencies,academia and NGOs .

Managing urban air quality is a problem facingmost cities worldwide. For many years it has re-c e i ved considerable attention in OECD countries.Mo re re c e n t l y, under pre s s u re of rapid economicand social development, major cities in Asia, LatinAmerica, the Middle East and Africa have beenrecognizing and addressing this problem. Wo rkcarried out in OECD countries has created a richp o rtfolio of experience, from which IPIECA hasdrawn valuable lessons. IPIECA is now active l ycommunicating these lessons through its urban air

quality management programme. I PI E C A’s Urban Air Quality Ma n a g e m e n t

( UAQM) Programme is the medium thro u g hwhich the international petroleum industry col-l e c t i vely contributes to air quality debates. Dr a w-ing on expertise within the industry, the UAQ Mg roup has developed a framew o rk that charts aseries of step-by-step processes to assist in deve l-oping air quality management plans. The frame-w o rk encourages the development of cost-effectivepolicies to improve air quality, based on thoro u g hand objective assessment of all emission sources.

To communicate this framew o rk, IPIECA hasvisited a number of countries in Southeast Asia,culminating in an air quality workshop in Ku a l aLumpur in 1997. The workshop provided ano p p o rtunity for these countries to share exper-iences with air quality management. Similar visitsto Latin America have resulted in an ongoing part-nership with the Regional Association of Oil andNatural Gas Companies in Latin America and theCaribbean (ARPEL) and participation in their airquality management programme (ARPE L / C I D AEn v i ronmental Programme, Phase 2-EMIATM).

I PIECA has produced a series of publications( I PIECA 1999, IPIECA 2000) and developed aPC-based emission forecasting model, theUAQM Toolkit. The Toolkit is designed to build

emission inve n t o ry databases and help adva n c ethe search for scientifically based long-term airquality management strategies.

This article describes the principles behindI PI E C A’s UAQM programme and illustrates therole of the UAQM Toolkit in encouraging adop-tion of a stru c t u red approach to air quality man-a g e m e n t .

Principles of the IPIECA frameworkBa c k g ro u n dIn 1990, IPIECA formed a “Tr a n s p o rtation Ne t-w o rk” of key petroleum industry re p re s e n t a t i ve swho re c o g n i zed the importance of the companies’role in the growing global discussions on air qua-lity problems. Sh o rtly there a f t e r, an IPI E C Aa rticle on “Au t o m o t i ve options and air qualitymanagement in developing countries” appeare din UNEP’s In d u s t ry and En v i ronment re v i ew as afirst collective industry contribution to the debate( Saville 1993). This article highlighted the needfor information exchange on the experiences of“clean ve h i c l e” and “clean fuels” programmes, toe n s u re that policies being implemented in rapid-ly expanding cities do not replicate unsuccessfulstrategies carried out elsew h e re .

The IPIECA Urban Air Quality Ma n a g e m e n tp rogramme was established in 1995, re s u l t i n gf rom these earlier studies and the petro l e u mi n d u s t ry’s experience with Au t o - Oil pro g r a m m e sin Eu rope and the United States, Japan and otherOCED countries. These Au t o - Oil pro g r a m m e swe re designed to identify optimum engine/fuelsolutions to meet legislative air quality standard s .Mo re recent studies also a c k n owledge the needfor an “integrated appro a c h” to air quality man-agement that considers stationary sources (i.e.residential developments, factories, power plants,etc.) as well as mobile sources of pollution fro mt r a n s p o rt systems. The experience with Au t o - Oi lp rogrammes was subsequently concentrated intokey principles endorsed by the petroleum indus-t ry through IPIECA as essential to the deve l-opment of successful air quality managementp rogrammes.

Pr i n c i p l e sThe principles of the UAQM framew o rk includesharing experience and expertise, basing re g u l a-t o ry decisions on objective assessments, andensuring that management plans are cost-effect-i ve and that emission control strategies are appro-priate to local situations. These principlesre c o g n i ze that stakeholders must work in part n e r-

IPIECA: playing an active role in urban air quality management

Alison Hawkes and David Mansell-Moullin, Project Managers-Urban Air Quality Management, International Petroleum IndustryEnvironmental Conservation Association (IPIECA), 2nd Floor, Monmouth House, 87-93, Westbourne Grove, London W2 4UL, UK

AbstractIPIECA has developed a framework for studying air quality management in urban areas indeveloping countries. It sets out a process for assessing local issues, understanding problems,and evaluating strategies in order to reduce emissions and meet air quality targets. The aim ofthis initiative is to encourage development of practical, science-based and cost-effectiveapproaches to help meet health-driven air quality standards.

RésuméPour les études sur la gestion de la qualité de l’air, IPIECA a mis au point un cadre qui peut êtreappliqué aux agglomérations des pays en développement. Ce cadre propose une méthodepour évaluer la situation locale, comprendre les problèmes et déterminer les stratégies qui per -mettront de réduire les émissions et d’atteindre les objectifs de qualité de l’air. Le but de cetteinitiative est d’encourager l’élaboration d’approches pratiques, scientifiques et rentables pourrespecter les normes de qualité de l’air dictées par des considérations sanitaires.

ResumenLa IPIECA ha desarrollado una estructura para los estudios de gestión de la calidad eólica, apli -cable en las áreas urbanas de los países en desarrollo. Pone en marcha un proceso de valora -ción de los asuntos locales, a través del pleno entendimiento de los problemas y la evaluaciónde las estrategias destinadas a reducir las emisiones y lograr la calidad de aire deseada. Lafinalidad de esta iniciativa es fomentar el desarrollo de proyectos prácticos, basados en fun -damentos científicos y rentables que permitan alcanzar los estándares sanitarios de calidadeólica.

72 ◆ UNEP Industry and Environment January – June 2000


s h i p, and that all actionsshould be transparent andbased on a process of prioriti-zation. The principles, detail-ed below, form the basis of theI PIECA framew o rk for airquality management studies: ◆ Sh a ring collective experi-ence and exper t i s e . Gove r n-ments, and the private sectorin countries that have beent h rough the process of deve l-oping air quality managementplans on a national and re g i o n-al scale (and made their mis-takes!), have gained a wealth ofexperience and expertise. Thistechnical and managemente x p e rtise can be shared withre p re s e n t a t i ves from otherregions, who are now attempt-ing to devise cost-effective ande n v i ronmentally beneficial sol-utions in re g a rd to their urbanair quality concerns.◆ En s u ring objective assess-m e n t. Ef f e c t i ve re g u l a t o ry planning for the man-agement of urban air quality should be based onan objective assessment of science and technology,re c o g n i ze the mix of contributing stationary,mobile and natural sources of emissions, andincorporate a process of engaging public opinion.The way in which urban air quality managementp rogrammes are fashioned, implemented andmaintained can have long-term implications for are g i o n’s social, economic and environmental we l l -being. ◆ Designing cost-effective management plans . Asg overnments and industry will be re q u i red tomake considerable investments in order to re a l i zeand manage local air quality programmes, tho-rough cost-effective analysis should be carried outto ensure the best application of scarce re s o u rc e s(e.g. evaluating the cost per tonne of re d u c e demissions resulting from an emission re d u c t i o ns t r a t e g y ) .◆ De veloping locally appr o p riate solutions . Airquality management strategies va ry in effective-ness and costs. They may be successfully adoptedin one location but not prove similarly effective inothers either technically, financially, enviro n m e n-t a l l y, socially or politically. ◆ Wo rking in par t n e r s h i p . Experience hasshown that developing partnerships between allstakeholders is key to the implementation of asuccessful urban air quality management plan.Government, industry and the public must bei n vo l ved in the development of, and commit-ment to achieving, air quality goals. In this con-text, IPIECA is currently working closely withthe World Bank’s Clean Air Initiative, nationaland regional governments, academic institutionsand NGOs (Box 1).◆ Pri o ritizing issues . Air quality managementplans must prioritize key issues and sources of pol-lutants to ensure that emission reduction strate-gies tackle problems in the order of their

significance. For example, it has been assumedthat implementing technical improvements willautomatically result in less pollution. Howe ve r,this assumption must consider that a reduction inemissions per source may not compensate for theg rowth in the number of sources, and that thes o u rces targeted may not be the priority ones. ◆ Encouraging transparency and peer r e v i e w. Toestablish and maintain the credibility of any pro-gramme, all stages should be open and transpare n tand the findings made available for challenge anddebate. Gi ven the wide range of interested part i e s ,

and differing levels of under-standing and knowledge, this isa crucial yet difficult activity.

Creating an air qualitymanagement plan usingthe IPIECA frameworkThe flowc h a rt in Fi g u re 1 i l l u s-trates the key stages that con-stitute IPI E C A’s UAQM frame-w o rk. The six principle stagesa re described below. It should benoted that the framew o rk en-courages stakeholder part i c i p a-tion, transparency and publicdebate at each stage in the pro-c e s s .Stage 1 : The first stage is toestablish the air quality targetsd e s i red for the given urban area. Stage 2: Having established thetargets, an appreciation of airquality situation and manage-ment strategies currently inplace should be undert a k e nt h rough monitoring and data

c o l l e c t i o n .Stage 3 : The next stage re q u i res the establishmentof an emission inve n t o ry database that considerss t a t i o n a ry, mobile and natural sources. B ox 2 p ro-vides an example of how the UAQM Toolkit hasassisted this process in Lima-Callao, as part ofI PI E C A’s contribution to the World Bank CleanAir In i t i a t i ve. Stage 4 : An emission inve n t o ry database, combin-ed with socio-economic growth factors, allow sf o recasts to be made of future patterns in pollu-tant emissions. Having established future emis-

Box 1Working in partnership – IPIECA and the

Clean Air Initiative for Latin American cities

In 1998 the World Bank launched the Clean Air In i t i a t i ve (CAI), targeting air qual-ity management issues in five key cities in Latin America: Rio de Ja n e i ro, Lima-Callao, Mexico City, Buenos Aires and Santiago de Chile. The three goals of this ini-t i a t i ve are to ◆ p romote integrated development or enhancement of city clean air action plans,based on participation of all re l e vant stakeholders;◆ a d vance the exchange of knowledge and experience among all part n e r s ;◆ foster public participation and the active invo l vement of the private sector inimplementing innovations in the use of low-emission, low-carbon technologies.

I PIECA is working closely with the World Bank and supports the goals ando b j e c t i ves of the CAI initiative. In December 1999 it became a member of the CAISteering Committee, together with the Regional Association of Oil and Na t u r a lGas Companies in Latin America and the Caribbean (ARPEL). IPIECA is nowp roviding the UAQM Toolkit to cities invo l ved in the initiative.

T h rough capacity building programmes, IPIECA and consultants from En s t r a tInternational Ltd. are working in close partnership with City CAI Committees,which re p resent both the public and private sectors. Through these pro g r a m m e s ,the principles underlying the IPIECA framew o rk have been communicated andc o n s i d e red in the development of legislation to reduce emissions to improve airq u a l i t y.

For further information, consult http://www. w o rl d b a n k . o r g / w b i / c l e a n a i r.


sion patterns up to the targetye a r, a comparison can bemade of current air qualityand the desired air quality tar-gets, in order to establish thed e g ree of emission re d u c t i o n sre q u i red and primary sourc e sof emissions.Stage 5 : Alternative strategies,and combinations of strate-gies, can then be evaluated toquantify the effect they haveon reducing emissions, andconsequently to achieve asso-ciated improvements in airq u a l i t y. Examples of emissionreduction strategies for mobiles o u rce emissions include thei n t roduction of catalysts, Eu roII technologies, traffic man-agement, fuel re f o r m u l a t i o n ,and taxation on fuels, ve h i c l e sand road usage. Strategies toreduce emissions from station-a ry sources might includeswitching to cleaner fuel (e.g.natural gas), applying end-of-pipe controls such as a cyc l o n ef i l t e r, or introducing energyefficiency measures in domestic/commercial sec-tors. Stage 6 : Having identified suitable strategies andcombinations of strategies that meet the re q u i re dreductions in emissions to achieve air quality tar-gets, the costs associated with investing, operatingand regulating each strategy need to be deter-mined. From this, the re l a t i ve cost-effectiveness ofa l t e r n a t i ve scenarios can be determined and rank-ed. Once the most cost-effective strategies havebeen identified, the process of tempering the stra-tegies with public opinion and political will canb e g i n .

The IPIECA Urban Air QualityManagement (UAQM) ToolkitThe IPIECA UAQM Toolkit is a PC based modeld e veloped to assist in communicating and imple-menting the IPIECA stru c t u red approach to airquality management. It explores those steps in thef r a m ew o rk highlighted in Fi g u re 2 and encour-ages multi-stakeholder invo l vement and soundscientific analysis throughout the process. TheUAQM Toolkit is designed as a series of Exc e lw o rksheets and is driven by equations encased inVisual Basic “a d d - i n s”.

