Introduction to on-farm organic plant breeding
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Transcript of Introduction to on-farm organic plant breeding
Introduction to On-farm Organic Plant Breeding www.seedalliance.org�
Introduction to On-farmOrganic Plant Breeding
Organic Seed AllianceAdvancing the ethical development and stewardship of the genetic resources of agricultural seedPO Box 772, Port Townsend, WA 98368
This publication was made possible through a grant from Organic Farming Research Foundation and Seed Matters
Introduction to On-farm Organic Plant Breeding www.seedalliance.org2
Section I: Introduction...................................................................................................................................................3 Whyplantbreedingisimportant......................................................................................................................................3 Aphilosophyoforganicplantbreeding.........................................................................................................................4 Ourfarmingancestorsneverstoppedbreeding...........................................................................................4 Returningfarmerstotheirroleasseedstewards........................................................................................4
Section II: Plant breeding basics...............................................................................................................................5 Selectionintheoryandpractice........................................................................................................................................5 Howtoselect..............................................................................................................................................................................8 Acrop’smatingsystemandhowitaffectsplantbreeding.....................................................................................8 Self-pollinatedcrops................................................................................................................................................9 Cross-pollinatedcrops............................................................................................................................................9 Breedingself-pollinatedcropsvs.breedingcross-pollinatedcrops..................................................................9
Section III: Developing a plant breeding plan.....................................................................................................12 Thinkingaboutyourtargetenvironment...................................................................................................................12 Determiningtraits.................................................................................................................................................................13 Prioritizingtraits...................................................................................................................................................................13 Howcanthetraitsbemeasured?.....................................................................................................................13 Howeasilycanthetraitsbeinherited?.........................................................................................................14 Choosingparents...................................................................................................................................................................13 Creatingabreedingtimeline............................................................................................................................................15
Section IV: Theories of field-based organic plant breeding...........................................................................21 Howgenestravelfromparentstooffspring..............................................................................................................21 Howgenesdeterminetheappearanceandperformanceofplants..................................................21 Howgenestraveltogetherduringreproduction......................................................................................22 Howgenesoperateinpopulations................................................................................................................................24 Howtoseethegeneticdifferencesbetweenplants...............................................................................................28 Understandtheeffectsoftheenvironment.................................................................................................28 Ensurethatplantsreceiveconsistenttreatment.......................................................................................29 Usesufficientpopulationandplotsizes.......................................................................................................29
Section V: Examples of farmers breeding for organic systems......................................................................30 ‘AbundantBloomsdale’organicspinachbreedingproject...................................................................................30 Whatwerethegoalsofthisproject?..............................................................................................................30 Breedingprocedure...............................................................................................................................................30 ‘WinterSprouting’Broccoli...............................................................................................................................................31 Whatwerethegoalsofthisproject?..............................................................................................................31 BreedingProcedure...............................................................................................................................................31
Glossary and index.......................................................................................................................................................33
References and resources..........................................................................................................................................36
Table of Contents
Introduction to On-farm Organic Plant Breeding www.seedalliance.org3
Why plant breeding is importantThehistoryofthedomesticationofourcropplantsisalsothehistoryofplantbreeding.Throughmanygenerationsoflaborioushumanselection,wildplantsbecameusableasagriculturalcrops.
Ourhunter-gathererancestorshadtohaveanintimaterelationshipwithplantstonoticethegeneticvariationthatexistedandcontinuallyaroseinordertomakemeaningfulprogressinthedo-mesticationprocess.Thisisoneofthefundamentalpreceptsofplantbreedingandgivestheseearlyinnovatorsfullstatusasplantbreeders.
Coupledwithearlyhumanselectionwasastrongelementofnatural selection.Alloftheancestorstoourmoderncropspeciesweregrownwithoutsup-plementalnutrition,fertility,orpestprotectants,andwereconstantlyexposedtothechallengesoftheenvironment.Thebestofthefarmer-breed-ersspedthisprocessalongbyselectingfromthemostdesirableplantsfortheirfoodandfibervalue,usingtheseastheparentalstocksforsubsequentgenerations.Thisbalancebetweenhumanandnaturalselectionpersisteduntilthebeginningoftheindustrialagriculturaleraofthe20thcentury.
Allagriculturalcropshavecontinuouslychangedwiththeselectionpressuresappliedfrombothfarmersandtheenvironmentsinwhichtheywerecultivated.Whenfarmersandtheenvironmentchanged,thecropchanged.Manyofourcropscon-tinuetochangeandadapttonewchallenges.
Thenumberofenvironmentsthatcropsarebredin,andthenumberofbreeders,havebothshrunkoverthepast100years.Thisisbecausefarmersinmostagriculturalregionsoftheglobedolittleornoplantbreedinganymore,andthenumberofre-gionalizedseedcompaniesdoingbreedinghasalsodrasticallyshrunkinthepast40to60years.
Withtheadventoftheindustrialagriculturalmodeltherehasbeenanarrowingofthesetoftraitsthatareconsideredcriticaltotheproductionofmostmoderncrops.Theindustrialmodelhasalsoled
toagradualspecializationshiftinwhereandhowmanyofthemosteconomicallyimportantcropsaregrown.Inthepre-industrialagriculturalera,almostallcropswerespreadacrossmanyenvironmentalandgeographicnichestosatisfythediversityofagriculturalsettlements.Thismeantthattheywereconstantlyadaptingtoadiversityofclimaticcondi-tionsandtheever-changingneedsofthehumanag-riculturalsocietiesthatwereusingthesecrops.Thefarmersineachregionwerethebreeders.Somefarmerswereundoubtedlybetterbreedersthanothers.Therehasalwaysbeensomespecializationinmanyaspectsofagriculturalsocieties,butinthispre-industrialera,everyagriculturalcommunitycertainlyhadtheseedneededbythatcommunity.Seedofeachofthesecommunityvarietiesweregeneticallyuniquefromasimilarvarietyofthesamecropinthenextcommunity.Thispatchworkofuniquevarietiesisthenmultipliedthousandsoftimesacrosstheuniqueenvironmentsofagricul-turalcommunitiesaroundtheglobe.
Cropgeneticdiversityinthepre-industrialerawasalsomuchgreaterthanwhatcurrentlyexistsinmodernagriculturebecausethediversitywithineachcommunityvarietywasfarricher.Farmersdidnotdemandthekindoftraituniformitythatisnowthenorminourmoderncrops.Thisallelic*di-versitywaspartofeverycroppopulationandwasreflectedbymanyuniquegenotypes(andpheno-types)ineachfield.
TherewasagreatblossomingofseedcompaniesinNorthAmericaandEuropeinthesecondhalfofthe19thcentury.Withtheadventofseedasacommercialcommodity,andtheemergenceofseedcompanies,therewasanincentivetoproduceseedofcropvarietiesthatweremuchmoreuniformandpredictable.Theseearlyseedcompanieswereregionalinnature.Theyreliedonacentralstoreinametropolitancenterandsupplementedwithmailordersformuchoftheirbusiness.
Theindustrializationofagricultureinthe20thcenturyledtoamuchhigherdegreeofspecializa-tion.Specificregionswithmore“idealclimates”foracertaincroptypeandprimeagriculturallandbe-camecentersoflarge-scaleproductionforcertaincrops.Inaddition,plantbreedingprogramsstarted
I. Introduction
*Definitionsfortechnicalwordsthatareitalicizedandboldedcanbefoundintheglossary
Introduction to On-farm Organic Plant Breeding www.seedalliance.org�
cateringtoindustrializedsystems,frommechanicalplanting,cultivation,andharvesting,totheneedsofthepackers,shippers,andretailershandlingthecroppost-harvest.
The philosophy of organic plant breedingAsorganicplantbreeders,wehaveanopportunitytoshapeorganicagricultureinfundamentalways.Bymakingnewvarietiesavailabletoorganicfarm-ers,weareabletogivethesefarmersnewoptions.
Buildingahealthy,sustainableagriculturefuturerequiresfarmer-centricseedsystemsatthere-gionallevel,wherefarmersandthecommunitiestheyserveconsciouslychoosewhichcropgeneticstheyuse,howtheyaremaintained,andhowthesegeneticsarecontrolled.
Donewell,organicplantbreedingcanhelpensurethatfarmerscontroltheseedtheyuse.Breedingworkcangivefarmersfreeaccesstogeneticre-sourcesandthefreedomtogrowwhattheyplease,whilesupplyingthemwiththeknowledgeandskillstobothgrowseedandimproveacrop’schar-acteristicstobestmeettheirneeds.
Overthepastseveraldecades,plantbreedinghasbecomeincreasinglyformalizedandcentral-ized.Breedingworkthatwasoncedonemainlyinfarmers’fieldsisnowdonealmostexclusivelybylargeseedcompaniesandonstate-runagricul-turalexperimentstations.Mostbreedersworkingforlargeseedcompanies,aswellasmostpublicbreeders,focustheirattentionprimarilyonthelargestmarketsforseed,whicharetypicallylarge,conventionalfarmingsystemslocatedinprimeagriculturalregions.Thisfocusontheneedsoflarge-scale,conventionalagricultureleavesorganicfarmerswithoutvarietiesthatareadaptedtotheneedsoftheirsystems.Researchhasfoundthatthelackoforganicallyadaptedvarietiesleavesorganicfarmersatadisadvantage,resultingin,amongotherthings,loweryieldsthaniftheyhadvarietiesadaptedtotheirsystems.Organic,on-farmbreed-ingworkisdevotedtoservingtheneedsoftheseorganicfarmers.
Our farming ancestors never stopped breedingAllgoodfarmerswhosurvivedandflourishedwere,bynecessity,plantbreeders.Theyusedob-
servationalskillstodetermineandselectthebestadaptedplantseveryyear.Thismeantselectingthehighestyielding,besttasting,andmostdisease-re-sistantplants.Alloftheheirloomcropvarietiesweknowandenjoytodayweredevelopedoveralong,richperiodofourhistory,tellingthetaleofourplantbreedingancestorswhoweremakingselec-tionsandsavingseedfromthehealthiestandmostvigorousplantsyearafteryear.Thesefarmerswereconstantlystrivingtoimprovevarietiestobettersuittheirneeds,engaginginaconstantdanceofimprovementandco-evolutionwiththeirfood.
Theseancestorswereneverfullysatisfiedwiththecropstheyhad.Theywantedtoimprovetheirfarmer-bredvarieties(sometimescalledlandra-ces),sinceitcouldmeanthedifferencebetweenlifeanddeathfortheirfamiliesandcommuni-ties.Modernorganicfarmerswhoarechoosingtoproduceandselectcropvarietiestoflourishintheirregionalagro-ecosystemsarerubbingshoul-derswiththebestfarmer-breedersofthepastwhodomesticatedandcontinuallyimprovedourcropgeneticresources.
Therewillalwaysbeaneedtoadaptnewvariet-iestocurrentchallenges,suchasclimatechange.Classicalplantbreedingallowsustoselect,adapt,andcontinuallyco-evolvewithourfoodcrops.Thisformofplantbreedingisnottobeviewedas“messing”withnature,anditiscertainlynotgenet-icengineering.Theprinciplesofevolutionshowusthatthereisalwaysvariationinbiologicalpopula-tions,environmentalconditionsalwayschange,andnobiologicalentityeverstaysthesameinresponsetoitsenvironment.Inotherwords,noorganismiseverstaticinnature.Selectionpressureandchangeovertimeareinevitable.Weadvocateforanevolu-tionarybreedingmodelthatallowsthevarietiesweusetobepartofthesustainableagriculturalsys-temswearepioneering.
Returning farmers to their role as seed stewardsOurworkatOrganicSeedAlliance(OSA)isintend-edtoempowerfarmerstoagainbepartoftheseedsystemthatmostfarmershavebeendivorcedfromforalmost100years.Overthelastcentury,wehavenotonlylostvaluablegeneticdiversitythroughmodernagriculturalpractices,wehavealsolostmuchofthefarmerknowledgeneededtosteward
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thegeneticresourcesthataremostimportanttothemandtheircommunities.Webelievethereisjustasmuchimportantworktobedoneintrainingfarmerstobreed,maintain,andgrowhigh-qualityseedcropsadaptedtotheneedsoflow-input,agro-ecosystemsasthereisforpreservingthegeneticresourcesofthepast.Thebestwayforvaluablegeneticresourcestobecomepartofmodernag-ricultureistogetthemintothehandsoffarmers.Asskilledstewards,thesefarmerswillcontinuetoadoptandfurtheradaptthegeneticstotheirneeds.Itisthereforecriticalthatfarmersfirsthaveaccesstothesegeneticresources.
Ourbreedingworkisdoneonagro-ecologicalfarmsbyapplyingsoundclassicalplantbreedingmethodology.Weemphasizebuildinggeneticresil-ienceanddiversityintoeverycroppopulation.Ourplantbreedingworkstrivestoestablishadiversi-fiedandecologically-basedagriculture,tofosterthemanagementofcropsgeneticsattheregionallevel,andtostrengthenaregion’seconomy.OSApromotesthestewardshipofseedinamannerthatencouragestheadaptationofplantgeneticstotheecologicalandmarketneedsoffarmersandthecommunitiestheyfeed.Thisincludeshelpingfarmersperformon-farmplantbreedinginthesamemannerasourmostinnovativeancestors.Tonotencouragesuchimprovementswouldbeadisservicetofarmers,eaters,theplanet,andfuturegenerations.
Thissectioncoversthebasicsofhowtocreateandimprovevarietiesforyourorganicfarm.Firstwedescribethebasicstepsofplantbreeding.Thenwedescribesomebasicgeneticprinciplesandhowtheyapplytoplantbreeding.
Initsessence,plantbreedingcanbeboileddowntothefollowing:
Select plants with superior genes from a genetically variable population of plants.
Howyoudothiswilldependonyourgoals,thecropsyouareworkingon,andthetimeandre-
sourcesyouwanttoinvest.
Selection in theory and practiceSelectioninplantbreedingreferstotheprocessofchoosingwhichplantsproducethenextgenerationofapopulation.
Therearetwomajortypesofselectionappropriateforon-farmbreeding:massselectionandfamilyselection.Therearebenefitsanddrawbackstoeachtypeofselection.Whetheryouuseoneortheother,oracombinationofboth,willdependonthecropyouareimprovingaswellasyourtimeframe,resources,andultimategoals.
Withmass selection,youmakeselectionsbasedonhowindividualplantswithinapopulationperform.Massselectionisthemoststraightforwardbreed-ingmethod.Assuch,itrequiresminimumtime,labor,andrecordkeeping.Becauseofthesimplicity,itcanmakeworkingwithlargepopulationsmorepracticalduringthebreedingprocess.However,itdoeshaveafewdrawbackswhencomparedtofamilyselection.First,becauseyourselectionsarebasedsolelyontheplant’sphenotype(itsoutwardappearance),youaremorelikelytochooseaplantbasedonenvironmentalinfluenceratherthanonsuperiorgenetics.Forexample,thesoilwherethatplantisgrowingmaybemorefertileincomparisontoaneighboringspotinthefield.Theseconddraw-backwithusingmassselectionisthepotentialthatundesirablerecessive genesmaybecarriedbytheplantsyouselectinahiddenheterozygousstate.
