Introduction

iI N T R O D U C T I O N

The Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) is an informal politicalarrangement to control the proliferation of rocket and unmanned air vehiclesystems capable of delivering weapons of mass destruction and their associ-ated equipment and technology. The MTCR was formed in 1987 byCanada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and theUnited States. Membership has expanded to 29 countries, as of June 1998.The Regime’s controls are applicable to such rocket and unmanned air vehi-cle systems as ballistic missiles, space launch vehicles, sounding rockets, un-manned air vehicles, cruise missiles, drones, and remotely piloted vehicles.

The MCTR is not a treaty but a voluntary agreement among member coun-tries sharing a common interest in controlling missile proliferation. MTCRmembers meet at least once a year in a plenary session to exchange infor-mation, discuss policy issues, and examine ways to improve the Regime. InJanuary 1993, the MTCR revised its guidelines to address delivery systemsfor all types of weapons of mass destruction—biological, chemical, or nu-clear weapons. Originally, the MTCR Guidelines only addressed nuclearweapons delivery systems.

The Regime’s documents include the Guidelines and the Equipment andTechnology Annex (copies of each are annexed to this publication). TheGuidelines define the purpose of the MTCR and provide overall guidanceto member countries and those adhering unilaterally to the Guidelines.Each country implements the Guidelines according to its own national leg-islation. The Guidelines state that the Regime “is not designed to impedenational space programs or international cooperation in such programs aslong as such programs could not contribute to delivery systems for weaponsof mass destruction.”

The Equipment and Technology Annex is divided into two sections:

• Category I Annex items include complete rocket and unmanned air vehi-cle systems, capable of delivering a payload of at least 500 kg to a rangeof at least 300 km, and their major subsystems and related technology.Exports of Category I items are to be subject to a strong presumption ofdenial, except that transfers of specially designed production facilities forCategory I items are prohibited.

MTCR Members

Original Membersin AlphabeticalOrder•Canada•Federal Republic of

Germany•France• Italy• Japan•United Kingdom•United States

AdditionalMembers in Orderof Admission•Spain•Netherlands•Belgium•Luxembourg•Australia•New Zealand•Denmark•Norway•Austria•Sweden•Finland•Portugal•Switzerland•Greece• Ireland•Argentina• Iceland•Hungary•Russia•South Africa•Brazil•Turkey

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MissileTechnologyControlRegime

ii I N T R O D U C T I O N

• Category II Annex items include propulsion and propellant components,launch and ground support equipment, various other missile-relatedcomponents, and related technology, as well as certain other missile sys-tems. Exports of Category II items are to be subject to case-by-case re-view against specified nonproliferation factors.

The Equipment and Technology Annex is modified from time-to-time toimprove its clarity and reflect evolving technologies.

The MTCR Annex Handbook

This document is designed to assist in implementing export controls onMTCR Annex items. It explains what MTCR-controlled equipment andtechnologies are, how they are used, how they work, what other uses theymay have, and what they look like.

The MTCR Annex covers an extremely broad range of items. This documentemphasizes technolologies most critical to missile design and production.

The Handbook is organized like the MTCR Annex, by item and subitem.Each section follows the same format: the actual MTCR Annex text is re-produced in a highlighted section, followed by the elaboration and pictures.Any MTCR Annex “Notes” relevant to a particular subitem have beenmoved up with the actual text to allow easier reading. In some cases, theNotes themselves have been elaborated.

Each subitem is discussed separately. When reviewing subitems, the readershould pay attention to the header text in the Item, which may contain ad-ditional descriptors for each subitem.

NOTE: The photos included in this handbook are intended to illustratetypes of equipment similar to those that the MTCR Equipment andTechnology Annex describes. The equipment shown in a specific photo mayor may not be MTCR controlled.

iiiI N T R O D U C T I O N

Definitions

For the purpose of this Annex, the following definitions apply:

(a) “Development” is related to all phases prior to “production” such as:

—design

—design research

—design analysis

—design concepts

—assembly and testing of prototypes

—pilot production schemes

—design data

—process of transforming design data into a product

—configuration design

—integration design

—layouts

(b) A “microcircuit” is defined as a device in which a number of passive

and/or active elements are considered as indivisibly associated on or

within a continuous structure to perform the function of a circuit.

(c) “Production” means all production phases such as:

—production engineering

—manufacture

—integration

—assembly (mounting)

—inspection

—testing

—quality assurance

(d) “Production equipment” means tooling, templates, jigs, mandrels,

moulds, dies, fixtures, alignment mechanisms, test equipment, other ma-

chinery and components therefor, limited to those specially designed or

modified for “development” or for one or more phases of “production.”

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andTerminology(as statedin the MTCRAnnex)

iv I N T R O D U C T I O N

(e) “Production facilities” means equipment and specially designed soft-ware therefor integrated into installations for “development” or for oneor more phases of “production.”

(f) “Radiation Hardened” means that the component or equipment is de-signed or rated to withstand radiation levels which meet or exceed a to-tal irradiation dose of 5 × 105 rads (Si).

(g) “Technology” means specific information which is required for the “de-velopment,” “production” or “use” of a product. The information maytake the form of “technical data” or “technical assistance.”

(1) “Technical assistance” may take the forms such as:

—instruction —skills—training—working knowledge—consulting services

(2) “Technical data” may take forms such as:

—blueprints—plans—diagrams—models—formulae—engineering designs and specifications—manuals and instructions written or recorded on other media or

devices such as:—disk—tape—read-only memories

NOTE:This definition of technology does not include technology “in the pub-lic domain” nor “basic scientific research.”

(i) In the public domain” as it applies to this Annex means technologywhich has been made available without restrictions upon its furtherdissemination. (Copyright restrictions do not remove technologyfrom being “in the public domain.”)

(ii) “Basic scientific research” means experimental or theoretical workundertaken principally to acquire new knowledge of the funda-mental principles of phenomena and observable facts, not primar-ily directed towards a specific practical aim or objective.

vI N T R O D U C T I O N

(h) “Use” means:

—operation—installation (including on-site installation)—maintenance —repair—overhaul—refurbishing

Terminology

Where the following terms appear in the text, they are to be understood ac-cording to the explanations below:

(a) “Specially Designed” describes equipment, parts, components or soft-ware which, as a result of “development,” have unique properties thatdistinguish them for certain predetermined purposes. For example, apiece of equipment that is “specially designed” for use in a missile willonly be considered so if it has no other function or use. Similarly, a pieceof manufacturing equipment that is “specially designed” to produce acertain type of component will only be considered such if it is not ca-pable of producing other types of components.

(b) “Designed or Modified” describes equipment, parts, components or soft-ware which, as a result of “development” or modification, have specifiedproperties that make them fit for a particular application. “Designed orModified” equipment, parts, components or software can be used forother applications. For example, a titanium coated pump designed for amissile may be used with corrosive fluids other than propellants.

(c) “Usable In” or “Capable Of” describes equipment, parts, componentsor software which are suitable for a particular purpose. There is no needfor the equipment, parts, components or software to have been config-ured, modified or specified for the particular purpose. For example, anymilitary specification memory circuit would be “capable of” operationin a guidance system.

ITEM 1Complete Rocket and UAV Systems

1-1I T E M 1

Rocket Systems

Nature and Purpose: Rocket systems are self-contained flight vehicles, whichcarry their fuel and oxidizer internally and boost their payloads to high veloc-ity. After burnout, the payload continues on an unpowered, ballistic trajectoryeither into orbit or to a target on earth. Depending on its range and trajectory,a rocket may or may not leave the atmosphere. Rocket systems normally con-sist of four elements: 1) the payload, or warhead; 2) a propulsion system, whichprovides the energy to accelerate the payload to the required velocity; 3) aguidance and control system, which guides the rocket along a preprogrammedtrajectory to its destination (not all rockets are guided, however); and 4) anoverall structure that holds everything together.

Method of Operation: Before launch, rocket subsystems are checked foroperational readiness, and the flight plan or trajectory is programmed intothe guidance computer. On ignition, liquid or solid propellants generate thethrust to launch the rocket. If the rocket has multiple stages, each stage ter-minates its thrust when its fuel is expended or almost expended and is sep-arated from the rest of the rocket, and the next stage is ignited. The guid-ance and control system guides and steers the rocket in order to maintainthe proper trajectory. After the final stage terminates its thrust, the payloadis usually released on its final trajectory. In some systems, the payload re-mains attached to the missile body as it reenters the atmosphere.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Complete rocket systems controlled underthe MTCR as Category I are capable of delivering a payload of 500 kg ormore to a ground range of 300 km or more. Rocket systems capable of de-livering a payload of less than 500 kg to a ground range of 300 km or more

Produced bycompanies in

•Brazil•China•Egypt•France• India• Iran• Iraq• Israel• Italy• Japan•Libya•North Korea•Pakistan•Russia•South Korea•Spain•Syria•Ukraine•United Kingdom•United States

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CompleteRocketand UAVSystems

Complete rocket systems (including ballistic missile systems, space launchvehicles and sounding rockets) and unmanned air vehicle systems (in-cluding cruise missile systems, target drones and reconnaissance drones)capable of delivering at least a 500 kg payload to a range of at least300 km as well as the specially designed “production facilities” for thesesystems.

1-2 I T E M 1

are controlled as Category II items and are described in Item 19 of thishandbook. Space launch vehicles and sounding rockets are used to placesatellites in orbit or to gather scientific data in the upper atmosphere, re-spectively. The main difference between them and offensive ballistic missilesis their payload and intended use. With the addition of a weapons payloadand different guidance algorithms, space launch vehicles and soundingrockets can be used as ballistic missiles. In fact, many commonly used spacelaunch vehicles have been developed from, and share components with,former and currently operational ballistic missiles.

Other Uses: N/A

Appearance (as manufactured):Complete rocket systems are large,long, narrow cylinders. When assem-bled, rocket systems controlled byItem 1 typically have dimensions of atleast 8 m in length, 0.8 m in diame-ter, and 5,000 kg in weight, with afull load of propellant. Some repre-sentative photos of rocket systems areshown in Figures 1-1, 1-2, 1-4, and1-5. See Figure 1-3 pullout diagramfor an exploded view of a ballisticmissile. The forward end, or nose,typically has a conical, elliptical, orbulbous fairing that houses the pay-load, and joins to the cylindrical bodyin which the propellants are located asshown in Figure 1-3. The blunt aftend is straight, flared, or symmetri-

cally finned for stability during launch and atmospheric flight. The body ofthe missile houses the rocket motor(s), which supplies the thrust. The mis-sile surface is usually made of metallic or composite materials with heat-ab-sorbing materials or protective coatings. Depending on their intended use,some surfaces may be unfinished.

Figure 1-1: A solid propellant SRBM.

Figure 1-2: A solid propellant, submarine launched ballistic missile.

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Appearance (as packaged): Because rocket systems controlled under theMTCR are large, a complete rocket system is seldom packaged as a fully as-sembled unit for shipment from the manufacturer to its point of use or stor-age. Instead, the major subsystems are shipped in crates or sealed metal con-tainers to an assembly facility near the launch location, where they areassembled, tested for their operational state, and erected for vertical launch.Exceptions include mobile ballistic missiles, which are fully assembled andstored in a horizontal position in a mobile transporter-erector-launcher andmoved to the launch point when needed. These packaging and shippingmethods are described more fully in later sections of this handbook.

Unmanned Air Vehicles, including Cruise Missiles, Target Drones, andReconnaissance Drones

Nature and Purpose: Unmanned air vehicles (UAVs) are typically air-breathing vehicles which use aerodynamic lift to fly and thereby perform


•Australia•China• Israel•Russia•United States

Figure 1-4: A short range liquid fueled ballistic missile. Figure 1-5: A space launch vehicle.

Photo Credit: AlliedS

ignal Aerospace

1-6 I T E M 1

their entire mission within the earth’s atmosphere. The most common mis-sion for UAVs is reconnaissance. They are usually powered by small turbineor piston engines that drive either free or ducted propellers. UAVs tend tofly at relatively slow speeds of 360 to 540 km/hr, usually for several hours.Cruise missiles are distinguished from other UAVs by their use in weaponsdelivery and by flight trajectories that often minimize their vulnerability todefenses. Cruise missiles can fly at almost any speed, but they are usuallypowered by small jet engines, which typically operate at high subsonic speeds(less than 900 km/hr). UAVs, including cruise missiles, can fly at altitudesranging from very low, nap-of-the-earth trajectories to very high altitudes.

Method of Operation: UAVs are launched from many platforms, typicallytrucks, aircraft, and ships. They may fly autonomous preplanned routesand/or routes controlled by a human operator. After their mission is com-pleted, they usually return to base to be used again. Cruise missiles are fre-quently carried and launched by aircraft as well as trucks, ships, or sub-marines. Land- and sea-based cruise missiles usually use a small rocketbooster to accelerate them to flying speed. Cruise missiles usually fly pre-planned missions specifically designed to defeat defenses by means of terrainmasking or defense avoidance, and increasingly by use of stealth technology.Most cruise missiles contain a sensor system that guides them towards theirtargets by using terrain features or target signatures. Cruise missiles in-creasingly use inertial navigation systems, updated by satellite navigation re-ceivers in addition to, or instead of, terrain-aided navigation systems toguide them to the vicinity of the target. Once there a terminal sensor is ac-tivated to home in on the target. Various types of sensors are used to detectdistinctive target signatures or to match preprogrammed scenes of the tar-get area. Once at the target, the cruise missile either detonates the warheador, if so equipped, dispenses submunitions.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: UAVs are most typically used as reconnais-sance platforms and thus carry electronic, video, or photographic payloads togather or monitor data over unfriendly territory. They are designed to opti-mize time on station, which, for some systems, can be more than 24 hours.Because of their long range, flexible payload, ease of acquisition, and reason-able cost, UAVs are potential delivery vehicles for weapons. UAVs are alsoused as target drones, platforms for agricultural monitoring and spraying, sci-entific data gathering, relaying communications, or electronic warfare. UAVsare becoming more popular for monitoring borders and natural or manmadedisasters. Cruise missiles typically deliver weapons payloads weighing 200 to500 kg to a distance of between 300 and 5,000 km.

Other Uses: N/A.

Appearance (as manufactured): UAVs, including target and reconnaissancedrones, often look like airplanes without cockpits for pilots. They vary in ap-pearance because their role-specific designs differ, but many have prominentwings and complex antennae, windows, or domes on the body. Although

1-7I T E M 1

some UAVs are large enough to have human pilots, most are somewhatsmaller. Cruise missiles are UAVs designed or modified for use as weapon de-livery systems. Reconnaissance drones usually have long slender wings suitedfor extended missions at medium-to-high altitude, or they can look more likemissiles. An example of the former type is shown in Figure 1-6; notice thatit is as large as a manned fighter. Figure 1-7 depicts a jet powered UAV usedfor reconnaissance missions, sitting on its launcher.

Cruise missiles usually have a cylindrical or box-like cross-section and a finenessratio (ratio of length to diameter) between 8 to 1 and 10 to 1. They all have alifting surface, or wings, and most use control fins at the tail (some haveailerons on the wings and/or canards), although the shape and size of thesesurfaces depends greatly on the intended flight regime and payload. Most ofthese features of a typical cruise missile are shown in Figure 1-8. Most cruisemissiles have a dull finish or coating to make them harder to detect, and ad-

Figure 1-6: A large Category I UAV.

Figure 1-7: A jet powered reconnaissance UAV sitting on its launcher.

Photo Credit: Teledyne Ryan Aeronautical

1-8 I T E M 1

vanced designs have unique geometric surfaces to reduce radar reflections.These features are shown in Figure 1-9. See Figure 1-10 pullout diagram foran exploded view of a UAV.

Appearance (as packaged): UAVs, including cruise missiles, typically aremanufactured in components or sections at different locations and assem-

bled at a military site or acivilian production facility.These sections may vary insize from less than 10 kg and0.03 cubic meters to 150 kgand 0.1 to 1 m3. The smallersections can be shipped inheavy cardboard containers;medium-size sections re-quire heavy wooden crates.However, most moderncruise missiles are shippedfully assembled in environ-mentally sealed metal canis-ters, which can also serve aslaunching tubes. Their wingsare folded either within oron top of the missile body,and the tail fins are oftenfolded on longitudinalhinges in order to fit withinthe launch canister and openafter launch to control themissile. The wings of largeUAVs are detached from the

fuselage, and each section is crated separately for shipping by truck, rail, orcargo aircraft.

Additional Information: A Category I UAV can be as large as an airplane,as shown in Figure 1-6. In fact, any airplane with the necessary range-payload capability can serve as a UAV if outfitted with the appropriate guid-ance package or remote piloting equipment.

Figure 1-8:A land attack cruisemissile in flight showingits entire controlsurfaces and engineinlet.

Figure 1-9:An operational cruisemissile on itscheckout standshowing its nose conemodified to lowerradar returns andenhance aerodynamicperformance.

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Specially Designed Production Facilities and Equipment for the Systemsin Item I

Nature and Purpose: Specially designed production facilities include all thespecial equipment used for the production of complete rocket systems andUAVs. There are many different kinds of specially designed production equip-ment for such missiles which, when integrated into installations, are consid-ered production facilities. Some of the largest, most important, and most dis-tinctive such equipment are the jigs and fixtures used to ensure properalignment of individual missile components during assembly of missiles.