The UAQM Toolkit has been designed to allowmobile and stationary sources of air pollutantemissions to be characterized over periods as longas 100 years, or as short as 24 hours. The charac-terization may be chosen to re p resent, and hencevalidate, historical conditions, and/or to pro j e c tinto the future to understand future trends inemissions. Fo recasts of future emission trends arebased on economic growth factors and energyusage. Data are entered on the energy demandf rom mobile emission sources (e.g. cars, motor-bikes, buses, etc.) stationary emission sources (e.g.

i n d u s t ry, domestic dwellings) and natural emis-sion sourc e s (e.g. cro p / f o rest burning, vo l c a n o e s ) .Examples of data re q u i red in order to characterizeand determine factors affecting emissions fro mmobile and stationary sources are shown in Table 1 .

The UAQM Toolkit calculates the quantity of

carbon monoxide, vo l a t i l eorganic compounds, nitro g e noxides, particulate matter, sul-phur oxides and lead re l e a s e df rom these sources using scienti-fically established emission fac-tors (see, for example, EPE F E1 9 9 5 ) . Once the emissions ofeach of these pollutants arek n own, the user can begin toassess the priority sources of pol-lution that will be targeted byemission reduction strategies.

The “base case” of emissionsover a chosen time frame havingbeen established, alternativeemission reduction strategiescan be assessed to test the effectson one or several pollutants.The UAQM Toolkit uses estab-lished relationships to deter-mine the effect of contro lstrategies on emissions. Toassess the cost-effectiveness ofemission reduction strategies,the UAQM Toolkit determineswhich strategy or combinationof strategies can reduce emis-sions to levels that meet future

air quality targets at minimum cost. For each stra-t e g y, investment, operating, re g u l a t o ry and we l-f a re costs need to be established for the give nurban area. An example of output from theUAQM Toolkit cost-effectiveness studies iss h own in Fi g u re 3. Using this output, a policy-maker can identify strategies to reduce emissions


Box 2Preparing an emission inventory for Lima-Callao, Peru

I PIECA and consultants from Enstrat International Ltd have been working with theLima-Callao Clean Air In i t i a t i ve (CAI) Committee, as part of the World Bank CAI ini-t i a t i ve, since the beginning of 2000. This programme aims to develop an air quality man-agement plan for the Lima-Callao metropolitan area. IPI E C A’s invo l vement in thep rogramme has three phases:1. gathering data for a pre l i m i n a ry emission inve n t o ry database to be used in the UAQ MTo o l k i t ;2. running a workshop on use of the UAQM Toolkit and the re v i ew of emission inve n-t o ry data;3. providing help desk support for the development of a final emission inve n t o ry andguidance on assessing the effect of emission control strategies.

Emission data for the Lima-Callao metropolitan area we re provided by re p re s e n t a t i ve sof the CAI Committee and re v i ewed by participants in the Toolkit Training Wo rk s h o pin June 2000. Re p re s e n t a t i ves from government ministries, the Lima and Callao CityCouncils, the local petroleum industry, auto associations, the World Bank and Sw i s s-contact international consultants attended the Training Wo rk s h o p.

Emission data from mobile and stationary sources we re gathered for years in whichdata we re readily available. Historical and future data profiles we re then developed forthe period 1970-2025, using the To o l k i t’s capacity to generate data based on socio-eco-nomic indicators available from several international studies carried out for Pe ru .

Once a finalized emission inve n t o ry database has been agreed, emission reduction stra-tegies can be tested. Pa rticipants trained in using the Toolkit will then have a va l u a b l ef o recasting and decision-making tool to assist in the development of cost-effective urbanair quality management plans for the city.



of hyd rocarbons to a target level at least cost or,a l t e r n a t i ve l y, the costs associated with maximizingreductions of emissions above the target level.

Validation of the UAQM ToolkitI PIECA members and several agencies re s p o n s i-ble for national air quality programmes havere v i ewed the capabilities of the UAQM To o l k i t .These re v i ews highlight the value of the To o l k i tfor cities in developing economies that do not cur-rently have access to emission inve n t o ry modelswith the capacity to evaluate potential emissionsc o n t rol scenarios. The World Bank, which hasalso re v i ewed the UAQM Toolkit, re c o g n i zes itsvalue in developing compre h e n s i ve emission fac-tor databases and calculating multiple fuel scenar-ios. As part of the World Bank CAI initiative, theUAQM Toolkit has been used to pre p a re emissioni n ventories in Lima-Callao (Box 2) and the poten-tial for application is being looked at in Rio deJa n e i ro. The UAQM Toolkit is also being used toassist World Bank studies focusing on two-stro k evehicle emission studies in Delhi and Dh a k a .

The case study in B ox 3 s h ows how the UAQ MToolkit has recently been applied by Shell Gl o b a lSolutions to assess policy options to improve airquality in New Zealand. This study compared thep redicted total emissions (kilotonnes/year) fro mthe UAQM Toolkit with official figures from theNew Zealand Government. The results showe dthat the UAQM Toolkit produced pre d i c t e dvalues in line with official figures, with a dif-f e rence of 1% for NOx, 4% for CO and 4% forVOC.

C o n c l u s i o nTo produce effective air quality managementplans for rapidly expanding cities, policies need tobe based on a sound understanding of all sourc e sof emissions, be cost-effective and locally appro-priate, and be achieved through the deve l o p m e n tof strong relationships between the private andpublic sectors.

The IPIECA framew o rk has been developed tocommunicate these principles. It provides a stepby step approach to guide policy-makers thro u g ha stru c t u red approach to the assessment of policyoptions. IPIECA is working closely with theWorld Bank and partners in Clean Air In i t i a t i ve

cities to communicate the framew o rk thro u g hUAQM Toolkit capacity building work s h o p s .These activities are currently focused in So u t h

America, but IPIECA is also looking to wider usein Central and Southeast Asia. The UAQM To o l-kit is widely seen as a valuable tool for deve l o p i n gemission inve n t o ry databases and determiningc o s t - e f f e c t i ve emission reduction strategies tomeet air quality targets.

The IPIECA UAQM Toolkit was launched in1998, with original distribution limited to oili n d u s t ry re p re s e n t a t i ves in Latin America andSoutheast Asia and IPIECA member companies.As part of IPI E C A’s programme to actively part i-cipate in urban air quality management pro-grammes, the UAQM Toolkit is now available ton o n - p rofit organizations on request to the associ-t i o n’s Se c retariat in London.

A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t sI PIECA would like to thank Shell Global So l u-tions for permission to use results and graphs fro mtheir UAQM Toolkit case study paper on NewZealand. It would also like to thank Enstrat In t e r-

Table 1Examples of UAQM Toolkit data requirements for mobile and

stationary emission sources

Source Characterization of emission sources Factors affecting emissions

Mobile ◆ Passenger car data (population, % gasoline ◆ Proportion of second-hand importsemissions and diesel, size distribution) ◆ Average annual mileage and fuel data ◆ Commercial vehicles (LDV and HDV,1 buses) consumption

◆ Motorcycles (2T and 4T2) ◆ Emission factors with speed and emission ◆ Vehicle lifetime and scrappage rate degradation factors

◆ Cost data

Stationary ◆ Human population and energy demand ◆ Fuel type and properties used in domesticemissions per dwelling and industry sectorsdata ◆ Industrial activity, size (% thermal input) ◆ Power generation method (method,

and energy demand fuel, efficiency)◆ Power generation ◆ Factors affecting evaporative emissions◆ Inventory of stationary source evaporative emissions ◆ Cost data

1 Light duty and heavy duty vehicles.2 Two-stroke and four-stroke.

Box 3A new approach to emissions inventory modelling

The capabilities of the UAQM Toolkit in New Zealand Shell Global Solutions have been assess-ed using data from the New Zealand Government and Shell New Zealand (Lilley 2000).

As part of the project, a series of 20 emission control scenarios we re tested to observe theireffects on PM, SOx, NOx, CO, VOC and CO2 emissions up to 2025. The scenarios includedchanging automobile fuel specifications, introducing new vehicle technologies and traffic man-agement initiatives, and energy efficiency programmes. Of the scenarios studied, the gre a t e s temission reductions resulted from introducing Eu ro II vehicle emission limits and fuel specifi-cations in 2001, Eu ro III limits in 2003 and Eu ro IV limits in 2005. By 2025, this would re d u c ePM by 21%, NOx by 51% and CO by 25%.

T h ree outputs from the UAQM Toolkit are shown below. The Toolkit demonstrated thati n t roducing Eu ro II emission restrictions for diesel vehicles would be the most cost-effective ofthe 20 strategies examined.

The study highlighted the importance of deciding whether cost-effectiveness or total emis-sion reductions should be the driver behind air quality programmes. In this case, the scenariogiving the greatest reductions was not one of the top five cost-effective scenarios. The study clear-ly demonstrated the UAQM To o l k i t’s flexibility, its strength to assess alternative emission re d u c-tion strategies in terms of cost and effectiveness, and its value as a policy-making tool.


national Ltd and the IPIECA UAQM Wo rk i n gGroup for their comments on this article.

References Hawkes, A., M. Camarsa and J. Lemlin (1999) U r b a nAir Quality Management Toolkit Manuals 1-4. I P I E C A ,London. EPEFE (1995) Report on the European Programme onEmissions, Fuels and Engine Technologies, issued jointly byEUROPIA and ACEA. IPIECA (1999) Urban Air Quality Management SeriesVolume 1 – An approach to the management of urban airquality: local needs, local solutions.IPIECA (2000) Urban Air Quality Management SeriesVolume 2 – The preparation and application of pollutantemission inventories.Lilley, L.C. (2000) A new approach to emissions inven-tory modelling – assessing fuel and vehicle impacts on airquality. Air Pollution VIII, J.W.S. Longhurst, C.A. Breb-bia and H. Power (eds.), WIT Press, Southampton, Bos-t o n .Saville, S.B. (1993) Automotive options and air qualitymanagement in developing countries. Industry and Envi -ronment, Vol. 16, No. 1-2, pp. 32-36. For further information about the IPIECA fra m e -w o rk and UAQM Toolkit, contact D. Ma n s e l l -Moullin at [email protected] or at thea d d ress shown above. ◆




Community planning for disasters: UNEP’s APELL pro g r a m m e

U N E P ’s Aw a reness and Pre p a redness for Emergencies at Local Leve l( A PELL) programme assists disaster planning in urban areas. The APE L Lp ro g r a m m e’s purpose is to improve pre vention of, and response to, tech-nological accidents, especially in developing countries.

A PELL provides a stru c t u red, detailed description of how to deve l o pc o o rdinated, integrated and well-functioning emergency response plansfor local communities. These plans have two main parts: the “a w a re n e s s”function (provision of information to the community) and the “p re-p a re d n e s s” function (formulation of plans to protect people, pro p e rty andthe environment). Creation of an emergency response plan should in-vo l ve the whole community, including industry managers, local authori-ties and community leaders

Eve ry disaster, whatever its cause, can have environmental as well ashuman impacts. Disaster planning is critical for urban areas, which bring

together high concentrations of people with high densities of facilitiesthat use, store or make hazardous substances. Natural disasters like stormsand earthquakes can result in releases of dangerous materials from indus-trial and commercial sites. Sometimes major industrial accidents can becontained within the boundaries of a plant. In other cases they affect thes u r rounding area, with adverse short- or long-term impacts on life, pro-p e rty and the environment. The risks from accidents related to transportof dangerous goods by road, rail or pipeline, either through or close topopulated areas, can be especially great. By definition, there is no boun-d a ry fence in such cases. The extent of the damage, particularly from acci-dents, depends largely on the first re s p o n d e r s’ actions at the accident sceneand within the surrounding community.

Adequate response to such situations re q u i res cooperation betwe e nvarious institutions and individuals. This can be achieved only if the com-munity is aware of possible risks, and of the need for joint pre p a redness tocope with the consequences of accidents and disasters.

The APELL process has ten steps:1. identify emergency response participants and establish their ro l e s ,re s o u rces and concerns;2. evaluate hazards and risks that may result in emergency situations inthe community;3. have participants re v i ew their own emergency response plans to ensurea coordinated re s p o n s e ;4. identify re q u i red response tasks not cove red by existing plans;5. match these tasks to the re s o u rces of the identified part i c i p a n t s ;6. make the changes necessary to improve existing plans, integrate theminto an overall community plan and obtain agre e m e n t ;7. commit the integrated community plan to writing and obtain approv-al from local gove r n m e n t s ;8. educate participating groups about the integrated plan and ensure thatall emergency responders are trained;9. establish pro c e d u res for periodic testing, re v i ew and updating of the plan.10. educate the community about the integrated plan.