Griddedselectionisonetechniquethatcanbeusedwhendoingmassselectiontohelpaccountfortheinfluenceoffieldvariationonplantpheno-types.Whenusinggriddedselection,imaginethefieldthatisplantedwithyourbreedingpopulationdividedintoagridofsmallersections.Forexample,thefieldcouldbedividedintoquarters.Whense-lecting,attempttoselectanequalnumberofplantsfromeachsection.Evenif,forexample,theplantsinthenorthwestcornerofthefieldlookinferioringeneraltotheotherquarters,selectthebestplantsfromthatsection.
Incontrasttomassselection,withfamilyselec-tionyouarelookingattheoverallperformanceofagroupofrelatedplants(afamily)andusingthe
II. Plant Breeding Basics
Introduction to On-farm Organic Plant Breeding www.seedalliance.org6
Figure 2. This diagram exhibits the steps to execute family selection in three successive steps.
family’soverallperformancetomakeselections.Infamilyselection,youplantaseriesofrowsofplants,whereeachrowcomesfromseedsavedfromasingleselectedplantfromthepreviousgeneration.Theadvantagesoffamilyselectionaretwo-fold.First,becauseyouaremakingselectionsbasedonawholerowofplantsthatarecloselyre-lated(siblingsor“sibs”),ormorethanonerowforeachfamilyifyouareusingreplication(seemore
Key: Each star represents a selected plant
Gridded Selection
Figure 1. Gridded selection is one technique that can be used when doing mass selection to help account for the influ-ence of field variation on plant phenotypes.
aboutthisconceptbelowinthetheorysection),itbecomeslesslikelythatyoumightselectplantsbasedontheinfluencesofverylocalizedenviron-mentaleffects.Second,becauseyouareabletoseemanycloselyrelatedplantsnexttoeachother,youaremorelikelytospotsomeplantsexhibitingdeleteriousrecessivetraitsthatmaybecarriedinagivenfamily.
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Figure2exhibitsthestepstoexecutefamilyselec-tioninthreesuccessivesteps.Instep1,eachoftherowsisafamilyinacornbreedingprogram,withthesamerowrepresentedlefttorightsequentiallyacrossthethreeselectionsteps.Step1involvesevaluatingeachfamilyasawholebasedontheper-formanceoftheentirerow.Step2istoeliminateanyfamiliesthatdonothaveahighproportionofsuperiorplants.Althoughtherearenohardandfastrulesinplantbreeding,whendecidingwhichfamiliestoselect,atOSAweeliminateafamilyunlessithasatleast60to70%acceptableplants.Onceyouhavedeterminedwhichfamiliestokeep,step3istoeliminatethepoorest30to40%oftheplantswithinthesefamilies.Step4showsthefinalfieldarrangement,withonlytheselectedplantsintheselectedfamiliesremaining.
Thefamiliesthatareusedinfamilyselectioncancomeinvariousforms.Threeofthemostcommonformsarehalf-sibfamilies,full-sibfamilies,andS1families.Half-sib(HS)familiesarefamilieswherealloftheplantsshareacommonmotherbutmayhavedifferentfathers.Youwouldproduceahalf-sibfamilybysavingseedfromaplantthathasbeenallowedtoopenlypollinatewithmanyotherplants.Alloftheseedyousavefromthatplantsharesamother,buteachseedwaspotentiallycreatedbyfertilizationwithpollenfromdifferentfathers.Plantsinafull-sib(FS)familysharebothamotherandfather.Youwouldproduceafull-sibfamilybyconductingacontrolledpollinationbetweentwoplants.PlantsinanS1familyallcomefromaself-pollination.Inotherwords,theyallsharethesamesingleparent,whichactedasbothmotherandfather.Allthreeofthesefamilieshavetheiruses.Ingeneral,asyougofromfamilieswithlessrelat-ednesstofamilieswithmorerelatedness(HStoFStoS1),thefamiliesbecomemoreuniform.Thisuniformityallowsyoutobetterpredicthowtheir offspringwillperform.Inaddition,withS1familiesinparticular,youarebetterabletoseethetraitscontrolledbyrecessivegenesinthatfamily.How-ever,FSandS1familiesoftentakemoretimeandeffecttoproduce,andtheycreateagreaterriskforinbreedingincross-pollinatingspecies.
Selectioncan,andshould,bedoneatmanypointsthroughouttheseason.Selectionfortraitssuchasgermination,vigor,plantstature,leafshape,color,
andweedcompetitivenesscanoccurearlyintheseason.Byplantingatahighinitialdensity,someofthesetraitscanbeselectedforduringthethinningprocess.Manyvegetablecrops,suchascarrots,let-tuce,cabbage,onions,andkaleproduceaharvest-ablecropbeforepollination.Ontheotherhand,theharvestablecropofsomecroptypes,suchascorn,wintersquash,tomatoes,andmelons,canonlybeevaluatedafterpollinationoccurs.Itisdesirabletodoasmuchselectionaspossiblebeforepollina-tionoccurstoincreasetherateofprogressofyourbreedingwork.Anyselectiondoneafterpollinationislesseffectivethanselectiondonebeforepollina-tion.Thisisbecauseinthelatterscenariothepol-lenfrominferiorplantsisallowedtofertilizethesuperiorplants,thuspassingtheirgenesontothenextgeneration.
Thefinalconcepttounderstandinselectionistheselection intensity.Inessence,theselectioninten-sityisbasedonthefractionofplants,orfamilies,youselectfromthestartingpopulation.Forexam-ple,youwouldbepracticingagreaterintensityofselectionifyouselectedonly50plantsoutof500tosaveseedfromthanifyouselected300plantsoutof500.Asyouincreasetheselectionintensity,youwillmakemoreprogressinyourbreeding.However,especiallyincross-pollinatedcrops,youneedtoavoidendingwithtoosmallofapopula-tion,whichcanincreasetheriskofinbreedingdepressionorlosingvaluablegeneticdiversitythatyoumayneedinthefuture.Ageneralguideontheminimumnumberofplantstokeepinyourpopu-lationcanbefoundinOSA’sSeed Saving Guide for Gardeners and Farmers.Becauseitisimportanttoavoidgoingbelowtheseminimumpopulationsizerecommendations,thebestwaytoincreaseyourbreedingefficiency–throughincreasingtheselec-tionintensity–istostartwithmoreplants.
Therearetwobroadtermsthatconveytheinten-sityofselection.Thetermpositive selectionisusedwhenasubstantialfractionoftheplantsinapopulationarebeingremoved.Negative selection,alsoknownasroguing,referstotheremovalofonlyasmallfractionofthepopulation,usually10to20%orless,duringaseason.Manytimes,suchaswhenmaintainingavariety,negativeselectionmaybeallthatisneeded.Evenifyouareunsureofwhichplantsarebestinyourpopulation,youwill
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probablybeabletospotandremovethepoorestperformingplantsandtheplantsthatareobviousoff-types.Thisconceptisbestexpressedintheoldplantbreedingaxiom:“Idon’talwaysknowwhatIlike,butIalwaysknowwhatIdon’tlike!”
How to selectHowdoyouactuallypracticeselectioninthefield?Thereareanumberofmethodsforchoosingwhichplantswillproducethenextgenerationofthebreedingpopulation.Afewofthesemethodsaredescribedbelow.
Eliminate inferior plants or entire families as you identify them.Thismethodcanbeeasilyusedwhenselectingfortraitsduringthinning,asmentionedabove,orwhenpracticingnegativeselection.Thismethodhastheadvantageofbeingverysimpleanddirect:cutdown,hoeout,orpullupanyplantsthatdonotmeetyourselectioncriteria.Themethodhasafewlimitations,however.First,ifyourbreed-ingpopulationhasrelativelyfewgoodplantsandrequiresahighselectionintensity,itcanbemoretime-consumingtoidentifytheinferiorplantsinsteadofidentifyingthefewsuperiorplants.Sec-ond,ifyouarelookingformultipletraitsatonce,andyoudon’texpecttofindplantsthatperfectlyexhibitthesetraits,youmayneedamorerobustwayofselectingplantsbasedontheiroverallper-formanceacrossmultipletraits.
Select superior plants or families as you see them. Thismethodistheconverseoftheonejustde-scribed.Typicallyyouwalkyourbreedingfieldonanumberofoccasionsthroughouttheseason,evalu-atingforoneormoretraitsatappropriatetimes.Toselectaplantorfamily,placeaflagorstakenexttotheplantorfamily.Youcanusedifferentcoloredflagsduringevaluationsfordifferenttraits,oryoucanmakenotesonastakeorinanotebooktodescribewhyyouareselectingcertainplantsorfamilies.Thismethodisusefulwhenfindingasmallpercentageofsuperiorplantsorfamiliesoutofalargerpopulation.Thismethodcanalsocutdownonextensiverecordkeepingwhenthechoicesofwhichplantsorfamiliestoselectareobvious.
Select superior plants of families based on data. Thismethodinvolvesrecordingmeasurementsorscoresforeachplantorfamilyforthetraitsof
interest.Thedataisthenusedtomakeselections.Thismethodisthemosttimeandlaborintensiveofthethreeandonlybecomespracticalwhendealingwithsmallernumbersofplantsorfamilies(lessthanafewhundred).However,thereareanumberofreasonstousethismethod.First,thismethodisusefulforidentifyingasmallnumberoffamiliesthatperformedbestbasedonarangeoftraitsthataremeasuredovertheseason.Forexample,sayyouwanttopickoutthebestkalefamiliesbasedonearlyvigor,leafcolor,resistancetoearlyaphidpressure,andlengthofharvestseason.Inthiscase,youmayneedtomakeyourselectionattheendoftheseason,butyouwillneeddetailedinformationabouteachfamily’sperformancethroughoutthewholeseason.Second,thismethodhelpsincaseswherethetraitsarenotimmediatelyvisiblebutyouneedsomemeasurementstoevaluate.Thesemeasurementsmightincludeweighingyieldsormeasuringplantheights.Third,thismethodworkswellwhenyouhaveplantedyourfamiliesinmulti-plereplicationsandwanttofindtheaverageper-formanceofafamilyacrossallreplications.
Whenrecordingdatatoguideselections,atraitcaneitherbemeasuredorscored.Tomeasureatrait,toolssuchasscalesoryardsticksareusedtogetavalue.Toscoreatrait,youassignavaluetoaplantorfamilybasedonaratingsystem.Forexample,youmightscoreleafsizeonascalefrom1to9,where1representsatinyleafand9representsalargeone.Whenscoringtraits,beginbywalkingtheentirefieldtoassesstherangeofexpressionwithinthepopulationforthetraitofinterest.Theplantsorfamilieswiththeworstorleastdesirableexpressionofthetraitwillbethe1onyourscaleandtheplantsorfamilieswiththemostdesir-ableexpressionwillbeyour9.Thenproceedtoscoreallplantsorfamiliesbasedonthatrange,attemptingtousethewholerangeofscoresfrom1to9.MoreinformationonhowtoconducttheseevaluationscanbefoundinOSA’sOn-farm Variety Trials: A Guide for Organic Vegetable, Herb, and Flower Producers.Boththisguideanddatasheetsforevaluatingandselectingplantsareavailableforfreedownloadatwww.seedalliance.org.
A crop’s mating system and how it affects plant breedingThewayaplantmatescanbedescribedasfalling
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alongaspectrumbetweenstrongly self-pollinating andstrongly cross-pollinating.Whereacropfallsonthisspectrumhasseveralimplicationsforwhichbreedingmethodwillbemosteffective.Thisideawillbediscussedindetailbelow.
Self-pollinated cropsInplants,self-pollinationoccurswhenthespermofanindividualplantfertilizesanovuleofthesameplant.Essentially,theplantmateswithitself.Theplant’sinbredoffspringreceivealloftheirgenesfromthisoneandonlyparent.Thus,theoffspringareverygeneticallysimilartothisparent.Allpre-dominatelyself-pollinatingplantshaveperfectorbisexualflowers,whereboththemaleandfemalesexualstructuresareborneineachflower.Self-pol-linatingplantsalsohaveflowersthatexcludecross-pollinationasdescribedbelow.
Therearetwoimportantadvantagesofself-pol-lination.First,inplantsthathaveevolvedtobe-comeextremelywelladaptedtotheirenvironment,self-pollinationoffersawaytoensurethataplant’soffspringwillbejustaswelladaptedasitsparents.Inotherwords,self-pollinationisawayofreplicat-ingsuccess.Second,self-pollinationhelpstoensurereproductivesuccessunderavarietyofenviron-mentalcircumstances,asitdoesnotrequirethepresenceofwind,insects,oranimalstotransferpollenfromoneplanttoanother.
Theplantsthatwecallstrongly self-pollinatingrelyalmostcompletelyonself-fertilizationtoreproduce.Theperfectflowersoftheseplantshaveevolvedwaysofexcludingpollenfromotherflowerstopreventcross-pollination.Forexam-ple,theflowersofmostmoderntomatovarietieshaveanthersthatformaconearoundthepistil,effectivelysealingofftheflower’sstigmafromanypollenotherthanitsown.Inpeas,thepet-alsofthefloweraretypicallyclosedwhenthestigmafirstbecomesreceptivetopollen,givingpollenfromitsownanthersexclusiveaccesstothestigma.Whenthepeafloweropens,itisnearlyalwaysalreadyfertilized.Otherexamplesofstronglyself-pollinatingplantsincludecom-monbeans,wheat,andoats.
However,evenastronglyself-pollinatingplantwilloccasionallycrosswithanotherplantofthe
samespecies.Forexample,beescaneatthroughortearopenflowersanddepositpollenfromadifferentplantofthatspecies.Anumberofplantbreedersandseedgrowershavealsonotedthatwiththeincreaseofinsectactivitythatusuallyoccursinorganicallymanagedsystems,thereisoftenanincreaseinthepercentageofcrossesthatoccurinstronglyself-pollinatingplantspecies.Also,undercertainclimaticconditions,theflow-ersofsomeself-pollinatingplantswillopenearli-erthannormalandthestigmawillbereceptivetoreceivingpollenfromanotherplantbeforeithasachancetoself-fertilize.Andofcoursehumanscanperformcontrolledcrossesbetweenself-pol-linatingplantsbyintentionallytransferringpollenfromoneplanttoanother.
Cross-pollinated cropsOntheotherendofthebiologicalspectrumarecross-pollinatedplants.Cross-pollinationoccurswhenthespermofoneplantfertilizesaneggofadifferentplantofthesamespecies.Inotherwords,aplantmateswithanotherplantofthesamespe-cies.Whentwoplantscross-pollinate,theyproduceoffspringthataregeneticallydifferentfromeitherparent.Ingeneral,allplantshavethepotentialtocross-pollinate,becauseeveryplantcanbefertil-izedbyanotherplantofthesamespecies.