Method of Operation: Jigs and fixtures are used to receive, support, align,and assemble individual missile components such as fuel and oxidizer tanks,motor cases, and engine assemblies. Overhead cranes are used to move themissile components from their shipping containers and dollies onto the as-sembly jig. Laser alignment instruments are sometimes built into fixtures inorder to ensure precision fitting, and electrical and electronic test equip-ment for functional and operational testing are used as necessary during theassembly process.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Production facilities are used to assemble acomplete missile system from its subassemblies and component parts. At theend of each production step, mechanical and electrical fit and function testsare performed to verify that the assembly is ready for the next step. After themissile is assembled and passes all production tests, it is disassembled at pre-scribed body break points. These separated missile components are loadedinto individual containers or crates for shipment to a facility for long-termstorage or to the operational launch point for final reassembly and use.However, cruise missiles are typically shipped fully assembled to operationalunits (depending on the type of launch platform) or for long-term storage.

Other Uses: Assembly jigs and fixtures are usually single-application itemsdesigned to produce one type of rocket system or UAV. It is usually notpractical to modify them for other uses.

Appearance (as manufactured): Assembly jigs and fixtures used in the pro-duction of rocket systems are usually large and heavy structures. Their over-all length and width are roughly 20 to 30 percent larger than the missile sys-tem that they are designed to assemble. Their weight may total hundreds oreven thousands of pounds as shown in Figures 1-11, 1-12, and 1-13.

Appearance (as packaged): Assembly jigs and fixtures for large missiles areoften too large and heavy to be packaged and shipped to the productionplant as complete units. Instead, component parts are shipped separately inlarge crates or protected on pallets for assembly onsite. They will be securelyfastened to the crate to forestall any movement. Smaller jigs may be indi-vidually crated or palletized for shipment.

1-12 I T E M 1

Additional Information: Assembly jigs and fixtures built to receive and

assemble missile components in a horizontal attitude require contoured sur-

face pads or rollers to support the cylindrical body parts with minimal defor-

mation. Rocket assembly systems, which build the rocket in a vertical atti-

tude, require fewer body support fixtures but must allow a high overhead

clearance within the building to stack the components and move a fully

assembled missile. The primary components of assembly jigs and fixtures are

standard structural steel members. Their size and strength are dictated by the

requirement to support and maintain alignment of the large and heavy mis-

sile components during missile assembly.

Figure 1-11:Solid rocket motorassembly jig for anICBM.

Figure 1-12:On the left, a veryprecise hydraulicallyadjustable weldingfixture for a liquidpropellant tank enddome; its seven-axisgantry robot welder ison the right.

Photo Credit: S

ciaky, Inc.

1-13I T E M 1

Jigs and fixtures are usuallyassembled by welding orbolting large steel platesand I-beams or tubularmembers together on thefloor of the missile assemblybuilding. In some cases,these fixtures are built onfloating pads, not bolted tothe floor; such pads isolatethe structure from vibra-tion, which might other-wise cause misalignment oftheir precision referencepoints. Precision survey de-vices are used to ensure cor-rect alignment.

Figure 1-13: Modular jig supporting a cruise missile in final assembly.

ITEM 2Complete Subsystems

2-1I T E M 2

Nature and Purpose: A rocket stage generally consists of structure, engine/motor, propellant, and some elements of a control system. Rocket engines ormotors produce propulsive thrust to make the rocket fly by using either solidpropellants, which burn to exhaustion once ignited, or liquid propellantsburned in a combustion chamber fed by pressure tanks or pumps.

Method of Operation: A launch signal either fires an igniter in the solidpropellant inside the lowermost (first stage) rocket motor, or tank pressureor a pump forces liquid propellants into the combustion chamber of arocket engine where they react. Expanding, high-temperature gases escapeat high speeds through a nozzle at the rear of the rocket stage. The mo-mentum of the exhausting gases provides the thrust for the missile. Multi-stage rocket systems discard the lower stages as they burn up their propel-lant and progressively lose weight, thereby achieving greater range thancomparably sized, single-stage rocket systems.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Rocket stages are necessary components of anyrocket system. Rocket stages also are used in missile and missile-componenttesting applications.

Other Uses: N/A

Appearance (as manufactured): Solid propellantrocket motor stages are cylinders usually rangingfrom 4 to 10 m in length and 0.5 to 4 m in diame-ter, and capped at each end with hemisphericaldomes as shown in Figure 2-1. The forward domeusually has a threaded or capped opening for insert-ing an igniter; the rear dome has an attached coni-cal-shaped nozzle or nozzles. The cylinders gener-ally are made of high-strength sheet steel, acomposite of filament-wound fiber in a resin matrix,or a combination of both, and either may be cov-


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CompleteSubsystems

Complete subsystems usable in the systems in Item 1, as follows, as wellas the specially designed “production facilities” and “production equip-ment” therefor:(a) Individual rocket stages;

Figure 2-1: A completed stage for a solid propellantmissile.

Photo Credit: C

hemical Propulsion

Information Agency

2-2 I T E M 2

ered by an insulating materialsuch as cork or rubber sheet.Because these stages are nearlycompletely filled with high-density, rubber-like propellant,they may weigh 1,600 kg percubic meter of stage volume.

Liquid propellant rocket enginestages are cylindrical andcapped at one end with a hemi-spherical dome. Most of thespace in a liquid stage is filled bypropellant tanks, pressure tanks,and pipes and valves connecting

the tanks to the engine. The engine itself ismounted in the rear of the stage and occupiesonly 10 to 15 percent of the overall stagelength as shown in Figure 2-2. A conical-shaped nozzle or nozzles are attached to therear of the stage at the outlet of the combus-tion chamber. Liquid propellant rocket enginestages are usually made of relatively thinmetallic sheets, with internal rings to providestiffness. Because these stages are empty whenshipped, they may weigh as little as 240 to320 kg per cubic meter of stage volume.

Appearance (as packaged): Virtually allrocket stages are shipped in containers or fix-tures specifically designed for them. Smallersolid propellant rocket stages can be shippedin wooden crates with internal restraints andshock mounts. Larger solid propellant stagesare more often shipped in specially designedmetallic containers, usually cylindrical in ap-pearance and sometimes filled with an inertatmosphere. Very large stages may be simplywrapped with a protective covering as shownin Figure 2-3. Solid propellant stages aresupposed to comply with international ship-ping requirements for explosives and haveappropriate markings.

Liquid rocket stages are shipped in the samemanner as solid propellant stages or in spe-cially designed fixtures without external pack-aging as shown in Figure 2-4. Because theyare shipped without propellant or pyrotech-

Figure 2-2: The first stage of a liquid-fueled ICBM.

Figure 2-3: A large solid rocket stage being lifted onto itstrailer for shipment.

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Figure 2-4: Shipping container for a liquid-fuel upper stage.

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nics, they may be transported as routine hardware without any constraints orwarning labels, and weigh significantly less than solid rocket stages.

Reentry Vehicles

Nature and Purpose: Reentry vehicles (RVs) are sharp- to blunt-tipped,conical-shaped bodies that house and protect the missile payload, or war-head, from the high heat and vibration experienced during reentry. RVs alsocarry the arming and fuzing equipment to cause the warhead to detonateonly when it reaches the target. After booster burnout, the RVs are releasedfrom the payload section of the missile, and they fall to earth in a ballistictrajectory and enter the atmosphere at speeds between Mach 2 and 20, de-pending on range. Some RVs, known as maueuvering reentry vehicles orMARVs, also carry guidance and control equipment that allows them tomaneuver to either home in on targets or avoid defenses.

Method of Operation: A missile may carry one or more RVs in its forward,or payload, section. If the missile carries two or more RVs, it usually is cov-ered with a conic or ogival shroud or nose faring that covers the entire pay-load section at the top of the missile. After motor burnout, the shroud or far-ing is removed, and the platform, or bus, carrying the RVs may sequentiallyorient each RV and release it. Reoriented RVs are usually spun up, or ro-tated, about their longitudinal axis so they reenter the atmosphere in a gy-roscopically stable, nosetip-forward attitude and thereby have greater targetaccuracy. Non-oriented RVs tumble on their trajectories until aerodynamicforces during reentry stabilize them with their nosetips forward. The conicsurface of the nose tip and RV usually is covered with heat shield material towithstand the high heat of reentry.

A MARV using terminal guidance may implement a maneuver as it reentersthe atmosphere to decrease its speed, and then orient itself to bring a sen-sor to bear on the target. MARVs may use control surfaces, change their


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(b) Reentry vehicles, and equipment designed or modified therefor, asfollows, except as provided in Note (1) below for those designed fornon-weapon payloads:(1) Heat shields and components thereof fabricated of ceramic or ab-

lative materials;(2) Heat sinks and components thereof fabricated of light-weight,

high heat capacity materials;(3) Electronic equipment specially designed for reentry vehicles;

Note to Item 2:(1) The exceptions in (b) . . . above may be treated as Category II if the

subsystem is exported subject to end use statements and quantity lim-its appropriate for the excepted end use stated above.

2-4 I T E M 2

aerodynamic shape, change their weight distribution, or use re-action jets to improve accuracy or turn in ways unpredictable tothe defense.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: The principal function of an RVis to achieve accuracy and provide thermal and structural protec-tion to the weapon and the weapon fusing and firing system dur-ing reentry. Certain RV-like configurations have been used for thereturn of manned space vehicles and atmospheric penetration onother planets, but these have not been designed for the accuraciesor reentry conditions typically required of a weapon system.

Other Uses: RV structures intended for weapons have few non-military applications. Some RV components have commercialapplications, most notably heat-shield materials used in fur-naces, steelmaking, and engines.

Appearance (as manufactured): Typical RVs are conical-shaped structures (some with several cone angles), usually with

a hemispherically rounded nose tip. The base, or rear, of the vehicle may behemispherical or blunt. Small fins for aerodynamic stability may be attachedat several locations at the rear of the conical surface. The conic surface iscovered with a heat shield, which may be naturally colored (black for car-bon-based heat shields, tan or yellow for silica-based shields) or may bepainted. Older technology RVs using different design approaches are shownin Figures 2-5 and 2-6. Higher technology RVs are usually long, thin coneswith sharp nosetips. They may have small ceramic inserts that serve as an-tenna windows at several locations on the conical surface. A modern, hightechnology RV is shown in Figure 2-7. Another design approach is

Figure 2-5: A very large, older technology RV.

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Figure 2-6: Examples of older technology RVs thathave been flown.

Photo Credit: N

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Figure 2-7:A modern RV on itspayload supportbulkhead.

2-5I T E M 2

shown in Figure 2-8, which clusters three RVs together. This approach does

not use a shroud for protecting the RVs during ascent.

RVs intended for multiple-warhead missiles are usually less than 3 m long

and less than 1 m in base diameter. RVs used on missiles carrying a single

weapon often have diameters equal to that of the uppermost stage, and typ-

ically have lengths between 1 to 4 m. RVs, including the weapons they con-

tain, typically range in weight from slightly less than 100 kg to roughly 1,000

kg (with a few historical examples of several thousand kilograms).

The RV structure is usually manufactured in several sections for ease of

weapon installation and field maintenance. The forward-most section typi-

cally contains some or all of the fusing electronics, the middle section carries

the weapon, and the aft section commonly contains timers, additional arm-

ing system electronics, and the spin system for those RVs that are spun up af-

ter their release from the booster. Several modern RV mid-sections during

manufacture are shown in Figure 2-9.

Appearance (as packaged): The RV sections are usually transported to-

gether in special containers, either wood or steel, not much larger than the

RV itself. They are shock-isolated and supported at several locations inside

the shipping container, which may be environmentally controlled. In the

field RVs receive special handling because they contain weapons. It is almost

always transported separately from the booster and mated to the booster

only at the launch site.

Figure 2-8: Three modern RVs attached to theirmounting flange. The small fins at the aft end spin-stabilize the RV as it reenters the atmosphere.

Figure 2-9: Modern RV mid-sections during manufacture.

Photo Credit: N

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2-6 I T E M 2

Heat Shields and Heat Sinks

Nature and Purpose: Heat shields and heat sinks are form-fitting, protec-tive overlays on RVs. Their primary purpose is to protect the RV payloadfrom destruction by the high temperatures caused by air friction as the RVreenters the atmosphere.

Method of Operation: Heat shields protect the RV and its payload by ab-lation or insulation. In the case of ablation, the heat shield absorbs the heat,which in turn causes its surface to decompose or vaporize and thereby trans-fer that heat to the airflow. This process keeps the underlying layers cool un-til they in turn are exposed to the high temperatures. Heat sinks simply ab-sorb the heat of reentry and thereby decrease heat flow to the payload.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Heatshields or heat sinks provide an externalprotective coating for RVs and may serveas the aeroshell. Their composition andthickness are a function of the reentry ve-locity, itself a function of the operationalrange of the ballistic missile. For ranges lessthan approximately 1,000 km, simple steelskins can serve as heat sinks. For rangesgreater than 1,000 km, composite heatshields or massive heat sinks are required.

Other Uses: Heat shields and componentsare used in furnaces and engines. Theequipment used to make them can be usedto make composite tubing for oil drilling.Heat sinks and related technology havemany commercial applications, includingpower production and electronics. Thereare no commercial uses for heat shields orheat sinks designed to fit RVs. Carbon-based material suitable for heat shields alsois used to line engine nozzles and in themanufacture of disc brakes.

Appearance (as manufactured): Heatshields and heat sinks usually have thesame size and shape as their underlyingRVs; the preceding pictures of RVs indi-cate what heat shields look like. Two viewsof a heat sink from a large RV are shownin Figures 2-10 and 2-11. In a few cases,they cover only the forward portion of theRV nose cone. Sizes range from 1 to 3 m

Figure 2-10: Beryllium-copper heat sink.

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Figure 2-11: Another view of a beryllium-copper heat sink.

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in length and less than 1 m in diameter. Shields are generally conical or ogi-

val, with pointed or rounded noses. They are either bonded to the RV or

slipped over it in order to achieve a close fit. Their surfaces sometimes dis-

play body joints and may have antenna windows installed in them at one or

more locations. These windows permit radar or other radiowave transmis-

sions to occur during reentry.

Appearance (as packaged): Heat shields, heat sinks, and their components

are small enough to be packaged in conventional shipping boxes or crates

for protection from damage. If the heat shields or heat sinks are bonded to

the RV, the packaging must support the full weight of the RV in order to

protect the entire payload from shock and vibration as well as to protect the

surface of the heat shield from damage in shipping.

Additional Information:

Physical Properties: Heat shields and heat sinks are designed to withstand

the high temperatures encountered during RV reentry. Heat shields are

sometimes composite materials made of resin or ceramic matrices with a

fiber reinforcement. The fiber is either white (ceramic or fiberglass) or black

(carbon), most commonly in a layered structure. Heat sinks are either metal

or highly conductive graphite fiber composites that absorb and transfer the

heat to cooler portions of the RV.

Design Features: Heat shields made of filamentary composites are usually

tape-wrapped by machine. Less often, they are laid-up by hand, ply-by-ply,

with broadgoods (fabric sheets) cut to a prescribed ply-pattern design or

even die molded. Tape and lay-up reinforcements permit the orientation of

the fibers to improve ablation.

Antenna windows may be bulk ceramic materials or ceramic matrix/ceramic

fiber composites and cover either single holes or an array of multiple holes

through the heat shield. Ceramic matrix/ceramic fiber composites have a

patterned surface resulting from textile reinforcement, which makes them

more resistant to thermal shock.

Electronic Equipment Specially Designed for Reentry Vehicles

Nature and Purpose: RVs contain various kinds of electronics. They must

have a system to safe, arm, fuse, and fire the warhead (the SAFF system).

They may also have radars, telemetry equipment, sensors, guidance systems,

computers, and defensive systems such as radar jammers and chaff dispensers.

RV electronics are characterized by their relatively small size and their ability

to withstand the high temperature, high acceleration, and strong vibration

encountered during atmospheric reentry. In addition, RVs for nuclear war-

heads use electromagnetic pulse protected circuits and radiation hardened

microcircuits as described in Items 11(e) and 18(a) respectively.


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2-8 I T E M 2

Method of Operation: The many different types ofRV electronic equipment operate much the same asany corresponding avionics equipment; however, abattery usually supplies power for the RV electronicequipment. A power supply converts the battery volt-age to whatever is required by the various electronicswithin the RV. Additionally, all the electronic equip-ment onboard the RV must be designed to operatereliably in the environments described above.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Virtually all the elec-tronic components in RVs are specifically designed forthem. The most important RV electronic componentsare those of the SAFF system; their functions are de-scribed in Item 2(f). Other electronic equipment is op-tional and depends on mission requirements. Cables

and connections are ordinary but necessary accessories. RVs designed tooperate in the hostile X-ray and neutron environments created by nucleardefenses must use highly protected electronic components and cabling, which

is clearly identified in its product specifications as ca-pable of operation in such hostile environments.

Other Uses: Barometric switches, power condition-ers, and relays are used in general aviation. Standardcabling and connectors (not nuclear hardened) arecommon to thousands of commercial end uses. Ingeneral, distinguishing commercial electronic equip-ment from equipment specially designed for RVs isdifficult because the biggest differences—nuclearhardening, temperature operating limits, and vibra-tion requirements—are not usually visible.