APELL as a tool for implementing Agenda 21The importance of pre ve n t i ve measures to protect the environment wasclearly identified in Agenda 21, particularly Chapter 19 (48), where re f e r-ence is made to activities that reduce technological risks. This chapterencourages local governments to

eliminate unacceptable or unreasonable risks and, to the extent economicallyfeasible, to reduce risks posed by toxic chemicals, by employing a bro a d-b a s e da p p roach involving a wide range of risk reduction options and by taking pre -c a u t i o n a ry measures derived from a bro a d-based life-c ycle analysis.

Among the activities recommended in 19 (49), governments should

De velop national policies and adopt the necessary re g u l a t o ry fra m e w o rk forp re vention of accidents, pre p a redness and response, inter alia, thro u g hl a n d-use planning, permit systems and re p o rting re q u i rements on accidents,and work with the OECD/UNEP international dire c t o ry of regional re s p o n s ec e n t res and the APELL pro g ra m m e .

A number of countries have adopted these objectives and intro d u c e dA PELL as the central component of their disaster management re g u l a-t i o n s .

UNEP Technical Re p o rt No. 12, Ha z a rd Identification and Eva l u a t i o nin a Local Community, p re p a red with the help of Sweden, discusses inm o re detail the steps communities can take to identify the risks they facewhen they deal with different types of disasters. It also presents case stu-dies and examples of risks posed by natural disasters, fires, chemical re a c-tions and incidents that pose more than one type of risk.

For more information, contact: UNEP DTIE, 39-43 quai André Ci t ro ë n ,75739 Paris Cedex 15, France; Tel +33 1 44 37 14 39; Fax +33 1 44 37 1474; E-mail [email protected]; http://www.uneptie.org. UNEP Te c h n i c a lRe p o rt No. 12 can be ord e red from SMI (Distribution Se rvices) Ltd, Tel. +441438 748111; Fax. +44 1438 748844; E-mail: En q u i [email protected]

Basic principles of the APELL process: communication and cooperation



La protection du patrimoine est devenue denos jours une activité importante de la vie despays. C’est un enjeu politique et économique

qui revient régulièrement dans les choix des diri-geants et des citoye n s .

Dans les villes, la conservation et l’utilisation dupatrimoine re l è ve d’enjeux fonciers et écono-miques encore plus importants que dans les zo n e srurales. Le patrimoine urbain, parce que plusp roche de nous et concentré dans des zones à fort evaleur foncière, est l’objet de passions et de débatsquotidiens. Son contenu a fini par déborder lesmonuments et palais pour englober quart i e r s ,habitations et bâtiments commerciaux, arc h i t e c-t u re récente.

Peut-on protéger tout et faut-il le faire ? Com-ment garder à une ville ou à un quartier historiqueson caractère sans le muséifier et en respectant lesbesoins de confort et d’accès aux facilités modernesde ses habitants ? Comment ne pas verser dans unromantisme façadiste ? Ce ne sont que quelques-unes des questions qui se posent à chaque fois quela protection du patrimoine urbain est abord é e .Pour y répondre, une rapide lecture historique de laconstitution des villes et de leur patrimoine sembleu t i l e .

Ju s q u’au XVIIIe siècle, on entendait par agglo-mération un entassement, une concentration.C’est à partir du XIXe siècle que le terme com-mença à signifier « ville » ; ce sens découle du faitd’ a g g l o m é rer des habitats humains dans un mêmelieu. L’agglomération représente bien le phénomè-ne urbain, issu du désir ou du besoin des humainsde vivre ensemble, d’une manière rappro c h é e ,concentrés en un même endroit. Ce besoin ou cedésir est à l’origine de la constitution des villes.

Déjà avant la pre m i è re ville, les hommes ava i e n td é c o u ve rt l’utilité de vivre en groupe, en un mêmelieu. Depuis la période des grandes tribus de chas-seurs, les menaces qui pesaient sur les humains lesa vaient poussés à se re g rouper et à évoluer en tri-bus plus ou moins organisées. Pro g re s s i vement, ilsont commencé à occuper des abris (grottes ouc a ves, failles, collines,…) et à les protéger par desenclos, à en décorer les murs de gravures ou dep e i n t u res ru p e s t re s .

C’est le développement de l’ a g r i c u l t u re qui aentraîné, sans doute vers 8000 av. J.C., la consti-tution des premiers vrais villages qui ne sont plusseulement l’agglomération de quelques huttesautour d’un point d’eau. Comme l’écrit Fe r n a n dBraudel dans M é m o i res de la Méditerranée 1, « L’homme est en train d’y devenir le “c o n n a i s s e u rdes secrets qui font germer le blé et obéir l’animal “,l’ é l e vage et l’ a g r i c u l t u re se substituent peu à peu à lachasse et à la cueillette des fruits sauvages. Du coup,l’homme s’ e n racine, ses villages ne bougent plus ets’ é l è vent sur leurs pro p res débris, formant aujourd’ h u iles collines artificielles bien connues des arc h é o l o g u e s ,les tells d’ Asie, les magoulas de Thessalonie, lestoumbas de Macédoine, les höyük de Tu rq u i e . »

Je voudrais retenir comme exemples des pre-m i è res urbanisations deux sites archéologiques dela Méditerranée orientale.

Le premier est en Tu rquie : Çatal Höyük. De sfouilles archéologiques ont permis de découvrirun vrai quartier avec des habitations mitoye n n e s ,re g roupées autour de plusieurs sanctuaires. Su rl’extérieur de l’agglomération, les murs des habi-tations protégeaient des rôdeurs et des assaillants.Seules des fenêtres hautes, inaccessibles sanséchelles, servaient sans doute à des archers pour la

défense du lieu. La circulation à l’intérieur se fai-sait par les toits, accessibles par des trappes.

Çatal Höyük était devenue une vraie ville ave cses terres agricoles où les habitants cultivaient unegrande variété de grains et d’ a r b res fruitiers. On yfabriquait de l’huile et de la bière et des animaux yétaient domestiqués. La re s s o u rce la plus impor-tante de la ville restait cependant le commerc e ,a vec un quasi monopole sur le commerce del’obsidienne qui provenait de deux volcans en acti-vité à sa proximité et qu’elle vendait à l’ouest del’Anatolie, à Chypre et au Levant. En échange,Çatal Höyük re c e vait silex et coquillages de Sy r i e ,et de la côte orientale de la Méditerranée, pierre s ,a l b â t re, marbre, cuivre, qui alimentaient un art i-sanat élaboré.

C’est surtout l’ a rt sacré, la richesse de ses lieuxcultuels qui fait la singularité de Çatal Höyük. Unmatériel très riche – reliefs et peintures sur plâtrefin, la déesse de la fécondité que l’on y re t ro u vetrès souvent – pousse à cro i re qu’une cert a i n eforme d’économie urbaine y était déjà assez déve-loppée pour autoriser l’utilisation d’un import a n tsurplus en faveur des sanctuaires de la ville.

C’est à la ville que l’ é volution de Çatal Höyükmène : division du travail, commerce avec l’ e x t é-r i e u r, division géographique de l’ a g g l o m é r a t i o npar quartiers rassemblés autour des sanctuaire s ,p rotection contre des agressions de l’ e x t é r i e u r.Tous les ingrédients sont là pour qu’éclose et sed é veloppe le phénomène urbain, base de notrec i v i l i s a t i o n .

Au t re lieu totalement différent, autre centre ded é veloppement pré-urbain précurseur des grandesm é t ropoles de l’ Orient : Pétra la nabatéenne, quasie n t i è rement taillée dans le grès tendre de ses mon-tagnes et dont elle a su utiliser la topographie pourson urbanisme, ses besoins en eau et sa pro t e c t i o nc o n t re les agressions extérieure s .

Pétra est née du commerce de l’encens et a étébâtie sans doute par les tribus de la région d’ A r a b i edu nord qui en faisaient le commerce et celui desépices entre l’Arabie He u reuse et le Monde Médi-terranéen. Comme à Çatal Höyük, ici encorel’économie était plurielle : agriculture déve l o p p é e ,re s s o u rces hydrauliques maîtrisées, artisanat, com-m e rce florissant avec le monde extérieur, re l i g i o nf o rtement établie. Tous les ingrédients pour assu-rer la durabilité de l’installation humaine dans unmême lieu étaient présents. L’occupation du sitede Pétra s’est poursuivie sans discontinuer depuisle deuxième millénaire av. J.C. jusqu’au VIIIe

siècle de notre ère lorsque Pétra a été détruite parun tremblement de terre. En t re-temps, elle aconnu le sort de plusieurs autres villes : périodes

Des villes et de leur patrimoine : origines et conditions de préserv a t i o n

Georges S. Zouain, directeur adjoint, Centre du patrimoine mondial, UNESCO, 7 place de Fontenoy, 75007 Paris, France ([email protected])

AbstractHow to promote both conservation and appropriate use of the urban heritage can presentpublic authorities with difficult choices. This article, which briefly considers how cities develop,suggests ways to establish a balance between use and preservation

RésuméLa conservation et l’utilisation du patrimoine urbain placent les responsables de la gestion desvilles devant des choix difficiles. L’article ci-dessous propose un court rappel historique de laconstitution des villes qui permet de dégager les conditions d’un équilibre entre l’usage du lieuet sa préservation.

Resumen El problema de fomentar tanto la preservación como el uso apropiado del legado urbano plan -tea a las ciudades alternativas complicadas. Este artículo, que presenta concisamente el desar -rollo de las ciudades, estudia diversos modos de establecer un equilibrio entre el uso y lapreservación histórica.



de gloire, occupations et changements de re l i g i o ns’y sont succédés.

Pétra est un étrange mélange de monumentsconcentrés dans une vallée étroite et taillés dans legrès local, avec des vestiges romains et by z a n t i n sque l’on commence à mettre à jour. La richesse deses temples, de ses voies principales et de sesmonuments funéraires, le génie et l’extrême com-plexité de son système hydraulique, démontre n tamplement l’ i m p o rtance de cette concentrationquasi-urbaine d’habitants ainsi que l’ i m p o rt a n c ede son économie et des échanges commerciaux etc u l t u rels qu’elle a entretenus avec ses voisins. A safaçon part i c u l i è re, Pétra est aussi une ville.

Une ville, c’est ainsi le résultat d’une multitudede facteurs qui, combinés, fournissent les condi-tions nécessaires (mais pas toujours suffisantes)pour l’éclosion d’une forme de vie urbaine. Ce quifait une ville, c’est d’ a b o rd et avant tout une éco-nomie capable de la créer et de l’alimenter conti-nuellement. Pour qu’une agglomération, deconcentration d’habitats ruraux devienne ville, illui faut les moyens nécessaires : surplus écono-mique, spécialisation des métiers, législation et/ouorganisation sociale, religion, système politique.Combinés, ces moyens mèneront pro g re s s i ve m e n tà la spécialisation spatiale : lieux de culte, espacespublics, lieux de rassemblement, lieux de pouvo i r,m a rchés et commerces, industries, etc. Pro g re s s i-vement, l’espace sera modelé pour accueillir lesd i verses fonctionnalités qui font la ville. Des ru e s ,

des places, des avenues, assure ront la communica-tion entre ces différents espaces et sépare ront enq u a rtiers les différentes parties de la ville qui conti-nuera à grandir aussi longtemps que son rôle éco-nomique, politique, religieux ou culturel dure r a .

Fernand Braudel explique fort bien ce pro c e s-sus de constitution des villes2 :« Les civilisations naissent au long de fleuves qu’il afallu discipliner pour que se mette en place, ave cl’irrigation artificielle, la saisie des terres limoneuses,faciles à cultive r, d’une fertilité spontanément re n o u -velée. Le résultat est à la mesure de la peine : la nais -sance, à la fois, d’une force globale sans égale et d’ u n esujétion évidente des individus. Ces disciplines nep e u vent s’édifier qu’ a vec des réseaux de villes qui nais -sent des surplus agricoles de campagnes proches.

Il a fallu, en outre, pour que le dialogue inégalvilles-campagnes fût assuré, une certaine modern i t édes liens économiques, une certaine division du tra -vail, une obéissance sociale fondée sur une re l i g i o nexigeante, une royauté de droit divin. Tout cela, lareligion, la royauté, le prince, la ville, le canal d’ i r r i -gation, l’ é c r i t u re sans quoi aucun ord re ne peut êtret ransmis au loin, aucune comptabilité mise enm é m o i re, tout cela a dû être construit à neuf.

