Introduction

Grammatical Hierarchy

Definition of GRAMMAR

GRAMMAR:

• the structural system of a language.

• the branch of linguistics that deals with syntax and morphology (and sometimes also deals with semantics)

Linguistics

Grammar

Syntax

Morphology

Semantics

Five Ranks

• The grammar of the English language is organized into five ranks:

the sentence

the clause

the phrasethe word

the morpheme

Diagram of the five ranks: Each rank is composed of one or more

than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank:

Sentence

Clause

Phrase

Word

Morpheme

A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents---the morphemes.

Clause

Sentence

Noun Phrase Prepositional PhraseVerb Phrase

Determiner NounAuxiliary Adverb Main Verb Preposition DeterminerNoun

These undergraduates are rapidly improving in their writing.

0.1 Morphemes

1.Definition:

• the minimum or smallest grammatical unit

• the smallest meaningful element of speech.

2.Classification:

Two categories: Free Morphemes Bound Morphemes.

1) Free Morphemes

1.Definition:

• has a complete meaning

• can stand by itself as a Simple Word

• can sometimes act as a complete utterance in connected speech

• Can form Compound Words

• Can form Derivatives

2) Bound Morphemes

• are mostly affixes

• also meaningful, but the meaning is not complete in itself unless it is attached to some other form

• cannot stand by itself: it only exists as an Inflectional or Derivational Affix.

Inflectional Affix

• -’s (genitive case)

• -s/-es (plural nouns)

• -s/-es (the third person singular verbs in simple present)

• -ed (past tense verbs)

• -ing, -ed (-ing participle, -ed participle form of verbs)

• -er, -est (comparative, superlative degree of adjectives/ adverbs)

Derivational Affix

• Prefix, Suffix

• (Prefix) + Root + (suffix)

• co-exist existence co-existence

Mo

rph

eme

Free M

Free morpheme

Affix

Derivative

Free MFree M Compound word

Bound morpheme

Inflectional Affix

Derivational Affix Prefix

Suffix

-’s, -s -ing, -ed/-en-est, -er, -s,-es

Affix＋

＋

＋ Root

3) Allomorphs

Definition:

• The variants of the same morpheme are called allomorphs.

Explanation:

• the same morpheme in different contexts may take different phonological or orthographical forms.

Examples:

In Orthography:

• in- im- il- ir-

• inactive immature illegal irrational

• incoherent immortal illogical irregular

• inexperienced imperfect illegible irrelevant

In phonology:

-s cats dogs houses

0.2 Words

• is composed of one or more than one morpheme.

• can be classified in two ways:

• in terms of word-formation grammatical function

In terms of Word-formation

a) Simple Word

b) Derivative

c) Compound Word

a) Simple Word:

also called Morpheme Word (free morpheme)

minor but has frequent appearance and strong derivational ability

the main body of English vocabularyusually the small word

at on down near hand foot take make

b) Derivative:

Structure:

(prefix) + root +(suffix) :unkindness

Prefix Influence the meaning of the rootSuffix Influence the part of speech of the root

Exceptions:1. be-, en-/em, a- Influence the part of speech befriend, enable, empower, asleep2. Some suffixes only change the meaning Friendship, booklet, idealism

c) Compound Word Structure:

Free Morpheme + Free Morpheme

Classification:

• Compound NounCompound AdjectiveCompound VerbCompound AdverbCompound PronounCompound ConjunctionCompound Preposition

In terms of grammatical function

• Closed-class words Open-class words.

Closed-class words

• Definition:

Closed-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are closed or limited in number and are only exceptionally extended by the creation of additional members.

Scope:

All the Function Words:

PrepositionPronounDeterminerConjunctionAuxiliary

Open-class Words

Definition:

Open-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are indefinitely extendable. New items are constantly being created and old items are giving place to new ones.

Scope:

All the Content Words:

NounAdjectiveAdverbMain Verb

NOTE:

Cardinal Numeral, Ordinal Numeral and Interjection are between closed and open

0.3 Phrases

Definition: is composed of one or more than one word. is a group of words organized in a specific way

with a key Word as its Head. The word class of the Head determines the cla

ss of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized.

Word Class of Phrase :

Noun PhraseVerb PhraseAdjective Phrase Adverb PhrasePrepositional Phrase

1) The Noun Phrase:

• Structure: (Determiner) + (Pre-Modifier) + Noun + (Post-Modifier)

• all the college students

Noun as the Head

Determiner

Determiner

Noun as the Pre-Modifier

• His new book on phonology

• Milton lived in the 17th century.

• The author’s new novel that will soon come out

Post-Modifier

Clause

Prepositional Phrase

Non-finite Verb Phrase

2) The Verb Phrase:

In terms of the amount of verbs

In terms ofgrammatical form

Finite Verb Phrase Non-finite Verb Phrase

Simple Verb Phrase Complex Verb Phrase

Simple Verb Phrase:

Structure:(Modifier) + Main Verb + (Modifier)

• She looks pale.

• We utterly detested him.