Appearance (as manufactured): The usual components of an RV electronicspackage are unremarkable in appearance. The largest and most distinctive partis probably the battery, which may be roughly half the size of an automobile bat-

tery but is often considerably smaller. Most of the remain-ing electronic components are small and are usually housedin aluminum boxes. The SAFF system is assembled by theRV manufacturer and is unlikely to be obtained as aprepackaged unit. Very advanced RV designs can use ac-tive/passive seekers (radar and optical sensors) coupled toactive control systems and stored maps of target features.Figure 2-12 shows some radar electronics. Such equipmentmay have a disk, conical, or truncated-cone appearancebecause it is designed to fit tightly into an RV. Any indica-tion of special capabilities to withstand high acceleration orsevere vibration may suggest a missile application. An RVradar antenna set is shown in Figure 2-13. An RV radar setin its shipping container is shown in Figure 2-14.

Figure 2-12: A portion of RV radar electronics.

Figure 2-13: An RV radar antenna set.

Figure 2-14: An RV radar antenna setpackaged for shipment.

2-9I T E M 2

Appearance (as packaged): Packaging used is typical for military-gradeelectronic parts. Sealed bags or containers are used to protect the electron-ics from moisture and shock. Foam-lined boxes, crates, or metal suitcasesmay be used for packaging.

Solid Propellant Rocket Motors

Nature and Purpose: Solid propellant rocket motors contain both the fueland the oxidizer inside a single motor casing. No tanks, pipes, pumps, orvalves are needed because the fuel and oxidizer are premixed in the properratio and cast into a hollow solid form, which is ignited on the inside. Theouter casing of the rocket motor often serves as the form in which the pro-pellant is cast. The casing acts as a pressure vessel that keeps combustiongases confined during operation, and is the main structural member thattransmits the thrust to the payload. Solid rocket motors are cost effectiveand low maintenance; they are easily stored, can be stored for many years,and are capable of rapid deployment and launch.

Method of Operation: Once ignited, the propellant burns inside a hollowchamber running down the center of the motor; the hot expanding gasesrush out the nozzle end at very high speed and thereby provide thrust. Thepropellant burns until it is exhausted and thrust terminates. Some motorsterminate thrust by opening holes in the motor casing and venting the gasesout the sides or through the top.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Rocket motors provide the thrust to accel-erate missiles to the velocity required to reach the intended target. This req-uisite thrust can be achieved by one large rocket motor or by clusters ormultiple stages of smaller motors.

Other Uses: N/A

Appearance (as manufactured): Solid rocket motors are cylindrical tubeswith spherical or elliptical domes at both ends. One dome could have asmall hole for attaching the igniter; the other dome could have a larger hole

(c) Solid or liquid propellant rocket engines, having a total impulse ca-pacity of 1.1 × 106 N-sec (2.5 × 105 lb-sec) or greater;

Note to Item 2:(5) Liquid propellant apogee engines specified in Item 2(c), designed or

modified for satellite applications, may be treated as Category II, ifthe subsystem is exported subject to end use statements and quantitylimits appropriate for the excepted end use stated above, when hav-ing all of the following parameters:(a) Nozzle throat diameter of 20 mm or less, and(b) Combustion chamber pressure of 15 bar or less.


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2-10 I T E M 2

for attaching the nozzle. The igniter may or may not be installed beforeshipment; if not, the hole is covered by a plate made of steel or other ma-terial. The nozzle is usually attached before shipment, with an environmen-tal plug to protect the propellant from humidity and other environmentaleffects. This plug hides the solid propellant grain within the case from view.When installed, both the igniter and the nozzle are usually bolted in place.A modern solid rocket motor with an advanced extendable nozzle is shownin Figure 2-15. Given current solid propellant technology, approximately450 kg of propellant is required to deliver the MTCR Item 2 (c) thresholdimpulse of 1.1 × 106 N-sec. A typical rocket motor containing this amountof propellant would be approximately 4 m in length and 0.5 m in diameter.A rocket motor of this size would usually have a steel case, although com-posite cases made of glass, carbon, or Kevlar fiber are possible. A solidrocket motor close to this lower limit is shown in Figure 2-16; these par-ticular motors have a total impulse of 1.2 × 106 N-sec.

Appearance (as packaged): Solid rocket motors are usually shipped in steelor aluminum containers or wooden crates. Crates have cradles at severalpoints to support the weight of the motor and are usually lined with foam orcushioning material to protect the motor during shipment. A shipping cratefor a solid rocket motor is shown in Figure 2-17. Rocket motors are some-times packaged in an inert atmosphere to keep the propellant protected frommoisture. These containers are typically hermetically sealed, pressurized, andmade of aluminum. Temperature storage limits are stated to ensure longevityof the motors. Solid rocket motors have a thick, usually braided, metal strap

with clamps at either end leading fromsomewhere on the motor case to the localelectrical ground. This strap dischargesany static electricity buildup and helpsavoid fires and explosions. When shipped,the motor is grounded to the shippingcontainer, and the container is groundedto the local ground.

Figure 2-15:A solid rocket motorwith an advanced,extendable nozzleskirt.

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Figure 2-16: Solid rocket motors with total impulse closeto the lower limit of Item 2 control.

Figure 2-17:Wooden shippingcrates for a smallsolid rocket motor atthe lower limit ofItem 2 control.

2-11I T E M 2

Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines

Nature and Purpose: Liquid propellant rocket engines burn fuel and oxi-dizer, which is fed to them from tanks in the proper ratio by pipes, valves,and sometimes pumps. Thus, these engines are much more complex thansolid propellant motors and can contain many precision-machined andmoving parts. Unlike solid rocket motors, some liquid rocket engines canbe shut off and restarted, and some can be reused after refurbishment.Liquid rocket engines are typically more thrust-efficient than solid rocketmotors and are usually preferred for non-military missions. But they are dif-ficult to manufacture, require more maintenance, and take longer to pre-pare for launch than solid rocket motors. Fuel and oxidizer can also be dif-ficult to handle and store because they are toxic, corrosive, or cryogenic.

Method of Operation: Once a fire command is given, fuel and oxidizertanks are pressurized; if a pump is used, it is started. Fuel and oxidizer areforced into the injector head, where they are atomized by passing throughsmall injectors, and mixed in the combustion chamber. Upon ignition, thehot, expanding gases rush out the nozzle at very high velocity and therebygive the missile thrust. The thrust loads are transmitted through the com-bustion chamber to struts, which attach to the missile body at the rear endof a fuel or oxidizer tank.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Rocket engines provide thrust to acceleratemissiles to the velocity required to reach the intended target. This requisitethrust can be achieved by one large rocket engineor by clusters or multiple stages of smaller engines.

Other Uses: N/A.

Appearance (as manufactured):Liquid rocket engines are charac-terized by a cylindrical or sphericalcombustion chamber to which aconverging/diverging nozzle is at-tached. The nozzle is usually largerthan the rest of the engine.Nozzles cooled by propellants mayhave sheet metal walls held apartby a corrugated sheet metal, or becomposed of a bundle of con-toured metal tubes as shown inFigure 2-18. Uncooled nozzles aremade of a refractory metal or anablative composite material. Theinjector, a flat or curved plate witha large number of individual holes,is attached to the top of the com-bustion chamber, as shown inFigure 2-19. A number of pipes,


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Figure 2-18:Combustion chamber and

nozzle throat of a liquidpropellant engine.

Photo Credit: Aerojet

Figure 2-19: The dome of an injector head (top

picture) and its underside showing theinjectors and baffles.

Photo Credit: Aerojet

2-12 I T E M 2

tubes, and pumps are attached to the top and sides of thecombustion chamber, as shown in Figure 2-20.

Appearance (as packaged): Liquid rocket engines arerugged devices, but they must be protected from shock andmoisture. Typical containers include large wooden cratesand metal containers.

Nature and Purpose: Guidance sets automatically steer vehicles along atrajectory or flight path. Guidance sets are high quality assemblies of sensi-tive electronic and mechanical equipment. The heart of any guidance setis the inertial measurement unit (IMU), which contains the gyroscopesand accelerometers that allow the guidance set to sense motion and changesin orientation. Guidance sets can be expensive, with costs ranging fromseveral thousand to several million dollars each; the more accurate, the moreexpensive.

Method of Operation: Before launch, guidance sets are calibrated and pro-vided information on the vehicle’s position, velocity, and orientation. Afterlaunch, their gyroscopes and accelerometers, or inertial instruments, sensemissile accelerations and rotations, and usually convert them into electricalsignals. A computational device converts these signals into deviations fromthe programmed flight path and issues commands to the missile flight con-trol system to steer it back on course. However, because of errors in the in-ertial instruments themselves, the missile tends to veer off course over time.Guidance sets that veer off course less than 3.33 percent of range traveledare controlled under this item. Other guidance aids such as a Global

(d) “Guidance sets” capable of achieving system accuracyof 3.33 percent or less of the range (e.g. a CEP of 10km or less at a range of 300 km), except as providedin Note (1) below for those designed for missiles witha range under 300 km or manned aircraft;

Notes to Item 2:(1) The exceptions in . . . (d) . . . above may be treated as

Category II if the subsystem is exported subject toend use statements and quantity limits appropriate forthe excepted end use stated above.

(2) CEP (circle of equal probability) is a measure of ac-curacy; and defined as the radius of the circle centeredat the target, at a specific range, in which 50 percentof the payloads impact.

(3) A “guidance set” integrates the process of measuringand computing a vehicle’s position and velocity (i.e.navigation) with that of computing and sending com-mands to the vehicle’s flight control systems to cor-rect the trajectory.


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Figure 2-20: A World War II vintage V-2liquid rocket engine.

2-13I T E M 2

Positioning System (GPS) receiver, terrain refer-ence systems, or gyro-astro compasses can beused to provide one or more mid-course updateson location or orientation to the guidance com-puter and thereby increase accuracy. (This navi-gational update equipment is covered in Item 9of this Annex.)

Typical Missile-Related Uses: A guidance set isa common subsystem for any rocket system orunmanned air vehicle (UAV). Ballistic missileguidance sets are usually very specialized piecesof equipment, often built to fit into a particularmissile, to endure hostile environments, and toperform with a high degree of accuracy. Theyare designed to satisfy the stringent size, weight, power, and environmentalrequirements unique to ballistic missile applications. UAV guidance systemsare much less specialized, and they are often supplemented with numerousother sensors and receivers as part of an integrated flight instrumentationsystem.

Other Uses: Guidance sets and navigation sys-tems of various types are widely used in marinevessels, aircraft, and even some land vehicles.

Appearance (as manufactured): The size,weight, and appearance of guidance sets varywith the type of missile because of the structuralfeatures of the missile and variations in missionrequirements. The size, weight, and appearancealso vary with the vintage of design becauseguidance set technologies have changed signifi-cantly over the past 20 to 30 years, from largelymechanical units with stepper motors and cam-type processing to integrated electronic unitswith software processing. Older designs tend tobe larger and heavier (up to 1 m on a side and up to 100 kg); new systems,which are significantly more accurate, may require only 30 cm on a side andweigh a few kilograms. Most sets are enclosed in metallic boxes that haveairtight but removable access panels. They are often rectangular, but theycan be cylindrical or be comprised of several boxes of various shapes. Anolder technology approach with multiple distributed components is shownin Figure 2-21; the battery is the light-colored box on the right, and thevertical gyro is in the dark, round-cornered box on the left. The same sys-tem from the other side of the missile is shown in Figure 2-22. The light-colored unit on the right is an electrical junction box; the altimeter is theunit on the left without its cover; and the missile destruction system is abovethe altimeter.

Figure 2-21: An older technology

guidance set,comprised of several

components, installedin a missile.

Figure 2-22:Another view of the

older technology, body-mounted guidance setshown in Figure 2-21.

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Guidance sets also have quality electricalconnectors, precision-mounting surfaces,and, in some cases, temperature controlconnections. Some systems have a gimbal-mounted or floated IMU housed in aroughly spherical chamber that bulges outsomewhere on the guidance set. Othersystems have the IMU separate from theelectronics.

Modern strapdown guidance systems areoften box-like in appearance. Figures 2-23and 2-24 show strapdown guidance sys-tems with access panels removed. Somemodern strapdown guidance systems devi-ate from the box-like shape when the appli-cation requires the guidance set to fit into asmall space. Figure 2-25 shows a strapdownguidance system that is designed to fit intoa cylindrical space. A modern guidance setwith a separate electronics box is shown inFigure 2-26.

Appearance (as packaged): Guidance setscan be single units or systems comprised ofseveral components and assembled in themissile airframe. Because most guidancesets are very expensive and sensitive todamage from shock, they are shipped incushioned containers, some of them specialand air-tight, to protect them from mois-ture. These containers usually have labelsrequesting careful handling. A wide rangeof container configurations, including spe-

Figure 2-23: A guidance set using ring laser gyros.

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Figure 2-24: A guidance set using hemisphericresonating gyros.

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Figure 2-25: A guidance set using fiber optic gyros anddesigned to fit in a small, cylindrical space.

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Figure 2-26: A guidance set comprised of an IMU (on theright) and a separate electronics box.

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cial drums, boxes, and metal suitcases, maybe used. A shipping container for an ICBMguidance system is shown in Figure 2-27.

Additional Information: Guidance setsinclude inertial instruments in the IMU,computational processing—either hard-ware or software or both—and other mis-cellaneous electronics and instruments.The IMU, which usually consists of two,three, or four gyroscopes and usually threeaccelerometers, generally cannot be seenwithout opening the access panels of theguidance set, but there may be a bulge inthe guidance set to accommodate theIMU. Some guidance sets use additionalsensor inputs to enhance accuracy, includ-ing laser velocity sensors, star-tracking tele-scopes (gyro-astro compass), horizon sensors, terrain reference systems, orsatellite navigation systems such as GPS or GLONASS. Optical devices re-quire a viewing port, which is visible on the outside of the guidance systemunless it is covered by a shutter or trapdoor. More information about gyro-scopes, accelerometers, gyro-astro compasses, and GPS receivers is availableunder Items 9 and 11.

Nature and Purpose: Thrust vector control subsystems redirect the axialthrust produced by the hot, expanding gases expelled through the rocketnozzle, and thereby steer the missile.

Method of Operation: There are several different ways of steering a missile.Most operate by redirecting the engine thrust off the missile centerline,which causes the vehicle to turn. Control under this item applies regardless

Figure 2-27: A shipping container for an ICBM guidancesystem.

(e) Thrust vector control sub-systems, except as provided in Note (1) be-low for those designed for rocket systems that do not exceed therange/payload capability of Item 1;

Notes to Item 2:(1) The exceptions in . . . (e) . . . above may be treated as Category II if

the subsystem is exported subject to end use statements and quantitylimits appropriate for the excepted end use stated above.

(4) Examples of methods of achieving thrust vector control covered by (e)include:(a) Flexible nozzle;(b) Fluid or secondary gas injection;(c) Movable engine or nozzle;(d) Deflection of exhaust gas stream (jet vanes or probes); or(e) Use of thrust tabs.


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of the specific design or name of the thrust vector control subsystem. Sevendifferent ways of redirecting thrust in a solid propellant missile are shown inFigure 2-28; however, most modern missiles use the flexible nozzle ap-proach. Liquid rocket engines usually redirect thrust by swiveling the entireengine, a process called gimbaling. Both approaches use servo-mechanicalactuators attached to the missile frame to push and pull the engine or rocketnozzle into the proper position. Solid and liquid engines also can redirectthrust by deflecting the exhaust gases in the nozzles by means of movable jetvanes or fluid injection. Jet vanes are common on older technology missiles.Fluid injection forces the exhaust flow through the nozzle to deflect therebycausing asymmetric flow and an off-centerline direction of thrust.

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Figure 2-28:Seven options forthrust vector controlin solid rocketmotors.

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Nozzle unitSphericalseat

Rocketmotor

Semaphore spoiler

Rocketmotor

ActuatorSpoilerblades

Axial jet deflector

Motor nozzleActuatormechanism

Jetdeflectorblade

Rocket motor

Jetavator Jetavator unit

Gimbal supportand swivel mount

Actuatordevice

Rocketmotor

Liquid injection

Annular storage chamber Injector valve

NozzleRocket motor

Ball and socket nozzle

Flexiblecoupling

Movingnozzle

Gimbalframe

Gimbal framepivot point

LinearactuatorsRocket

motor

Flexible nozzle

Flexible mounting

Actuatormechanism

Nozzle unit

Rocket motor

2-17I T E M 2

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Thrust vector con-trol subsystems change rocket thrust direction tosteer the missile in response to commands fromthe guidance set. They are a required item on vir-tually any ballistic missile system.

Other Uses: Thrust vector control subsystems areused in advanced fighters, research aircraft, tacticalmissiles, and spacecraft.

Appearance (as manufactured): Typical thrustvector control assemblies include mounting rings,actuator rods, actuator valves, and hydraulic tub-ing or pipes. Modern systems also require dedi-cated control electronics. An example of a thrustvector control electronics box for a large liquidrocket engine is shown in Figure 2-29. A mount-ing ring for a liquid rocket engine is shown in Figure 2-30. This ring isattached to the throat area of the nozzle and is quite massive so that it canwithstand the torque imparted to it under full-thrust conditions. An actu-ating system is attached to either the mounting ring, the engine itself, ordirectly to the nozzle.

Actuator rods are cylindrical, approximately 15 to 45cm in length and 3 to 8 cm in diameter. They pushand pull on the engine or nozzle in response to sig-nals by the guidance system to actuator valves. A gasgenerator (basically a small solid rocket motor) thatpowers a small turbopump is one way to pressurizethe hydraulic system. Mounting rings and actuatorrods are made from high-strength metals such asstainless steel or titanium; actuating valves have stain-less steel housings.