Le reste se déduit normalement. Ces sociétésurbaines ont eu des besoins impérieux : sel, bois dec o n s t ruction, pierre (même la plus ord i n a i re). Pu i s ,comme toute société qui se sophistique et se perf e c -tionne, elles s’en sont créé de nouveaux qui devien -nent bientôt nécessaires : l’ o r, l’argent, le cuivre ,

l’étain, l’huile, le vin, les pierres précieuses, l’ i vo i re ,les bois ra res, les parfums … Ces biens, la sociétériche ira les chercher au loin. Bref, l’ é ventail des tra -fics s’ o u v re tôt, largement. Il y a ainsi ru p t u re dec e rcles économiques qui, autrement, auraient pu sef e rmer sur eux-mêmes. »

Spatialement, une ville est ainsi une combinai-son de constructions ve r n a c u l a i res d’habitat et dec o m m e rce avec des monuments fonctionnels re l i-gieux, funéraires ou publics et des voies connectantces éléments entre eux. L’ é volution dans le tempsde l’ e n v i ronnement urbain peut se résumer dansles dessins qui suivent. Du point de vue de l’ é c o-nomie, c’est un ensemble complexe d’ a c t i v i t é sallant depuis l’ a rtisanat jusqu’au commerce et auxa u t res types de services et d’échanges. Une ville,c’est aussi un système économique communiquanta vec son environnement pour satisfaire certains deses besoins, notamment alimentaires et énergé-tiques, échangeant des services et des produits éla-borés avec la production de cet enviro n n e m e n t .

N o t e s1 Ouvrage posthume publié aux Editions de Fa l-lois, Paris 1998, pages 56 et suiva n t e s .

2 Idem, cf. note 1.

3 Leon Krier “The Re c o n s t ruction of the Eu ro-pean City - An Outline for a Chart e r”, in In t e r-national Architect Ma g a z i n e ( I UA), No 7, 1985.

◆

des constructions vernaculaires

+ des monuments fonctionnels

= une ville



La Alhambra y Granada: turismo y sostenibilidadMiguel Angel Troitiño Vinuesa, Departamento de Geografía Humana, Facultad de Geografía e Historia,

Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid, Spain

La Alhambra y Granada see n f rentan, al igual que otro sdestinos de turismo cultural,al reto de integrar el turismoen el marco de estrategiasi n n ovadoras en el campo dela conservación, gestión ybuen uso del patrimonio cul-tural. En este marco se situael Estudio Previo para laRevisión del Plan Especial dela Alhambra y Alijares, cuyom a rco de reflexión y deacción ha tenido como re f e-rencias básicas. La sostenibi-lidad turística, la toma enconsideración de las motiva-ciones de los visitantes, lasingularidad del «territorioA l h a m b r a», la calificación dela visita en sus dimensionesculturales y de experiencia vital y la búsqueda de una modelo de re l a c i o n e samables de la Alhambra con Granada y su entorno territorial1.

La singularidad del «Territorio Alhambra»El territorio Alhambra-Alijares configura una realidad de gran complejidady singularidad en términos urbanísticos, funcionales, paisajísticos ymedioambientales. Se trata de un ámbito diferenciado físicamente, que haconocido transformaciones diversas a lo largo de los siglos y que necesita demiradas diversas, al ser un paisaje modelado por el hombre en momentosc u m b re del refinamiento urbanístico y en un emplazamiento con unascondiciones geográficas excepcionales.

La diferenciación, tanto física como simbólica, constituye uno de losp i l a res de su configuración como hito turístico-cultural. Se trata de un ter-ritorio de cruces y también de equilibrios precarios donde resulta funda-mental su entendimiento como ciudad palaciega, diferenciada en elconjunto de la ciudad histórica. De ahí que su utilización como re c u r s oturístico, nunca debería desvirtuar la permeabilidad secuencial por re c i n-t o s .

Una lectura dinámica de la funcionalidad, desde los orígenes del conjun-to monumental hasta el momento actual (ciudad real y administrativa, re s i-dencia real, espacio popular, monumento a re c u p e r a r, centro de serv i c i o sculturales y foco de atracción turística), nos ayuda a una re i n t e r p retación dela Alhambra como una ciudad compleja y a superar el efecto negativo deuna simplista lectura como palacio árabe.

La diversidad y complejidad paisajística guardan estrecha relación con lasvariadas formas de ocupación humana que se han ido acomodando al marc ofísico que las acoge, una colina alta, alargada e individualizada por la incisiónp rofunda de los ríos Da r ro y Geníl. El cruce de múltiples lecturas, urbanís-ticas, paisajísticas, funcionales, medioambientales, culturales y simbólicas,a p o rta las claves para construir un modelo de relaciones y de gestión válidopara las necesidades de la la Alhambra y Granada en el siglo XXI.

El recinto monumental: un espacio urbano de múltiplesf u n c i o n e sEl conjunto monumental Alhambra-Generalife y su entorno constituye nunas piezas urbanas singulares y unas realidades funcionales complejas, sed i f e rencian físicamente de Granada pero ello no significa ausencia de re l a-ciones. Estas relaciones han ido cambiando con el transcurrir del tiempo,pasando de ser las propias de una ciudad palatina a las de un hito turístico-c u l t u r a l .

La conformación histó-rica del recinto de laAlhambra es el re s u l t a d ode la interacción de tre sfunciones básicas que per-duran hasta el siglo XIX:f o rt a l eza militar, sitio re a ly ciudadela civil. La decla-ración de la Alhambracomo Monumento Na-cional (1870) marca elinicio de una nueva etapaen la intervención y en eluso del conjunto monu-mental, hasta configurarseen un hito turístico-c u l t u-ral, que recibe 2.200.000visitantes al año.

En los últimos años sehan potenciado los aspec-tos relacionados con la

función básica del monumento, en tanto que soporte material de la memo-ria histórica de la colectividad y de la experiencia estética de los visitantes.Esta función se despliega en cuatro dimensiones: la investigación, la cele-bración de eventos culturales y actividades educativas, la oferta museísticay fundamentalmente la visita turístico cultural.

La Alhambra, incluida en la Lista del Patrimonio Cultural de la Hu m a-nidad (1984), es un ámbito privilegiado para la visita turístico-cultural,como lo demuestra la visita de más de dos millones de personas al año.De n t ro del recinto monumental conviven actividades pro d u c t i vas re l a c i o-nadas con el comercio turístico, la restauración y el alojamiento.

La accesibilidad y la movilidad: un ámbito de conflicto yuna necesidad de racionalidad

La relación de la Alhambra con el resto de Granada sigue la tradiciónoriental de las ciudadelas que forman parte de una ciudad mayo r. Su dife-renciación física, que no aislamiento, se fundamenta en razones topográfi-cas, urbanísticas y funcionales. Las conexiones con la ciudad se organizana través de un eje relacionado con la funcionalidad histórica, plazaNu e va-Cuesta de Go m é rez-Alamedas, y otro con la moderna funcionali-dad turística, el conocido como acceso Su r.

El acceso en vehículo privado se realiza fundamentalmente por el accesoSur y el aparcamiento del Ge n e r a l i f e es utilizado por mas de 200.000 turis-mos al año. Del orden de 800.000 visitantes acceden al recinto de la Alham-bra en vehículo privado; los autobuses turísticos aportan del orden de mediomillón de visitantes; las líneas de transporte público a la Alhambra son uti-lizadas por unos 700.000 viajeros al año; los taxis transportan del orden decien mil viajeros y los flujos peatonales también son importantes, en días demáxima frecuentación son del orden de 1.500 personas las que subenandando por la Cuesta de Go m é rez y unas 2.000 las que descienden.

El modelo actual de accesibilidad, solventando algunos problemas pen-dientes y mejorando las conexiones peatonales y urbanísticas con el entor-no, puede permitir la configuración de un sistema razonable y sostenible dem ov i l i d a d .

Presión turística y capacidad de acogida: los riesgos de las a t u r a c i ó nEl conjunto de la Alhambra constituye, con cerca de 2.200.000 visitantesal año, uno de los hitos turísticos más importantes de España, estandopróximo al límite de su capacidad de acogida, estimada legalmente en2.900.000 visitantes al año.

Granada en 1563-65 con la Alhambra y la Alcazaba Qadima (grabado de J. Hoefnagel)

sigue en la página 74 ☞



A nivel general la ocupación de la Alhambra está al 70% de sus posibi-lidades. Los días con un nivel de aforo superior al 90% se acercan a unt e rcio y por pases horarios, cerca de la mitad superan el umbral del 95% deocupación.

Los Palacios Nazaríes, el hito de re f e rencia simbólica del conjunto de laA l h a m b r a , con una capacidad física estimada en 1998 de 444 visitantescada media hora, son el punto de re f e rencia de la gestión de los flujos devisitantes. Por el efecto acumulación, la presión real de visitantes se sitúa-ba en 600 personas como media a lo largo del día, y en horas punta sepodian alcanzar las 800. Para no superar la capacidad de acogida, el Pa t ro-nato de la Alhambra ha reducido las personas que acceden cada mediahora y ha aumentado el horario de visita.

Los espacios más visitados son los Palacios Nazaríes, aunque en momen-tos de aforo completo se tiende a visitar todas las partes del conjunto. Lam a yor aglomeración se produce en las horas centrales del día, con unvolumen total de visitantes acumulados en el interior del recinto monu-mental, en días de saturación, que puede estimarse en 4.000 personas.

El nivel medio de gasto es bastante bajo, el 46% gasta menos de y 5.000pesetas, pero tambien es de reseñar que un 15% gasta mas de 15.000 pese-tas al día. En la Alhambra, incluyendo la entrada, el grueso de los visi-tantes, un 79,30%, gasta menos de 2.500 pesetas. Los visitantes va l o r a nmuy positivamente el nivel de ruido y el comportamiento de los visitantesy no se detecta una especial preocupación por el problema de la conges-tión.

La atención y el trato por parte del personal de la Alhambra re s u l t a nmuy bien va l o r a d o s , al igual que la limpieza y el estado de conservación delre c i n t o. La valoración de la visita a los Palacios Nazaríes, a pesar de los pro-blemas de saturación, es muy positiva, al igual que el grado de satisfaccióncon la visita al conjunto de la Alhambra.

El colectivo de visitantes a la Alhambra y Granada es muy hetero g é n e o ,en general, se corresponde con las características propias de un turismo demasas donde el factor cultural es una componente más entre las motiva-ciones para viajar.

Cuestiones resueltas y problemas pendientesLa gestión de un conjunto histórico, sea un recinto monumental o el cen-t ro histórico de una ciudad, es una tarea compleja y es normal que se plan-tee nuevas cuestiones y debates. La Alhambra no debería ser un armaa r rojadiza entre administraciones y agentes urbanos con intereses, políti-cos o económicos, no siempre coincidentes.

La creación del actual Pa t ronato de la Alhambra y Generalife, en 1986,ha abierto un nuevo ciclo en la compleja y, con frecuencia, conflictiva ges-tión del Conjunto Monumental. El Plan Especial de Protección y Re f o r-ma Interior de la Alhambra y Alijares, aprobado en 1989, ha tenido que

a b o rd a r, con resultado desigual, las problemáticas relacionadas con la ges-tión urbanística de la Alhambra y su entorno. Con independencia depequeñas cuestiones, los problemas de acceso a la Alhambra y la re g u l a-ción de tráficos y aparcamientos cuentan con las infraestructuras adecua-d a s .

Las acciones desarrolladas por el Pa t ronato, rehabilitación del palaciode Carlos V, venta anticipada de entradas, audiogias, contigentación deg rupos de visita, etc., han permitido re f o rzar la funcionalidad cultural ycualificar la visita pública. Las acciones previstas en el Plan Especial y lasi n versiones del Pa t ronato en labores de investigación, conservación, re s-tauración y rehabilitación han permitido avanzar en una línea de conser-vación activa, que persigue compatibilizar la visita pública, algo más dedos millones de visitantes al año, con la protección y conservación delpatrimonio cultural y territorial del conjunto de la Alhambra y los Ali-j a res.

Al turismo hay que asignarle el papel que le corresponde, al ser un motorde la economía de Granada, una ciudad con 12.000 plazas hoteleras yn i veles medios de ocupación superiores al 70%, y dotarle de las infrae-s t ructuras y de los equipamientos que re q u i e re. Los problemas funcionalesdel recinto monumental de la Alhambra, parte fundamental de la imageny simbología cultural y turística de Granada, no deberían plantearse deforma aislada, ni sólo en relación con el entorno urbanístico inmediato.Se trata de una cuestión urbana mayor y por ello debe situarse en el contex-to de una estrategia urbana global donde los temas relacionados con lac o n s e rvación del patrimonio, la accesibilidad y la movilidad, el turismo yla cultura ocupen un lugar destacado.