Thecentraladvantageofcross-pollinationisthatitfacilitatesaplantspecies’abilitytoadapttochang-ingenvironments.Plantspeciesthatconstantlymixtheirgenesintonewcombinationsincreasethelikelihoodthatatleastafewindividualswithinthespecieswillhavetherightcombinationofgenestowithstandnewenvironmentalchallenges.
Breeding self-pollinated crops vs. breed-ing cross-pollinated cropsThematingsystemofthecropaffectsbreedingstrategiesinsomefundamentalways.Self-polli-natedcropsneedlessisolationdistancefromeachotherandothercompatiblespeciesthancross-pol-linatedcropstoavoidunintendedcross-pollination.Theneedforlessisolationmakesiteasiertoman-ageseveralsimultaneousbreedingprojectsofthesamespeciesinalimitedspace,andwillallowyoutogrowyourbreedingprojectnearacommercialcropwithoutthreatofcross-contamination.Itisgenerallyhardertomakecrossesbetweenself-pol-
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linatedplantsthancross-pollinatedones.Inordertoovercomeaself-pollinatedplant’stendencytoonlyself-pollinate,somehandlaborisoftenre-quired,suchasremovingthemalepartsofoneplant(knownasemasculation)andcollectingandbringinginpollenfromanotherplant.Foron-farmbreedingprojects,cross-pollinatedcropscanbehandledwithsimpletechniqueslikestraincross-ing,explainedbelow.
Thechallengeofcross-pollinationinself-pollinatedcropshasanimportantadditionaleffect.Popula-tionsofcross-pollinatedcropscaneasilycross-pollinateandrecombinetheirgenes.Ontheotherhand,afteraninitialcrossismadeinaself-polli-natedcrop,eachsubsequentgenerationofself-pol-linationrapidlyfixesgroupsofgenes.Seebelowforanillustrationofthisphenomenon.
Doingbreedingworkwithself-pollinatedcropsallowsyoutoeasilycreateuniformvarietiesfromcrosses.Oncethesevarietiesaredeveloped,theyaremucheasiertomaintaincomparedtocross-pollinatedvarieties.
Finally,self-pollinatedcropssufferlessfromin-breedingdepression.Thisallowsyoutoworkwithfewerplantsinaself-pollinatedbreedingprogramcomparedtoacross-pollinatedbreedingprogramandstillproduceavigorousvariety.
Asfigure3shows,ifwefollowthegenerationsofplantsafteracrossismadeineitheraself-pol-
Comparison of Attributes of Self- and Cross-pollinated Crops
Self-pollinated crops Cross-pollinated crops
Isolation Less More
Crossing Harder Easier
Self-pollinating Easier Harder
Inbreeding depression Less More
linatedspeciesorinacross-pollinatedspecies,fundamentaldifferencesariseinthestructureofthepopulations.Inacross-pollinatedspecies,theplantsineachgenerationareabletointermate.Intermatingcreatesaunifiedgene poolandallowsnewcombinationsbetweenplantstobemadeeachyear.Incontrast,unlesshumansintervenetomakeadditionalcrosses,self-pollinatedplantswillself-pollinateineachgenerationaftertheinitialcross.Self-pollinatingineachgenerationleadstoeachplantderivingseparatefamiliesorlines.Ineachgeneration,theplantsineachfamilywillbecomemoreuniformwithinthefamily,whilestrongerdifferenceswillarisebetweenfamilies.Thegeno-typesofeachfamilybecomefixed,andnewgeneticcombinationsbetweenfamiliesonlyoccurthroughhand-pollinationorthroughrarenaturalcross-pollination.Theconsequenceforbreedersisthat,whendealingwithself-pollinatedcrops,asufficientnumberoflinesmustbecreatedandmaintainedtofindalinethathasallofthetraitsofinterestfrombothparents.Incontrast,thegenepoolofcross-pollinatedcropscanbegraduallyimprovedbyeliminatingtheworstplantsorfamilies,andallow-ingthebesttocross-pollinatetocreatenewcom-binationsthatmaycontainthedesiredtraitsfrombothparents.
Inbreeding depressionisalossofvigorduetoself-pollinationorthecrossingofgeneticallysimi-larplants.Essentially,inbreedingdepressionisthereverseofheterosis(hybridvigor).Inbreedingdepressionresultsfromtheaccumulationofho-
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mozygouspairsofrareanddetrimental recessive alleles.Tosimplifytheidea,figure4servesasanexamplewherethereisararemutantrecessiveallele,a,inapopulation.Ifaplanthastwocop-iesofthisallele(aa),theplantcannoteffectivelyproducechlorophyll.Theplantappearsverylightgreenandgrowspoorly.Aslongasaplanthasonecopyofthefunctioningallele,A,itwillbeabletoproducechlorophyll.Inotherwords,plantswiththegenotypeAAorAaarehealthy.Asmallfractionofthepopulationcarriesthisalleleasaheterozy-gote(Aa).WhentheseAaplantscross-pollinate(ontheright-sideoffigure4),almostallofthepollentheyreceivewillcarrythedominantAallele,andtheiroffspringwillbehealthy,evenifhalfoftheoffspringarecarryingthedeleteriousrecessiveaallele.However,iftheseheterozygousAaplantsself-pollinate,oriftheypollinatewithcloserela-
tives,thesituationchanges.Asyoucanseeontheleftinfigure4,whenoneoftheseplantsself-pol-linates,25%oftheiroffspringwillbehomozygousaaandwillshowthedetrimentaleffectsfromhav-ingtwocopiesofthisallele.Mostcross-pollinatingplantscarrymanydeleteriousrecessivealleles.Theseplantsrelyoncross-pollinationamonglargepopulationstoavoidinbreeding.Withself-pollinat-ingplants,ontheotherhand,selectionhasactedovermanygenerationstoweedouttheplantswithdeleteriousalleles.
Figure 3. This diagram show how populations of self-pollinated and cross-pollinated crops differ in their genetic structures.
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Thinking about your target environmentInaperfectworld,plantbreederscoulddevelopva-rietiesthatthrivedinanysituationandanywhereontheplanet.Infact,mostlargeseedcompaniesstrivetoproducevarietiesthatcanbegrownacrosswidegeographicregionsinmanyagriculturalsitua-tions.Thisconceptisknownasbroad adaptation.However,varietiesthatarebroadlyadaptedmaynotbethebestvarietyforanygivenarea,andtheymayrequirehighlevelsofinputstorecreatethegrowingenvironmentunderwhichtheywerebred.Creatingbroadlyadaptedvarietiesmayalsore-quireextensivetestingthatmostsmallerbreedingprogramsdonothavetheresourcestoundertake.Incontrasttobreedingbroadlyadaptedvarieties,specifically adaptedvarietiesarebredtoexcelinspecificenvironments.Thesevarietiesarenotex-pectedtodowelleverywhere,justinthetargeten-vironment.Theconceptoftherelativeperformance
ofavarietychangingbasedontheenvironmentitisgrowinginiscalledthegenotype by environ-ment interaction(GxE).
Oneofthefirststepsinplanningabreedingproj-ectistoidentifythetargetenvironment.Theenvi-ronmentcanbeasbroadornarrowasyouchoose,keepinginmindthatadditionalresourceswillberequiredasthebreadthoftheprojectincreases.Developingabroadlyadaptedvarietywillrequiremoretimeandresourcesthandevelopingavari-etyspecificallyadaptedtoyourlocalconditionsandchallenges.
Whendetailingthetargetenvironmentwhereyouwantyourvarietytoexcel,thereareseveralimpor-tantfactorstoconsider.Someoftheseare:
Geographicregion(daylengthandfrost-freeperiod)Temperatureregime(highs,lows,fluctuations,andcumulativeheatunits)Rainfall(amountandtiming)
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Figure 4. Inbreeding depression results from the accumulation of homozygous pairs of rare and detrimental recessive alleles. This diagram serves as an example where there is a rare mutant recessive allele, a, in a population.
III. Developing a Plant Breeding Plan
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SoiltypeDiseasepressuresWeedpressures
Youshouldalsoconsiderculturalfactorsinyourtargetenvironment,suchas:
Croppingsystem(directseedingvs.transplanting)Irrigationsystem(overhead,drip,orflood/furrow)Fertilization(typeandfrequency)Cultivationtechniques(frequencyofplowing,mechanicalvs.handtechniques)
Finally,considerthemarketandsocialfactorsthatareintegraltoyourtargetenvironment,includingexpectationsfor:
ColorStoragepropertiesFlavorCulinaryusesQualityofproductTransportationability
Determining traitsKnowingwhatyouwantiscriticaltogettingwhatyouwant.Themostsuccessfulbreedingprojectshaveclearlydefinedtraitsthatarebeingselectedfororagainst.Priortostartingthebreedingeffort,itisimportanttotakethebroadlydefinedgoalsforthevarietyanddigdowntodefineexactlywhatyouwillbelookingforinthefield.Itmaybeveryeasytocomeupwithalistofthetraitsthroughbrain-storming.Anotherwaytounderstandwhichtraitsareimportantisbydiscussingthebestcurrentlyavailablevarieties.Whatarethetraitsthatmakecertainvarietiessogreat?Whataretheylacking?Ausefulconceptisthatofan ideotype.Anideotypeisessentiallyanidealizedcropvarietythatisper-fectlysuitedtoaparticularsetofproductionandmarketcriteria.Whatwouldthisidealvarietylooklike?Howwoulditperform?Whattraitswoulditneedtohavetobesuccessful?Whatarethetraitsthatareimportanttothefarmerandmarketplace?
Someexamplesoftraitsthatyoumaywanttose-lectforinclude:
PlantheightPlantstature
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DaystomaturityHarvestableyieldColorFlavorTextureStoragelifeSeedlingvigorPestResistanceDiseaseResistance
Prioritizing traitsOnceyouhavecompiledalistoftraits,thenextstepistoprioritizethem.Ingeneral,abreedingprojectshouldnotattempttoactivelyselectformorethanfiveorsixtraitsatanygiventime.Theremaybemorethanfivetraitsthatareimportant,butit’snotfeasibletoworkoneverythingallatonce.Alsoconsiderthatsometraitsmaybeeasilyfixed,or“lockedin,”bychoosingparentsthatsharethesetraits.Inthiscase,effectiveselectionmaybeachievedsimplybythrowingoutacoupleofoff-typeplantshereandthere.
Toprioritizethetraitsandlimitthelisttofive,twoquestionstoconsiderare:
Isthetraiteasilymeasurable?Howheritableisthetrait?
How can the traits be measured?Plantbreedingisanexerciseinbalancingwhatwewantwiththeresourceswehavetodothework.Mostplantbreedingprojectshavelimitedresources,soitmakessensetoavoidbreedingfortraitsthatrequireexcessivelabor.Itmightbewonderfultode-velopalettucevarietythatsupportsadiversefloraofmicroorganismsarounditsroots,butunlessyourprogramhastheresourcestodeterminetheidentityofawidevarietyofspeciesofsoilmicrobesinhabit-inghundredsoflettucelines,youwillneedtoworkwithtraitsthatareeasiertomeasureandselect.Intheprocessofprioritizingselectioncriteria,consid-erwhenandhowthetrait(s)willbemeasured.Thisplandoesn’tneedtobefleshedout,butitshouldbesufficientlydetailedsothatyouhaveanideaofhowmuchworkwillberequired.Willyoubeabletovisuallyratethetraitona1to9scale?Willyoubeabletoquicklymeasurethetraitwithayardstickorascale?Howmanytimesthroughouttheseasonwillthetraitneedtobemeasured?
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How easily can the traits be inherited? Theseconditemtoconsiderwhendeterminingwhichtraitstoprioritizeinyourbreedingproj-ectistheheritability ofthetraits.Simplystated,heritabilityexpressesthelikelihoodthatatraityouseeinaplantthisyearwillshowupintheplant’soffspring.Putanotherway,heritabilityexpresseswhatfractionoftheappearanceofatraitcomesfromtheplant’sgeneticsasopposedtotheenvironment.Althougheachcropandsituationisdifferent,traitsthatarehighlyheritableoftenincludesuchqualitiesascolor,shape,andspinesversusspinelessness.Themorehighlyheritableatraitis,theeasieritistoselectandseerapidprog-ressfromonegenerationtothenext.Traitswithlowheritabilitytypicallyincludeyieldandvariousformsofstresstolerance(i.e.,drought,salinity,andheattolerance).Thesetraitsrequiremorebreedingexpertise,aswellasamorefinelytunedexperi-mentalfieldmodeltoteaseoutsubtledifferencesinthesetraitstomakeimprovementsacrosscyclesofselection.Werecommendthatyouchooseonlyacoupleoftraitswithlowheritabilitytoselectforinyourbreedingproject,especiallyatthebeginning.Manytraits,suchasflavor,plantheight,anddiseaseresistance,maybeeitherhighlyheritableorlessheritable,dependingonthepopulation.Gettingadvicefromaformallytrainedbreederwhohasexperiencewithyourcropofinterestcanhelpyoudefinewhichtraitsaremoreorlessheritable.
Choosing parentsGermplasmisageneraltermthatreferstothecollectionofgeneticresourcesforaplantspecies.Varieties,landraces,collections,breedinglines,andunimprovedmaterialarealltypesofgerm-plasm.Essentiallygermplasmisanyformoflivingtissue(e.g.,seeds,cuttings,roots,andtubers)fromwhichplantscanbegrown.Germplasmistheparentalmaterialusedtobeginyourbreed-ingwork.Sourcingqualitygermplasmdetermineshoweasilyandrapidlyyouwillbeabletodevelopyourdesiredvariety.
Therearetwomainfactorstoconsiderwhenchoosinggermplasm:
Quality:thegermplasmshouldincludeelementsoftheideotypeyouarestrivingtoproduce
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Variability:thegermplasmshouldhavevaria-tionforthetrait(s)youwanttoimprove
Considervarietiesthat:
PerformwellinyourtargetenvironmentAreconsideredtobecommercialstandardsContainuniquetraitsthatyouwanttoincorpo-rateintoyourproject
Manyvaluablevarietiesforbreedingworkcanbefoundinthecatalogsofdomesticandinternationalseedcompanies.However,beawareoflegalpro-tectionsonsomevarietiesthatrestricttheiruseforbreedingorlimitwhatyoucandowiththeminotherways.Theseprotectionsincludeplantpat-ents,utilitypatents,plantvarietyprotectioncertifi-cates,andlicenses.YoucanfindmoreinformationabouttheseprotectionsoneOrganic’sintellectualpropertyprotectionpageathttp://www.extension.org/pages/18449.Alwaysinvestigateyourgerm-plasmsourcestoensuretherearenolegalrestric-tionsonbreeding.