The most common way to implement gas or fluidinjection thrust vector control is to store the gas orfluid in tanks and then meter its injection into therocket nozzle through feedlines, valves, sometimesmanifolds, and injectors. The tanks are usuallycylindrical composite-overwrapped pressure ves-sels that vary in size and weight. Pressure ratings of7 MPa (1000 psi) are typical. The gas or liquidfeedlines (approximately 1 cm in diameter forsmaller engines), control valves, and injectors areoften made of stainless steel. Missiles usually use four injectors, sometimesmany more. Jet vanes are mounted inside the exhaust nozzle and rotated inresponse to commands from the missile guidance system to redirect thethrust. They look like small wings usually 30 cm in length and 15 cm in

Figure 2-29: A thrust vector

control electronicsbox for a large liquid

rocket engine.

Figure 2-30: Gimbal ring

attached to thethroat area of a

liquid rocket engine.

Photo Credit: Aerojet-G

eneral Corp.

Photo Credit: M

oog, Inc.

2-18 I T E M 2

height (sizes varywith engine size).They are made ofhigh-temperature material such as carbon, carbonderivatives, or refractory materials such as tungsten.A jet vane and its actuator are shown in Figure 2-31.Figure 2-32 shows four jet vanes mounted in the aftend of a ballistic missile.

Appearance (as packaged): Gimbal rings are usually 15 to 50 cm in diam-eter and may be shipped as an assembly (double rings) in an appropriatelysized aluminum shipping container with a contoured interior. Actuator rodsand valves look like commercial rods and valves. Valves are packaged insideplastic bags for protection against abrasive particles. Because these items canbe rather heavy, they are shipped secured in robust containers made of metalor wood. Gas or fluid injection tanks are packaged like commercial productssuch as propane tanks. Injectors and valves are also packaged like any pieceof expensive equipment, usually in plastic bags to prevent contaminationand in padded containers.

Nature and Purpose: Weapon or warhead safing, arming, fusing, and fir-ing (SAFF) mechanisms are usually electronic or electro-mechanical devices

Figure 2-31: A jet vane for a liquid rocket.

Figure 2-32:Four jet vanes

mounted in the aftend of a ballistic

missile.


For advancedRV fusingsystems•China•France•Germany•India• Israel•Russia•United Kingdom•United States

Other typesof SAFFcomponents,particularly forair vehicles, arecommonlyavailable.

(f) Weapon or warhead safing, arming, fusing, and firing mechanisms,except as provided in Note (1) below for those designed for systemsother than those in Item 1.

Notes to Item 2:(1) The exceptions in . . . (f) above may be treated as Category II if the

subsystem is exported subject to end use statements and quantity lim-its appropriate for the excepted end use stated above.

2-19I T E M 2

that keep missile payloads (weapons) safely unarmed until shortly before

reaching the target, at which time they fuse and fire the explosives.

Method of Operation: Before launch most SAFF systems ensure that theweapon is safe (unable to detonate) by either mechanically or electrically iso-lating the weapon from the firing system. After launch, when the payload isaway from friendly territory, the SAFF system removes the interlocks and arms

the warhead. Arming can occur after a set time from launch or after sensing apreprogrammed trajectory change or certain environmental conditions such asan expected deceleration. Low technology SAFF systems use barometricswitches for the safing and arming functions.

The weapon fuse defines when the detonation criteria are met. Common

fuses include timers, acceleration sensors, and altitude sensing devices such

as barometric switches or active radars. When the payload reaches the pre-defined criteria, a signal is generated and sent to the firing set. High volt-age capacitors are then fired (discharged) and deliver an electric current tothe weapon detonators. Payloads can also have crush or contact fuses that

sense when payloads strike the targets and begin to break up. These fuseseither back up the altitude sensing system or are used for missions requir-ing target impact. Cruise missiles that dispense submunitions or air bursttheir weapons fuse and fire when the guidance system determines that thetarget has been reached. Alternatively, they can use radar or laser altimeters,

proximity fuses, and contact fuses. A SAFF system may include some or allof these options for redundancy.

Radar-based fusing systems require a relatively high frequency (S-band orC-band) transmitter and transmissive window materials such as high puritysilica to protect the outward-looking antenna from the heat created during

reentry. For missile applications, contact fuses are rated between 100 and500 g. High technology ballistic missile fusing systems using accelerometersrequire instruments capable of 100 or more g.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Some form of SAFF system is required on allmissile systems to ensure that the weapons are safe until launched and deto-

nate when intended. Because SAFF systems are usually tailored to the inter-nal configuration and function of a specific missile, it is not cost effective tomodify them for non-missile applications.

Other Uses: The basic fusing and firing technology involved in a missileSAFF system is used in all munitions items with explosive warheads. Even the

more advanced fusing systems, in which the time or altitude of detonation isdetermined by active radars or integrating accelerometers, are used in ad-vanced artillery shells and submunitions. The firing technology used for mis-sile warheads is used commercially in all activities in which explosives are used,

such as road construction, mine excavations, and structures demolition.

Appearance (as manufactured): Components of a missile SAFF system aregenerally small, aluminum-housed packages with input/output electrical

2-20 I T E M 2

connectors as shown in Figures 2-33, 2-34, and2-35. Simple fuses are usually housed in alu-minum cylinders ranging in diameter from 1 cmfor crush fuses to several centimeters for contactfuses. Higher technology fusing systems mayinvolve sophisticated instruments such as accel-erometers as shown in Figure 2-36, or activeradar transmitters and antennas.

SAFF packages are not obtained as a single unit; instead, they are assembledfrom individual components and subsystems. Figure 2-37 shows a launchsafety device for an RV. Figure 2-38 shows the aft end of an RV with the aftarming and fusing electronics box on the right.

Specially designed production facilities and production equipment for thesubsystems in Item 2 resemble aerospace and industrial manufacturingequipment but have attributes specially designed for a given system.

Appearance (as packaged): Like most electronics, SAFF systems are shippedin cushioned containers, some of them special, air-tight containers to protect

Figure 2-33: A missile fuse with safety plate andwarning label.

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Figure 2-34: Another style of missile fuse.

Photo Credit: K

aman Aerospace C

orp.

Figure 2-35: A small firing device for an RV thatgenerates a voltage upon impact.

Figure 2-36: An RV SAFF system accelerometer withits associated electronics.

Figure 2-37: An RV launch safety device.

2-21I T E M 2

them from moisture. These contain-ers usually have labels indicating theneed for careful handling. A widerange of suitable container configu-rations, including special drums,boxes, and metal suitcases, may beused. Any of these may in turn bepacked in a wooden box with the ex-plosives warning label (when appro-priate) as shown in Figure 2-39.Sometimes SAFF devices may beshipped in ordinary cardboard boxesas shown in Figure 2-40.

Figure 2-38: The aft end of an RV with the aft arming and fusingelectronics box on the right.

Figure 2-39: A wooden shipping container withexplosives warning label.

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Figure 2-40: A cardboard box containing missile fuses.

Photo Credit: K

aman Aerospace C

orp.

ITEM 3Propulsion Components and Equipment

3-1I T E M 3

Nature and Purpose: The turbojet and turbofan engines of concern are jet

engines that can power unmanned air vehicles (UAVs), including cruise

missiles, great distances. They are similar in design and operation to the en-

gines that power civilian aircraft, just smaller in size and power. They make

long-range cruise missiles operationally practical.

Method of Operation: The gas turbine engine has several subcomponents, in-

cluding the fan (in the case of a turbofan), compressor, combustion chamber,

and turbine. The compressor, which may consist of one or more stages of al-

ternating stationary and rotating airfoil-section blades, draws air in, pressurizes

it, and delivers it into the combustion chamber. The combustion chamber is a

heat-resistant tube in which air is mixed with vaporized fuel and then ignited.

Spark plugs (called ignitors) initiate combustion, which is continuous once ig-


•China•France•Germany•India• Israel• Japan•Russia•South Africa•Sweden•United Kingdom•United States

CAT

EGO

RY

II ~

ITE

M 3

PropulsionComponentsandEquipment

Propulsion components and equipment usable in the systems in Item 1,as follows, as well as the specially designed “production facilities” and“production equipment” therefor, and flow-forming machines specifiedin Note (1):(a) Lightweight turbojet and turbofan engines (including turbocom-

pound engines) that are small and fuel efficient;

Notes to Item 3:(2) (a) The only engines covered in subitem (a) above, are the follow-ing:

(1) Engines having both of the following characteristics:(a) Maximum thrust value greater than 1000 N (achieved

un-installed) excluding civil certified engines with amaximum thrust value greater than 8,890 N (achievedun-installed), and

(b) Specific fuel consumption of 0.13kg/N/hr or less (atsea level static and standard conditions); or

(2) Engines designed or modified for systems in Item 1, regard-less of thrust or specific fuel consumption.

(b) Item 3 (a) engines may be exported as part of a manned aircraft orin quantities appropriate for replacement parts for manned aircraft.

3-2 I T E M 3

nition has occurred. The combustion products, or exhaust gases, then pass intothe turbine, which consists of one or more stages of alternating stationary androtating airfoil-section blades. The turbine extracts only enough energy fromthe gas stream to drive the compressor; the remaining energy provides thethrust. The gas flow then passes into a converging duct, or nozzle, in order tomaximize the thrust produced by the engine. In the case of a turbofan, thereis a larger diameter multiblade fan stage in front of the compressor.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: These lightweight engines are used topower UAVs, including cruise missiles.

Other Uses: Such engines are generally not uniquely designed for missilepurposes and can be used directly in other applications such as aircraft andhelicopters. Gas turbine engines are also used in the marine and power-generating industries and in some land vehicles.

Appearance (as manufactured): The basic turbine engine is cylindrical,and those most often used in missiles measure less than 1 m in length and0.5 m in diameter. Numerous accessories such as an alternator, hydraulicpump, fuel pump, and metering valve, along with associated plumbing andwiring, are visible on the outside of the engine. Small fuel efficient enginestypically weigh 30 to 130 kg; such engines are shown in Figures 3-1, 3-2,and 3-3. Engine parts are manufactured from a number of different mate-

Figure 3-1: A small turbojet engine for a cruise missileon its checkout stand.

Figure 3-2: A small turbofan engine for acruise missile.

Photo Credit: W

illiams International

Figure 3-3: A small turbojet cruise missile engine.

Photo Credit: Teledyne R

yan Aeronautical

3-3I T E M 3

rials, both metallic and non-metallic in composi-tion. Common metallic materials include alu-minum, steel, titanium, and special alloys. Non-metallic materials such as Teflon, nylon, carbon,and rubber are used for sealing and insulation.

Appearance (as packaged): Engines usually areprepared for shipment in a multi-step process.Covering plates are attached over the engine in-let and exhaust, and secured by adhesive tape, asshown in Figure 3-4. The engine is covered withprotective paper, and desiccant bags are taped tothe engine wrap. The engine is wrapped in cor-rugated cardboard, inserted into a polyethylene bag, lowered into the ship-ping crate, and rested on foam blocks, as shown in Figure 3-5. The box isthen filled with foam and sealed. Because cruise missile engines often in-corporate self-starting features through the use of pyrotechnic cartridges,when properly packaged their shipping containers usually bear markings in-dicating the presence of explosives like the orange, diamond-shaped labelshown in Figure 3-6.

Ramjet/Scramjet/Pulsejet/and Combined Cycle Engines

Nature and Purpose: Ramjet, scramjet, and pulsejet engines are internalcombustion reaction jet engines that burn fuel mixed with intake air and ex-pel a jet of hot exhaust gases. Their purpose includes propelling air vehicles,


•China•France•Germany•India• Israel• Japan•Russia•South Africa•Sweden•United States

(b) Ramjet/scramjet/pulsejet/combined cycle engines, including de-vices to regulate combustion, and specially designed componentstherefor;

Figure 3-5: A small turbofan engine wrapped in plasticinside its shipping crate.

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Figure 3-4: A small turbojet engine being prepared forshipment.


yan Aeronatuical

Figure 3-6: A turbojet shipping crate showing theexplosive warning labels required because of the

starting cartridge.


yan Aeronatuical

3-4 I T E M 3

including cruise missiles. Because these engines have very few moving parts(they have no mechanical compressors), they are much simpler and poten-tially less costly than turbojets. Since ramjets and scramjets can toleratemuch higher combustion temperatures than turbojets, they are the onlypractical option for sustained flight at high supersonic speeds. Combinedcycle engines integrate two propulsion systems (e.g., turbojet and ramjet orscramjet) into a single assembly in order to be operable from rest throughsupersonic speeds. A pulsejet is another type of compressorless jet engine;however, unlike ramjets, combustion takes place intermittently (in pulses),and they can produce thrust at rest.

Method of Operation: Ramjets capture air and direct it into the engine asthey move through the atmosphere. The air is compressed by the “ram ef-fect” and slowed to subsonic speeds by diffusion inside the inlet duct. Fuelis added, and the mixture is ignited. Power is produced by the expulsion ofhot exhaust gases through a nozzle. Ramjets usually operate between Mach2 and 3, but can operate over a wide range of speeds from high subsonicMach numbers to supersonic speeds up to about Mach 4. The primary dis-advantage of ramjets is that they cannot generate thrust at zero flight speedso they must be accelerated by some other form of propulsion to the nec-essary starting speed, typically 650 km per hour or higher. A small solid pro-pellant rocket motor is often used at launch for this purpose and discardedafter the ramjet/scramjet is started.

“Scramjet” is a contraction of “supersonic combustion ramjet.” It operateslike the ramjet, but the air entering the engine is not slowed as much andcombustion occurs while the air in the engine is supersonic. Scramjets usu-ally operate at speeds between Mach 5 and 7. Scramjets must be boosted toan appropriate speed (over Mach 4) to permit ignition.

A pulsejet produces thrust by a series of explosions occurring at the ap-proximate resonance frequency of the engine. In one design, air is drawn inthrough open valves at the front of the engine and is heated by the injectedburning fuel. The burning gases expand; as they increase the pressure, theyclose the inlet valves and escape as a jet through the exhaust duct. As theexhaust gases are expelled, the pressure in the combustion chamber de-creases, allowing the front intake valves to open again, than the cycle re-peats. The function of the intake valves is to prevent flow reversal at the in-let. However, the prevention of flow reversal can be accomplished withoutthe use of valves, through the proper use of inlet duct area design and anunderstanding of wave phenomena. By extending the length of the inletduct or by using flow rectifiers (i.e., passages of lesser resistance to the flowin one direction than in the opposite direction), the effects of flow reversalcan be inhibited. Some valveless pulsejet configurations also conserve thrustby turning the intake duct 180 degrees to the freestream (facing aft insteadof forward). Pulsejets typically operate at subsonic speeds.

The turbojet/ramjet combined cycle engine operates as an afterburningturbojet until it reaches a high Mach speed, at which point airflow is by-

3-5I T E M 3

passed around the compressor andinto the afterburner. The enginethen operates as a ramjet with theafterburner acting as the ramjetcombustor.

Typical Missile-Related Uses:These engines can be used to powercruise missiles and sometimes othertypes of UAVs. Ramjet and com-bined cycle engines provide in-creased speed and performance overturbojets with minimum volumeand weight; however, they are notparticularly fuel efficient. Ramjetsproduce substantially more powerper unit volume and typically offermuch greater range and/or payloadcapacity than solid rocket motors.Pulsejets have relatively poorperformance and low fuel ef-ficiency, but they are rela-tively easy to design andmanufacture.

Other Uses: Ramjet andcombined cycle (turbo-ramjet) engines have beenused to power high-speedmanned aircraft and heli-copters.

Appearance (as manufac-tured): Ramjets can be ei-ther mounted in cylindrical pods attached to the mis-sile in various locations or built into the missile body.These engines often resemble a metallic pipe with aconical plug in the inlet to control the air flow and aflared conical nozzle on the opposite end. A typicalramjet for missile use can measure 2 to 4.5 m in lengthand 0.3 to 1.0 m in diameter, and weigh up to 200 kg.An example of a rather large ramjet is shown inFigure 3-7. A scramjet may look like a simple metallicbox with sharp inlets; two developmental scramjets areshown in Figures 3-8 and 3-9. Pulsejets are character-ized by their long cylindrical resonator cavity con-nected to a bulbous control mechanism towards thefront, as shown in Figure 3-10.

Photo Credit: K

aiser Marquardt

Figure 3-7: A large ramjet engine on a handling dolly.

Photo Credit: K

aiser Marquardt

Figure 3-8: A developmental scramjet engine.

Photo Credit: K

aiser Marquardt

Figure 3-9: A developmental scramjet engine.

Figure 3-10: A modern pulsejet engine with arearward-facing intake.

Photo Credit: Therm

o-jet

3-6 I T E M 3

Appearance (as packaged): These engines are packaged like turbojet en-gines covered in (a) above; however, they are most likely to be shipped inwooden or metal crates.

Devices to Regulate Combustion in Ramjets, Scramjets, Pulsejets, andCombined Cycle Engines

Nature and Purpose: Ramjets, scramjets, pulsejets,and combined cycle engines are often required to workover a wide range of velocities, some of which may de-grade engine performance. Devices that regulate com-bustion by altering air- and fuel-flow characteristics inflight are typically integrated into the engine. The es-sential elements of a system to regulate ramjets are flowdividers, fuel-injection systems, ignitors, flameholdingdevices, and a power control computer.