Granada tiene que asumir la singularidad física, simbólica y funcional dela Alhambra y no pedir al conjunto monumental mas de lo que este puedey debe dar, pues se trata de un recurso muy frágil, que por sus va l o res uni-

versales está bajo la tutela de la UNESCO.El Pa t ronato de la Alhambra permite uni-dad de gestión y está apostando por unaestrategia cualitativa, consensuada con losd i versos agentes sociales; pues pedirledemasiado a la Alhambra significa ave n t u-rarse por el peligroso camino de la insoste-nibilidad, tanto cultural como turística.

1 Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife( 1 9 9 9 ): Estudio Previo de Revisión delPlan Especial de la Al h a m b ra y Al i j a re s.Equipo Técnico: Miguel Angel Troitiño( d i rector), Bolores Brandis, Isabel delRio, Javier Gutiérrez, Manuel de la Calle,María Ga rcía, Fernando Ma rtín, Pi l a rLobo, Maria del Mar Alonso y TrinidadC o rtés. Grupo de In vestigación “Tu r i s-mo y Ciudades Hi s t ó r i c a s”. De p a rt a m e n-to de Geografía Humana de la Universi-dad Complutense de Madrid.

Evolución de los vistantes a la Alhambra

Volumen de vistantes y capacidad de acogida (visita diurna) 1998

Total visit. diurna

Aforo visita diurna

☞



“Measuring up?”: implementing EMS in urban are a s

J. Bilodeau, Director General, Administration Directorate, Environment Canada, 10 Wellington St., 4th Floor, K1A 0H3, Hull, Québec, Canada

The environment is a shared legacy thatre q u i res collective solutions reached thro u g hinternational cooperation. Domestic actions

alone are not enough to protect the health of ac o u n t ry’s citizens. All the world’s nations need topool their efforts to ensure a healthier enviro n-ment. International cooperation increases eachc o u n t ry’s ability to deal with the growing numberof common environmental problems, which canlead to better global solutions.

In the next century, one of the world’s largeste n v i ronmental challenges will be cities and theiri n c reasing populations. Coping with the incre a s ein urban populations will re q u i re better manage-ment of the environment and its re s o u rces. On eway countries are improving their enviro n m e n t a lp e rformance is through implementation of En v i-ronmental Management Systems (EMS).

Good management and improved enviro n-mental performance are assets for city facilities, orany organization for that matter, in terms of build-ing their credibility and accountability with re g a rdto the public at large. As a result, EMS has becomea widely discussed topic in environmental circ l e s .Many businesses are now certified for the In t e r-national Organization for St a n d a rd i z a t i o n’s ISO9000 standard and are moving tow a rds ISO14001 certification. The trend from ISO 9000 to

ISO 14001 certification is evident in gove r n m e n t sand urban areas around the world. They are start-ing to see the environmental and financial benefitsof implementing an EMS, as well as the oppor-tunities to do so.

T h e re are numerous definitions of enviro n m e n-tal management systems. For the purposes of thisa rticle, an EMS is defined as “a systematica p p roach to incorporating environmental consid-erations into eve ry business decision. It prov i d e sg overnments with a framew o rk for managing theire n v i ronmental agendas and for tracking, eva l u a t-ing and communicating environmental perf o r m-ance. An integral part of the overall managements t ru c t u re of an organization, an EMS helps ensurethat major environmental risks and liabilities arep roperly identified, minimized and managed. Thed e velopment and application of an EMS is a dy-namic and continuous (life-long) improve m e n tp rocess and re p resents a long-term commitmentto environmentally responsible management.”1

EMS implementation and the bottom lineWhile there are health, legal and ethical re a s o n sfor implementing EMS, there is also a stro n gfinancial argument in its favour that motiva t e smany cities to move forw a rd in this are a .

Urban areas and governments notice a decre a s ein costs as they re q u i re fewer materials to do theirs e rvices and activities. With an increasing num-ber of global companies re g i s t e red under ISO14001, which is an internationally re c o g n i ze ds t a n d a rd, there are fewer costs for meeting differ-ent product standards. Operational duplication isreduced. These savings can then be re i n vested bycities in future projects.

Studies have shown that when a businessi m p roves its corporate environmental practices,s h a re h o l d e r s’ wealth increases. A company that isnot at risk for environmental liabilities is morea t t r a c t i ve to investors. Indeed, a growing numberof investors are actively seeking out companiesthat demonstrate environmental responsibility forethical as well as financial reasons. At the sametime, a growing number of governments andurban areas, especially in the United Kingdom, arep romoting the use of products from ISO 14001c e rtified companies.

T h e re is also reason to suggest that an urbana rea encountering legal problems with a part i c u l a rfacility has a better chance of avoiding or re d u c i n gthe probability of financial liability if it can proveit was following environmentally sound pro c e d-u res such as ISO 14001.

EMS: A five-phase process T h e re are five phases in the EMS process: com-mitment and policy; planning; implementation;m e a s u rement and evaluation; and re v i ew andcontinual improve m e n t .

Commitment and policy are the cornerstonesof a successful EMS. Initial senior managements u p p o rt is crucial, not only in terms of ensuringthe necessary financial and human re s o u rces totake the EMS through to completion, but also inencouraging communications and enthusiasm inall parts of the urban department as it move st h rough to the certification process. At the Cana-dian Federal De p a rtment of En v i ronment (likemany other departments of the Federal Gove r n-ment), EMS has become an essential element ofour Sustainable De velopment Strategy (SDS), theaction plan all federal departments and agenciesa re re q u i red to provide to Parliament show i n gh ow they integrate environmental, economic andsocial considerations into policies, pro g r a m m e sand operations.

Be f o re launching an EMS, a city shouldconduct an Initial En v i ronmental Re v i ew (IER)to establish the performance baseline upon whichit will improve. The IER is an essential founda-tion for planning and implementing an EMS, as it

AbstractUntil recently, governments and urban areas were concerned mainly with responsible man -agement of public funds. This did not necessarily extend to environmental issues. With the cur -rent trend towards a more environmentally responsible society, a closer look is being given tothe emerging ISO 14001standards. International cooperation increases the ability to addressthe growing number of common environmental problems, leading to better global solutions.

RésuméRécemment encore, la préoccupation majeure des gouvernements et des autorités locales étaitla gestion responsable des fonds publics, préoccupation qui ne s’étendait pas nécessairementaux questions d’environnement. L’évolution actuelle vers une société écologiquement plus res -ponsable a amené ces autorités à s’intéresser de plus près aux toutes nouvelles normes ISO14001. Grâce à la coopération internationale, la capacité de faire face aux problèmes d’envi -ronnement communs, toujours plus nombreux, se développe.

ResumenHasta hace poco, una de las mayores preocupaciones de gobiernos y municipalidades era lagestión responsable de los fondos públicos. Sin embargo, las prioridades no se extendían nece -sariamente a los asuntos medioambientales. En la actualidad, la sociedad se está volviendomás responsable en materia ambiental y tanto los gobiernos como las municipalidades tie -nen la vista puesta en los nuevos estándares ISO 14001. La cooperación internacional contri -buye a incrementar la capacidad para hacer frente a los numerosos problemas ambientalescomunes, que a su vez permite encontrar mejores soluciones a escala mundial.



will indicate elements of the strategy thata l ready exist. An IER consists of a series ofquestions pertaining to areas of operationwithin a city or government department. Fo rexample, an IER can look at questions of loca-tion (environmentally sensitive areas), com-munity support, environmental impacts( p roducts, services, activities) and training. Aninitial environmental re v i ew can also be bene-ficial in determining whether employee train-ing programmes are adequate or in need ofi m p rovement. After conducting an IER,many urban areas find they are further alongthe path to EMS than expected, a discove rythat is both encouraging and cost saving.

Once an urban area or government decidesto develop an EMS, it needs to create a thor-ough and detailed plan for the various stagesof implementation. The plan should be suffi-ciently flexible not only to address future liabili-ties, but also to capture possible business orre i n vestment opportunities that may ariset h roughout implementation. The implementa-tion plan must be communicated to staff at alll e vels, clearly identifying their roles and re s p o n s i-bilities and ensuring that they are understood andaccepted by eve ryone within the department. Infact, employee awareness and training are keycomponents of any EMS implementation plan.Me a s u res should be taken to keep staff up-to-dateon the latest greening initiatives, policies and pro-c e d u res, and to encourage their personal commit-ment to effective environmental management.

Once a plan is in place, senior managementmust measure and monitor the pro g ress of imple-mentation. Senior management refers to the per-son(s) who have exe c u t i ve responsibility for anorganization, such as facility manager, re g i o n a lm a n a g e r, superv i s o r, director or mayo r. Thisa l l ows any adjustments to be made early on,b e f o re they become major problems. The mea-s u rement and evaluation stage is also an exc e l l e n to p p o rtunity for good news to be shared with staff.Ac c o rding to the ISO, a city should re v i ew andcontinually improve its EMS with the objective ofi m p roving its overall environmental performance.

North American contextWhen governments first became more enviro n-mentally responsible approximately 20 years ago,they proceeded without any real stru c t u re, oftendepending on the goodwill of enviro n m e n t a l l yconscious employees. This worked on an indi-vidual basis in parts of an organization, but therewas not an ove r a rching stru c t u re in place toa d d ress issues across the organization or to addre s sall environmental issues or opport u n i t i e s .

In the early 1990s the Canadian gove r n m e n tc reated the Code of Federal En v i ro n m e n t a lSt ew a rd s h i p, which introduced more stru c t u re dguidelines requiring all departments to deve l o pe n v i ronmental action plans. These plans indicat-ed how each department would meet the com-mitments made in the Code and became the basisof a future environmental management system.

The Government of Canada uses an EMS,based on ISO 14004, as a tool to ensure that

major environmental risks and liabilities are pro p-erly identified, minimized and managed, prov i d-ing stru c t u re and consistency to the gre e n i n gp rocess. In the case of En v i ronment Canada (EC),it ensures the consistent and diligent enviro n-mental management of all EC facilities and oper-ations. It also helps integrate enviro n m e n t a lconsiderations into overall management andplanning. It improves the environmental per-formance of a depart m e n t’s operations, identifiesa reas of legal non-compliance, demonstrates duediligence, and ensures a management system thatcan be audited. Fi n a l l y, it offers a stru c t u re thatencourages invo l vement of all employees in thed e p a rt m e n t’s responsibilities on a day-to-dayb a s i s .

En v i ronment Canada has the primary re s p o n-sibility for administering legislation pertaining tothe environment. It is also the Federal Gove r n-m e n t’s technical expert on certain enviro n m e n t a lmatters. Although EC is not the leader of EMS,within the Government of Canada it is lookedupon by other departments as a role model foraction on environmental re s p o n s i b i l i t y. Fo rexample, the Office of Federal En v i ro n m e n t a lSt ew a rdship (1992-97) was established to coord i n-ate, promote and facilitate adoption of the Codeof En v i ronmental St ew a rd s h i p.2 The Office alsoo f f e red workshops, ranging from enviro n m e n t a lassessment to water reduction and enviro n m e n t a lrecognition programmes. This series of work s h o p swas open to other departments and officials fro mlocal governments. En v i ronment Canada contin-ues to make the information available thro u g hother courses it offers on EMS and the greening ofg overnment operations.

These workshops are one way the Fe d e r a lGovernment of Canada can educate and influencep e o p l e’s behaviour and purchasing strategies. TheFederal Government is one of the largest ow n e r sof land and purchasers of goods and services. Thismay be similar to the case in many cities. Wherethe government is the largest landow n e r, withsignificant purchasing power within the com-m u n i t y, it can also have an impact on the employ-ment market and create demand for moree n v i ronmental products, services and industries.Individuals who work for the local gove r n m e n tmay be invo l ved in decision-making pro c e s s e s

that can affect their own work and behaviourpatterns, e.g. separating waste for re c yc l i n gand reducing use of electricity. These actionsand others can also have a spin-off impact onthe city when they leave the office.

When governments implement new poli-cies and ways of doing business, it will have aneffect on the products and services they pur-chase. Since many purchases will be madet h rough local businesses, demand will be puton them to provide the necessary products. Ifbusinesses don’t currently carry the pro d u c t sto meet these new re q u i rements, they will edu-cate themselves and begin to stock these goodsin order to maintain their business. When theg overnment begins purchasing with the envi-ronment in mind, this has an impact on busi-nesses and cities that interact with them.

