Introduction Linguistics 200 Spring 2002. How are languages structured? List-type information e.g....
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IntroductionIntroduction
Linguistics 200Linguistics 200
Spring 2002Spring 2002
How are languages structured?How are languages structured?
List-type information List-type information e.g. cate.g. cat Linguists make explicit in Linguists make explicit in
dictionaries (lexicons, vocabularies)dictionaries (lexicons, vocabularies) Rule-type information Rule-type information
e.g. cat (sg.) : cats (pl.)e.g. cat (sg.) : cats (pl.) Linguists make explicit in grammarsLinguists make explicit in grammars
Some questions about grammarSome questions about grammar What is the rule system in language X? What is the rule system in language X?
How are sounds/signs produced and How are sounds/signs produced and perceived? What sounds or signs are perceived? What sounds or signs are possible/impossible in a language?possible/impossible in a language?
What is are possible words/sentences? What is are possible words/sentences? How are words/sentences related to How are words/sentences related to each other?each other?
How does language convey How does language convey information?information?
Some questions about grammarSome questions about grammar
How do rules change over time?How do rules change over time? What social influences on rules can be What social influences on rules can be
identified?identified? How are rules learned:How are rules learned:
** as a first language? as a first language?* * as a second language?as a second language?
Various senses of ‘grammar’Various senses of ‘grammar’
Grammatical competenceGrammatical competence Descriptive vs. prescriptive grammarDescriptive vs. prescriptive grammar Universal GrammarUniversal Grammar
Competence vs. performanceCompetence vs. performance
Grammatical competenceGrammatical competence what native speakers/signers what native speakers/signers knowknow
(list-and rule-type information)(list-and rule-type information) typically unconscious knowledgetypically unconscious knowledge creative: produce/perceive novel creative: produce/perceive novel
utterancesutterances what linguists are interested inwhat linguists are interested in
Competence vs. performanceCompetence vs. performance
PerformancePerformance:: what speakers/signers what speakers/signers actuallyactuallydodo, in addition to producing well-, in addition to producing well-formedformedwords and sentences.words and sentences.
Native speaker errors are Native speaker errors are performance performance errors,errors,not competence errors. not competence errors.
Some performance errorsSome performance errors
False starts: Where did you st- get that False starts: Where did you st- get that coat?coat?
Wrong soundWrong sound SpoonerismsSpoonerismsintendedintended producedproduced split pea soup split pea soup plit spea soup plit spea soup Tongue twisters: Lemon linimentTongue twisters: Lemon liniment
Descriptive vs. prescriptive grammarDescriptive vs. prescriptive grammar
Descriptive linguistics:Descriptive linguistics: linguists describe competence of linguists describe competence of
speakers/signers of language Xspeakers/signers of language X grammatical competence = grammatical competence =
grammargrammar lexical competence = dictionarylexical competence = dictionary
Prescriptive linguisticsPrescriptive linguistics
Rules and lists handed down by a Rules and lists handed down by a
supposed authority on the right way to supposed authority on the right way to speak.speak.
consciously known rules (unlike consciously known rules (unlike grammatical competence)grammatical competence)
Some prescriptive rulesSome prescriptive rules
speakers sayspeakers say prescriptive prescriptive rule violatedrule violated
““should” sayshould” say
I tried I tried to to quickly getquickly get out of there.out of there.
don’t split don’t split infinitivesinfinitives
I quickly tried I quickly tried to get out of to get out of therethere
Somebody left Somebody left theirtheir coat. coat.
theirtheir requires requires plural plural antecedentantecedent
Somebody left Somebody left his or her his or her coat.coat.
Prescriptive rules in other Prescriptive rules in other languages: Koreanlanguages: Korean
modernmodern modernmodern historichistoric
[nun][nun] ‘‘eye’eye’ [nun][nun] ‘‘snow’snow’ [nu:n][nu:n]
[mal][mal] ‘‘horse’horse’ [mal][mal] ‘‘word’word’ [ma:l][ma:l]
[pal][pal] ‘‘foot’foot’ [pal][pal] ‘‘blind’blind’ [pa:l][pa:l]
Linguists’ view of differences between native Linguists’ view of differences between native speakersspeakers
Variation exists:Variation exists: there are different there are different varieties varieties of the same language, not "right" vs. of the same language, not "right" vs. "wrong" varieties"wrong" varieties
All native speakers are equally right aboutAll native speakers are equally right abouttheir language.their language.
Where do prescriptive rules come from?Where do prescriptive rules come from?