Method of Operation: The control system for a ram-jet engine performs two basic functions: it maintainsthe desired engine performance throughout the flightof the vehicle, and it minimizes departure from thedesired performance during transients.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Devices that regulatecombustion can make these engines operate efficientlythroughout their flight and thereby increase missilespeed and range. These devices are usually specific tothe engine application and missile configuration forwhich they are designed.

Other Uses: The flow dividers, fuel injection and me-tering devices, and flameholders found in ramjets aresimilar in concept to devices found in afterburningturbojets and turbofans. However, the devices are notinterchangeable.

Appearance (as manufactured): Flow straighteningdevices such as flow dividers, splitter plates, turningvanes, screens, or aerodynamic grids minimize airflowdistortion and its adverse effects on fuel distributionand combustion. Sections of various kinds of aerody-namic grids are shown in Figure 3-11. A completegrid assembly as it would be installed in a ramjet isshown in Figure 3-12. These devices are inserted intothe inlet duct.

The fuel used in ramjets is fed to the combustion sec-tion with the assistance of a pump and varied through

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Figure 3-11: Various aerodynamic grids used tostraighten the flow of air into a ramjet engine.

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Figure 3-12: A complete ramjet flowstraightening device before placement into theinlet duct.

3-7I T E M 3

the use of metering devices such as orifices orvalves as shown in the fuel management system inFigure 3-13. Fuel injectors disperse the fuel intothe air in the combustion section. A fuel manifoldand centrifugal fuel injector assembly is depictedin Figure 3-14.

Ignitors for ramjets take one of several forms.Ramjets may use electrical spark, pyrotechnics,pyrophoric, or hypergolic (self-igniting) liquidinjectors. Hypergolic liquids are injected intothe stagnant region downstream of the flameholder. Surplus quantities ofthe ignitor liquid may be carried to enable multiple restarts.

Flameholders are used as a means to stabilize the flame produced bycombustion and to promote additional combustion. The flameholder is de-signed to provide a low-velocity region to which the hot combustion prod-ucts are recirculated to the flameholder. These hot gases then serve as themeans for igniting the fresh fuel-air mixture as it flows past the baffle. A rearview of an installed baffle-type flameholder is shown in Figure 3-15.

Ramjet engines require a fuel control (computer) to determine the proper po-sition of the fuel flow metering devices as a function of flight condition. Thesesystems are usually hydro-mechanical or, increasingly, electronic devices. Suchdevices and the progress in fuel control technology are shown in Figure 3-16,which is annotated with the assembly weights and years produced.

Appearance (as packaged): Aerodynamic grids, combustors, and flame-holders are integral with the ramjet and thus are shipped together with the

Figure 3-13: A fuel management system for a ramjetengine.

Photo Credit: K

aiser Marquardt

Figure 3-14: A fuel manifold and centrifugal fuelinjector assembly for a ramjet engine.

Photo Credit: K

aiser Marquardt

Figure 3-15: A baffle-type flameholder installed in aramjet engine.

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3-8 I T E M 3

main engine. The exceptions are the fuel pumps, igniters, or fuel controls,which may be shipped separately and then mounted on the engine body dur-ing assembly. These parts are shipped in wooden or cardboard containers.

Rocket Motor Cases, Interior Lining, and Insulation

Nature and Purpose: Rocket motor cases are the main structural compo-nents of solid or hybrid rocket motors. Cases are the cylindrical containersof the propellant. They use special materials to resist the pressures and heatof combustion.


•Brazil•China•France•Germany•India• Israel• Italy• Japan•Norway•Russia•South Korea•Sweden•United Kingdom•United States

(c) Rocket motor cases, “interior lining,” “insulation” and nozzles there-for;

Notes to Item 3:(3) In Item 3(c), “interior lining” suited for the bond interface between

the solid propellant and the case or insulating liner is usually a liquidpolymer based dispersion of refractory or insulating materials, e.g.,carbon filled HTPB or other polymer with added curing agents to besprayed or screeded over a case interior.

(4) In Item 3(c), “insulation” intended to be applied to the componentsof a rocket motor, i.e., the case, nozzle inlets, and case closures, in-cludes cured or semi-cured compounded rubber sheet stock contain-ing an insulating or refractory material. It may also be incorporatedas stress relief boots or flaps.

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Figure 3-16: Ramjet fuelcontrol technology hasprogressed significantlysince the 1960s.

3-9I T E M 3

Method of Operation: Rocket motor cases are pres-sure vessels used to contain the hot gases generatedby the propellant combustion process. These hotgases are expanded and accelerated through therocket motor nozzle to produce thrust. Interior lin-ing and insulation are low-density, high-heat-resis-tant materials that provide protective layers betweenthe burning propellant and the case.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: All solid propellantrocket motors use motor cases and interior lining orinsulation. Such cases are usually designed to meetspecific requirements of particular missiles. Cases, in-terior lining, and insulation are critical to maintainthe integrity of solid rocket motors.

Other Uses: Motor case materials are used in high-pressure applications such as piping. Some materialsused in the interior linings or insulation of rocket mo-tors are used in commercial applications requiringheat-resistant materials.

Appearance (as manufactured): A rocket motor caseis a large, steel or composite-filament-wound cylinderwith spheroidal or ellipsoidal domes at either end. Amotor case for an Item 2(c) rocket motor typicallywould be larger than 4 m in length and 0.5 m in diam-eter. Each of the domes usually has a hole; the smallhole at the front end is for the igniter or other internalmotor hardware, and the large hole at the back end isfor the nozzle. A large filament-wound mo-tor case displaying these features is shownin Figure 3-17. An interior lining is a thinlayer of special chemicals used to help thesolid propellant adhere to the case insula-tion. The lining is usually applied to thecase onsite before propellant casting. Thecase may or may not have internal insula-tion in place when shipped. Rocket motorinsulation is usually made of synthetic rub-bery material such as ethylene propylenediene monomer, (EPDM), polybutadiene,neoprene, or nitrile rubber. Insulationmaterial contains silica or asbestos and re-sembles a gray or green sheet of rubber approximately 2 to 6 mm thick.Figure 3-18 shows installation of lining inside a motor case. Figure 3-19 showsa motor case under inspection after application of the thermal insulation.Figure 3-20 shows the installation of the internal insulation onto a mandrelprior to the motor case filament winding operation.

Photo Credit: Aerospatiale

Espace & D

efense

Figure 3-17: A large filament-wound solid rocketmotor case.

Photo Credit: Thiokol C

orp.

Figure 3-18: Installation of lining inside amotor case.

Photo Credit: Fiat Avio

Figure 3-19: A rocket case under inspection after applicationof the thermal insulation.

3-10 I T E M 3

Appearance (as packaged): Rocket mo-tor cases are shipped in large wooden ormetal crates that contain foam packing orother material to protect them fromshock during shipment. Case liners arenot likely to be shipped or transferredseparately. Insulation material is shippedon large rolls up to 1 m in width and 0.5m in diameter and sealed in boxes.

Rocket Motor Nozzles

Nature and Purpose: Rocket nozzles areflow constrictors with bell-shaped struc-

tures, or skirts, fitted to the exhaust end of a solid propellant rocket motor, aliquid propellant rocket engine, or a hybrid rocket motor. Their design con-trols the flow of hot exhaust gases to maximize velocity in the desired direc-tion and thereby improve thrust.

Method of Operation: During missile launch or flight, burning propellantscreate a large quantity of combustion gases, which are forced through theconvergent section of the nozzle into its throat, the smallest opening of thenozzle, at sonic speed. These gases then expand to supersonic speedsthrough the diverging portion of the nozzle and exit from the engine. Theincreased velocity of the gases increases the thrust.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Rocket nozzles manage combustion gases toensure efficient rocket operation. Well designed rocket nozzles improve mis-sile system payload and range capability. Nozzles are used on large individualrocket motor stages that supply the main thrust for a ballistic missile; on thesmall control motors that steer, separate, or spin up the missile along its flightpath; and on booster rockets that launch UAVs, including cruise missiles.

Other Uses: Rocket motors (and hence nozzles) have been used to propelexperimental aircraft such as the X-1 and X-15 research airplanes.

Appearance (as manufactured): The shape of a rocket nozzle is similar toan hourglass; one large section faces forward to the combustion chamber,the other large section faces rearward to the end of the rocket. The two sec-tions are connected by the small middle section, or throat, as shown inFigure 3-21.

Figure 3-22 shows a cut-away view of a solid propellant rocket motor and howthe nozzle fits into the aft end of the motor. Modern solid rocket nozzles arealmost always made from carbon-composite materials or combinations of car-bon-composite and silica phenolic materials. Carbon-composite sections aregenerally black; phenolic sections are often yellowish in color.


•Canada•China•France•Germany•India• Israel• Japan•North Korea•Russia•South Africa•Sweden•Ukraine•United Kingdom•United States

Figure 3-20:Installation of internalinsulator prior to motorcase filament windingoperation.

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3-11I T E M 3

Liquid propellantrockets may usecarbon-compositenozzles, but usuallyuse metal-based ma-

terials such as stainless steel alloys or titanium andcolumbium (niobium). Metal nozzles are one ofseveral shades of gray as shown in Figure 3-21.Nozzles also may have a metal exterior and a non-metallic interior made of materials that can with-stand the high temperature of the exhaust gases,such as bulk graphite or silica phenolic.

Nozzle size depends on the rocket size and appli-cation. Large nozzles intended for solid propellantrocket motors are increasingly built as movablenozzles. In such an application, the forward end ofthe nozzle has devices and insulators that allow itto be attached to the aft dome of the motor in a ball-in-socket arrangement. These nozzles may have 2 to 4 lugs onthe outside wall to which the motion actuators are fastened,or the actuators may be connected near the throat. Very ad-vanced nozzles can be extendable, which means they arestored in a collapsed configuration and extended to their fulldimensions when needed. Such a nozzle complete with itsactuators and control mechanism is shown in Figure 3-23.Nozzles intended for liquid rocket engines usually are re-generatively cooled. They are made either by a series ofmetal tubes welded together to form the nozzle, or by sand-wiching a piece of corrugated metal between an inner andouter wall, as shown in Figures 3-24, 3-25, and 3-26. Fuelis injected into the large manifold near the bottom of the

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Figure 3-21: A liquid enginewith a metal, radiatively cooledlower nozzle skirt.

Photo Credit:Thiokol Corp.

Figure 3-22:A cut-away view of asolid motor thatshows how thenozzle fits into theaft end of the motor.

Photo Credit: Alliant TechS

ystems, Inc.

Figure 3-23: A modern

extendable rocketnozzle skirtshowing the

actuators thatincrease its length

after staging.


ignal/Aerospace

Figure 3-24:An engine with a large,regeneratively coolednozzle.

Photo Credit: B

oeing

Figure 3-25: Side view of a regenerativelycooled nozzle.

3-12 I T E M 3

nozzle; as it flows up through the passages it ab-sorbs heat and cools the nozzle.

Appearance (as packaged): Shipping contain-ers for rocket nozzles are of two types, depend-ing on nozzle size. Small nozzles with an exitdiameter no greater than 50 cm have tailoredcontainers, even metallic cases. Larger nozzlesusually have tailored shipping containers builtfrom wood or fiberglass. Protective plastic wrapsmay also be used, depending on the envi-ronmental-control capability of the shippingcontainer.

Staging Mechanisms and Separation Mechanisms

Nature and Purpose: Separating rocket stages quickly and cleanly is tech-nically challenging. Moreover, it is critical to the successful flight of a multi-stage missile. Staging mechanisms ensure the safe and reliable separation oftwo missile stages after termination of the thrust of the lower stage. Thisseparation is achieved by relatively simple separation mechanisms, the mostcommon of which are explosive bolts and flexible linear shaped charges(FLSC). Explosive bolts attach the missile stages together through speciallyconstructed, load-carrying interstages with flanges at the ends and, onsignal, explode to allow the two stages to separate. A built-in FLSC is usedto make a circumferential cut through the interstage skin and structure toallow stage separation. Mechanical, hydraulic, or pneumatic devices can beused to help separate stages. Similarly, mechanisms like ball locks are usedfor separating the payload from the uppermost missile stage at the very endof powered flight.

Method of Operation: When the propellant in any missile stage is nearlyexhausted, the guidance set signals the separation hardware to release thespent stage. This electronic signal fires detonators which, in turn, triggerseparation mechanisms like explosive bolts or FLSC that sever the structuraland electrical connection and let the exhausted missile stage drop off. If at-mospheric drag forces are not likely to be strong enough to ensure separa-tion, mechanical, hydraulic, or pneumatic compression springs are placedbetween the two stages to force them apart. Spent stages may require re-verse thrusters or thrust termination to prevent collision of the stages priorto next-stage ignition.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: All multi-stage missiles require staging andseparation mechanisms. Single-stage missiles with separating warheads alsorequire separation mechanisms.

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Figure 3-26:End views ofregenerativelycooled nozzles.


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(d) Staging mechanisms, separation mechanisms, and interstages therefor;

3-13I T E M 3

Other Uses: Prepackaged devices such as ex-plosive bolts have other military applications,most notably in launching weapons or sepa-rating external fuel tanks from fighter aircraft.FLSC are routinely used in the oil industry forcutting large pipes. Compression springs areused in the industrial world as shock absorbersand load-levelers.

Appearance (as manufactured): Explosivebolts look like large machine bolts, but with ahousing section at the head end; three exam-ples are shown in Figure 3-27. Typically, theymeasure 7 to 10 cm in length and 1 to 2.5 cmin diameter, and weigh 50 to 75 g. The hous-ing section contains the ordnance and haswires or cables leading out of it from the in-ternal detonators, which typically require aDC power source. Built-in staging mechanisms almost always use FLSC, achevron-shaped, soft metal tube of lead or aluminum filled with explosive, typ-ically RDX or HMX. The FLSC is fastened by metal clips to the interior of theinterstage structure holding the two missile stages together and, when initiatedby a small detonator, cuts through the structure and skin to release the stages.The tube is a gray metal color, and the explosive is white to whitish-gray incolor, as shown in Figure 3-28. The width, height, andweight per unit of length are a function of the thicknessof the material it is designed to cut through.

Ball locks do not involve explosives and are sometimesused in payload separation systems. Internally, they use asolenoid/spring/ball-bearing that enables the desiredsoft disconnect; externally, they appear much like explo-sive bolts, that is, like a machine bolt with a housing andtwo wires. Compression springs used for stage separationare long stroke (10 to 20 cm), small diameter (2 to 4 cm)devices mounted in canisters at several locations (mini-mum of three) in the rim of the interstage. These steelcanisters house steel springs or pistons and have built-in flanges for attachmentto the interstage. The hydraulic and pneumatic pistons have built-in fluid reser-voirs to pressurize the units when the stages are assembled.

Appearance (as packaged): Explosive bolts are shipped in simple cardboardboxes with ample internal foam or other packing to mitigate the effects ofshocks. Properly shipped boxes are marked with “Danger-Explosive” or“Danger-Ordnance” symbols and are shipped under restrictions governingexplosive materials. FLSC are usually shipped in varying lengths in lined andprotected wooden boxes. They are supposed to be marked with the same la-bels as they are subject to the same shipping restrictions as any ordnance. Balllocks can be packaged and shipped without ordnance restrictions and have

Photo Credit: H

i-Shear Technology C

orp.

Figure 3-27: Threeexamples of explosive

bolts. Notice theelectrical connection

on the top bolt, whichdetonates it.

Photo Credit: Ensign-B

ickford Co.

Figure 3-28: Shortsection of flexible

linear-shaped charge(on a centimeter

scale) designed tocut through a missile

stage.

3-14 I T E M 3

no distinguishing features or labels on their packaging. Compression springsare shipped in the uncompressed state in cardboard boxes.

Interstages

Nature and Purpose: An interstage is a cylindrical or truncated-cone-shapedstructure that connects two missile propulsion stages. An interstage is, in prin-ciple, a simple piece of equipment, but the requisite electrical connections, sep-aration mechanisms, and high strength-to-weight ratios make it rather complexin its adaptation to specific missiles. The purpose of an interstage is to maintainmissile integrity during launch and flight, and to ensure stage separation with-out damage to any missile component or adverse effect on velocity.

Method of Operation: Upon command from the guidance system, the sep-aration mechanism is prompted, first, to release the lower stage from the in-terstage connecting it to the next stage, and secondly, after a brief pause, tojettison that interstage. In some cases, separation occurs between theinterstage and the upper stage; the interstage remains attached to the lowerstage. Staging mechanisms are usually activated before the upper stage ignites.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Interstages are used to carry thrust loads fromthe lower stage to the upper stages of ballistic missiles during rocket motor

burn. Some early designs used simple open-truss struc-tures; later designs incorporate thin-skin shell coveringsto reduce drag by creating a smooth aerodynamic fairingbetween the stages. They also incorporate the separationmechanisms used to jettison the spent lower stage.Dropping a spent lower stage improves missile range(compared to that of a single stage missile) but must beaccomplished cleanly and with proper timing to preventdamage to the missile or deviation from its trajectory.

Other Uses: N/A

Appearance (as manufactured): An interstage is aconical or cylindrical hoop-like structure that has thesame outside diameter as the rocket stages it connects.It has connecting frames at each end and locations forseparation devices on one end. It has structural sup-ports visible inside the structural walls and end rings orframes used to join it to the missile stages. The lengthof an interstage is usually equal to about half the out-side diameter of the engine nozzle on the next stageabove. In the past stainless steel and titanium have beenused, but current interstages use graphite compositeconstruction with metal end rings. Two interstages in ashipping crate are shown in Figure 3-29. An interstagebeing positioned for attachment to a solid rocket mo-tor is shown in Figure 3-30.