Decisions and strategies used at one level ofg overnment can serve as an incentive and challengeto other levels, and vice versa. Over time there willbe increased transfer of knowledge and informa-tion flow between the various levels of gove r n m e n tconcerning their environmental management sys-t e m s .

By sharing best practices, governments can helpi m p rove employee awareness and employee invo l-vement in the EMS process and learn from others’experiences. Although full implementation of anEMS, especially in large organizations, is a long-term commitment (approximately five to seve nyears), it will also produce widespread enviro n-mental and economic gains.

The US En v i ronmental Protection Agencyc reated a pilot project on EMS involving seve nmunicipalities, one county and one state agency.This pilot was completed in 1997, and the EPA isw o rking on a second one. Results show that it isfeasible to apply EMS to facilities managed bylocal governments. An EMS is seen as an ex-t remely useful tool for managing enviro n m e n t a lissues, promoting compliance and pollution pre-vention approaches, increasing enviro n m e n t a la w a reness and stew a rd s h i p, and improving opera-tional efficiency and control. In the United St a t e s ,p a rticipants in one city we re able to analyze andconsolidate their compliance issues to the pointw h e re only eight air quality permits we re re q u i re dinstead of 23. This action alone saved the city US$ 16,000 per ye a r.

Canadian urban examplesIn the Canadian context, local governments arenot legislated by the Federal Government. Theurban managers of these departments have aresponsibility for many facilities in their jurisdic-tion, including water, wastew a t e r, sewage, trans-p o rt and security. It may not be feasible toimplement an EMS across an entire city stru c t u reat the same time, but this could be achieved on afacility or operational basis. Through a phaseda p p roach based on priority and re s o u rce leve l s ,local governments will gradually address all issuesto improve the water, air and health of the are a’sinhabitants.

In Canada, several local governments andurban areas have implemented an EMS. The



Regional Municipality of Yo rk, part of the gre a t e rm e t ropolitan area of To ronto, Ontario (popula-tion 4,000,000) is aiming tow a rds ISO 14001registration at four of its facilities by 2001. TheYo rk - Durham Sewage System (YDSS) began thep rocess in the summer of 1999 and plans to bere g i s t e red by the spring of 2000 Once this firstregistration is completed, the Municipality willbegin the process with the Yo rk Region Wa s t e-water Treatment Plants, the South Urban Are a(Lake Ontario) Water System and the Su rface andGroundwater Sy s t e m .

K i t c h e n e r - Waterloo (population 433,000), atwin-city area west of To ronto, certified itsWaste Management Centre in June 1998. Thiswas the first municipal site in Canada to bere g i s t e red under ISO 14001. Due to its experi-ence with EMS implementation and cert i f i c a-tion, Kitchener-Waterloo has re c e i ved manyinquiries from other municipalities, both na-tionally and internationally, concerning the les-sons learned.

The above municipalities have either certifiedor are in the process of certifying certain facili-ties. Meanwhile, Calgary, Alberta (population843,000), is examining the possibility of certi-fying the entire city. Officials are in the processof looking at certification of all 13 operatingentities as well as one covering the corporatel e vel. Calgary plans to have the certification pro-cess completed between 2002 and 2004.

T h rough partnership arrangements, En v i ro n-ment Canada has been able to share the Gove r n-ment of Canada’s experience, best practices andtools in re g a rd to greening of government opera-tions and EMS with various international gove r n-ments, both urban and federal. For example, theGovernment of Canada gave a workshop in Me x i-co on implementing EMS at the national leve l .On 22 Fe b ru a ry 1999, the Mexican gove r n m e n treleased a Presidential De c ree calling for the adop-tion of austerity and budgetary discipline, withthe goal of promoting optimal and effective use ofpublic re s o u rces In part i c u l a r, the De c re e’s 20thand 21st articles called for measures to incre a s eenergy efficiency and implement EMS in alld e p a rtments of the Federal Government. Me x i c ohas now taken this approach and is bringing it tostate and local governments through va r i o u sw o rk s h o p s .

In Hu n g a ry, En v i ronment Canada worked withboth UNEP IETC and South Africa’s Po t c h e f -s t room Un i versity on a workshop to provide prac-tical training concerning EMS application in urbansettings. Pa rticipants included deputy mayo r s ,senior environmental officers, municipal dire c t o r sand other urban professionals from Eastern Eu ro-pean countries. The workshop dealt with topicssuch as Local Agenda 21, EMS principles (history,b a c k g round and policy), understanding the legalre q u i rements of EMS, the various aspects of an IERand an environmental management pro g r a m m e(EMP), monitoring and measurement, trainingmethods, networking with others from va r i o u surban areas, and international case studies. Ot h e rsessions of this course are also planned for 2000-01in various regions of the world.

Challenges of EMS implementationA city can face many challenges when implemen-ting an EMS. There is an institutional challenge,as some laws pre vent countries from intro d u c i n ge n v i ronmental clauses into pro c u rement specifi-cations. Bu d g e t a ry challenges occur as people seekto purchase environmentally responsible items fora department within budget guidelines.

It is not always easy to integrate enviro n m e n t a lconsiderations into a depart m e n t’s priorities.Communicating environmental priorities tovarious levels of decision-makers, who do notalways communicate freely with each other, canbe difficult. This can be accomplished through thec reation of an EMS newsletter or web site, sendingdaily updates via E-mail or hosting workshops inthe lobby so that employees have an opport u n i t yto view the environmental changes occurring inthe department. EMS implementation re q u i re sg overnments to become more transparent and toencourage development of a flexible work f o rc e ,open to new stru c t u res and technology. Im p l e-menting an EMS does not necessarily create extraw o rk, but it will create a new culture and the needto find new ways of executing tasks.

In the manufacturing sector, ISO cert i f i c a t i o nis applied to a particular product and its re l a t e dp roduction process – both inputs and outputs. Itis more difficult to apply these principles at ag overnment level, where the end result is not ap a rticular product. In these cases, local and cen-tral governments could look at implementing anEMS in targeted operational areas rather thana c ross entire departments. They should re g a rdEMS as having many stages that can be imple-mented over time. For example, the De p a rt m e n tof National Defence (DND) recently announcedthat it has re c e i ved ISO 14001 certification forone of its Canadian Fo rces Supply Depot (CFSD)in Mo n t real, Quebec. DND hopes to certify asimilar supply depot in Edmonton, Alberta, by2002. By choosing a more gradual process forimplementing certification, the department canre v i ew its pro g ress and make any necessary adjust-ments.

Global examplesEn v i ronmental Management Systems, especiallythose stru c t u red around the concept of ISO14001, are a global phenomenon. Be t ween 1997and 1998, Finland certified its Finnish Fo rest andPa rk Se rvice, Helsinki City Tr a n s p o rt’s Bus Tr a f f i cUnit, Helsinki Me t ropolitan Area Council Wa s t eManagement and the Defence Fo rce Lieve s t u o reDepot. In the Netherlands, EMS has been in placesince 1998, when the third National En v i ro n-mental Policy Plan was published. Within theDutch government, there are incentives for indus-tries to begin EMS implementation. A companyable to demonstrate the pre l i m i n a ry stages ofEMS will in most cases encounter flexibility inlicensing laws. The United Kingdom has re c e i ve dISO 14001 certification for the De p a rtments ofEn v i ronment and Tr a n s p o rt, the Regional He a d-q u a rters buildings, the De p a rtment of Ec o n o m i cDe ve l o p m e n t’s Industrial Science Centre inNo rthern Ireland and the Scottish Office. In Sw i t-

zerland, Swisscom and Die Post have been cert i-f i e d .3

In the US in 1997, seven municipalities, onecounty and one state organization completed anISO 14001 EMS In i t i a t i ve. This initiative wass p o n s o red by USEPA’s Wa s t ewater Ma n a g e m e n tand Office of Compliance. The two-year pro j e c tp rovided small and medium-sized gove r n m e n td e p a rtments the opportunity to implement anISO 14001. Pa rticipants invo l ved in this pro j e c twe re: the Town of Londonderry, New Ha m p s h i re( De p a rtment of Public Wo rks); the City ofL owell, Massachusetts (Wa s t ewater Tre a t m e n tFacility); Wayne County, Michigan (wastew a t e rt reatment facility); the City of Indianapolis, In d i-ana (De p a rtment of Public Wo rks); the Ma s s a-chusetts De p a rtment of Corrections – No rf o l k(state prison facility: power plant, wastew a t e rt reatment and industries); City of Ga i t h e r s b u r g ,Ma ryland (De p a rtment of Public Wo rks); Lan-sing, Michigan (Board of Water and Light: elec-tricity generating facility); New Yo rk City (Me t ro-politan Transit Authority: capital pro g r a m m e smanagement); and the City of Scottsdale, Arizo n a( De p a rtment of Water Re s o u rces and De p a rt-ment of Financial Se rv i c e s ) .4 These are just a fewexamples of governments and urban areas aro u n dthe world in the process of certifying their facili-ties.

With the rapid urbanization cities are curre n t-ly experiencing, and the projections on migrationof rural inhabitants to urban centres in the nextdecade, cities will have to deal with increased envi-ronmental pre s s u res and demands on limitedre s o u rces. In some countries, even urban cities areamalgamating to create “m e g a c i t i e s” There is aneed to combine the numerous enviro n m e n t a lpractices, by-laws and regulations of each of theseentities into a single compre h e n s i ve policy. Citiesexperiencing rapid urbanization will need toexamine the impacts of this increased demand forhousing, water, health, solid waste and other ser-vices on the environment. Sharing informationand implementing a functional EMS will helpurban managers address the challenges and cre a t esustainable cities for the future.

Thoughts for the futureCommunities may wonder why they shouldattempt to certify their facilities if this is such alengthy and sometimes arduous task. Simply put,ISO 9000 has become a “business-wide” standardand it is predicted that ISO 14001 will follow suit.Some countries are already creating legislationthat will re q u i re ISO 14001 certification for doingbusiness with them. The UK has initiated legisla-tion stating that 75% of its departments will haveat least one site re g i s t e red with ISO 14001 by2001.

Legislation of this type will also have an effecton companies and governments with which coun-tries interact on the global stage. One way to learnm o re about EMS and certifying your organizationor urban area is to contact UNEP IETC .5 You cani n q u i re about the Application of En v i ro n m e n t a lManagement Systems (EMS) Principles to Ur b a nManagement course, in which you will learn the

Steering use and consumption of thelocal environment through e c oBU D G E TTo achieve sustainable development at a timewhen the capacity limits of nature and naturalre s o u rces are being reached, environmental man-agement at all levels is becoming more and moresignificant. Traditional planning instruments areunable to meet sustainable development needs.For that reason, strategies for sustainable deve l o p-

ment are designed at the national and inter-national level. Local Agenda 21 processes are alsotaking place in many municipalities. The LocalAgenda Action Plan could serve as a basis for localsustainability plans. But how to transform themand link up with other levels of gove r n m e n t ?

In cities’ environmental activities certain pro b-lems often occur:◆ In politics and administration, the consumption

of natural re s o u rces is not seen as a central area ofre s p o n s i b i l i t y ;◆ T h e re is no existing instrument available to poli-tics and administrations for steering naturalre s o u rce use in a systematic and planned way; and◆ Dealing with environmental issues is split intoisolated aspects.◆ Individual environmental protection pro-grammes and measures are implemented separate-l y. One environmental measure can pro d u c eeffects that counteract the effects of another (e.g.air pollution from waste incineration diminishesthe effects of re q u i rements for industry withrespect to emissions of dangerous air pollutants.)

e c oBU D G E T offers help tow a rds a solution ofthese problems, making it possible for localauthorities to steer and control the use and con-sumption of natural re s o u rces by means of a peri-odic pro c e d u re and to reach a local managementquality with natural re s o u rces as an integral ele-ment. e c oBU D G E T re veals areas in which measure sneed to be taken; other instruments such asEMAS (the EU’s Ec o - Management and Au d i t i n gScheme) and ISO 14001 can be used to initiateactions to get back on course for the budget.Using indicators and time-related targets, e c o -BU D G E T can be taken as the local contribution tosustainability strategies and can link differe n tl e vels of gove r n m e n t .

e c oBU D G E T was developed in the style of finan-cial budgeting. The fundamental idea is that amunicipality manages its natural re s o u rces as effi-ciently as the artificial re s o u rce, money.

e c oBU D G E T – local authority spending withinnatural limits

Martin Enderle, Stadt Bielefeld, Neues Rathaus, Niederwall 23, D-33602 Bielefeld, Germany ([email protected])

Volker Stelzer, Bohmter Str. 29, D-49074 Osnabrück, Germany ([email protected])

Abstract I C L E I ’ se c oBU D G E T® environmental management system has been successfully implementedin pilot local authorities. The German city of Bielefeld, where it has been an integral part of theLocal Agenda 21 process, is the first to introduce the e c oBU D G E Tsystem as a permanent admin -istrative procedure. ICLEI has founded the e c oBU D G E TAgency to support the system’s furtherdevelopment and its introduction in other interested municipalities worldwide.