Besidesseedcompanies,youcanalsosourcegermplasmfrom:
FarmersSeedexchangesGermplasmResourceInformationNetwork:http://www.ars-grin.gov/
Unlessyouarealreadyfamiliarwiththegermplasmyouwanttouseinyourproject,itiswisetocon-ductvarietytrialstoevaluatetheavailablesourcesofgermplasm.MoreinformationonhowtoconductvarietytrialscanbefoundinOSA’sOn-farm Vari-ety Trials: A Guide for Organic Vegetable, Herb, and Flower Producers.
Herearefourcategoriesofgermplasmthatareusefultoevaluateandconsiderforuseinorganicplantbreeding:
1) Heirloom varieties:Thiscategoryincludesfamilyorcommunity-basedheirloomsaswellasnon-hybridcommercialcropvarietiesthatwereinexistencebeforeWorldWarII.Heirloomsareopen-pollinated(OP)varietiesthatwereselected,adapted,andmaintainedovergenerationswithin
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familiesoragriculturalcommunities.Theywereoftenuniquelyadaptedtothechallengesofthesoil,climate,andendemicdiseasesofparticularregions.Inmanycases,thecommercialvarietiesreleasedduringthisperiodbyregionalseedcompanieswereimprovedorrefinedheirloomvarietiesal-readyimportanttothatparticularregion.ThesecommercialOPvarietieswereeitherdevelopedbyoneofthemanyregionalseedcompaniesthatflourishedduringtheearly20thcenturyorbyplantbreedersatoneofthelandgrantuniversities.Thesevarietieswerethenmadewidelyavailabletofarmersandgardenersacrosstheregion.
2) Early modern varieties:Thisisatermforcropvarietiesdevelopedbybothregionalseedcompa-niesandlandgrantuniversitiesfromtheendofWorldWarIIuntilabout1980.Mostofthesevari-etiesarenotF1hybridsbutopen-pollinatedvariet-iesincross-pollinatedcropsand“pureline”variet-iesinself-pollinatedcrops.Earlymodernvarietieswerebredfortheconditionsofspecificregions.Thebreedingofvegetablesandotherminorcropswasn’tusuallydoneunderoptimumfertilityorheavysprays.Manyofthesevarietiesthatarestillusedtodayhaveproventheirworthas“workhorsevarieties,”andanumberoffarmer-breedershavechosenvarietiesoutofthiscategorytoserveasgermplasmfortheirbreedingprojects.
3) F1 hybrid varieties:Hybridvarietieswerefirstextensivelydevelopedincornduringthe1920sandbegantorepresentalargepartofthevarietyofferingsofmanycross-pollinatedcropsafterWorldWarII.Hybridsbecamepopularfor
anumberofreasons.Theyareaneffectivewaytocreategeneticallyuniform,vigorousvariet-ies.Inaddition,theyrepresentaformofbiologi-calintellectualpropertyprotectionfortheseedcompaniesthatdevelopthembecausetheoff-springofhybridsdonotgrowtrue-to-type(duetotheirhighlyheterozygousnature).BecausemanybreedingeffortssinceWorldWarIIhavefocusedondevelopinghybridvarieties,alotofthemostelitecropvarietiescurrentlyarehybrids.Hybridsareoftengeneticallydiverseandcanrepresentgoodgermplasmformanybreedingprojects.
4) Modern open-pollinated varieties (non-hybrids):Variousseedcompaniesarebreedinggoodopen-pollinatedvarieties(generallysmall-tomedium-sizedregionalcompanies)asaresomepublicbreedersatlandgrantuniversities.Thebestmodernopen-pollinatedvarietiesprovideexcellentgermplasmforbreedingprograms.
Beforebeginningabreedingproject,itisagoodideatoscreencropvarietiesfromawideswathofgerm-plasmsources,includingsomefromeachofthefourcategoriesabove.Thisprocesswillhelpyouidentifythehighestqualitygermplasmcurrentlyavailable.Thepotentialforincreasingyoursuccessandde-creasingyourfrustrationisgreatestwhenyoubeginaprojectwiththebestpossiblegermplasm.
Creating a breeding timelineFigure5onthefollowingpageisasummaryofageneralbreedingtimeline.Afterthesummary,wewillgothroughthestepsinmoredetail.
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Step 1.Conductvarietytrialstoidentifythebestpotentialparentalgermplasm.
Step 2. Ifnecessary,makecrossesbetweenparents.Ifadequatevariationexistsinafavorableexistingvariety,thennocrossesarenecessary.
Step 3.Ifyouareworkingwithacross-pollinatingcropandyoumadecrosses,allowtheoffspringtorandomlymateforatleasttwoorthreegenera-tionswhileremovingobviousundesirableplants.Inthecaseofself-pollinatedcrops,allowtheplantstonaturallyself-pollinateforatleasttwoorthreegenerationsafterthecross,removingonlytrulydysfunctionalplants.
At this point, you can conduct a breeding program purely based on mass selection by proceeding to step 8. To conduct family selection, first go through steps 4 through 7.
Step 4.Growalargepopulationandsaveseedseparatelyfromindividualplants.Theseedfromindividualplantsbecomefamilies.
Step 5. Thefollowinggeneration,growfamiliesoutinrows.Planteachrowfromseedharvestedfromanindividualplant.Evaluateandselectthebestperformingfamiliesandplants.
Step 6. Harvestseedfromtheselectedplantswith-intheselectedfamilies.Dependingonwhatyouseeandyourgoals,eitherkeepseedfromindividualplantsseparateorcombinewithinfamilies.
Step 7. Repeattheprocessofgrowingandselectingfamilyrowsuntilyouaresatisfiedwiththeperfor-manceofallfamilies.
Step 8.Oncetheselectedfamiliesareallaccept-able,combinetheseedofthesefamiliesintoabulkpopulation.
Step 9.Growthebulkedpopulationagainandre-movetheleastdesirableplants.Repeatasnecessary.
Step 10.Oncethepopulationisuniformlyaccept-able,increaseseedforrelease.
Figure 5. This diagram shows a summary of a general breeding timeline.
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Herearefurtherdetailsoneachstep:
Step 1. Conduct variety trials to identify the best potential parental germplasm.
Beforecommittingtoalong-termbreedingproj-ect,carefullyevaluatepotentialparentalgerm-plasm.Thisevaluationtypicallytakestheformofavarietytrial.Avarietytrialisasystematicwaytoevaluateasetofvarietiesusinggoodtrialdesign.Thepurposeofatrialdesignistohelpminimizetheenvironmentalvariationtoensurethatthedif-ferencesobservedrepresentgeneticdifferencesbetweenplants.Moreinformationonhowtocon-ductvarietytrialscanbefoundinOSA’sOn-farm Variety Trials: A Guide for Organic Vegetable, Herb, and Flower Producers.
Step 2. If necessary, make crosses between parents. If adequate variation is present in a favorable existing variety, then no crosses are necessary.
Toimproveyourpopulation,somedegreeofvaria-tionforimportanttraitsisnecessary.SeeSectionIV. Theories of field-based organic breedingbelowformoreinformationabouthowvariationworks.Tohaveavariablepopulation,youneedtoeitherstartwithgermplasmthatisvariableforthetraitsyouintendtoimprove,oryouneedtocreatevariationbycrossingtwoormorevarietiestogeth-er.Thesecrossescanbemadeinanumberofways,dependingonyourgoalsandresources.
Types of Crosses
Controlled pollinations:Plantbreedingmightevokeanimageofbreedersmakingcontrolledcrosses,perhapswithtweezers,magnifyingglasses,andsmallpaintbrushes.Thegeneralstrategywilldependonwhetherthespeciesyouworkwithhasperfectflowersornot.Per-fectflowershavebothmalestamenandfemalepistilsonthesameflower.Iftheplanthasper-fectflowers,youwillgenerallyneedtoemas-culatethefemaleparentbyremovingthemalestamenandthentransferpollenfromthemaleparent.Iftheplanthasonlyunisexualflow-ers–flowersthatcontaineitherallmaleorall
femaleparts–thereisnoneedtoemasculate.Youjusttransferpollenfromamaleflowertoafemaleflower.Afterpollinating,somesortofcoverisoftenusedtoexcludeotherpollenfromcontaminatingthecross.
Open pollinations:Thesecrossesarealsoknowasstrain crossesorblindcrosses,andaredonebyallowingoneplantorasetofplantstocrosswithanotherplantorsetofplantswithoutmakinganattempttoensurethatpollenisonlytransferredbetweencertainplants.Thisisaccomplishedbybringingalloftheplantstogetherandallowingthemtofreelycross-pollinate.Outsidepollenisexcludedeitherbyisolationdistanceorbycagingtheplantsinsideastructurethatpreventsinsectsandpollenfromentering.
Hybrids:Thesevarietiescanbeusedaspre-madecrosses,savingastepinthebreedingpro-cess.Keepinmind,however,thatmosthybridsaremadebycrossingtwonarrowlyselectedin-bredparentsandthereforeapopulationformedfromasinglehybridwillhavecomparativelylittlegeneticdiversityrelativetoonecreatedfromastrainorblindcrossbetweenopen-pol-linatedvarieties.
Step 3. If you are working with a cross-pol-linating crop and you made crosses, allow the offspring to randomly mate for at least two or three generations while removing obvious un-desirable plants. In the case of self-pollinated crops, allow the plants to naturally self-polli-nate for at least two or three generations after the cross while removing undesirable plants.
Priortoselection,growyournewbreedingpopula-tionforafewgenerations,allowingtheplantstoflowerandfreelycross-pollinate.Duringthistime,youmaypracticenegativemass selectiontorogueouttheworstperformingplants.
Itistemptingtobeginintensiveselectioninthegenerationafteryourcrossesaremade,asplantbreedingcanbesuchalongprocess.However,werecommendthatyoudonotskipthisstep.Incross-pollinatedcrops,allowingafewgenerationsofran-
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dommatingbreaksupthelinkagebetweengenes.Simplystated,linkagereferstohowgenesinaplantwilltendtotraveltogether.Forexample,ifyoucrossatallplantwithdarkleaveswithashortplantwithlightleaves,you’remorelikelytogeteitheratalldarkplantorashortlightplantthanyouaretogetatall,lightplantorshort,darkplant.Randommatingforacouplegenerationsallowsthegenestoshuffleandmakesitmorelikelythatyouwillseenewcom-binationsofgenesinthepopulation.
Forself-pollinatedcrops,itisalsovaluabletowaitforatleasttwoorthreegenerationsbeforemak-inganysignificantselections.Thereasonforthisisdifferentthanforcross-pollinatedcrops.Asde-scribedinthepreviousdiscussionofdifferencesingeneticstructuresbetweencross-andself-pol-linatedcrops,randommatingandthebreakingoflinkagesdoesnotoccurinself-pollinatedcrops.Instead,eachplantderivedfromtheoffspringofacrosshasthepotentialtobecomeaseparate,independentfamilylinewithuniquecombina-tionsoffixedpairsofgenes.Aseachoftheselinescontinuestoself-pollinateoverthecourseofafewgenerations,eachlinewillbecomemoreuniformandthedifferencesbetweenlineswillbecomemoreobvious.Itwillbeeasiertomakedistinctionsbetweenfamiliesifsufficienttimehaspassedtoallowthefamiliestoessentiallybecomefixedanddistinctfromoneanother.
Additionally,themoregenerationsyouspendimprovingthepopulationbythisgradualprocess(massselection),thebetterthegeneticsofthepopulationwillbe,andthemorelikelyyouwillbesuccessfulinthelaterphasesofbreeding.
Thesegenerationswillalsogiveyouachancetogettoknowthepopulation,toseewhatkindsofvaria-tionexistinit,andtoevaluatewhatitsstrengthsandflawsare.Usetheseyearstorefineyourgoals,traitsofinterest,andevaluationtechniques.Re-member,whenpracticingselection,makesurethefieldlocationrepresentsthelocationyouwanttoselectforandisrelativelyuniformthroughout.
Step 4. Grow a large population and save seed separately from individual plants. The seed from individual plants become families.
Duringthisgenerationyouwillbeselectingyourbestplantstoserveasparentsforfamilies.Evalu-ateyourplantsmultipletimesthroughouttheseason,consideringthegoalsandtraitsyouhaveprioritized.Sincetheremaybesomevariationinthesoilquality,weedpressures,andotherfactorsinyourfield,selectthebestplantsfromallpartsofthefieldequally.Ifalloftheplantsinonecor-nerofyourfieldlookworseoffthantherest,stilltrytopicksomeofthebestlookingplantsinthatpatch–thoseareplantsthatcansurviveundersomeenvironmentalstressorpotentiallysub-op-timalconditions.
Ifyourcropiscross-pollinatingandisacropwhereyouhaveanopportunitytoevaluateandselectthebestplantsbeforepollinationoccurs,youwillmakefasterprogressbyremovingallinferiorplantsfromthefieldbeforepollinationoccurs.Inthisway,anycross-pollinationthatoccurswillonlybebetweentheselectedplants.
Whenyouharvestseedfromselectedplants,putseedfromeachplantintoaseparatebag.Theseedineachbagrepresentsafamily.Labeleachfamilywithauniquenumber.Alongwiththenumberoneachlabel,youmaywanttomakenotesaboutwhyyouselectedthatplant.Theseplantswillrepresentfamiliesforthenextgeneration’sroundofselec-tion.Inthecaseofcross-pollinatedcrops,trytosaveseedfromatleast20to50individualplants.Inthecaseofself-pollinatingcrops,saveseedfromatleast30to100plants.
Step 5. The following generation, grow family plots by planting each separate plot with seed harvested from an individual plant. Evaluate and select the best performing families.
Thisgenerationyouwillbelookingattheprog-enyofyourselectedplantsasfamilies.Inbreed-ingterms,thisistheprocessoffamily selection.Thismeansyouwillplantseedfromeachplantthatyouselectedinseparateplotsorrows,justasifyouwereconductingatrial,followingthebestpracticesoftrialdesignasoutlinedinOSA’sOn-farm Variety Trials: A Guide for Organic Vegetable, Herb, and Flower Producers.
Examineeachplotasawhole.Howdoesthisfamily
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ofrelatedplantslook?Onaverage,whichfamilieslookbestgivenyourgoalsandtraits?Selectthebestfamiliesbasedontheiroverallquality,andeliminatetheotherfamilies,preferablybeforetheyhaveachancetocross-pollinatewiththeselectedfamilies.Lookforfamilieswhereatleast60to80%oftheplantsareacceptable.
Next,selectthebestplantswithinthebestfami-lies.Aimtoeliminate30to40%oftheplantswithinafamily,keepinginmindtheminimumpopulationsizeyouwanttomaintaintokeepthepopulationhealthy(seebox,“Whymaintainlargepopulationsizes?”).
Step 6. Harvest seed from the best plants within the best families.
Atthispoint,savetheseedfromeachfamily.Inotherwords,combinetheseedfromallofthese-lectedplantswithineachfamilysothatyouendupwithaseparatebagforeachfamily.
Why maintain large population sizes?