•Brazil•China•France•Germany•India• Israel• Italy• Japan•North Korea•Norway•Pakistan•Russia•South Korea•Spain•Sweden•Ukraine•United Kingdom•United States

Figure 3-29: Two interstages in their shippingcontainer.

Figure 3-30: An interstage being positioned forattachment.

3-15I T E M 3

Appearance (as packaged): Interstages are usually shipped in tailored woodencontainers from the manufacturing facility to the missile stage integrator.

Nature and Purpose: Propellant control systems manage the pressure andvolume of liquid or slurry propellant flowing through the injector plate andinto the combustion chamber of a rocket engine. High-pressure tanks orturbopumps force liquid or slurry propellants from fuel and oxidizer tanksinto the combustion chamber at high pressure. High-pressure tank systemsinclude the tanks themselves, servo valves, and feed lines to keep propellantflow continuous and void-free during the high acceleration of missilelaunch. Turbopumps are used to increase the propellant pressure to levelsrequired for high-thrust, high-flow-rate engines. Servo valves can be usedto control turbopump speed and thereby control thrust.

Method of Operation: Pressure tank systems use a high-pressure tank, of-ten called a “bottle,” which carries a pressurant like nitrogen or helium atup to 70,000 kPa. Pressurant is released to the propellant tanks through aregulator that adjusts the pressure level. The pressurant then pushes the fueland oxidizer through control valves to the injector at the head of the com-bustion chamber. Thrust is regulated by opening and closing the controlvalves the appropriate amount.

Servo valves function to provide nearly exact response with the help of thefeedback control system. Their use is almost fundamental to control ofhigh-power systems such as more advanced liquid rocket propulsion. Theyare complicated electromechanical devices that control the flow of propel-lant through them by balancing forces on both sides of an actuator piston,which regulates the position of the valve pintle. The control signal typicallymoves a small (hydraulic amplifier) piston that admits variable pressure toone side of the actuator piston. It moves until a new balance is established

(e) Liquid and slurry propellant (including oxidizers) control systems,and specially designed components therefor, designed or modified tooperate in vibration environments of more than 10 g RMS between20 Hz and 2,000 Hz.

Notes to Item 3:(5) The only servo valves and pumps covered in (e) above, are the fol-

lowing:(a) Servo valves designed for flow rates of 24 liters per minute or

greater, at an absolute pressure of 7,000 kPa (1,000 psi) orgreater, that have an actuator response time of less than100 msec.

(b) Pumps, for liquid propellants, with shaft speeds equal to orgreater than 8,000 RPM or with discharge pressures equal to orgreater than 7,000 kPa (1,000 psi).

(6) Item 3(e) systems and components may be exported as part of asatellite.

3-16 I T E M 3

at a new flow rate. Servo valves are usually the mostcostly, sensitive, and failure-prone of all valvesbecause their orifices can easily be clogged bycontaminants.

Turbopumps push propellants into the combustionchamber at pressures up to fifty times greater than thepressure at which the propellants normally are stored.Turbopumps are powered by burning some of therocket propellant in a gas generator; its exhaust gasespower a turbine driving the pump. Turbopumps formissiles typically rotate at 8,000 to 75,000 RPM.Engine thrust is regulated by altering the propellant

flow to the gas generator (sometimes with a servo valve), and therebychanging the turbine speed of the turbopump and thus the propellant flowinto the combustion chamber.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: All liquid propellant rocketengines use either a pressure-fed or a pump-fed propellantdelivery system. Pressure-fed systems can be specifically de-signed for a particular engine or assembled from dual-usecomponents. Turbopumps are usually specifically designedfor a particular engine.

Other Uses: Servo valves are common in closed-loop con-trol systems handling liquids. Numerous civil applications in-clude fuel and hydraulic system control in aircraft. Other ap-

plications involve precision handling of fluids such as in the chemical industry.Turbine drill pumps are popular in the petroleum and deep well industries.

Appearance (as manufactured): Servo valves look much like on-off valvesor line cylinders with tube stubs for propellant inlets and outlets in a metalcase. Most valves and housings are made of stainless steel. However, thesevalves are larger than on-off valves because they have a position feedback de-vice. A servo valve from a Scud missile is shown in Figure 3-31. A modernliquid propellant control valve is shown in Figure 3-32. Two types of liquidpropellant injector plates are shown in Figures 3-33 and 3-34.

Figure 3-31: A servo valve from a Scud missile.

Figure 3-32:A modern liquidpropellantcontrol valve.

Figure 3-33:A liquid propellantinjector plate.

Photo Credit: AlliedSignal Aerospace

Figure 3-34:Another style ofliquid propellantinjector plate.

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3-17I T E M 3

Turbopumps are usually housedin metal cases and are sized forspecific applications. Althoughthey resemble automotive ortruck turbochargers, they aremuch larger and can weigh sev-eral hundred kilograms. Turbo-pumps for rocket engines mayhave a separate pump and tur-bine assembly for each propel-lant (e.g., for the fuel and forthe oxidizer), or a single unitthat combines both pumps andthe turbine drive mechanism.Examples of single- and multi-shaft turbopump assemblies areshown in Figures 3-35 and 3-36, respectively. The ribbing ofthe housings is typical of tur-bopumps because they providegood strength and light weight;however, some turbopumpshave smooth metallic housings,as shown in Figure 3-37.

Appearance (as packaged): Servo valves are packaged likeother valves, especially on-off valves. Inlets and outlets areplugged to prevent contamination. The valves are placed invacuum-sealed plastic bags or sealed plastic bags filled withnitrogen or argon to keep the valves clean and dry. They maysometimes be double bagged and are usually shipped inside acontainer, often an aluminum case with a contoured foamliner. Small turbopumps are often packaged and shipped in alu-minum shipping containers. Depending on size and interfacefeatures, a large turbopump may be packaged and shipped in acustom-built shipping crate, with pump supports built in.Turbopumps may also be shipped as a breakdown kit in whichseparate components are packaged for assembly after receipt.

Nature and Purpose: Hybrid rocket motors use both solid and liquid propel-lants, usually a solid fuel and a liquid oxidizer. Because flow of the liquid oxi-dizer can be controlled, hybrid motors can be throttled or shut down com-pletely and then restarted. Hybrid rocket motors thereby combine some of thesimplicity of solid rocket motors with the controllability of liquid rocket engines.

Figure 3-36: A multi-shaft turbopumpassembly.

Figure 3-37: A smooth turbopumphousing; compare with those in

Figures 3-35 and 3-36.

Figure 3-35: A single-shaftturbopump.

Photo Credit: AerojetPh

oto

Cre

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Aer

ojet


ignal Aerospace

(f) Hybrid rocket motors and specially designed components therefor.


•Japan•Russia•United States

3-18 I T E M 3

Method of Operation: Hybrid rocket motors use either pressurized tanks orpumps to feed oxidizer into the combustion chamber, which is lined withsolid fuel. The pumps are driven by a gas generator powered by its own fuelgrain or some other source of fuel. The liquid oxidizer burns the solid fuel in-side the hollow chamber, and the hot, expanding gases are expelled throughthe nozzle at supersonic speed to provide thrust. As in a solid rocket motor,the outer casing of the combustion chamber is protected from much of theheat of combustion by the fuel itself because it burns from the inside outward.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Hybrid rocket motors have the potential topower MTCR Category I missiles, but to date there have been no seriousattempts to build and deploy any such missiles.

Other Uses: N/A

Appearance (as manufactured): A hybrid rocket motor has an oxidizer in-jector mounted in the top of the high-pressure motor case and a converg-ing/diverging nozzle at the bottom. The injector has valves and piping eitherfrom a pressure tank or from a tank and an associated pump. The combustionchamber is usually fabricated either from steel or titanium, which may beblack or gray, or from filament-wound graphite or glass epoxy, which is usu-ally yellow or brown. The chamber is lined with thick, solid propellant havingone of a variety of configurations and looking like a single cylinder with ahollow center, concentric cylinders, or wagon wheels. Nozzles are made ofablative material, which is often brownish, or high-temperature metals, andthey may have high-temperature inserts in their throats.

Appearance (as packaged): Hybrid rocket motors may be shipped fully as-sembled or partially assembled, with tanks and associated hardware pack-aged separately from the combustion chamber and attached nozzles. Fullyassembled units are packaged in wooden crates; components are packagedin wooden crates or heavy cartons. Legally marked crates are labeled withexplosives or fire hazard warnings because the missiles are fueled with solidpropellant. However, because motors contain only fuel and no oxidizer,they are less hazardous than normal solid rocket motors.

Notes to Item 3:(1) Flow-forming machines, and specially designed components and specially designed software

therefor, which: (a) According to the manufacturer’s technical specification, can be equipped with numerical

control units or a computer control, even when not equipped with such units at deliv-ery, and

(b) With more than two axes which can be coordinated simultaneously for contouring control.

Technical Note:Machines combining the functions of spin-forming and flow-forming are for the purpose of this item,regarded as flow-forming machines.

This item does not include machines that are not usable in the production of propulsion componentsand equipment (e.g. motor cases) for systems in Item 1.

3-19I T E M 3

Nature and Purpose: Flow-forming machines are large shop machines usedin heavy duty manufacturing to make parts to precision dimensions. Theirbases are massive in order to support the structures for mounting rollers, man-drels, and other components. Power supplies, hydraulic rams, and positioningscrews are also large enough to resist deflection by the large forming forces.

Method of Operation: Flow-forming machines use a point-deformationprocess whereby one or more rollers move along the length of a metalblank, or preform, and press it into a rotating mold or onto a mandrel withthe desired shape.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Flow-forming machines are used to makerocket motor cases, end domes, and nozzles.

Other Uses: Flow-forming machines are used to make numerous parts for theaerospace industry, including commercial aircraft parts, tactical missile compo-nents, and liners for shaped charges. They are also used to make automobilewheels, automatic transmission components for automobiles, gas containers,pressure-tank heads, and containers for electronic equipment.

Appearance (as manufactured): Flow-forming machines can be config-ured either vertically or horizontally, as shown in Figures 3-38 and 3-39,respectively. Vertical configurations can form larger parts because they haveprotruding servo-driven arms to hold the rollers and more horsepower for

deformation. Horizontal configu-rations do not have roller arms aslong as those of the verticalmachines.

The related spin-forming process can produce shapes like those made by theflow-forming process. However, spin-forming uses less power to shape thematerial because it changes the thickness of the material very little from pre-


•Germany•Japan•Sweden•Switzerland•United Kingdom•United States

Figure 3-38: A vertical flow-formingmachine.

Figure 3-39: A horizontal flow-forming machine.

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Photo Credit: A H

andbook for the Nuclear

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3-20 I T E M 3

form to final shape. An exampleof a flow-forming machine usedto make end domes for propellanttanks is shown in Figure 3-40.

Specially designed productionfacilities and equipment resembleaerospace and manufacturingequipment but with attributesdesigned for a given system.

Appearance (as packaged):Larger vertical machines usuallyrequire that roller areas, verticalcolumns, and mandrels be boxedseparately in wooden crates forshipping. Smaller vertical ma-chines as well as horizontal ma-chines may be shipped in largewooden containers, with theroller arms shipped in the assem-

bled configuration. They are securely fastened to the containers to precludemovement. The control unit and any hydraulic supply and power units arealso boxed separately for shipment.

Figure 3-40: A flow-formingmachine used tomake end domes forpropellant tanks.

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ITEM 4Propellants

4-1I T E M 4

Nature and Purpose: Composite and composite modified double-base

propellants are heterogeneous mixtures of fuels and small particulate oxi-

dizers held together by a rubbery material referred to as the binder. They

provide a stable, high-performance, solid propellant for rocket motors.

Method of Operation: Selected fuels and oxidizers are mixed in exact ratios

and cast (poured and then solidified) directly into rocket motor casings or

into a mold for subsequent insertion into a case (cartridge loaded). When ig-

nited, the propellant burns and generates high-pressure, high-temperature

exhaust gases that escape at extreme speeds to provide thrust. Once ignited,

the propellant cannot be readily throttled or extinguished because it burns

without air and at very high temperatures.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Composite and composite modified double-

base propellants are used to provide the propulsive energy for rocket systems,

kick motors for satellites, and for booster motors for launching cruise mis-

siles and unmanned air vehilcles (UAVs).

Other Uses: These propellants are used in tactical rockets.

Appearance (as manufactured): Composite and composite modified

double-base propellants are hard, rubbery materials resembling automobile

tires in texture and appearance. Ingredients such as aluminum or other

metal powder gives them a dark gray color; however, other additives may

cause the color to vary from red to green to black, as shown in Figure 4-1.

A piece of composite-modified double-base propellant surrounded by sam-

ples of all its constituent chemicals is shown in Figure 4-2.

Appearance (as packaged): Once the components of the propellants are

mixed together, they are poured directly into the missile case and solidify


•Argentina•Brazil•Canada•China•France•Germany•India• Israel• Italy• Japan•Norway•Pakistan•Republic of Korea•Russia•Spain•Sweden•Switzerland•Taiwan•United Kingdom• United States

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Propellants

Propellants and constituent chemicals for propellants as follows:(a) Composite Propellants

(1) Composite and composite modified double base propellants;

4-2 I T E M 4

into a single piece of material to form a completed mo-tor. Thus, these propellants are shipped only as themajor internal component in a loaded rocket motorand usually are not encountered separated from a mo-tor. Exceptions are cartridge-loaded systems that fit acartridge of propellant into a motor case.

Additional Information: The most commonly usedfuel component of composite propellants is aluminumpowder, which has better performance and greater easeof use than other metal powders that may be used. Theoxidizer component of choice is ammonium perchlo-rate (AP); other oxidizers are metal perchlorates, am-monium nitrate (AN), and ammonium dinitramide(ADN). Metal perchlorates and AN greatly decreaseperformance and thus have only limited use in special-ized propellants. ADN is a new oxidizer with betterperformance than AP, but it has limited availability and

is very difficult to work with. The high explosives HMX and RDX may beused as an adjunct to AP in order to increase propellant performance. Thebinder used in composite propellants is normally a synthetic rubber; the bestone is hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB). Other binders are car-boxyl terminated polybutadiene (CTPB), polybutadiene-acrylic acid polymer

Figure 4-1: Solid propellants vary in appearanceon the basis of their requirements.

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Photo Credit: Alliant TechSystems, Inc.

Figure 4-2:Composite-modified double-base propellantand samples ofits constituentchemicals.

4-3I T E M 4

(PBAA), or polybutadiene-acrylic acid-acrylonitrile terpolymer (PBAN).Elastomeric polyesters and polyethers such as polypropylene glycol may alsobe used as binders. Composite modified double-base propellant also usesnitrocellulose plasticized with nitroglycerine or other nitrate esters as abinder system.

Nature and Purpose: Hydrazine, monomethylhydrazine (MMH), and un-symmetric dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) are liquid rocket fuels. They areused in a wide variety of rocket engines requiring high performance andlong storage times. Hydrazine is most often used as a monopropellant(without an oxidizer) by decomposing it into hot gas with a catalyst. Up to50 percent hydrazine is often mixed with MMH or UDMH fuels in orderto improve performance.

Method of Operation: At room temperature and pressure, the hydrazinefamily of fuels is hypergolic (self-igniting) when mixed with various oxidiz-ers such as nitric acid, chlorine, or fluorine. When used in a bipropellant sys-tem, hydrazine releases about half of its energy by decomposing into a hotgas and half by burning with an oxidizer.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Although hydrazine can be burned with anoxidizer, safe combustion is difficult to achieve. Thus, it is not widely usedin conjunction with an oxidizer; however, it is often used as an additive toenhance performance of the more stable-burning MMH and UDMH fuels.MMH and UDMH, which remain liquid over a –50 to +70°C temperaturerange, are high-performance fuels used for missiles.

Other Uses: Hydrazine is the most current and common propellant forsmall thrusters for spacecraft attitude control and satellite maneuvering.Hydrazine is also used in electrolytic plating of metals on glass and plastics,pharmaceuticals, fuel cells, dyes, photographic chemicals, and agriculturalchemicals, and as a polymerization catalyst and a corrosion inhibitor inboiler feed water and reactor cooling water. MMH is used in aircraft emer-gency power units.

Appearance (as manufactured): Hydrazine is a clear liquid with a freezingpoint slightly above that of water, at +1.5°C, and a normal boiling point of114°C. Its density is slightly greater than that of water, at 1.003 g/cc. It isirritating to the skin, eyes, and lungs, and is highly toxic when taken orally.MMH is a clear liquid with a freezing point of –52°C and a normal boiling


•China•France•Germany•Russia•United Kingdom•United States

(b) Fuel Substances(1) Hydrazine with concentration of more than 70 percent and its

derivatives including monomethylhydrazine (MMH);(2) Unsymmetric dimethylhydrazine (UDMH);


•Canada•China•France• India• Iran• Japan•Pakistan•Russia•United States

4-4 I T E M 4

point of 88°C. These features make it an attractive fuel for tactical militarymissiles. Its density is 0.87 g/cc. It is highly toxic. UDMH is a clear liquidwith a freezing point of –57°C and a normal boiling point of 62°C. Its den-sity is 0.78 g/cc. It is also highly toxic.