Source of English “can’t split Source of English “can’t split infinitive” rule: Latin (in which infinitive” rule: Latin (in which infinitives are one word)infinitives are one word)
Source of prescriptively maintained vowel length contrast in Korean: awareness of earlier stage of language
Universal grammar Universal grammar
Language universalsLanguage universals(or universal grammar (UG)):(or universal grammar (UG)):
Universal properties of language, rules Universal properties of language, rules or phenomena found in all languagesor phenomena found in all languages
Some examples of lg universalsSome examples of lg universals
All (spoken) languages have All (spoken) languages have consonants and vowels. consonants and vowels.
All (spoken) languages have more All (spoken) languages have more consonants than vowels.consonants than vowels.
Some examples of lg universalsSome examples of lg universals
All languages have “parts of speech” All languages have “parts of speech” (lexical or grammatical categories) (lexical or grammatical categories) which include nouns and verbs.which include nouns and verbs.
In all languages, the structure of In all languages, the structure of sentences is hierarchical. Sentences sentences is hierarchical. Sentences are potentially infinite in length.are potentially infinite in length.
Why are there language universals?Why are there language universals?
Universal Grammar as a blueprint for Universal Grammar as a blueprint for languagelanguage
Human beings are genetically predestined Human beings are genetically predestined to learn a languageto learn a language
Cross-linguistic variationCross-linguistic variation
Sounds:Sounds: ““Guttural” sounds or notGuttural” sounds or not
Witsuwit'en [qis] ‘king salmon’Witsuwit'en [qis] ‘king salmon’ Consonant sequences allowed or Consonant sequences allowed or
notnot Sahaptin [tkSahaptin [tkwwáta]- ‘eat’áta]- ‘eat’
Cross-linguistic variationCross-linguistic variation
Word structure:Word structure:
# meaningful elements per word # meaningful elements per word possiblepossible
Sekani [usàSekani [usà mànis mànisoo] ‘I gave him a ] ‘I gave him a bucket’bucket’
m- ‘him’, à- (m- ‘him’, à- (à)- ‘give’, ni- à)- ‘give’, ni- conjugation, s- ‘I’, -conjugation, s- ‘I’, -oo ‘handle ‘handle compact object’ (perfective)compact object’ (perfective)
Language modality Language modality
Modality: Modality: medium through which medium through which language is transmitted.language is transmitted.
Spoken languages use the vocal-Spoken languages use the vocal-auditory modalityauditory modality
Signed languages use the visual-Signed languages use the visual-gestural modalitygestural modality
Language modalityLanguage modality
American Sign LanguageAmerican Sign Language (U.S. and (U.S. and Canada)Canada)
native vs. non-native signersnative vs. non-native signers variation among native signers of ASLvariation among native signers of ASL
grammar and lexicongrammar and lexicon
Languages and language families Languages and language families
Language vs. dialectLanguage vs. dialect
What is a language?What is a language?
mutual intelligibility: if 2 speakers can mutual intelligibility: if 2 speakers can understand each other, they speak the understand each other, they speak the same language. same language.
Languages and language familiesLanguages and language families
English (language)English (language)
qpqp
American English (dialect) Brit. English (dialect)American English (dialect) Brit. English (dialect)
eiei
S. California (dialect) New York City (dialect)S. California (dialect) New York City (dialect)
gg
S. Hargus (idiolect)S. Hargus (idiolect)
Languages and language familiesLanguages and language families
Linguistic change over time is normal. Linguistic change over time is normal. Dialects may become mutually Dialects may become mutually
unintelligible.unintelligible. Languages that descend from the same Languages that descend from the same
ancestor belong to the same ancestor belong to the same familyfamily.. Most languages are genetically related Most languages are genetically related
to at least one other language. to at least one other language.
Language familiesLanguage families
E.g., GermanicE.g., Germanic
Proto-Germanic Proto-Germanic q g pq g p West North EastWest North East qgiqgi egiegi gg High Low Angl.-Fris. Faroese Icelandic Norw., GothicHigh Low Angl.-Fris. Faroese Icelandic Norw., Gothic gg gigi gigi Swed., Dan. Swed., Dan.German Afr. Dutch German Afr. Dutch EnglishEnglish Frisian Frisian
Estimating linguistic diversityEstimating linguistic diversity
How many languages are there?How many languages are there?