Whatistheadvantageofmaintaininglargenumbersofplantsinyourbreedingpopula-tions?Afterall,ifyouhaveafewexcellentlook-ingplantsinthefield,whysaveseedfromanyplantsthatdon’tlookasnice?Therearetwomainreasonstomaintainlargepopulations.
Inthecaseofcross-pollinatingcrops,largepopulationshelpavoidinbreedingdepression.
Inbreedingdepressionisalossofvigorduetothecrossingofgeneticallysimilarplants.Plantssufferingfrominbreedingdepressiongerminatepoorly,yieldpoorly,andsuccumbmorequicklytoenvironmentalstress.Ingen-eral,plantsthatarestronglycross-pollinatingaremostsusceptibletoinbreedingdepression,whilethosethatarestronglyself-pollinatingareleastsusceptible.
Thesecondreasontomaintainlargepopula-tionsizesistoavoidlosingimportantgenesthroughgenetic drift.Geneticdriftistherandomchangeinthefrequencyofgenesinthepopulationasitreproduces.Evenintheabsenceofselection,thepopulationthatgrowsfromonegenerationtothenextmayhaveaslightlydifferentpercentageofgenesjustbychance.If,bychance,noneoftheplantsinagivengenerationcarryacertaingene,itwillbelosttothepopulation.Thisismuchmorelikelytohappeninsmallpopulationsthaninlargeones.Thethreechartsbelowshowasimula-tionofthechangeingenefrequencyafter25generationsforsomehypotheticalgenesthatarefoundinbetween20to80%oftheplantsinapopulationtostartwith.Whenthepopula-tionsizeiskeptat200plants,allofthegenesarestillpresentinthepopulationattheendof25generations.Withonly30plants,one-fifthofthegenesarefixedorlostwithin25genera-tions.Whenseedissavedfromonly10plantseverygeneration,themajorityofgenesarefixedorlostwithin25generations.
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Step 7. Repeat the process of growing and se-lecting family plots until you are satisfied with the performance of all selected families.
Thefollowinggeneration,continuetoplanttheselectedfamiliesinseparateplotsandevaluatethemagainthroughouttheseason.If,duringthesecondroundofevaluations,someofthefamiliesnolongerseemacceptable,discardthosefami-lies.Alsoeliminateallinferiorplantswithintheselectedfamiliesthatyoudecidetocarryontothenextgeneration.
Step 8. Once the selected families are all accept-able, combine the seed of these families togeth-er into a bulk population.
Forthesepastfewgenerations,youhavebeenmaintainingthepopulationasasetofseparatefamilies.Oncealloftheremainingfamiliesmeet
yourgoals,youcancombinethemtogethertore-formthepopulation.
Step 9. Grow the population again and remove the least desirable plants. Repeat as necessary.
Oncethefamilieshavebeenreformedintoasinglepopulation,youcanmaintainthispopulationinsubsequentgenerationsthroughmassselection(i.e.,selectingthebestindividualplantstorepro-duceeachgeneration).Ifatanypointyoubelievethevarietyneedstobemoreintensivelyselected,youcancompleteanothercycleoffamilyselectionbysavingseedseparatelyfromindividualplantsandplantingtheminindividualplotsthefollowinggeneration,aspreviouslydescribed.
Step 10. Once the population is uniformly ac-ceptable, increase seed for release.
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Asyouincreasetheseed,continuetorogueoutanyundesirableplantsastheyarise.
Lookingatbroccoliseedandkaleseed,youmaynotbeabletotellthemapart.Theyarebothsmall,brownish-greyseeds,essentiallyindistinguishablefromoneanother.Butplanttheseedintheground,andastheygerminateandgrowintomatureplants,thedifferencesbecomegreater.Thekaleseedpro-duceskaleplantswithbroad,curlygreenleaves,whilethebroccoliseedproducesbroccoliplantswithlarge,tightflowerheads.Whatexactlyiscontainedinthatseedthatcausesbroccoliseedtogrowintobroccoliandkaleseedtogrowintokale?Genes,madeupofDNA,“program”thewayplants(andalllivingthings)grow,thewaytheylook,andthewaytheytaste,amongmanyothercharacteris-tics.Genesarehowaplant’sprogrammingpassesdownfromonegenerationtothenext.Asplantbreeders,ourjobistopicktheplantswiththebestgenesandmakesurethosegenesgetpasseddown.
Thissectionwillintroduceyoutothebasicsofgeneticsbyexplaininghowgenesarepassedfromonegenerationtothenextandhowthosegenesde-terminetheappearanceandperformanceofplants.
How genes travel from parents to offspringJustasitisinhumans,DNAisbundledtogetherintopackagescalledchromosomesinplants.Plantsalsohavemultiplechromosomes,eachofwhichcontainsmanygenes.Mostcropspeciesarediploid,meaningtheyhavetwosetsofchromosomes:onesetfromtheirmotherandonefromtheirfather.Forexample,tomatoes,ingeneral,have12pairsofchromosomes,withtwo#1chromosomes,two#2chromosomes,etc.,foratotalof24chromosomes.However,someplantsarepolyploidy,meaningtheyhavemorethantwosetsofchromosomes.Forexample,commonwheatisahexaploid,meaningithassixsetsofchro-mosomes.Althoughpolyploidyisfoundinanumberofimportantcropplants,forthesakeofsimplicity,wewillfocusonlyondiploidspeciesforthefollow-ingexplanationsandexamples.
Toreproduce,plantsproducespermandeggs.Spermandeggshaveonlyonesetofchromosomesratherthantwo.Again,lookingattomatoes,whiletherestoftheplanthas24chromosomes,thespermandeggsonlyhave12.Wheneachspermoreggiscreated,itreceives,atrandom,eitherachromosomefromtheplant’smotherorachromosomefromtheplant’sfather.Thismakeseachspermandeggunique.Later,whenthespermiscarriedonthepollenandfertilizesanegg,auniquenewplantwillbecreated.Becauseofthis,plantscreatedfromthesamecrossbetweentwoplantscanalllookdifferent.Theexceptiontothisisiftheparentplantsarehighlygeneticallyuniform,whichcanoccureitherthroughinbreedingacross-pollinatedspeciesortheuseofpurelineself-pollinat-ingvarieties.Inthiscasetheoffspringfromthecrosswillalllooknearlyidentical.
How genes determine the appearance and per-formance of plantsAswelearnmoreaboutthecomplexityoflife,weseemoredeviationsandexceptionstohowweoriginallyunderstoodgenestofunction.Neverthe-less,althoughthefollowingdescriptionsaresimpli-fiedversionsofhighlycomplexsystems,theyarestillrelevantandusefulforplantbreedingwork.
Genesareinstructionsforourcells,writteninthelanguageofthenucleicacidsthatmakeupDNA.Cells“read”theseinstructionsandmakeproteins.Typi-cally,onegenemakesoneprotein.Eachchromosomecontainshundredsorthousandsofgenes–mostoftheinstructionsnecessarytocreateaplant.
Asmentioned,halfofthosegeneswillcomefromthemother(maternal)andhalffromthefather(paternal).Foranygiventraitthatiscontrolledbyonegene,suchasgrowthhabitintomatoes,aplantwillhaveamaternalgeneandapaternalgene.Whatifthematernalandpaternalgenesdif-fer?Forexample,whatifthegenereceivedfromthemotherproducesproteinsthatmakeashorter,determinantplant,whilethegenefromthefathermakesalarger,indeterminateplant?Formanytraitstherearegenesthatresultinproperlyfunc-tioningproteinsandgenesthatresultindefective,non-functioningproteins.Also,formanytraits,oneproperlyfunctioninggeneisenoughtocreatesuf-ficientproteintomeettheplant’sneeds.Inthesecases,ifaplanthasjustonecopyofagenethat
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Tomato 1Sp Sp
Tomato 2Sp sp
Tomato 3sp sp
encodesforfunctioningproteins,itwilllookandfunctionthesameasifithadtwoofthosegenes.Onlywhentherearenocopiesofthatgenepresenttoencodeforthefunctioningproteindoweseeadifferenceinappearance.Toillustrate,letuslookatdeterminantversusindeterminategrowthhabitintomatoes.Figure6illustratestomatoesthathave:(1)twofunctionalcopiesofthe“self-pruning”gene(Sp),(2)onecopyofSpandonenon-functional“self-pruning”gene(sp),and(3)twonon-function-al“self-pruning”genes.
Noticethattomatoes1and2lookthesame.ThatisbecauseonlyonecopyofSpwasrequiredtopro-ducetheproteinsthatallowedthetomatotogrowcontinuously.Onlywhenbothcopieswerenon-functional,asintomato3,doesthetomatoendupshortanddeterminate.Inthiscase,wewouldcallsparecessivegeneandSpadominantgene.Inthecaseofdominantandrecessivegenes,thefunda-mentalconcepttounderstandisthatrecessivegenesareonlyvisibleinthephenotypeofaplant(whataplantlookslike)whentwocopiesofthegenearepresent,whereasasinglecopyofadomi-nantgenewillresultinthedominantphenotype.
How genes travel together during reproductionUltimately,whenweengageinplantbreedingweareparticipatinginthesexualreproductionofplants.Inthissexualprocess,someoftheparentalcellsundergomeiosis,splittingtheirchromosomepairsintogametes:eitherspermoreggs.Thesegametesthencombinewithacomplementarygam-eteandformazygote,whichisthebeginningofanewplant.Oneofthewaysinwhichthisprocessprofoundlyaffectsplantbreedingisthroughthephenomenonoflinkage.
Linkagereferstothefactthatsomegenesresideonthesamechromosomeandarethusphysicallylinkedtogether.Inbreeding,weoftenrepresentlinkedgeneswithtwolines,eachlineconnectingoneofthelinkedpairsofgenes:
AbaB
InthisexampleAandbarelinkedtogetherononehalfofachromosomepair,whileaandBarelinkedontheotherhalf.Linkagecausessomeoutcomesthatwewouldnotanticipateifthegeneswere
Figure 6. This figure illustrates determinant versus indeterminate growth habit in tomatoes.
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notlinked.Forexample,ifweself-pollinatedtheaboveplant,wewouldgetthefollowingoffspring:AAbb,aaBB,andAaBb.WewouldnotseeanyAABBoraaBB,becauseAbandaBarelinkedpairsthattraveltogetherthroughtheprocessofmeiosis.Thisiswhathappensduringreproduction:
AbGametes:AbaBaB
Zygotes:AbAbaB AbaBaB
ButwhatifthemostdesirablegenotypeisAABB?Unfortunately,linkagepreventsthisgenotypefromoccurring.Whenlinkagecausesanabundanceorlackofgenotypesthatisdisproportionatetowhatwewouldexpectbasedonthegenesthatareinthepopulation,wecallitlinkage disequilibrium.Fortunately,naturehasawaytoreducetheeffectsoflinkagebycrossing overchromosomes.
Duringmeiosis,pairsofchromosomesconnecttogether.Whentheycomeapartagain,partsofonechromosomecanendupswappedwithpartsoftheotherchromosomethatitpairedwith.Thisswappingofchromosomepiecesbreaksuplinkedgenes.Dependingonhowclosetwogenesaretoeachother,thelinkagesbetweenthemmaybreakupmoreorlessquicklyandeasily.Tightlylinkedgenes,orthosethatareveryclosetogether,aremoredifficulttobreakapartthanthosethatarelooselylinkedorfartherapartfromeachother.Itispossibleforgenestobesotightlylinkedthatbreakingthemapartisvirtuallyimpossible.Hereisanillustrationofhowcrossingoveractstobreakapartlinkedgenes:
Ab Ab ABaB aB ab
Whyarelinkageandlinkagedisequilibriumimpor-tantforusasbreeders?Therearemanyreasons,buttwoofthemostimportantaretheneedforcautionwhenselectinginearlygenerationsandlinkage’srelationtoheterosis.
Aftermakingacrossorcrossestogenerateanewpopulation,youneedtobecarefulaboutselectingjustafewofthebestplantsforthefirstfewgenera-
tions.Toillustrate,let’scontinuewiththetomatoexamplewherethelinkedgenesthatcomefromoneparentareA b,andthegenesfromtheotherparentarea B.IfwewanttofindplantsthathavetheA Bgenotypethenweneedtowaituntilthepopulationhasgonethroughenoughgenerationstoallowtimeforthoseparticularchromosomestohavecrossedoverbetweenthoseparticulargenes.OnlythencanweendupwithAandBonthesamechromosome.Ifselectionsaremadetooearlyontheycanreducethepotentialforcertaingenecombinationstooccur,ultimatelylimitingwhatyouhavetoworkwith.
Heterosisisthetermusedwhentheoffspringofacrossaresuperiortotheirparents.Heterosisisalsocalledhybridvigor.Therehavebeenmanyargu-mentsovertheyearsaboutwhatcausesheterosis.Recently,mostscientistsagreethattheprimarycauseofheterosisinvolvestwoprincipleswehavealreadydiscussed:dominanceandlinkage.Tounderstandheterosis,let’slookatthecrossoftwocornplants.
Parent1
Parent2
Offspring
Figure 7. This diagram illustrating heterosis shows the cross of two corn plants that creates an offspring superior to its parents.
Whyistheoffspringsomuchtaller?Inthesecornplants,therearetwoloci(locationofagene)thatdetermineplantheight:AandB.PlantswithAaretallerthanplantswitha,andplantswithBaretallerthanplantswithb.BothAandBarecom-pletelydominantgenes,soaslongastheplanthasonecopyofthedominantgene,itisastallasifithadtwocopies.Inthisexampleparent1isAAbbandparent2isaaBB.
Sowhathappenswhenwecrossthem?Theoff-springgetAbfromparent1andaBfromparent2,
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sotheirgenotypeisAaBb.BecausebothAandBaredominant,theyaffectplantheightinthesamewayregardlessofwhetherthegenotypeisAABBorAaBb.Thechartbelowshowsthatwhenparents1and2arecrossed,theiroffspringgetsaboosttoheightfromparent1’sdominantAgene(shownasa“+”)andaboosttoheightfromparent2’sdomi-nantBgene.Thisresultsinthehybridoffspringbeingtallerthaneitherparent.
Parent 1
Parent 2
Offspring
Genes AAbb aaBB AaBb
Effect of A + +
Effect of B + +
Overall height
+ + ++
Inthiscase,theparentseachhadcomplementarygenes.Whentheycrossed,eachparentcontributedallelesthat,throughtheirdominanteffects,maskedtheinferiorrecessiveallelesoftheotherparent.