Appearance (as packaged): Anhydrous (water eliminated) hydrazine, MMH,and UDMH are classified as flammable liquids and poisons. Hydrazine prod-ucts can be stored and shipped in aluminum, 300-series stainless steel, andtitanium alloy barrels or tanks. Small purchases are commonly packed in55-gallon drums; larger orders are shipped in railroad tank cars. Containers offuel in the hydrazine family are all air purged and are backfilled with an inertgas such as nitrogen to prevent contamination and slow oxidation.

Nature and Purpose: The metals aluminum, beryllium, boron, magne-sium, and zirconium are good fuels in particle sizes less than 500 × 10–6 m(500 microns). They are used as a constituent fuel to enhance solid and liq-uid rocket propellant performance. For example, aluminum powder as a fueladditive makes up 5 to 21 percent by weight of solid propellant.Combustion of the aluminum fuel increases the propellant flame tempera-ture by up to 800°K and increases specific impulse by as much as 10 percent.

Method of Operation: Metal powder is added to either the solid propel-lant grain during rocket motor production or to liquid rocket fuel to forma slurry. Because the surface-to-volume ratio of such small metal particles isvery high, the oxidizer envelops and quickly burns each metal particlethereby releasing high energy per weight at very high temperature.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Aluminum powder is relatively inexpensiveand is widely used as a fuel component in solid and liquid rocket engines toincrease the specific impulse of the propellant and to help stabilize combus-tion. Beryllium, boron, magnesium, and zirconium metal fuels may also beused, but, in practice, they have few military missile-related uses. Generallyspeaking, they are expensive, dangerous to handle, and difficult to control.Beryllium motors have been developed only as upper stages because someof their exhaust products are toxic.

(3) Spherical aluminum powder with particles of uniform diameter of lessthan 500 × 10–6 m (500 micrometers) and an aluminum content of97 percent by weight or greater;

(4) Zirconium, beryllium, boron, magnesium and alloys of these in par-ticle size less than 500 × 10–6 m (500 micrometers), whether spheri-cal, atomized, spheroidal, flaked or ground, consisting of 97 percentby weight or more of any of the above mentioned metals;

(5) High energy density materials such as boron slurry, having an energydensity of 40 × 106 J/kg or greater.

4-5I T E M 4

Other Uses: Aluminum powder is used as a main ingredient in aluminumspray paint. Spherical aluminum powder is used as a catalyst and as a com-ponent in coatings for turbine shells and in construction materials likefoamed concrete and thermite. Magnesium is used primarily in the pyro-technics industry. Boron is sometimes used in fuel slurry for ducted rocketsand solid-fuel ramjets. Zirconium has been used in some high-density com-posite propellants for volume limited tactical applications. Both boron andzirconium are used in ignition compounds for igniters.

Appearance (as manufactured): Aluminum powder is a gray or dull silverpowder, as shown in the upper right of Figure 4-2. The particle size of mostpropellant grade aluminum powder ranges from 3 to 100 microns, althoughlarger sizes have been used. The particle shape is more or less spherical.Beryllium, magnesium, and zirconium are also gray or dull silver powders.Boron is a dark brown powder. The appearance of boron slurry depends onthe liquid to which it is added and the boron particle size; typically, thecolor is dark brown or black. For example, boron mixed with dicyclopenta-diene is a potential ramjet fuel and forms a chocolate-brown slurry with theconsistency of honey.

Appearance (as packaged): Aluminum powder is generally packaged andshipped in steel drums with a capacity of 30 gallons or less, similar to the am-monium perchlorate drums in Figure 4-3. Aluminum powder in a 30-gallondrum weighs approximately 180 kg. The other metals, though much lesslikely to be encountered, are packaged similarly.

Additional Information: Aluminum has a density of 2.7 g/cc, but its bulkdensity is somewhat less, depending on particle size. Beryllium and its com-bustion products are very toxic. Boron is difficult to ignite. Zirconium isvery dangerous to handle in finely powdered form because it spontaneouslyignites in air; thus, it is usually shipped in water.

Figure 4-3: Two different

ammoniumperchlorate

shippingcontainers.

Photo Credits:Left, The Charles

Stark DraperLaboratories;

Right, Kerr McGee


•Russia•United States

For Nitric Acids•Worldwide


There are noknown suppliers ofthese mixturesbecause of theextreme firehazard; however,many countriescan create andship suchmixtures.

4-6 I T E M 4

Nature and Purpose: Perchlorates, chlorates, and chromates mixed withfuel components of any kind (e.g., powdered metals) are extremely unsta-ble, likely to ignite or explode, and hard to control in propellants. AP, theoxidizer of choice for most solid propellant applications, is rarely shipped inlarge bulk quantities mixed with a fuel component because of the associatedcombustion hazard. However, these mixtures are shipped in componentssuch as ignitors or in small packages (approximately 3 kg).

Method of Operation: The oxygen in perchlorates, chlorates, and chromatesis released during combustion, making it available to burn the high-energy fuelin the propellant mixture. Because the oxygen is distributed evenly throughoutthe mixture, it burns very rapidly without air and is difficult to extinguish.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: AP mixed with powdered aluminum is rou-tinely used in solid rocket motors. Other mixtures of oxidizers and fuels aregenerally used in missile ignition or delay devices and are rarely used forother purposes in missiles.

Other Uses: When mixed with powdered metals, perchlorates, chlorates, orchromates have commercial use in flares and incendiary devices.

Appearance (as manufactured): The color of these materials varies withthe oxidizer and fuel used. Numerous combinations exist, but the mostlikely (AP and aluminum powder) are light gray materials with a texture re-sembling table salt.

Appearance (as packaged): Perchlorates, chlorates, or chromates, whenmixed with powdered metals, are extreme fire or explosive hazards and arevery unlikely to be shipped in such mixtures. Rather, they are shipped sep-arately from powdered metals or other high-energy fuel components andthen mixed together as a motor is being cast.

Nature and Purpose: Oxidizers provide oxygen or halogen to burn thefuel in any rocket motor or engine. By carrying the fuel and oxidizer to-

(c) Oxidizers/Fuels(1) Perchlorates, chlorates or chromates mixed with powdered

metals or other high energy fuel components.

(d) Oxidizer Substances(1) Liquid

(a) Dinitrogen trioxide;(b) Nitrogen dioxide/dinitrogen tetroxide;(c) Dinitrogen pentoxide;(d) Inhibited Red Fuming Nitric Acid (IRFNA);(e) Compounds composed of flourine and one or more of other

halogens, oxygen or nitrogen.

4-7I T E M 4

gether, a missile is not dependent on the atmosphere for oxygen and canthus operate in space.

Method of Operation: In solid rocket motors, the oxidizer is mixed evenlywith fuels and cast into the motor case before use. In liquid rocket engines,the oxidizer and fuel are injected into the combustion chamber at greatpressure, mixed, and ignited. In either case, heat causes the oxygen to dis-associate from the oxidizer and become more available to burn with thefuel. Some liquid propellants react spontaneously on contact. Resulting hotgases accelerate through a rocket nozzle to develop reaction thrust.

Typical Missile-Related Uses:

• Dinitrogen trioxide (N2O3) is a black liquid at normal atmospheric pres-sure that decomposes above 3.5°C and freezes at –102°C. N2O3 is notoften used as a missile propellant.

• Dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4), also known as nitrogen tetroxide (NTO), is adimer of two molecules of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) gas. N2O4 is a liquid atnormal atmospheric pressure and temperature (below 21°C). However, itis a liquid in a small temperature range, so it can only be used on missileskept in temperature controlled environments such as silos. Therefore, N2O4

is not commonly used in mobile and tactical missiles. The freezing point ofdinitrogen tetroxide can be depressed considerably with the addition ofnitrous oxide (NO) gas up to about 40 percent by weight. The result ismixed oxides of nitrogen (MON), which are green liquids with high vaporpressures. These propellants with a lower liquid temperature range are usedin tactical missile systems.

• Dinitrogen pentoxide (N2O5) is not normally used as an oxidizer in liq-uid rocket engines because it is a solid at normal atmospheric pressureand temperature.

• Inhibited Red Fuming Nitric Acid (IRFNA) has a high density and a lowfreezing-point; it is a commonly available nitric acid oxidizer favored fortactical missiles. IRFNA is widely used in Scud-technology-based missilesystems.

• Chlorine trifluoride (ClF3) and chloryl (per-) fluoride (ClO3F) are thetwo most common halogen-based oxidizers. Because they are very toxicand energetic oxidizers, they are difficult to handle. Thus, they are rarelyused except for technology development. Other inter-halogen oxidizershave been developed and tested, but they are not used because of cost,handling, and safety considerations. For example, chlorine pentafluoride(ClF5) and fluorox (ClF3O) are difficult to make safely and are not avail-able. They were originally developed because fluorine/hydrazine is a veryhigh performing propellant combination, but the fluorine must be keptbelow its boiling point (–188°C) to keep it from boiling off, and is thusimpractical for use as an oxidizer for tactical missiles. The same is true forchlorine. Halogen-based oxidizers are unlikely to be encountered.

4-8 I T E M 4

Other Uses:

• N2O4 is commonly used in satellites and in the orbital maneuvering sys-

tem of the US space shuttle. A mixture of nitric oxide (NO2) and N2O4 is

the precursor for all nitric acid production and is used as a nitrating agent

for agricultural chemicals, plastics, paper, and rubber.

• N2O5 is used to make explosives and is a nitrating agent in organic chemistry.

• Concentrated nitric acid, the main constituent of IRFNA, is used to make

pharmaceuticals and explosives.

• Chlorine and fluorine have many commercial uses. Chlorine is used

widely to purify water, to disinfect or bleach materials, and to manufac-

ture many important compounds including chloroform and carbon tetra-

chloride. ClF3 is used in nuclear fuel reprocessing, and ClO3F is used as a

gaseous dielectric in transformers.

Appearance (as manufactured):*

• NO2 is a red-brown gas, and N2O4 is a red-brown liquid at room tem-

perature. Depending on temperature and pressure, NO2 and N2O4 form

equilibria at various percentages. MONs are mixtures of NO2 and N2O4,

and form green liquids with lower freezing points than N2O4, which

freezes at –11°C and boils at +21°C. The density of N2O4 is 1.43 g/ml.

• Red-fuming nitric acid (RFNA) is nearly anhydrous nitric acid that is

stabilized with high concentrations of added nitric oxides. In the United

States, about 15 percent NO2 is usually dissolved in the acid, but more

can be added to increase the liquid density. Maximum density nitric acid

(MDNA) is 56 percent HNO3 and 44 percent N2O4. Because nitric acid

is corrosive to most non-noble materials (materials that react chemically),

a small amount (approximately 0.75 percent) of hydrofluoric acid (HF)

is added to produce IRFNA. Stored in stainless steel or aluminum con-

tainers, HF forms protective fluorides, which reduce the rates of wall cor-

rosion. IRFNA freezes at approximately –65°C and boils at approxi-

mately +60°C. Its density at normal room temperature is about

1.55 g/ml, depending on the amount of N2O4 added.

• Fluorine is a pale yellow, highly corrosive, poisonous, gaseous, halogen

element. It is usually considered the most reactive of all the elements. Its

freezing point is –220°C, and its boiling point is –188°C, which makes it

a cryogenic liquid. Its specific gravity in liquid state is 1.108 g/ml at its

boiling point.

*Measurements are at standard temperature and pressure.

4-9I T E M 4

• Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas, highly irritating, and capable of com-bining with nearly all other elements. It is produced mainly by electroly-sis of sodium chloride. Its freezing point is –101°C; its boiling point is–35°C; and its specific gravity is 1.56 g/ml (at –34°C).

• Chlorine pentafluoride (ClF5), which boils at –14°C at one atmospherepressure, must be pressurized to maintain and ship in liquid form. Itsdensity is 1.78 g/ml at +25°C. Because chlorine trifluoride (ClF3) boilsat +12°C, it is easier to handle than ClF5, but it must still be pressurizedfor shipping. Bromine pentafluoride (BrF5) boils at +40°C, but othercharacteristics such as shock sensitivity, toxicity, corrosiveness, and lowerspecific impulse potential make it an impractical propellant.

• Nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) is a cryogenic oxidizer that boils at –130°C andhas a density of 1.55 g/ml at its normal boiling point. Nitrogen tetraflu-oride (N2F4) has a higher density and boiling point but is also cryogenic.

Appearance (as packaged):

• Nitric acids and NTO/N2O4 variants are usually stored in stainless steeltanks that have been specially prepared. Aluminum tanks and lines arealso compatible with nitric acid. Packages for shipping these chemicalsuse identifying words, warnings, labels, and symbols. MON must beshipped in pressurized containers due to its high vapor pressure and lowboiling point.

• IRFNA is usually stored and shipped in aluminum tanks that have beenspecially prepared. Stainless steel tanks and lines are also compatible.

• Exotic propellants such as chlorine and fluorine are cryogenic liquids andare extremely reactive and toxic. Accordingly, their shipping and handlingare tightly regulated. Ordinary metal containers cannot be used to con-tain them. Super-cooled and pressurized tanks are required to ship in liq-uid form. Oxygen difluoride (OF2) can be stored at low temperatures inglass-lined, stainless steel tanks that have been specially prepared.

Nature and Purpose: Solid oxidizers provide oxygen needed to burn solidrocket motor fuel. By carrying fuel and oxidizer together, the rocket doesnot depend on the atmosphere for oxygen. Nitro-amines are not oxidizers


•Brazil•China•France• India• Japan•Russia•United Kingdom•United States

Only Russia,Sweden, and theUnited States haveproduced ADN.

(2) Solid (a) Ammonium perchlorate; (b) Ammonium Dinitramide (ADN);(c) Nitro-amines (cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine (HMX),

cyclotetrimethylene-trinitramine (RDX)).

4-10 I T E M 4

per se, but high explosives added to propellants to increase their

performance.

Method of Operation: The solid oxidizer is mixed evenly with fuels and

cast into a rocket motor. The oxygen disassociates during the burn process

and becomes available to rapidly burn available fuel and, by generating gases

exhausted at very high speeds, produce thrust.

Typical Missile-Related Uses:

• Ammonium perchlorate (AP) is an oxidizing agent used by most modern

solid-propellant formulas. It accounts for 50 to 85 percent of the propel-

lant by weight, depending on the formulation of the propellant.

• ADN is an oxidizing agent for solid propellant. This material is used in a

manner similar to AP.

• HMX, commonly called Octogen, and RDX, commonly called Cyclonite,

are high-energy explosives often added to solid propellants to lower the

combustion temperature and reduce smoke. Usually less than 30 percent

of the propellant weight is HMX or RDX.

Other Uses:

• AP is used in explosives, pyrotechnics, and analytical chemistry, and as an

etching and engraving agent.

• ADN has no known commercial uses.

• HMX and RDX are used in warheads, military and civilian explosives, and

oil well pipe cutters.

Appearance (as manufactured):

• AP is a white or, depending on purity, off-white crystalline solid, similar

in appearance to common table salt. AP is shown on the right side of

Figure 4-2.

• ADN is a white, waxy, crystalline solid that may appear as thin platelets

or small round pills.

• HMX and RDX are white crystalline materials that resemble very fine

table salt. HMX is shown on the left side of Figure 4-2.


• AP is usually packaged and shipped in 30- or 55-gallon polyethylene-

lined drums with oxidizer or explosive symbol markings. Two different

types of AP containers and their markings are shown in Figure 4-3.

4-11I T E M 4

• ADN is packaged and shipped in a similar manner to AP.

• HMX and RDX are usually packaged and shipped either in water or alco-hol (because in dry form they are prone to explode) in 30- or 55-gallonpolyethylene-lined drums with oxidizer or explosive symbol markings.

Additional Information:

• AP is generally produced with an average particle size of 200 to 400 mi-crons (70 to 40 mesh). The density of AP is 1.95 g/cc, but the bulk den-sity is less and varies with particle size. AP decomposes violently before itmelts. The chemical formula of AP is NH4ClO4.

• ADN has a density of 1.75 g/cc and a reported melting point of 92 to95°C. The chemical formula for ADN is NH4N(NO2)2.

• HMX and RDX are generally produced with a particle size of 150 to 160microns (100-80 mesh). HMX has a density of 1.91 g/cc, a melting pointof 275°C, and a chemical formula of C4H8N8O8. RDX has a density of 1.81g/cc, a melting point of 204°C, and a chemical formula of C3H6N6O6.HMX and RDX also decompose violently at their melting points.

Nature and Purpose: These five polymers are chemicals used as a binderand fuel in solid rocket motor propellant. They are liquids that polymerizeduring motor manufacture to form the elastic matrix that holds the solidpropellant ingredients together in a rubber-like polymeric composite mate-rial. They also burn as fuels and contribute to overall thrust. GAP is the onlyenergetic polymer in this group. It provides energy as a result of its decom-position during the combustion process.

Method of Operation: Batch mixers (or, rarely, continuous mixers for verylarge scale production) are used to blend carefully controlled ratios of rocketmotor propellant ingredients into the polymeric substance. The viscous, wellblended material is then cast into a rocket motor case, in which it polymer-izes and adheres to either an interior liner or insulator inside the rocket mo-tor case. The result is a rocket motor fully loaded with solid propellant.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: These polymeric substances are used in theproduction of solid propellant for solid rocket motors and hybrid rocket mo-


•China•France• India• Japan•Russia•United States

(e) Polymeric Substances(1) Carboxyl-terminated polybutadiene (CTPB);(2) Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB);(3) Glycidyl azide polymer (GAP);(4) Polybutadiene-acrylic acid (PBAA);(5) Polybutadiene-acrylic acid-acrylonitrile (PBAN).