Complex Verb Phrase:

Structure: Auxiliary /Auxiliaries + Main Verb + (Modifier)

• It is getting dark

• She ought to have told him about it.

• Joan will certainly object and so will Mary.

Finite Verb Phrase:

A finite verb phrase is initiated by a finite form, that is, a verb form that changes according to Tense or Subject.

PersonNumber

I loved you.

Tommy loves Lora.

The girls love fairy tales.

Love loved

Love loves

Love love

Number Person

Tense

Non-finite Verb Phrase:

A non-finite verb phrase is initiated by a non-finite form, that is, a verb form that does not change according to Tense or Subject.

We went there to see a film.

I usually go there to see a film.

Robert seldom goes there to see a film.

Andrew will go there to see a film.Non-finiteFinite

Point out finite and non- finite verb phrases:

• Having seen the film, we had a discussion.

• Painted by a famous artist, the portrait is invaluable.

• Tired from studying all afternoon, she went for a walk.

• Opening the book slowly and tentatively, she began to read.

3) The Adjective Phrase:

Structure: (Modifier) + Adjective + (Post modifier / Complementation)

• The course is pretty difficult.

• I’ll be glad to help you repair the car if you show me what’s wrong.

4) The Adverb Phrase:

Structure: (Modifier) + Adverb + (post Modifier)

• He spoke loudly and clearly.

5) The Prepositional Phrase:

Structure: (Modifier) + Preposition + Complementation

• The weather has been fine except in the north.• Now their footsteps could be heard directly above

my head.• We are collecting money for the benefit of some

orphans.

0.4 Clauses:

• is composed of one or more than one phrase.

• A full-fledged clause is structurally a sequence of phrase and logically a construction of “Subject + Predicate”.

The producers are able to supply a small part of our needs.• NP VP NP• Subject Verb Object• Subject Predicate• Clause• Sentence

Classification:

1) In terms of grammatical function:

Independent clause (IC)

Dependent clause (DC)

stand by itselfact as a complete utterance

forms only part of another clause or phrase

He knows everything about it.

I don’t think he knows everything about it.

Quiz:• I went to the store. I didn't buy any bread.

• I went to the store; I didn't buy any bread.

• I went to the store, but I didn't buy any bread.

• I went to the store; however, I didn't buy any bread.

• When I went to the store, I didn't buy any bread.

• I didn't buy any bread when I went to the store.

IC. IC.

IC; IC.

IC, IC.

IC; IC.

DC, IC.

IC DC.

2) Simple and Complex Clauses

In terms of the “Subject + Predicate” construction:

Simple Clause

Complex Clause

only one construction of “subject + predicate”

comprises another clause or other clauses as its element or elements

Examples:

It is not true.

What you said is not true.

He said that it was not true.

He complained that what you said was not true.

Simple

Complex

Simple

Complex

Independent

Dependent

Independent

Dependent

3) Main and Subordinate Clauses

• In a complex clause, the clause that takes another clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that forms part of the main clause is a subordinate clause.

Example:

He complained that what you said was not true.

Main Clause Subordinate Clause

Subordinate Clause Main Clause

4) Finite and Non-finite Clauses

• In terms of verb phrase type:

• Finite Clause:

Non-finite Clause:

takes a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb

takes a non-finite verb phrase as its predicator

I signed the paper to get the license. (Non-finite clause)It is forbidden to smoke in this room. (Non-finite clause)

Quiz: Finite or Nonfinite?1. Everybody left just after the ceremony

2. Inviting your sister was not a great decision

3. I'll be home around ten if my train is on time.

4. They expect Susan to do all the work.

5. Deprived of oxygen, plants will quickly die

Nonfinite

Finite

Finite

Finite

Nonfinite

5) Verbless clauses

• is marked by the absence of any form of verb element

• is just a construction of “subject + predicate” without any form of verb element.

• Hungry and exhausted, the climbers returned.

• Christmas then only days away, the family was pent up with excitement.

0.5 SentencesFeatures:

• the highest rank of grammatical unit.

• the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse

• Based on one or more than one clause

• can stand alone and perform a function in social communication.

a grammatical unit that can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.

Definition:

1) Full and Minor Sentences

• A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which in specific contexts and situations can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.

• Minor sentences are extensively used in informal discourses.

• A: When did he arrive? B: Last night. No smoking! Fire!

• A Full Sentence is a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate.

• This kind of sentence is mostly used in formal speech and writing.

Classification of Full Sentence:• Simple Sentence

• Compound Sentence

• Complex Sentence

• Compound-complex Sentence

one independent clause

Two or more coordinated independent clauses

an independent clause comprising one or more dependent clauses as its elements

Two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clause

Juan and Arturo play football every afternoon.

Some students like to study in the mornings.

Alicia goes to the library and studies every day.

I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.

We had to go inside when it started raining.

As long as it isn't cold , it doesn't matter if it rains.

I admire Tim, but he doesn't admire me, although I try hard to impress him.

Even if you fail, at least you tried, and you're a better person for it.

Examples:

S. S.

S. S.

S. S.

Cpd. S.

Cpx. S.

Cpx. S.

Cpd. Cpx. S.

Quiz