Heterosisisquitecommoninmanycropplants.Why,then,betweennaturalselectionandtheef-fortsofplantbreeders,havewenotbeenabletocombineallofthebestgenesintooneplant/vari-ety?Whydowehavetomakehybridstohidethepoorgenesoftheparents?Thisiswherelinkagecomesintoplay.Let’sassumethelociforAandBarerightnexttoeachotheronthechromosomeandaretightlylinked.Inparent1’scase,A bwilltraveltogetheruntilthechromosomecrossesoverintotheregionbetweenthegenes.Likewise,inparent2’scase,aBwilltraveltogether.Untilacrossoveroccurstobreakthislinkageapart,thebestwecandoiskeepremakingthehybrid.Mosttraits,suchasplantheight,aredeterminedbymul-tiplegenes,notjustone.Manyofthesegenes,bothdesirableanddeleterious/undesirable,arelinkedtogether.Sinceitisunlikelywewillevercreateorcomeacrossaplantwiththeperfectcombinationofgenesforeverytraitwefinddesirable,wemustcontinuetoexploittheeffectofdominantgenestoproducesuperioroffspringbyfindingparents
whosegenecombinationscomplementeachother.
How genes operate in populations Upuntilnowwehavebeenfocusingonhowgenespassfromonegenerationtothenextandhowtheyaffecttheappearanceoftheplantswegrow.Tokeepourdiscussionsimple,wehavepresentedexampleswherejustoneortwogenescontrolatraitlikeplantheight.Now,letustakeastepclosertoreality.Manyofthetraitsthatwecareabout–plantheight,vigor,flavor,stresstolerance–arecontrolledbymultiplegenes.Ratherthanplantsappearingeitherbigorsmall,theirheightmightex-istalongaspectrum.Inthisspectrum,afewoftheplantswillbeverysmall,afewwillbeverylarge,andmostwillbesomewhereinthemiddle.Ifyoumeasuredalltheplantheightsandgraphedhowcommonthevariousheightswere,youmightseethemappearasabellcurve,asshowninfigure8.
When,asbreeders,weworkwiththesepoly-genic(multiple-gene)traits,ourgoalistoselecttheplantswiththetraitswewantandslowlyshiftthewholepopulationinthedesireddirec-tion.Figure9showstheslightimprovementyoumightexpectfromonegenerationtothenextthankstoyourselection.
Tobesuccessfulasplantbreeders,wewanttoimproveplantpopulationsforthetraitsweareinterestedin.Fundamentally,thewaytoimproveapopulationistofindplantsthatwillproducesupe-rioroffspring.Howdowefindtheseplants?Let’slookatfigure10toseeanexampleofafieldplant-edwithapopulationofcornthatweareinterestedinimprovingforheight.
Thereisobviousvariationinthephenotypesoftheseplants.Ifthetaskistopickoutthetallestplants,itwouldbesimple:plants2,4,5,6,and12arethetallest.However,whatwereallywanttoknowiswhichoftheseplantswillproducethetallestoffspring.Thefirststepinfindingtheseplantsistounderstandthatthephenotype(P)isinfluencedbytwoprimaryfactors:thegenetics,orgenotype(G),oftheplantandtheenvironment(E).Inbreedingterms:P=G+E.Thegenotypeisthesumofallthegeneticinformationwithintheplant,althoughwegenerallyusethetermtorefertothegenesintheDNA.Theenvironmentencompasses
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Frequency of plants
Plant height
Figure 8. Rather than plants appearing either big or small, their height might exist along a spectrum. In this spectrum, a few of the plants will be very small, a few will be very large, and most will be somewhere in the middle as shown in this bell curve.
Frequency of plants
Plant height
Generation 1 Generation 2
Figure 9. This graph illustrating how polygenic traits operate in populations shows the slight improvement you might expect from one generation to the next thanks to your selection.
Figure 10. This figure represents a field planted with a population of corn that we are interested in improving for height.
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allofthenon-geneticinfluencesonthephenotype.Examplesofenvironmentalfactorsaffectingplantgrowthincludefertility,temperatures,water,weedcompetition,plantingdensity,andpestanddis-easepressure.Sayweareabletogrowthesesametwelveplantswithverylittlewaterandtheyallgrow10inchesshorterthanbeforeasseeninthebelowfigure:
Clearly,theenvironmentaffectedtheplantpheno-types,butdiditaffecttheminawaythatchangesourabilitytopickthebestparents?Inthiscase,no.Wewouldstillpick2,4,5,6,and12asourfavor-ites.Ifalleffectsfromenvironmentalstresseswereuniformlikethisexample,itwouldbesimpleforustopickthebestparentsbasedontheirpheno-types.Unfortunately,lifeisnotsosimple.Thereareenvironmentaleffectsthatmakeitmorechalleng-ing.Theseeffectsarebasicallyclassifiedintotwotypes:errorandgenotypebyenvironmentinterac-tion(GxE).Errorisacatch-alltermforeffectsthatwecannot,ordidnot,measureoraccountfor.Forexample,imaginethatadditionalfertilizerwasac-cidentallyappliedtothesoilunderplant4,provid-ingafertilityboostthatnoneoftheotherplants
experienced.Thisfertilityboostwouldbeaneffectthatwasnotreplicable,andwouldinfluenceourselectioninanunpredictableandprobablyunhelp-fulway.Thisiserror.Someerrorwecanreducethroughgoodexperimentaldesign,especiallytheuseofreplicationandrandomization.Toillustrate,let’stakeanotherlookatthecornplants.Whatifplants7through12aresmalleroverallbecausethe
fieldisdrierontheright?Totestthiswecouldsplitthefieldintotwosectionsandreplicatetheexperi-mentbyplantingeachcornrandomlyoneachsideofthefieldasshowninfigure11.
Byreplicatingourtrial,weseetheplantsontherightareconsistentlysmallerthanthoseontheleft.Replicationallowsustomeasurethiseffectandcorrectforit.Unlikeanyoftheothereffectsonplantphenotype,weareabletoaccountforandremoveeffectsthatarecapturedbyreplication.
ThesecondeffectthatconfoundsourabilitytopickthebestparentsistheGxEinteraction.GxEisastatisticaltermthataccountsforthefactthatdif-ferentgenotypessometimesresponddifferentlyto
Figure 11. Here is the above field split into two sections and the experiment replicated by planting each corn randomly on each side of the field.
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Original environment
Dry environment
thesameenvironment.Tocontinuewithourcornexample,saythatwegrewourcornbothintheenvironmentandinamuchdrierenvironmentasshownbelow.
Inthisexample,theheightofmostplantswasre-ducedinthedryenvironmentrelativetotheorigi-nalenvironment.However,theplantheightswerenotuniformlyreduced.Number4ismuchsmaller
thanintheoriginalenvironment,andnumber12isthesameheightinbothenvironments.Thisunequalresponsefromdifferentgenotypestodif-ferentenvironmentsiscapturedbytheconceptofGxE.Asbreeders,wehavetwochoicesofwhattodowiththisinformation.Wecanfocusourbreed-ingeffortstowardacertainenvironment–inthiscasetoselectforadryenvironment.Thismethodiscalledselectingforspecificadaptation.Alternately,wecanselectforthegenotypesthat,onaverage,performbestinallenvironments.Thismethodiscalledselectingforgeneral adaptation.Inreal-ity,breedingoftenmixesthesetwoapproachesbybreedingforadaptationwithinacertainspecifiedtarget population of environments(TPE).
Asplantbreeders,weareinterestedintheplantsthataremostlikelytoproducethebestoffspring,notsimplyperformthebestthemselves.Hereisanotherkeytoplantbreeding:Theplantswiththebestgenotypesmaynotproducethebestoffspring.
Thisisbecause,unlesstheyareclonallyreproduced,plantspassongenes,notgenotypes.Thenextsec-tionwillexplainwhy,includingtheimplications.
Dominanceeffectsconfoundoureffortstofindthebestparentsbecausetheyaregeneticeffectsthatarenottransferablefromparenttooffspring.Tounderstanddominanceeffects,wewillreturntoourtomatoes(seenextpage).
Again,givenidenticalenvironments,tomatoes1and2havethesameappearance,becausetheybothhaveatleastonecopyofthedominantSpallele.However,whiletomato1willonlyproduceindeter-minateoffspring,tomato2hasachanceofproduc-ingdeterminantoffspring.
Sincetomato1(Sp Sp)andtomato2(Sp sp)areindistinguishablefromeachother,youareequallyaslikelytochoosethemasparents.Thisisprob-lematicbecauseyoumaypreferoneortheotherforyourbreedingwork.ThedominanceeffectthatallowsSp spplantstoappearthesameastheSp Spplantsisagenotypiceffectthatisnotreliablytransferabletoitsoffspring.Thebottomlineisthatgenotypiceffectsduetodominancearenottransferabletooffspring.
Insummary,geneticeffectsandenvironmentaleffectsinfluenceplantphenotypes.Ifproperex-perimentaldesignsareusedwecanaccountfor
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environmentaleffects.Theseexperimentaldesignsallowustoachieveoneofourprimarygoalsasplantbreeders,whichistominimizeandaccountforthevariabilitycausedbynon-geneticeffects.
Onemoreimportantplantbreedingtermisherita-bility.Heritabilitydescribeshowpredictablyatraitispassedonfromparenttooffspring.Plantbreed-ersoftentalkabouttheheritabilityofatraitandhowtoincreaseit.Sometraitsarenaturallyhighinheritability.Oftenthesetraitsarerelativelyunaf-fectedbyenvironment,likeseedcolororflowershape.Wecanincreasetheheritabilityinalltraitsbyusingmatingdesignsthatincreaseormaintainadditivegeneticvariance,andbyusingexperimen-taldesignsthatreducethevarianceofothereffects.
How to see the genetic differences between plantsEarlierwetalkedabouttheimportanceofreduc-ingenvironmentalerror.Webrieflymentionedreplicationasonetooltohelpreducethiserror.Nextwe’llgointomoredepthabouthowtousereplicationandothertoolsofexperimental de-signtohelpmakemoreeffectiveselectionsinourbreedingwork.
Experimentaldesignreferstohowtheexperimentissetuporarrangedinthefield.Oneofthemore
commondesignsforbreedingiscalled“random-izedcompleteblockdesign,”orRCBD.ARCBDisreplicatedusingmultipleblocks,witheachblockcontainingthecompletesetofbreedinglineswithinit.TocreateaRCBD,assigneachbreedinglinetoaplotineachblockandarrangetheplotsinarandomizedorderwithineachblock.Thebreed-ingtrialshouldideallybelocatedwherethereisaslittlevariabilityaspossible.Wherevariabilityexists,trytoorienttheblockssothevariabilityisbetweenblocksratherthanwithinthem,becausebreedinglinesarecomparedtoeachotherwithineachblock.Replication,randomization,andblock-ingaretheessentialelementsoftheexperimentaldesignthathelpstoseparateoutthegenotypicef-fectsfromtheenvironmentaleffects.
Understand the effects of the environmentEnvironmentaleffectsrefertotheinfluencethatvariablefieldconditionshaveontheperformanceofplants.Forexample,ifthefieldisonaslopeandthesoilisricheronthedownhillside,thenplantsonthedownhillsidemaygrowlargerbecauseofbettersoilconditions,notbecausetheyhavesupe-riorgenetics.Likewise,plantsgrownonthesouth-westsideofafieldmaygrowlargerbecausetheyreceivemoreafternoonsun,orsmalleriftheyaresun-sensitiveandtheirrootsareeasilydriedoutbyafternoonsun.Naturalvariabilityoftenexistsinthefieldthataffectscropgrowth,includingvariations
Tomato 1Sp Sp
Tomato 2Sp sp
Tomato 3sp sp
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insoilquality,soiltexture,soilpH,soilfertility,drainage,pestpressures(insect,weed,disease,andanimals),sunexposure,irrigation,andtemperature(bothwarmandcoldpockets).Somesourcesofenvironmentalvariationarerelativelystable,likesoiltypeandproductionpractices,whileothersvaryfromyear-to-year,likeweatherandclimate.Pests(diseases,insects,andweeds)maybestableorvariabledependingontheorganism.Forex-ample,thesoilinsectsknownassymphylansareusuallyfoundinthesamespotyearafteryearandwouldberegardedasstable,whereasaphidsblownintotheplotsfromanotherregionwouldbemorevariable.Stablesourcesofvariabilitycanbecom-pensatedforbytheuseofrandomizationwhereasseasonallyvariablesourcesofvariabilityrequiretestingovermultiplelocationsand/orseasons.“Seasons,”asusedhere,maybedifferenttimesofyearordifferentyears.Theobjectiveistoobtaindatainanumberofdifferentgrowingenviron-ments.Thegoaloftheexperimentaldesignistominimizetheeffectsofenvironmentalvariabilityontrialresultsbyblockingreplicationssofieldvariationisminimizedwithinblocks.Inessence,replicationinthebreedingtrialaccountsforstableeffectsandrepeatingtheexperimentovertimecompensatesforvariableeffects.
Ensure that plants receive consistent treatmentManagementpracticesshouldbeconsistentacrossallbreedingplots,includingirrigation,soilfertil-ization,pestmanagement,staking,cultivationandweeding,oranyotherhorticulturalaspectofcropproduction.Ifpracticesarenotconsistent,differ-encesinperformancemaybetheresultofunequaltreatmentsasopposedtogeneticdifferencesinvarieties.Forexample,ifhalfthefieldwasculti-vatedandtheotherhalfleftuncultivated,theplotsintheuncultivatedsectionwouldhaveanunfair
disadvantage,astheywouldlikelybesubjectedtogreaterweedcompetition.
Randomize the plotsRandomizingplotswithineachblockhelpstoincreasetheconfidencethattheevaluationresultsareduetogeneticdifferencebetweenvarietiesratherthanvariationintheenvironment.Themorereplicationsusedthegreatertheassurancethatmeasurementswillreflectdifferencesinthevariet-iesratherthanvariationinthefield.Randomizingisalsoimportanttominimizetheinfluencethatvarietieshaveononeanother.Forexample,ifeachbreedinglinewasplantedinthesameorderineachblockratherthanifonelineisplantednexttoanotherverytall,vigorousline,itmightbeunfairlyaffectedbythecompetitionforlightandnutrients.
Theorderofplotsmayberandomizedusinganyba-sicrandomizationtool,asbasicasdrawingnumbersfromahat.Aneasymethodistomarkalloftheplantstakesforeachblockandthenmixthemup,walkingtheblockandinsertingwhicheverstakecomestohandfirsttomarkthefirstplot.Continuedowntherowmarkingplotsinthismanner.
Use sufficient population and plot sizesThesizeofplotsinthetrialshouldbelargeenoughthattheresultingnumberofplantsprovidesagoodrepresentationofthewholefamilyorpopulation.Thegreatertheplotsize,themorerepresentativeitwillbeofthepopulation.However,thelargertheplotthemoredifficultitmaybetomanage,especiallyifyouaredealingwithalargenumberofvarietiesandthreeormorereplications.Ingeneral,whenevaluatingopen-pollinatedvarietiesofself-pollinatedcrops,fewerplantsarenecessarytogetarepresentativesamplingthanincross-pollinatedcrops.Thisisduetothegenerallygreaterinherent
Example of RCBD, where all varieties would be in each block or “rep”
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geneticvariabilityincross-pollinatedpopulations.