RésuméLe système de gestion de l’environnement ecoBU D G E T® du Conseil international pour les ini -tiatives en environnement (ICLEI) a été mis en œuvre avec succès par des collectivités localesà titre expérimental. La ville allemande de Bielefeld, où ce système fait partie intégrante duprocessus d’adoption d’Action 21 à l’échelon local, a été la première à faire d’ecoBU D G E T® u n eprocédure administrative permanente. L’ICLEI a fondé l’Agence ecoBU D G E T pour soutenir ledéveloppement du système et sa mise en place par d’autres municipalités intéressées, partoutdans le monde.

ResumenEl sistema de gestión ambiental ecoBU D G E T® de ICLEI se ha aplicado exitosamente entre auto -ridades municipales piloto. La ciudad alemana de Bielefeld, donde dicho sistema se ha inscri -to de forma integral en el marco de la Agenda 21, ha sido la primera en introducirlo en tantoque método administrativo permanente. ICLEI subvenciona a la agencia ecoBU D G E Tcon el finde promover el desarrollo del sistema y su aplicación en otras municipalidades de todo elmundo que estén interesadas.



t h e o ry and practical sides of EMS through casestudies, interacting with others in your positionand talking with experts in the field of EMS.

Im p roving your environmental management ofoperations will not only reduce your enviro n-mental footprint and your costs, but also improvethe overall health and well-being of your citize n s .

N o t e s1 En v i ronment Canada Atlantic Region, http://w w w i . n s . e c . g c . c a / i n t e r n a l / g re e n _ t o p i c s / i n d e x .h t m l .2 Refer to http://www.ec.gc.ca/eog-oeg for more

i n f o r m a t i o n .3 See re p o rt by Elaine Ge yer-Allély (OECD,1 9 9 9 ) .4 Refer to document on http://www. g e t f. o r g /m u n i . h t m .5 UNEP International En v i ronmental Te c h n o l o-gy Centre, Osaka, Japan. Tel. +81 6 6915 4581;Fax +81 6 6915 0304; E-mail: ietc@unep. o r. j p.

R e f e r e n c e sCanada, Office of the Auditor General (1995) Report of theAuditor General of Canada to the House of Commons, Chap -ter 11 Environmental Management Systems: A Principle-based Approach (Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services).

Environmental Operations Governments ResourceCentre (http://www.ec.gc.ca/eog-oeg).

Geyer-Allély, Elaine (1999). Report by the EnvironmentalCouncil Committee on Implementation of the 1996 Recom -mendation on Improving the Environmental Performance ofG o v e r n m e n t s, C(99)33/Final (Organisation for Econo-mic Co-operation and Development, 24 August).

Global Environment and Technology Foundation( h t t p : / / w w w . g e t f . o r g / m u n i . h t m ) .

ISO 14000 and Environmental Management Systems( h t t p : / / w w w . t r s t . c o m / i n d e x - 2 . h t m ) .

UNEP IETC workshop: Application of EnvironmentalManagement System (EMS) Principles to Urban Man-a g e m e n t . ◆



The idea of environmental budgeting goes backto 1987, when Konrad Ot t o - Zi m m e r m a n n ,I C L E I ’s Eu ropean Di re c t o r, published an art i c l econcerning a new way to steer natural re s o u rc e s .Ot t o - Zimmermann wondered why managementof natural re s o u rces should have less priority forlocal government than management of the art i f i-cial re s o u rce, money. Be t ween 1996 and 2000,ICLEI (together with the German cities of Bi e l e-feld, Dresden and Heidelberg and the county ofNo rdhausen) launched a pilot project to test e c o -BU D G E T in practice. The project was funded bythe German Federal En v i ronmental Fo u n d a t i o n .

To follow the “s p e n d i n g” of natural re s o u rc e s ,e c oBU D G E T makes use of significant indicators,each re p resenting the municipality’s naturalre s o u rces and environmental problem areas. A setof five to 20 indicators proved practical at thebeginning. For each indicator, a mid-term targetwas agreed (five to 10 years). On the basis of thestate of each re s o u rce at a certain date (re f e re n c eyear), it could be determined which target shouldbe achieved in the next (and even each) year ino rder to achieve the agreed mid-term targets (Fi g-u re 1) .

At the end of the budgetary ye a r, the Council isg i ven the environmental budget balance and envi-ronmental budget re p o rt, illustrating pro g re s st ow a rds the targets. Brief “c o n t rolling re p o rt s” aredrawn up in the course of the budget year to indi-cate emergencies. If negative deviations occur (i.e.unbudgeted expenditures), measures are to bea g reed so as to balance these “ecological debts” .

Ad vantages are also evident for investors andd e velopers, who can make use of the budget infor-mation in their planning. Within the scope ofLocal Agenda 21, commitments by business andindividuals can affect the municipality’s sustaina-bility targets.

Introduction of e c oBU D G E T in BielefeldBielefeld is the first city that has committed itselfpolitically to introduce e c oBU D G E T as a perma-nent pro c e d u re in its administration. Be f o re h a n d ,only the county of No rdhausen had intro d u c e dthe system for managing its natural re s o u rc e s .

The considerations for introducing local envi-ronmental budgeting in Bielefeld go back as far as1995. Fo l l owing an in-depth examination of thep roject, the City Council’s Policy and Ad m i n i s-tration Committee decided in June 1997 to takep a rt in the pilot project. In Bielefeld, local envi-ronmental budgeting was an important part of theAgenda 21 process. It was also seen as a strategicaid to target-setting in departmental planning, aswas the case with implementation of the climatee x p e rt re p o rt, water provision and protection ofopen space.

The project started with the drafting of a prov i-sional list of indicators, which served as a basis ofdiscussion for further approval. In August 1997, ap roject team was set up within Bi e l e f e l d’s localadministration to work on the pilot project. Itconsisted of two employees of the authority andone ICLEI employee financed by the funding.Su b s e q u e n t l y, with approval of the depart m e n t sconcerned, the indicators we re selected accord i n g

to how well they we re suited to re p resent con-sumption of the “Bielefeld natural re s o u rc e s” .Bielefeld, located in nort h west Ge r m a n y, hasa p p roximately 325,000 inhabitants. It is know nas the “city of three landscapes” (Rave n s b u r g e rHügelland, Senne, Osning, Strang) and does havea wide range of landscape types. Of its total 260k m2, at least one-third is developed land. One ofits main problems is the exc e s s i ve increase ind e veloped land in recent years (approximately 60h a / year). Among other problems is increased indi-vidual motorized transport, in which the motor-way exit directly into the city centre plays asignificant part .

After the 15 chosen indicators we re established,values for mid-term targets for 2005 and short -term targets for the budget year of 1 Au g u s t - 3 1July 1999 we re established.

To re c o g n i ze deviations from these targets assoon as possible, quarterly control values we red e r i ved. At the end of each quart e r, data we recompiled for most of the 15 indicators.

As a rule, existing data we re used. Howe ve r, af ew data collection actions we re carried out to sup-p o rt the environmental budget balance. (Tw oi n vestigations ascertained river water quality andcarried out a digitalization of land area for gre e n-field substitution measure s . )

In t e n s i ve exchanges with the other pilot muni-cipalities – Heidelberg, Dresden and the county ofNo rdhausen – and with the members of the ad-v i s o ry board (the German Federal En v i ro n m e n t a lA g e n c y, the Association of German Cities andWu p p e rtal Institute, among others) made amethodical refinement of the indicator set possible.

Subsequent to the budget balancing period (i.e.after 31 July 1999), evaluation of the trial phaseo c c u r red. The results we re communicated to theresponsible departmental council committee inthe form of a re p o rt.

One important aspect of the e c oBU D G E T p ro c e-d u re is co-operation between depart m e n t s ,enabling a compre h e n s i ve ove rv i ew of the ava i l-able re s o u rces and activities that affect them. Themain effort during the introduction of e c oBU D-G E T in Bielefeld was involving all depart m e n t sre l e vant to the pro j e c t’s implementation. For thispurpose, there we re numerous meetings among

the various departments, allowing coord i n a t i o n ,facilitating exchange and planning the actual bud-get. The outcome of all consultations, as well asp ro g ress on the re p o rt, was regularly re c o rded andc o n ve yed to all administrative levels, keeping staffinformed and gathering support for the system.

Since August 1997, the Bielefeld project teamhas continually introduced local enviro n m e n t a lbudgeting to the public. As well as presentations ats e veral Local Agenda 21 events (Bielefelder Agen-da 21), with up to 80 participants, local enviro n-mental budgeting found its way into the localp ress (eight newspaper articles and a mention onlocal radio). The project was also introduced to alarge circle of Agenda co-ordinators at a LocalAgenda 21 event of the district government ofDetmold. Specific circles in the Bielefeld econo-my and environmental groups we re informedabout the project at a common event where re p re-s e n t a t i ves we re given the opportunity to contrib-ute their opinions.

By the conclusion of the pilot project, enviro n-mental budgeting was ve ry well integrated intomost departments that had a direct invo l ve m e n tin supplying data. Data compilation was ve rytedious and slow at times, but to all appearancesthis was not due to lack of attention or wilfuldelays. Ge n e r a l l y, it was a result of e c oBU D G E T

tasks taking second place to obligatory duties,which we re re g a rded as more urgent. This will bed i f f e rent in the future, as the Bielefeld politiciansdecided in the spring of 2000 to introduce envi-ronmental budgeting into the local authority.

T h e re have been a significant number ofrequests from the public and decision-makers forinformation on environmental budgeting inBielefeld. Practice in environmental budgetingwill show the extent to which a real perception isa c h i e ved by these activities.

e c oBU D G E T as part of the Bielefeld LocalAgenda 21The basis of sustainability lies in remaining withinnatural limits. As environmental budgeting allow smonitoring and control of natural re s o u rce use, itg i ves the best chance of initiating measures inreaction to unsustainable use of re s o u rces andt h e re f o re keeping within natural limits. The pro-



cesses of Local Agenda 21 – establishing guide-lines, approving the local action plan, implement-ing measures and monitoring success – interlinkclosely with the process of environmental budge-ting, namely drafting of the master budget a n dimplementation of the plan and the e n v i ro n m e n -tal budget balance. In this way, e c oBU D G E T a n dLocal Agenda 21 are mutually dependent: theLocal Agenda is turned from a “p l a y g ro u n d” intoa place of clear commitments. e c oBU D G E T b r i n g sb road participation. This process mainly serve sthe ecological “c o l u m n” of sustainable existence,although the environment-benefit ratio cre a t e sthe link with the socio-economic aspects. Consid-ering that the quantity and quality of naturalre s o u rces re p resent the limiting factors for thecomplete path of our society’s future deve l o p-ment, e c oBU D G E T is a step forw a rd .

e c oBU D G E T has ve ry clearly been part of LocalAgenda 21 activities, although it differs signifi-cantly from the city’s other Agenda 21 activities inits style and its ties with the administration. Themajority of Agenda activities have been aimed ata c t i vating citizens, while e c oBU D G E T has had as itsobject the functions, decisions and measures ofthe administration and politics. e c oBU D G E T t h e re-f o re also invo l ved many more positions within theBielefeld administration. The interface betwe e nthese two projects was the person responsible forAgenda 21, who at the same time was the locale c oBU D G E T p roject coord i n a t o r. Because of thiscombination of roles in one person, e c oBU D G E T

was always introduced and brought to discussionin the numerous talks between the Agenda 21officer and those invo l ved in Agenda 21 pro c e s s e s .

During the pilot phase, synergies between thee c oBU D G E T and Local Agenda 21 could not bep roved. Howe ve r, their importance will obv i o u s-ly increase with the decision to implement ec o -BU D G E T on a permanent basis. It was not ano b l i g a t o ry element during the demonstration.While the working groups we re mainly concernedwith small-scale selective problems rather thangeneral problem areas, the advantages of an ove r-all management element we re not re c o g n i zed bye ve ry b o d y. At such a time as the Local AgendaAction Plan is transformed into a political pro-gramme to which the Council feels committed, it

will be important to have the environmental mas-ter budget ava i l a b l e .