Ethnologue: ‘more than 6700’Ethnologue: ‘more than 6700’
http://www.sil.org/ethnologue/http://www.sil.org/ethnologue/
Distribution of world's languagesDistribution of world's languages
areaarea apx. # lgsapx. # lgs % of world’s lgs% of world’s lgs
EuropeEurope 225225 3%3%
N., S. AmericaN., S. America 10001000 15%15%
AfricaAfrica 20112011 30%30%
Pacific (incl. Pacific (incl. Australia)Australia)
13021302 19%19%
AsiaAsia 21652165 32%32%
Estimating linguistic diversityEstimating linguistic diversity
Number of language families: 188-217Number of language families: 188-217
# lgs # families
Americas 1000 122-141
Austr, Pacific 1302 47
Europe, Asia 2390 14-15
Africa 2011 5-14
Linguistic extinctionLinguistic extinction
Some extinct languages of EuropeSome extinct languages of Europe Gaulish, Cornish, ‘Pictish’Gaulish, Cornish, ‘Pictish’ EtruscanEtruscan
Estimated historical rate of linguistic Estimated historical rate of linguistic survival: 75%survival: 75% I.e., over 5000-6000 years, language I.e., over 5000-6000 years, language
families average 1.6 survivors of first families average 1.6 survivors of first splitsplit
Projections of linguistic diversityProjections of linguistic diversity
50-90% loss in coming century50-90% loss in coming century MoribundMoribund languages languages EndangeredEndangered languages languages
Worst case scenarioWorst case scenario
area % moribund lgsAlaska and Siberia 90% US and Canada 80% C. America, Mexico 17%S. America 27% N. and S. America 33% Australia 90%
North AmericaNorth America
At contact, 400 languagesAt contact, 400 languages Currently, 209 languagesCurrently, 209 languages
62 families and isolates62 families and isolates 71% spoken by middle-aged and older71% spoken by middle-aged and older 14% spoken by parents of young 14% spoken by parents of young
childrenchildren 15% being learned by children as L115% being learned by children as L1
NavajoNavajo 1970: 90% of children in boarding schools 1970: 90% of children in boarding schools
lacked preschool experience with Englishlacked preschool experience with English 1990s: 1990s:
50%+ Head Start children monolingual 50%+ Head Start children monolingual English speakers (Platero 1992)English speakers (Platero 1992)
50% of 5-year-olds have no knowledge 50% of 5-year-olds have no knowledge of Navajo; about 16% are competent of Navajo; about 16% are competent speakers (Holm 1996)speakers (Holm 1996)
Why are languages being lost? Why are languages being lost?
Genocide of speakersGenocide of speakers Destruction or displacement of speech Destruction or displacement of speech
communitycommunity Bombardment of dominant languageBombardment of dominant language Economic incentives to learn dominant Economic incentives to learn dominant
language; no economic incentives to language; no economic incentives to learn/use native language learn/use native language
Language suppression in educationLanguage suppression in education
Positive(?) consequences of lg. Positive(?) consequences of lg. lossloss
Promotes political unityPromotes political unity HebrewHebrew
Promotes workplace unityPromotes workplace unity ““Let’s work together in a language Let’s work together in a language
we can all understand”we can all understand” Official languages cost taxpayers Official languages cost taxpayers
moneymoney
Negative consequences of lg. lossNegative consequences of lg. loss
ScientificScientificDevelopment of linguistic Development of linguistic
theoriestheories6700 languages, 200 families (vs. 6700 languages, 200 families (vs.
200 languages, 20 families; or 12 200 languages, 20 families; or 12 languages, 5 families)languages, 5 families)
Negative consequences of lg. lossNegative consequences of lg. loss
Language and cultural identityLanguage and cultural identity Pascua Yaqui Tribal Council lg policy: Pascua Yaqui Tribal Council lg policy:
"Our ancient language is the foundation "Our ancient language is the foundation of our cultural and spiritual heritage..."of our cultural and spiritual heritage..."
Damon Clarke (Hualapai): "For many of Damon Clarke (Hualapai): "For many of us, our language is the key...in thinking, us, our language is the key...in thinking, our educational system, and our ways." our educational system, and our ways."
Rosa Gonzalez: "This is what I am."Rosa Gonzalez: "This is what I am."
Maintaining linguistic diversityMaintaining linguistic diversity
Political sanctioning of minority Political sanctioning of minority languageslanguages United Nations Draft Declaration of United Nations Draft Declaration of
the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 19931993
1990 U.S. Native American 1990 U.S. Native American Languages ActLanguages Act
Creating L1 situationsCreating L1 situations
SummarySummary
25% language extinction in 5000-6000 25% language extinction in 5000-6000 years is normalyears is normal
Extinction of 90% languages in 100 Extinction of 90% languages in 100 years is unprecedentedyears is unprecedented
Negative consequences are both Negative consequences are both scientific and culturalscientific and cultural