Ideallyplotsshouldbelargeenoughthatyoucantreatthemthesameastherestofyourfarmandmaintainthemwithyournormalfarmingpractices.Forexample,ifyouusuallyplantyourcabbageon36-inchcentersandfieldcultivatewithatractor,youwilllikelygetdifferentresultsthensomeonewithasmallgardentrialon24-inchspacingus-inghandhoeing.Similarly,ifyouusuallyapplydripirrigation,thenoverheadirrigationmayskewresults.Forbestresults,locateyourbreedingtrialwithinyourproductionfieldofthesamecropsothatallproductionpracticesarethesameasforcommercialproduction.Plotsizemaybedictatedbyyournormalplantingandmanagementprac-tices.Forexample,aminimumamountofseedmayberequiredtoplantwithaseeddrillorvacuumplanter,andtheplantingequipmentmayneedtorunacertaindistancetofunctionproperly.Me-chanicalharvestingequipmentmayalsorequireacertainminimumscaletooperateappropriately.
Anothervariabletoconsiderwhendeterminingplotsizeisthenumberofrowstoincludeperplot.Singlerowplotsallowyoutoplacemorelinesorfamiliesinyourtrial,butmaygivemorevariableresultsbecauseoffewerplantsperplotandpoten-tialcompetitionbetweenvarietiesinadjacentplots.Withthreeorfourrowplots,thecenteroneortworowscanbeevaluatedwithoutconcernofcompeti-tioneffectswithneighboringplots.Whilethisap-proachtakesmorespace,itdoesminimizeinter-plotcompetitionandproducesmoreaccuratedata.Aswithplotlength,aminimumnumberofrowsmaybedeterminedbyequipment.Forexample,youmaybelimitedbythesetupofyourplantingequipment.Borderrowsaroundyourexperimentalplotswillminimizewhatisknownastheedgeeffect,where-byplotsontheedgeexperienceslightlydifferentgrowingconditionsrelativetotherestofthetrial.Withoutborders,plotsontheedgemaybemoreproductivebecausetheylackcompetingplantsaroundthemorlessproductivebecausetheyarenexttoamorecompetitivecropordamagedbyfieldoperationsoccurringinadjacentcrops.Assuch,datafromun-borderedplotsaroundtheout-sideofthetrialwillbebiasedrelativetothecenterofthefield.Borderrowsshouldbeplantedatthefrontandbackofatrialaswellasalongthesides.
‘Abundant Bloomsdale’ organic spinach breeding projectWhat were the goals of this project?Thereisastrongdemandformoreopen-pollinatedsavoyspinachvarieties,whichareimportanttodiversifiedorganicfarms.ThegoaloftheAbundantBloomsdaleprojectwastodevelopadarkgreen,open-pollinatedsavoyspinachvarietywithhighnutritionalcontent,goodflavor,andsuperiorboltresistance.Thevarietyneededtohaveanuprightplanthabitandbeusefulatallstagesfrombabyleaftofullymaturebunchingtypes.
ThePacificNorthwestisaprimespinachseedproducingregion,yetthereislittleorganicspin-achseedproducedthere,asmostseedcompanieshaveignoredtheorganicspinachseedmarket.Anendresultofthisbreedingprojectwillbetohelpbothorganicfarmersandsmallorganicseedcompaniesbysupplyingthemwithanalternativetothespinachhybridsthatarelargelybredforconventionalsystems.
Breeding procedureTheprojectbeganwithacrossof‘WinterBlooms-dale’and‘Evergreen.’‘WinterBloomsdale’isacoldhardy,open-pollinatedspinachvarietywithdarkgreenleaves,deepcurl,andgoodflavor.ThevarietywasoriginallybredforwinterandearlyspringharvestincoastalVirginia.ItisthelastoftheoldfullysavoyspinachvarietiesthatisstillwidelygrowninNorthAmerica.‘Evergreen’isasemi-savoyspinachvarietydevelopedbyDr.TeddyMorelockoftheUniversityofArkansasforwinterproductioninArkansasandTexas.Thevarietyhasstronghorizontalresistancetomanyofthemajordiseasesofspinach.
Inthefirstyearofbreeding,OSAbreederJohnNa-vaziomadea‘straincross,’whereapproximately20plantsofbothparentalvarietieswereplantedside-by-sideandallowedtocrossthroughopen-pollina-tion.Bymakingthecrossinthismanner,ratherthanpollinatingbyhand,morecrossesbetweenthevarietiescouldoccurandmoreofthegeneticvari-abilityofthetwoparentsisretained.
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Afterthatinitialcross,theresultingpopulationwasgrownforfivegenerationsonvariousfarmsinWesternWashington.Thisintermatingprocessbrokeupsomeofthegeneticlinkages(seelinkagedescriptioninprevioussection)andallowedthegenesofthetwoparentstothoroughlymix.Duringthisprocess,alowintensityofmassselectionwasappliedforappropriateleafshapeandvigor.
Inthesixthseason,afterfivegenerationsofin-termating,NavazioandlocalfarmerMarkoColbyplanteda2,000plant“spaceplantnursery,”whereeachplantwasspacedfarenoughfromallotherssotheycouldbeevaluatedindividually.Fromthese2,000plantstheyselectedintenselyforthetraitsalreadymentioned,andendedupwith130spin-achplants.Theseselectedplantswereallowedtoopenlypollinate.
Asspinachisdioecious,withplantscontainingeithermaleflowersorfemaleflowers,onlyabouthalfoftheselectedplantswereseedbearing.Ulti-mately,seedfrom67femaleplantswereharvestedintoseparatebagsthatwerenumberedsequential-lyfrom1to67.Sevenfamiliesweresubsequentlydroppedbecauseoftheirpoorseedqualityoryield.Inthefollowingyear(yearseven),seedoftheremaining60familieswereplantedinfamilyrowsandevaluatedatseveralstagesofgrowthbetweenthebabyleafandmaturebunchingstages.Ofthese60families,onlyfiveprovedtobesuperiorthroughallgrowthstages.Theother55undesirablefami-lieswereeliminatedandtheremainingfivese-lectedfamilieswereallowedtointermatethroughopen-pollination.Theresultingseedofeachofthefivefamilieswereharvestedseparatelyintofivefamilybags.
Inyeareight,NavazioandColbyplantedseedfromthesefivefamiliesasfamilyrows,withthegoalofidentifyingthebestoftheseselectedfamiliestocomprisethefinalpopulationthatwouldbere-leasedas‘AbundantBloomsdale.’Thefivefamilieswereagainevaluatedatallstagesofgrowthbe-tweenthebabyleafandmatureleafstage.Inthisfinalevaluation,onlyoneofthefivefamilieswasuniforminallofthetraitsthatsatisfiedthebreed-inggoals.Thisfamilyhaddarkgreen,fullysavoyedleavesonaveryupright,vigorousplant,andarich,
sweetflavorandsuperiorcoldhardiness.Theotherfourfamilieswereeliminatedandthechosenfam-ilywasroguedforofftypes.Theremainingplantswereallowedtointermateandproducethestockseedof‘AbundantBloomsdale.’
Winter sprouting broccoliWhat were the goals of this project?Thisbreedingprojectisongoing,andthegoalsaretodevelopapurplesproutingbroccolivarietythatreliablyoverwintersinthePacificNorthwestandproducesgoodyieldsoftender,flavorful,6to8inchshootswithpurpleflorets.ThepurplewintersproutingbroccolivarietiesthatarecommonlyavailabletoPacificNorthwestgrowersgenerallycomefromWesternEuropeandmostarenotcon-sistentlycoldhardytotemperaturesbelow18°F(-8°C).SomePacificNorthwestwintersprovidelowtemperaturesbetween8°and14°F(-13and-10C).Also,manyoftheEuropeanopen-pollinatedvariet-ieshavesproutsthatareinconsistentinthelengthandsizeoftheirflorets.
ThisprojectisacollaborationwithOrganicallyGrownCompany,thelargestall-organicproducedistributorinthePacificNorthwest.OrganicallyGrownCompanyisinvestingintheprojecttoex-pandaccesstoregionallygrown,organicproduce.
Breeding procedureOSAbeganthisbreedingprojectbyconductingatrialwithtensproutingbroccolivarieties.Sixofthesewereopen-pollinatedvarietiesandfourwerehybrids.ThistrialwasplantedinPortTownsend,Washington,inthemid-summerof2010andgrownthroughthecoldwinterof2010and2011.Temperaturesgotdownto14°F(-10°C)duringseveralofthesenights.Weevaluatedthevarietiesthroughoutthewinterforfrostdamage.Severalvarietiesweredamagedtothepointwhereplantsdiedorwherethedamageseverelyreducedtheyieldofsproutsinspring.Fiveofthetenvariet-ieswerefoundtosurvivethecoldathigherratesthantheothers.Ofthosefive,onlytwovarietieshadmanyoftherequiredqualitycharacteristics,includinglargesproutsize,deeppurplecoloredflorets,andgoodstemlength.
Inthespringof2011,approximately25plantsfromeachofthetwobestperformingvarieties
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wereselectedasparentstomakeastraincross.Alloftheotherplantsfromthesetwovarietieswereremovedfromthefield,asweretheothervarieties.These50selectedplantswereallowedtocross-pollinateandsetseed.Duringflowering,eightadditionalplantswereeliminatedbasedonpoorfloweringcharacteristics.Inthesummerof2011,seedwasharvestedfromeachplantandsavedseparately,representing42half-sibfamilies.Afterharvest,twoofthefamilieswereeliminatedbasedonpoorseedset.
Inthesummerof2012,seedfromeachofthese40familieswereplantedasfamilyrowsintwoloca-tions:PortTownsend,Washington,andAshland,Oregon.Eachlocationhad40familyrows,with30plantsineachfamily.Eachofthefamilieswasevaluatedinthewinterandspringof2012and2013atbothlocationsbasedonsproutcharacter-
istics,uprightgrowth,yield,vigorandcold-hardi-ness.Familiesneededtohavearateofgoodplantsgreaterthan60%tobeconsideredacceptable.Eightofthe40familieswerefoundtobesuperioratboththeWashingtonandOregonlocations.Theother32familieswereeliminatedfromthefield,aswereupto40%oftheinferiorplantswithintheeightselectedfamilies.Theselectedplantsintheeightselectedfamilieswerethenallowedtointer-mate.Seedwassavedseparatelyfromeachoftheeightfamilies.
Asofthewritingofthispublication,theeightse-lectedfamiliesarebeinggrownasseparatefamilyrowsinbothWashingtonandOregon.Selectionwilloccurinthewinterandspringof2013and2014.Weanticipateafinishedvarietywillbereadyforreleasein2015.
Introduction to On-farm Organic Plant Breeding www.seedalliance.org33
Additive genetic effect:thelinearphenotypicchangeinatraitthatoccursfromthesubstitutionofonealleleforanotheratagivenlocus.
Allele:oneofanumberofpossiblegenesthatcouldoccupyagivenlocus.
Anther:thepollenbearingmalereproductivestructureinaflower.
Artificial selection:(seeSelection)
Breeding value:theexpectedaveragevalueoftheoffspringofagivenplantforagiventrait.
Broad adaptation: (seeWide adaptation)
Chromosome:asingle,organizedpieceofDNAthatcontainsmanygenes,aswellasnon-geneticelements.
Cross-pollination: thepollination(and,asagener-alrule,fertilization)ofanovuleofoneplantbythespermofanotherplant.Cross-pollinatingplantsrelyoncross-pollinationforasignificantamountoftheirmating.
Crossing over: theexchangeofsegmentsbetweenchromosomesduringmeiosis.
Crossover interaction:atypeofgenotypebyenvironmentinteractionwherecertainvarietiesaresuperiortoothervarietiesinoneenvironmentwhilebeinginferiortothosesamevarietiesinan-otherenvironment.
Dioecious plants: specieswhereafraction(gener-allyhalf)oftheplantsinthepopulationwillhaveonlymaleflowers,whiletheotherswillhaveonlyfemaleflowers.
Dominant allele:anallelethatproducesagivenphenotyperegardlessofwhetheritispresentasaheterozygoteorahomozygote(oneortwocopiesatalocus).Dominantalleles,ifpresentasahetero-zygote,maskthepresenceofrecessivealleles.
Dominance effect: thedifferenceinthegeneticperformanceofaheterozygotefromwhatwouldbeexpectedfromtheaveragevalueofthehomo-zygousparents(theadditiveeffects).Heterosisisatypeofdominanceeffect.
Drift:(seeGenetic drift)
Environment:theexternal,non-geneticconditionsthataffectthephenotypeofanorganism.Inagivenlocation,thesecanincludefixedconditionssuchassoiltypeanddaylength,aswellasvariablecondi-tionssuchasavailablewater,fertility,cultivationpractices,andpestanddiseasepressure.
Experimental design: theprocessofplanningastudywiththegoalofmeetingspecificobjectivesinanefficientmanner.F1 (F2, etc.): abbreviationforfirstfilialgenera-tion,i.e.thefirstgenerationofplantstocomefromacross.
Family:agroupofgeneticallyrelatedplants.Oftenthenatureoftherelationshipisspecified.Asex-amples,seehalf-sibfamilies,full-sibfamilies,andS1families.
Family selection: selectingplantsorfamiliesbasedontheoverallperformanceofafamily.
Fertilization:fertilizationistheprocessbywhichspermcellstravelthroughthepollentubetotheovary.Fertilizationiscompletewhenthespermfuseswithanovule,eventuallyleadingtothefor-mationofaseed.
Full-sib family:afamilystructurewheretheplantsinthefamilysharethesamemotherandthesamefather.
Gamate:spermoreggcellsresultingfrommeiosis,containinghalfthenumberofchromosomesastheparentalplant.
Gene:aunitofinheritancethatcontrols,inwholeorinpart,agiventrait.Genesarelocatedatfixedlociinaseriesofalternativeformscalledalleles.
Glossary and Index
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Gene pool:thesetofgeneticinformationsharedbyapopulation.
General adaptation:(SeeWide adaptation)
Genetic drift:therandom(non-intentional)changeinthefrequencyofgenesinthepopulationasitreproducesovergenerations.
Genetic variability:therangeanddistributionofallelesthatarecontainedinapopulation.Geneticvariabilityisimportantbecauseitdeterminestheabilityofthepopulationtobeimprovedandtoadapttovariableenvironments.Geneticvariabil-itycanexistinapopulationasheterozygosityandasheterogeneity.
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): Or-ganismswithhumanmediatedgeneticalterationresultingfromthedirectuptake,incorporationandexpressionofforeigngeneticmaterial.
Genotype: thegeneticmakeupofanorganism.
Genotype by environment interaction (GxE): thevariabilityinphenotypesthatoccurswhengeno-typesperformdifferentlyindifferentenvironments.
Germplasm:acollectionofgeneticresourcesinaspecies.
Half-sib family:afamilystructurewheretheplantsinthefamilysharethesamemother.