The first Bielefeld master budgetThe main outcome of intense discussions betwe e nthe responsible departments during the pilotphase of e c oBU D G E T was the indicator system,which has a good foundation in all parts of cityadministration, not just in the enviro n m e n t a ladministration. The indicators and the areas theyre p resent are shown in Tables 1 and 2 .

The selection criteria for the master budgetwe re :◆ Bi e l e f e l d’s natural re s o u rc e s ;◆ a vailability of data on re s o u rce consumption;◆ data usability; and◆ existence of targets for development of re s o u rc e sin Bi e l e f e l d

After completing the draft of the indicators, thef i g u res corresponding to certain indicators we reestablished for the mid-term targets in 2005 andfor the budget year 1 August 1998 to 31 Ju l y1999. It was not possible to run the enviro n m e n-tal balancing period parallel to the financial bud-get (i.e. according to the calendar year), due to thetime limits of the funding. The resulting pro b l e m swith re g a rd to balancing techniques could, how-e ve r, be ove rc o m e .

The “pilot budget 1998/99” comprised, apartf rom designation of the indicators, the Au g u s t1 9 9 8 - July 1999 budget. It was not always possibleto estimate the initial values from 1 August (thep roposed re f e rence year being 1998), but for thepilot phase it was possible to incorporate others t a rting points (Table 1).

In part, the mid-term targets for 2005 we retaken directly from political resolutions orestablished on the grounds of the technicalk n owledge of the local authority staff, partly incooperation with the unive r s i t y. They we rechosen such that no additional medium had tobe introduced into the budget to reach the tar-gets. De r i vation of the targets is shown incolumn 6 of the pilot budget (Table 1).

In difficult cases (e.g. where no consensuswas possible) the target was not settled. It wasleft to subsequent discussion processes todetermine whether deciding on targets for

these cases would be possible.The budget targets for July 1999 we re gener-

ally derived from the mid-term targets for2005 or reasonable forecasting at the time. Tore c o g n i ze deviations from the targets at an earlystage, “c o n t rolling va l u e s” we re derived fro mthe budget’s mid-term targets. At the end ofthe second, third and fourth quarters a datas u rvey was carried out for most of the 15 indi-cators. The only exceptions we re the indicatorsfor “r i ver water quality” and “remediation mea-s u re s”, which we re surve yed only once as dataa re collected only once a ye a r.

For the chosen indicators, the data situationwas ve ry variable. Some data (e.g. those onwaste) we re collected regularly and some we reu n a vailable or fragmentary, so that the missingf i g u res we re found through additional internaldata collection for that purpose or thro u g hcontracting a third part y.

Data compilation was carried out with theaid of questionnaires on which the targets tobe achieved we re filled out. The content of theq u e s t i o n n a i res was orientated on re g i s t r a t i o nforms concerning the budget areas intro d u c e dby the Bielefeld city administration, whichwe re to be passed on to the finance office eve ryq u a rt e r.

The results of the data surveys showe dvarious developments for the individual indi-cators. Some indicators we re keeping to theirplanned targets, but in the case of others stro n gdeviations we re noted. He re it was clear thatthese controlling values had a certain earlywarning function.

Results of Bielefeld’s firstenvironmental budget balancing Fo l l owing the environmental budget balancingperiod (i.e. after 31 July 1999), evaluation of thepilot phase took place. The results showed whataction needed to be taken in order to keep to thebudget plan.

It was clear from the results (Table 2) that two-t h i rds of the indicators had developed in the fore-cast direction, though the degree of the tre n d scould often have been stro n g e r.

As planned, the amount of unremediated waste

Table 1Pilot Master Budget of the City of Bielefeld (extract)

No. Indicator Budget 1998-99 Target Origin of the set target

Base Mid-term target 2005

(31.07. 99)1.2 number of waste disposal 302 sites 287 sites 190 sites Target is oriented on the type of waste deposit and the requirements and feasibility

sites not redeveloped (01.08. 98) of remediation. In the long term, all waste deposit sites should be remediated.

1.4 length of rivers with 49,070 m 50,000 m 55,000 m Water quality class II is respected as a target value by the Bundesland North Rhinequality class II and better (1995-97) (1996-98) (2003-05) Westphalia (Common Ministerial Paper NRW No. 42, 3 July 1991, p. 866)

1.9 CO2 emissions through 5.6 t/person/year 5.6 t/person/year 5.2 t/person/year Council resolution to decrease CO2 emissions by 10% by 2005 in comparisonuse of fossil fuel energy (1996) with the 1987 value (5.8 t/person/year).per inhabitant (not including transport)

1.13 change in open space -61.1 ha - ha - ha In compliance with Article 1a of the BauGB (planning regulation), (1996/1997) while extending settled areas as complementary indicator to open space,

soils must be used sparingly.



disposal sites (indicator 1.2) and remediation ofg roundwater and soil/air pollution (indicator 1.3)had decreased. Howe ve r, due to the necessity ofputting a large pro p o rtion of the work f o rce ontoacute cases, the initial inclusion of as yet unre m e-diated cases came out lower than expected.

The amount of unre c ycled waste (indicator 1.5)per capita did not change during the re p o rt i n gperiod. There f o re, the expectation that this figurewould decrease was not fulfilled.

The modal split (indicator 1.6) kept to theplanned value. It should be noted that the modalsplit value was based purely on estimates. A com-puter-based estimate will probably be possibleduring 2000.

The indicator for CO2 emissions (indicator 1.9)clearly topped the target value. The fact that thetarget value for 2005 was already exceeded by ove r100% is probably due to the mild winter of 1997-98 and the significant increase in the pro p o rt i o nof the city’s electricity generated by atomic energy.

For various reasons, other indicators ran in theopposite direction to the fore c a s t .

Concerning compostable waste (indicator 1.1),the responsible department pointed out thatencouraging composting at home could have ledto the reduction of collected green waste. It shouldbe re c o n s i d e red whether the 2005 target value forcompostable waste will be retained, as home com-posting is seen as a positive deve l o p m e n t .

R i ver water quality (indicator 1.4) did not stickto the 1998-99 budget. Instead of an increase inthe length of river with high quality water, thisvalue showed a decrease. He re the deterioratingvalues we re probably due to weathering and pos-sibly the variable measurements the quality.

The air pollution indicators (indicators 1.7 and1.8) either fell short of or overshot the targets.Because these indicators are strongly dependenton weathering, the initial deviations of the va l u e s ,without data for spring and summer, cannot ye tf o retell an overall deviation from the targets by the

end of the budget ye a r. This evaluation needs datafor all the seasons.

Even without the specified targets, the land useindicators still have some interesting aspects. Fo ra reas with high sensitivity to climate (indicator1.10) there was a significant decrease. From thef i g u res for settled areas (indicator 1.11) and openspaces (indicator 1.13), it can clearly be seen thatthe change from open space to settled land hasremained similar over the last few years. Theamount of land designated as replacement ford e veloped greenfield is equal to about 5% of thatwhich has been turned into settled land.

In completion of the e n v i ronmental budgetb a l a n c e, a statement of environmental assets and ane n v i ronment-benefit ra t i o we re worked out along-side the annual accounts. The enviro n m e n t a lbudget balance was approved by the depart-ments and distributed to interested persons,although not formally agreed on by the politi-cians.

Table 2First Bielefeld environmental budget balance

No. Indicator Budget balance Budget Mid-term target Distance to- EvaluationInitial value Final value (31.07.99) (31.12.2005) target index*(01.08.98) (31.07.99)

Raw materials

1.1 amount of compost and 63 kg/person/year 59 kg/person/year 67 kg/person/year 67 kg/person/year -100 ✖green waste per inhabitant

Soils

1.2 amount of contaminated 302 sites 298 sites 287 sites 190 sites 4 ✔land not redeveloped

Water

1.3 amount of remediation of 56 sites 54 sites 53 sites 45 sites 18 ✔groundwater and soil/air pollution

1.4 length of rivers with quality 49,070 m (1995-97) 45,040 m (1996-98) 50,000 m (1996-98) 55,000 m (2003-05) -68 ✖class II and better

Air

1.5 amount of unrecycled waste 202 kg/person/year 202 kg/person/year 191 kg/person/year 191 kg/person/year 0 ✔per inhabitant

1.6 motorized personal transport 59% (1994) 59% 59% 57% 0 ✔as a proportion of modal split

1.7 air pollution level 1 2.16 (1996/1997) 2.04 (7/98-2/99) 2.05 1.85 39 ✔✔

1.8 air pollution level 2 1.51 (1996/1997) 1.62 (7/98-2/99) 1.48 1.36 -73 ✖

Climate

1.9 CO2 emissions through use 5.6 t/person/year 4.7 t/person/year 5.6 t/person/year 5.2 t/person/year 225 ✔✔✔of fossil fuel energy, (1996) (1998)per inhabitant

1.10 change in areas with high 0 ha (1997) -37 ha/year - - - -sensitivity to climate

Land use

1.11 change in settled areas +61.1 ha/year +57 ha/year - - - -(1996/97)

1.12 annual area of land designated 7.1 ha (1997) 3.1 ha/year - - - -as replacement for developed greenfield

1.13 change in open space -61.1 ha/year -55 ha/year - - - -(1996/1997)

1.14 change in extent of protected -0.8 ha/year (1997) -0.3 ha/year - - - -conservation areas

1.15 change in extent of landscape 0 ha/year (1997) -8.7 ha/year - - - -with high conservation function

Key:* Distance-to-target index: How far are we towards the target, in percentage terms?✔✔✔ target reached or surpassed ✔✔ over 25% of the way ✔ up to 25% of the way ✖ no progress made



e c oBU D G E T in routine practicePa rt of the city administration was made sensitiveto e c oBU D G E T p ro c e d u re and a larger part of thedeciding bodies we re made familiar with thei n s t ruments. The Council supported the pro j e c t .Howe ve r, the process of refining Local En v i ro n-mental Budgeting and adapting it to local condi-tions has not yet been finalize d .

Once the Bielefeld City Council’s Policy andAdministration Committee had unanimouslya g reed to introduce local environmental budget-ing as a permanent process within the municipalg overnment, its refinement and installation intothe existing administration stru c t u res could begini m m e d i a t e l y.

Of the other participants in the German En v i-ronmental Budgeting Pilot Project, the county ofNo rdhausen also decided to continue using e c o -BU D G E T on a regular basis in steering naturalre s o u rce consumption. The decisions of the

Councils of Dresden and Heidelberg are pending.To support municipalities interested in e c o -

Budget, ICLEI has set up the ecoBudget Agency.It will aid with information and the intro d u c t i o nof ecoBudget through networking, exchange ofexperiences, training, certification and consulta-tion. Contact: ecoBudget Agency, ICLEI Eu ro-pean Se c retariat, Eschholzstr. 86, D-79115Freiburg, Ge r m a n y. E-mail: ecobudget@iclei-e u rope.org. Please visit our website: http://www.e c o b u d g e t . c o m / .

Further information◆ Erd m e n g e r, Christoph, Konrad Ot t o - Zi m m e r-man, Karen Buchanan and Andrea Bu rz a c c h i n i(1999), Local En v i ronmental Bu d g e t i n g , 2n d re v i s-ed edition, 41 S. I C L E I, Freiburg (Germany). ◆ Erd m e n g e r, Christoph, Andrea Bu rzacchini andRoger Levett (May 2000) Local Loops – how envi-ronmental management cycles contribute to local

s u s t a i n a b i l i t y. Proceedings of the Ad vanced St u d yCourse on Local e c oIn s t ruments, Freiburg, 15-22May 1999. Eu ropean Commission DG XII.◆ Erd m e n g e r, Christoph, Andrea Bu rz a c c h i n i ,Roger Levett and Konrad Ot t o - Zi m m e r m a n(1987) Pl ä d oyer für eine kommunale Na t u r h a u s-h a l t s w i rtschaft. In: Der Landkreis 6, S. 250-52.◆ Ro b recht, Ho l g e r, Ma rkus Stoos and Vi c t o r i aBull (2000) Fo rum ö k oBU D G E T. Politik, Recht undVe rwaltung für die ökologische Nachhaltigkeit in derKommune. Documentation of the concludingf o rum of the environmental budgeting pilot pro-ject in Bielefeld, Ja n u a ry 2000. ICLEI Fre i b u r g( Germany).

Ma rtin En d e rle, Councillor of the City of Bi e l e f e l d ,is the initiator and person responsible for ecoBU D G E T.Volker St e l ze r, an independent environment expert ,has been an ICLEI expert for ecoBU D G E T in Bi e l e f e l dduring the pilot pro j e c t . ◆

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