Heirloom: forthepurposesofthistext,pre-WorldWarIIopen-pollinatedvarietiesthatwereselected,adapted,andmaintainedovergenerationswithinfamiliesoragriculturalcommunities.
Heritability:theproportionofobservedvariabilitythatisheritable.
Heterosis:theincreasedperformanceofhybridbeyondthatpredictedbasedonparentalperfor-mance(alsoknownashybridvigor).
Heterozygous:havingnon-identicalallelesatoneormoreloci.
Homozygous:havingidenticalallelesatoneormoreloci.
Hybrid: theproductofacrossbetweengeneticallydistinctparents.
Ideotype:forthepurposesofthistext,animag-inedcropvarietyrepresentingtheidealtobereachedthroughabreedingproject.
Inbreeding: matingbetweenrelatedindividuals.
Inbreeding depression:thedecreaseinvarietalfitnessduetoinbreeding.
Intermate: cross-pollinationbetweenindividualplants.
Isolation distance: therequireddistancetoisolateseedcropsfromothercropsofthesamespeciesthatmaybeasourceofpollenorseedcontamination.
Landrace:ageneticallyandphysicallydiverseva-rietythathasdevelopedovertimebyadaptationtothenaturalandculturalenvironmentinwhichitexists.
Line:anearlycompletelyhomozygousvarietyorbreedingparentproducedbycontinuedinbreeding.
Linkage:thetendencyofgenesthatarelocatedneareachotheronachromosometobeinheritedtogether.
Linkage disequilibrium:theoccurrenceofcombi-nationsoflinkedallelesinapopulationinfrequen-ciesdifferencefromwhatwouldbeexpectedbasedonrandomassortment.
Locus:thepositionoccupiedbyageneonachromosome.
Mass selection:aformofselectionwhereindi-vidualplantsareselectedbasedontheirindi-vidualperformance.
Meiosis:theprocessofcelldivisionthatproducesspermandeggcells.
Monoecious plants:atypeofplantthathassta-mensandpistilsindifferentfloralstructureonthesameplant.
Introduction to On-farm Organic Plant Breeding www.seedalliance.org3�
Monogenic:atraitthatiscontrolledbyasinglegene.
Multiline:avarietyformedbythecombinationoftwoormorelines.
Natural selection:theprocessbywhichpopula-tionschangeduetoindividualswithinthepopula-tionthatarebetteradaptedtotheirenvironmenttendingtosurviveandproducemoreoffspring.
Negative selection: selectionagainstundesiredtraits,typicallyremovingonlyasmallfractionofthepopulation.
Nursery:afielddesignatedforrearingandtest-ingbreedingstock,performingcrossesandotherbreedingactivities.
Open-pollinated:morenarrowly,across-pol-linatedcropallowedtointermatefreelyduringseedproduction;or,morebroadly,anon-hybridcropvariety.
Ovule:thestructurethatcontainstheeggs.
Perfect flowers: aflowerhavingbothmaleandfemaleorgans.
Phenotype:theappearanceofanindividual,ascontrastedwithitsgeneticmakeuporgenotype.
Pistil:acompletefemaleorganwithinaflower,containingastigma,style,andovary.
Pollen:thestructurethatcontainsandconveysthespermcellsduringpollination.
Polygenic:traitsthatarecontrolledbymanygenes.
Population:acommunityofindividualswithinaspeciesthatcanintermate.Apopulationsharesacommongenepool.
Positive selection: selectionforbeneficialtraits,typicallyremovingamajorityofthepopulation.
Randomization:theprocessbywhichvarieties,families,etceteraarerandomlyassignedtoloca-tionswithinafield.
Recessive allele:anallelethatproducesagivenphenotypeonlywhenitispresentasahomozygote(twocopiesatalocus).
Recombination: formationofnewcombinationsofgenesduetocrossesbetweengeneticallydis-tinctparents.
Rogue:removalofasmallfractionofundesirableindividualsfromapopulation.
S1 (etc):symboldesignatingthefirstgenerationafteraself-pollination.
S1 family:afamilystructurewheretheplantsinthefamilyallresultedfromthesameself-pollination.
Selection:theprocessofdeterminingwhichindi-vidualsinapopulationwillgeneticallycontributetothenextgeneration.
Self-incompatibility:ageneralnameforseveralgeneticmechanismsthatpreventself-fertilization.Self-incompatibilitycanalsolimitcross-fertiliza-tionbetweencloselyrelatedplants.
Selection intensity:thedifferencebetweentheaverageoftheoriginalpopulationandtheaverageoftheselectedpopulation.
Self-pollination:thepollination(and,asagen-eralrule,fertilization)ofanovuleofoneplantbythespermofthesameplant.Self-pollinatingplantsrelyonself-pollinationforasignificantamountoftheirmating.
Space plant nursery:anurserywhereplantsarewidelyspacedsothattheymaybeeasilyevaluatedasindividuals.
Specific adaptation:theabilityofagivengenotypeorpopulationtobesuperiorinaspecificenvironments.
Stigma:theupperpartofthepistilthatreceivesthepollen.
Stock seed:seedusedbyaseedgrowerorseedcompanytoproducetheseedthatisgrownforcommercialsaleanddistribution.
Introduction to On-farm Organic Plant Breeding www.seedalliance.org36
Strain cross:atechniquetoproducesmultiplecrossesbetweentwoormorepopulations,whereinthepopulationsareallowedtoopenlypollinate.Style:isthepartofthepistilthatconnectsthestigmaandtheovary.
Target population of environments (TPE):isthesetofenvironments(farmsandfutureseasons)inwhichthevarietiesproducedbyabreedingpro-gramwillbegrown.
Trial: asystemiccomparisonofasetofvarietiesorfamilies.
Unisexual flower: flowersthatcontaineitherallmaleorallfemaleparts.
Variety:anamedgroupofplantsofthesamespe-ciesthatsharesasetoftraitsthatdifferentiatesitfromothervarieties.
Wide adaptation:theabilityofagivengenotypeorpopulationtoperforminastablefashionacrossmanydifferentenvironments.
Plant breeding publicationsAllard,R.W.1964.PrinciplesofPlantBreeding.JohnWileyandSons,NewYork,NY.
Bassett,M.J.1986.Breedingvegetablecrops.AVIPub.Co.,Westport,Conn.
Briggs,F.N.,andP.F.Knowles.1967.IntroductiontoPlantBreeding.ReinholdPublishingCorporation.
Ceccarelli,S.2010.ParticipatoryPlantBreeding(TrainingManual)[Online].Availableathttp://cec-carelli.files.wordpress.com/2010/01/ppb-manual.doc(verified20Apr.2012).
Deppe,C.1993.BreedYourOwnVegetableVariet-ies.ChelseaGreen,WhiteRiverJunction,VT.
Fehr,W.R.1987.Principlesofcultivardevelopment.
Webber,H.J.1908.PlantBreedingforFarmers.NabuPress,Charleston,SC.
White,R.,andB.Connolly.2011.BreedingOrganicVegetables:AstepbyStepGuideforGrowers[On-line].Availableathttp://www.nofany.org/sites/de-fault/files/BreedingOrganicVegetables-2011.pdf(verified20Apr.2012).NOFA–NY,Rochester,NY.
Zystro,J.,A.Shelton,andS.Snapp.2012.Participa-toryPlantBreedingToolkit.OrganicSeedAlliance,PortTownsend,WA.
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Ashworth,S.1991.SeedtoSeed.SeedSaversPubli-cations,Decorah,IA.
Colley,M.,J.NavazioandL.DiPietro.2010.ASeedSavingGuideforGardenersandFarmers[Online].Availableathttp://www.seedalliance.org/down-load-form-1/(verified20Apr.2012).OrganicSeed
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Alliance,PortTownsend,WA.
Colley,M.,A.Stone,L.Brewer,B.Baker.2010.Or-ganicSeedResourceGuide[Online].Availableathttp://www.extension.org/article/18340(verified20Apr.2012).eXtensionInitiative,Lincoln,NE.George,R.1999.VegetableSeedProduction.CABIPublishing,NewYork,NY.
Hawthorn,L.,andL.Pollard.1954.VegetableandFlowerSeedProduction.BlackistonCo.,NewYork,NY.
McCormack,J.2010.BeanSeedProduction[On-line].Availableathttp://www.savingourseeds.org/pub_bean_seed_production.html(verified20Apr.2012).SavingOurSeeds,Charlottesville,VA.
McCormack,J.2010.BrassicaSeedProduction[Online].Availableathttp://www.savingourseeds.org/pub_brassica_seed_production.html(verified20Apr.2012).SavingOurSeeds,Charlottesville,VA.
McCormack,J.2010.CucurbitSeedProduction[Online].Availableathttp://www.savingourseeds.org/pub_cucurbit_seed_production.html(verified20Apr.2012).SavingOurSeeds,Charlottesville,VA.
McCormack,J.2010.IsolationDistances[Online].Availableathttp://www.savingourseeds.org/pub_isolation_distance.html(verified20Apr.2012).SavingOurSeeds,Charlottesville,VA.
McCormack,J.2010.PepperSeedProduction[Online].Availableathttp://www.savingourseeds.org/pub_pepper_seed_production.html(verified20Apr.2012).SavingOurSeeds,Charlottesville,VA.
McCormack,J.2010.SeedProcessingandStorage[Online].Availableathttp://www.savingourseeds.org/pub_seed_processing_storage.html(verified20Apr.2012).SavingOurSeeds,Charlottesville,VA.
McCormack,J.2010.TomatoSeedProduction[Online].Availableathttp://www.savingourseeds.org/pub_tomato_seed_production.html(verified20Apr.2012).SavingOurSeeds,Charlottesville,VA.
Navazio,J.,M.Colley,andM.Dillon.2007.Princi-plesandPracticesofOrganicBeanSeedProduction[Online].Availableathttp://www.seedalliance.org/
download-form-4/(verified20Apr.2012).OrganicSeedAlliance,PortTownsend,WA.
Navazio,J.,M.Colley,andM.Dillon.2007.PrinciplesandPracticesofOrganicRadishSeedProduction[Online].Availableathttp://www.seedalliance.org/download-form-8/(verified20Apr.2012).OrganicSeedAlliance,PortTownsend,WA.
Navazio,J.,M.Colley,andJ.Reiten.2010.PrinciplesandPracticesofOrganicCarrotSeedProduction[Online].Availableathttp://www.seedalliance.org/download-form-6/(verified20Apr.2012).OrganicSeedAlliance,PortTownsend,WA.
Navazio,J.,M.Colley,andJ.Zyskowski.2010.Prin-ciplesandPracticesofOrganicBeetSeedProduc-tion[Online].Availableathttp://www.seedalliance.org/download-form-5/(verified20Apr.2012).OrganicSeedAlliance,PortTownsend,WA.
Whealy,K.2000.GardenSeedInventory:AnIn-ventoryofSeedCatalogsListingAllNon-HybridVegetableSeedsAvailableintheUnitedStatesandCanada.SeedSaverPublications,Decorah,IA.
Zyskowski,J.,J.Navazio,F.Morton,andM.Colley.2010.PrinciplesandPracticesofOrganicLettuceSeedProduction[Online].Availableathttp://www.seedalliance.org/download-form-7/(veri-fied20Apr.2012).OrganicSeedAlliance,PortTownsend,WA.
On-farm researchAnderson,D.,M.Honeyman,J.LunaandV.Berton.1999.HowtoConductResearchonYourFarmorRanchSustainableAgricultureNetwork[Online].Availableathttp://www.sare.org/publications/re-search/research.pdf(verified20Apr.2012).SARE/USDA,CollegePark,MD.
Colley,M.,andJ.Myers.2007.On-farmVarietyTri-als:AGuideforOrganicVegetable,HerbandFlowerProducers[Online].Availableathttp://www.seedal-liance.org/download-form-3/pdf(verified20Apr.2012).OrganicSeedAlliance,PortTownsend,WA.
Miller,B.,E.Adams,P.Peterson,andR.Karow.1992.On-farmTesting:AGrower’sGuide[Online].Availableathttp://pnwsteep.wsu.edu/onfarmtest-
Introduction to On-farm Organic Plant Breeding www.seedalliance.org38
ing/EB1706.pdf(verified20Apr.2012).Washing-tonStateUniversityCooperativeExtension,Pull-man,WA.
Germplasm and information resourcesNationalPlantGermplasmSystem.AsearchablelistingoftheUSDAplantgermplasmcollections.Muchofthematerialisavailableinsmallquantitiesforresearchpurposes.http://www.ars-grin.gov/npgs/index.html
SeedSaver’sExchange.Amembershiporganizationthatfacilitatesgardener-to-gardenerexchangeofopen-pollinatedseeds.http://www.seedsavers.org/
OrganicSeedFinder.Asearchablelistingoforganicvegetableandfieldcropseedfromawidearrayofvendors.http://www.organicseedfinder.org/
OrganicVarietyTrialDatabase.Acollectionofre-portsfromorganicvarietytrialsconductedaroundthenation.http://varietytrials.eorganic.info/Facciola,Stephen.1998.CornucopiaII:Asourcebookofedibleplants.KampongPublications,Vista,CA.
Whealy,Kent.2005.GardenSeedInventory,6thEdition.SeedSaversExchange,Decorah,IA.
Selected Organizations and University Programs Involved in Organic BreedingMandaaminInstitute.http://www.mandaamin.org/
MichaelFieldsAgriculturalInstitute.http://mi-chaelfields.org/
NorthernPlainsSustainableAgricultureSocietyFarmerBreederClub.http://npsas.org/about-us/farm-breeding-club.html
OrganicSeedAlliance.http://seedalliance.org
CornellDepartmentofPlantBreedingandGenetics.http://plbrgen.cals.cornell.edu/
NorthCarolinaStateUniversityPlantBreedingPro-gram.http://cuke.hort.ncsu.edu/breeding/
OregonStateUniversityPlantBreedingandPlantGe-neticsProgram.http://plantbreeding.oregonstate.edu/
TexasA&MDepartmentofSoilandCropSciences.https://soilcrop.tamu.edu/programs/research-programs/plant-biotechnology/plant-breeding/
UniversityofIowaPlantBreedingProgram.http://www.plantbreeding.iastate.edu/
UniversityofMinnesotaPlantBreeding/MolecularGeneticsProgram.http://www.appliedplantscienc-es.umn.edu/PlantBreedingMolecularGenetics/
UniversityofNebraskaPlantBreeding,GeneticsandMolecularPhysiologyProgram.http://agrono-my.unl.edu/pg-plantbreed
UniversityofWisconsinPlantBreedingandPlantGeneticsProgram.http://plantbreeding.wisc.edu/
WashingtonStateDepartmentofCropandSoilSciences.http://css.wsu.edu/research/crop_genet-ics/breeding/
Introduction to On-farm Organic Plant Breeding www.seedalliance.org39
AuthorsCompleted 20��John Navazio and Jared Zystro, Organic Seed AlliancePictures courtesy of Micaela Colley (OSA) and Jared Zystro (OSA) unless otherwise noted
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