4-12 I T E M 4

tors. They are also used in the production of smaller solid rocket motors used

to launch UAVs and cruise missiles. These binding ingredients greatly affect

motor performance, aging, storability, propellant processing, and reliability.

Although all these materials are of concern as potential solid propellant

binders, HTPB is the preferred binder. At present, no fielded ballistic mis-

sile systems use GAP or PBAA. CTPB and PBAN have largely supplanted

PBAA because of their superior mechanical and aging characteristics.

Other Uses: PBAN has no commercial uses. HTPB has extensive uses in

asphalt and electronics, and as a sealant.

Appearance (as manufactured): These five polymeric materials are clear,

colorless, viscous liquids. Antioxidants are added at the level of one percent

or less at the time of manufacture in order to improve shelf life; they impart

a color to the materials, which may range from light yellow to dark brown.

This color depends on the type and amount of antioxidant used.

The viscosity of these five liquids ranges from that of light syrup to that of

heavy molasses. Except for GAP, which is nearly odorless and has a specific

density of 1.3, the polybutadiene-based polymers have a very distinctive

petroleum-like odor and densities slightly less than that of water (0.91

to 0.94).

Appearance (as packaged): These liquids are usually shipped in 55-gallon

steel drums. The interiors of the drums are usually coated with an epoxy

paint or other material to prevent rusting. If the liquids are shipped in stain-

less steel drums, the coating is not necessary. Smaller or larger containers

may be used, depending on the quantity being shipped; tank-cars or tank-

trucks may be used to ship very large quantities. An example of PBAN in its

shipping drum is presented in Figure 4-4.

Figure 4-4: Top view of PBAN in a shipping drum.

Photo Credit: The Charles Stark Draper Laboratories

4-13I T E M 4

Nature and Purpose: Propellant bonding agents are used to improve thebond or adhesion between the binder and the oxidizer, typically AP. Thisprocess vastly improves the physical properties of the propellant by increas-ing its capability to withstand stress and strain. Bonding agents are normallyused only with HTPB propellants. Some bonding agents are used as curingagents or crosslinkers with CTPB or PBAN propellants.

Method of Operation: Bonding agents are added to the propellant duringthe mixing operation at levels usually less than 0.3 percent. The bonding re-acts with the AP to produce a very thin polymeric coating on the surface ofthe AP particle. This polymeric coating acts as an adhesive between the APand the HTPB binder. The molecular structure stays much the same.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Propellant bonding agents are used to poly-merize propellants (bond the oxidizer) for solid rocket motors. They arealso used in smaller rocket motors that launch UAVs, including cruise mis-siles. MAPO is a curing agent for carboxy-terminated polybutadiene(CTPB) prepolymers and a bonding agent for HTPB prepolymers. BITA isa bonding agent with HTPB. Tepan is a bonding agent with HTPB.Polyfunctional aziridene amides (PAAs) are bonding agents with HTPB andthickeners for CTPB and PBAN.

Other Uses: MAPO is used only in solid rocket propellants. BITA is used withHTPB in the commercial sector, especially in electronics, as a sealant, and as acuring agent for CTPB prepolymers. Tepanol and Tepan are used only in solidrocket propellants. PAAs are used in adhesives in the commercial sector.

Appearance (as manufactured): MAPO is a slightly viscous amber liquid. Ithas a very distinctive acrid odor. It polymerizes violently if it comes into con-tact with acids and AP. Its boiling point is 1,200°C at 0.004 bar; its densityis 1.08 g/cc; and its chemical formula is C9H18N3OP. BITA is a light yellow,viscous liquid; when cooled below 160°C, BITA is a pale, off-white, waxysolid. BITA has no sharply defined melting point, a density of 1.00 g/cc, and


MAPO•France• India• Japan•Russia•United States

BITA•United States

Tepanol•United States

Tepan•United States

PAAs•United States

The United Statesis the mainproducer andsupplier of thesematerials, butsome Europeanand Asiancountries mayhave productionlicenses, andproduction ofthese materialsmay be morewidespreadbecause thecomposition ofthese materials isopen-sourceinformation andproductionmethods are notdifficult toduplicate.

(f) Other Propellant Additives and Agents(1) Bonding Agents

(a) Tris (1-(2-methyl)) aziridinyl phosphine oxide (MAPO);(b) Trimesoyl-1-(2-ethyl) aziridene (HX-868, BITA);(c) “Tepanol” (HX-878), reaction product of tetraethylenepen-

tamine, acrylonitrile and glycidol;(d) “Tepan” (HX-879), reaction product of tetraethylenepenta-

mine and acrylonitrile;(e) Polyfunctional aziridene amides with isophthalic, trimesic,

isocyanuric, or trimethyladipic backbone and also having a2-methyl or 2-ethyl aziridene group (HX-752, HX-874 andHX-877).


For Catocene•United States

For Ferrocenederivatives•China•France•Germany•Japan•Switzerland•United Kingdom•United States

For Boranederivatives•France•Russia•United Kingdom•United States

For Butacene•France


•France• Japan•Switzerland•United States

4-14 I T E M 4

a chemical formula of C21H27N3O3. Tepanol is a dark yellow, viscous liquid.It has a very strong odor like that of ammonia. Tepan is much less viscousthan Tepanol but identical to it in all other respects including a very strongodor like that of ammonia. PAAs are similar to BITA.

Appearance (as packaged): MAPO is packaged and shipped in standard,1- to 55-gallon steel cans or drums. BITA is packaged in 1-gallon steel cans,which are usually shipped in insulated containers packed with dry ice andstored at 0°C or less in order to maintain its useful shelf life. Tepanol,Tepan, and PAA shipping and storage conditions are identical to BITA.

Nature and Purpose: Curing agents and catalysts are used to polymerize solidrocket motors; that is, they cause the viscous mixture of liquid polymeric sub-stance and other solid propellant ingredients to solidify into a rubbery com-posite, which adheres to the inner lining or insulator inside the motor case.

Method of Operation: Triphenyl bismuth (TPB) is added in relatively smallquantities to HTPB to trigger a relatively mild chemical reaction known aspolymerization. The molecular structure of HTPB stays much the same, butthe material converts from liquid to solid form due to molecular cross-linking.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: TPB is used as a cure catalyst in HTPB solidrocket propellants.

Other Uses: TPB is used in some plastics.

Appearance (as manufactured): TPB is a white to light tan crystallinepowder. TPB has a density of 1.7 g/cc, a melting point of 78°C, and thechemical formula C18H15Bi. A sample of TPB is shown in the lower left ofFigure 4-2.

Appearance (as packaged): TPB is packed in brown glass containers be-cause of its sensitivity to light. These containers range in capacity from a fewgrams to 5 kg. When shipped in larger quantities, TPB may be packed inpolyethylene bags inside fiber packs or cardboard cartons.

(2) Curing Agents and Catalysts(a) Triphenyl Bismuth (TPB);

(3) Burning Rate Modifiers(a) Catocene;(b) N-butyl-ferrocene;(c) Butacene;(d) Other ferrocene derivatives;(e) Carboranes, decarboranes, pentaboranes and derivatives

thereof;

4-15I T E M 4

Nature and Purpose: Burning rate modifiers are chemical additives to solidrocket propellant, which alter the rate at which the fuel burns. The purposeis to tailor the rocket motor burn time to meet requirements.

Method of Operation: Burning rate modifiers are blended in carefully con-trolled quantities into rocket motor propellant during production.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: They are added to propellant to modify burnrates and allow designers to tailor the thrust profile to meet requirements.

Other Uses: Some borane derivatives have commercial uses as catalysts inolefin polymerization and as agents in rubber vulcanization.


• Catocene is a slightly viscous, dark red liquid but appears yellow in a thinfilm or as a yellow stain on white cloth or paper. It is a mixture of sixisomers, all with high boiling temperatures. It is insoluble in water butsoluble in most organic solvents. It has a density of 1.145 g/cc, slightlygreater than that of water. Catocene has the chemical formula C27H32Fe2.Catocene, the commercial tradename for 2,2′-bis (ethylferrocenyl) pro-pane, is probably the most widely used ferrocene in the propellantindustry. All ferrocene derivatives contain iron and are added to propel-lants containing AP.

• N-butyl ferrocene and other ferrocene derivatives are similar in appear-ance to catocene. Ferrocenes have fewer applications to Category I mis-siles than to smaller tactical missiles. They increase propellant sensitivityto accidental ignition by friction and electrostatic discharge.

• Butacene is unique as it is both an HTPB binder and a burn rate modi-fier. It is a very high-viscosity liquid, which resembles a very heavy, darkcorn syrup or molasses.

• Carboranes, decarboranes, pentaboranes, and their derivatives are clear,colorless liquids with no distinct odor. The most common carborane de-rivatives used in solid propellants are n-hexyl carborane and carboranyl-methyl propionate. Carboranes may cause nerve damage, according to afew studies. Alkali metal salts of decarborances and pentaboranes arewhite powders. Most borane derivatives are less dense than water and aretoxic. Borane derivatives are used to produce extremely high burn ratesin solid propellants. Borane derivatives are extremely expensive to pro-duce, with costs ranging from $2,200 to $11,000 per kg. They are rarelyused in ballistic missile propellants.

Appearance (as packaged): All of these materials are shipped in steel con-tainers ranging in capacity from 1 to 55 gal.


2-NDPA•France• Japan•Switzerland•United Kingdom•United States

MNA•Switzerland•United Kingdom•United States


Any country canacquire thecapability toproduce theseproducts. Anycountry thathas set up anitration plant,such as for theproduction ofexplosives, couldproduce a varietyof these nitrateesters.

4-16 I T E M 4

Nature and Purpose: These nitrate esters, also known as nitrated plasticiz-ers, are additives to solid rocket propellants used to increase their burn rate.

Method of Operation: Nitrate esters and nitrated plasticizers are liquid ex-plosives, which contain enough oxygen to support their own combustion.They are generally added to high performance propellants containing HMXand aluminum to achieve higher performance.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Nitrate esters and nitrated plasticizers areadded to double-base propellants to increase their propulsive energy.Because plasticizers do not react with the cure agents and remain liquid atlow temperatures, they make solid propellants less likely to crack or shrinkin cold temperatures.

Other Uses: Nitrate esters are used as components of military and com-mercial explosives.

Appearance (as manufactured): Nitrate esters are dense, oily liquids rang-ing in color from clear to slightly yellow.

Appearance (as packaged): Nitrate esters are shipped in 5 to 55 gallonsteel drums marked with labels indicating explosives. Except for BTTN,these nitrate esters are shipped undiluted unless the end-user requests thatthey be shipped diluted with a solvent. Because of its sensitivity to shock,BTTN is shipped diluted with either methylene chloride or acetone. Whendiluted with methylene chloride, BTTN has a sweet odor like that of chlo-roform. When diluted with acetone, it has an odor like that of nail polish.When stabilizers are added (usually at the 1.0% level) the nitrate ester ac-quires a deep red color.

Nature and Purpose: 2-nitrodiphenylamine (2-NDPA) and N-methyl-p-nitroaniline (MNA) are additives that inhibit or reduce decomposition ofrocket fuels containing nitrate esters or nitrocellulose. These types of pro-pellants are referred to as double-base, composite-modified double-base, orcross-linked double-base propellants.

(4) Nitrate Esters and Nitrated Plasticizers(a) Triethylene glycol dinitrate (TEGDN);(b) Trimethylolethane trinitrate (TMETN);(c) 1,2,4-Butanetriol trinitrate (BTTN);(d) Diethylene glycol dinitrate (DEGDN);

(5) Stabilizers, as follows(a) 2-Nitrodiphenylamine; (b) N-methyl-p-nitroaniline

4-17I T E M 4

Method of Operation: These stabilizers alter the chemical environmentwithin the propellant to reduce decomposition of its constituents.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: These stabilizers make composite propel-lants less subject to the effects of aging. As a result, they increase the effec-tive lifetime of solid propellant missiles.

Other Uses: 2-NDPA is used in explosives as a nitroglycerin stabilizer. It isused widely throughout the ammunition industry. MNA has no knowncommercial uses.


• In its pure state, 2-NDPA is a bright yellow, crystalline solid with a den-sity of 1.15 g/cc and a melting point of 74 to 76°C. The chemical for-mula for 2-NDPA is C12H10N2O2. When exposed to light, 2-NDPA turnsto a dark orange color. A sample of 2-NDPA that has been exposed tolight is shown in the lower right of Figure 4-2.

• MNA is also a bright yellow, crystalline solid with a density of 1.20 g/ccand a melting point of 152–154°C. The chemical formula for MNA isC7H8N2O2. A sample of MNA is shown in the upper left of Figure 4-2.

Appearance (as packaged): When shipped in small quantities, 2-NDPAand MNA are packaged in brown glass containers because they are sensitiveto light. When shipped in larger quantities, they are packaged in polyethyl-ene bags and placed inside fiberpack or cardboard containers.

ITEM 5Propellant Production

5-1I T E M 5

Nature and Purpose: Individual components of liquid propellant produc-

tion equipment are common to any petroleum distillation facility or large

chemical plant. Typical components include reactor tanks, condensers, re-

covery columns, heaters, evaporators, filter assemblies, decanters, chillers,

gas separators, and centrifugal pumps. None of these components by them-

selves is specially designed for use in making liquid propellants. However,

when combined into a propellant production facility, such a facility is gen-

erally optimized for the production of a particular propellant and ill suited

for making anything else.

The technologies for making liquid propellants are generally well known, al-

though various companies may have proprietary procedures for maximizing

yield, minimizing cost, or finding alternative uses for byproducts.

Exceptions to this general rule include chlorine pentafluoride (ClF5) and

fluorox (ClF3O), the manufacturing methods of which are closely held.

Acceptance testing of liquid propellants requires analytical equipment com-

mon to most chemical quality control labs, including equipment such as gas

chromatographs, atomic absorption spectrometers, infrared spectrometers,

and bomb calorimeters. This equipment generally can be used without

modification to analyze liquid rocket propellants for acceptance.

Method of Operation: Specific production methods depend on the pro-

pellant being manufactured. Many of the constituents used in propellants

are commonly produced for commercial purposes but require additional

processing to purify, stabilize, inhibit, or blend to achieve certain properties.

For example, sulfuric acid or magnesium carbonate is used to purify nitric

acid. Commercial nitric acid, usually combined with water as hydrate, con-

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Production technology, or “production equipment” (including its spe-cially designed components) for:(a) Production, handling or acceptance testing of liquid propellants or

propellant constituents described in Item 4.

5-2 I T E M 5

tains only 55 to 70 percent acid. Chemical processing is needed to break thehydrates to produce 97 to 99 percent pure, anhydrous (waterless) nitricacid. To form Inhibited Red Fuming Nitric Acid (IRFNA), N2O4 is addedto the concentrated nitric acid to stabilize it against rapid decomposition,and trace amounts of hydrogen fluoride (HF) are added to reduce corro-sion of containers.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Liquid propellant production and accep-tance testing equipment are required to develop an indigenous capability tomake propellants.

Other Uses: The equipment and technologies are in common use andwidely known in the petroleum and chemical production industries.

Appearance (as manufactured): In general, complete liquid propellantmanufacturing facilities are not bought and transferred in one piece; theyare assembled from many common pieces of chemical and industrial processequipment. Unless a turnkey plant is shipped, the most likely encountereditems are probably the plans, drawings, calculations, and equipment lists as-sociated with a plant design. There is even commercially available softwarethat assists chemical engineers in designing such facilities.

Appearance (as packaged): The size of liquid propellant manufacturingequipment dictates the packaging. Smaller machines are crated in shock-absorbing containers or attached to cushioned pallets isolated from otherpackages. Larger machines are disassembled for shipping and reassembledonsite, and their components are packaged separately in crates or pallets.

Nature and Purpose: The production equipment and infrastructure neces-sary to produce solid rocket propellant are complex and specialized.Facilities and equipment are necessary for preparing the various propellantingredients, mixing and handling the propellant, casting and curing the pro-pellant inside the motor case, and other specialized operations such as press-ing, machining, extruding, and acceptance testing.

Method of Operation: Solid propellant is produced by one of twoprocesses, either batch mixing or continuous mixing. Most missile programsuse the batch process to make solid rocket motor propellant. After receiptand acceptance testing of the individual ingredients, ammonium perchlorate(AP) and others are usually ground in a mill to obtain the required particlesize. All ingredients, including the binder, AP, metal powder, stabilizers,

(b) Production, handling, mixing, curing, casting, pressing, machining,extruding or acceptance testing of solid propellants or propellantconstituents described in Item 4 other than those described in 5(c).

5-3I T E M 5

curing agents, and burn-rate modifiers, are mixed inlarge mixers to form a vis-cous slurry. The propellantslurry is poured or cast intothe rocket motor case, inwhich a mandrel creates ahollow chamber runningdown the center of the mo-tor. The loaded motor caseis placed in a large oven tocure the propellant. Duringcuring, the slurry is trans-formed into a hard rubberymaterial, or propellantgrain. The rocket motorwith the cured propellant isthen cooled, the mandrelremoved, and any finaltrimming or machining operations done. Finished motors are usually X-rayed to ensure that the propellant grain is homogeneous, bonded every-where to the case, and free of cracks.

In continuous mixing, the same propellant ingredients are continuouslymeasured into a mixing chamber, mixed, and continuously discharged intothe motor or other container until the required amount of propellant hasbeen obtained. This type of mixing is difficult because it is hard to preciselymeasure small amounts of some ingredients such as curing agents requiredfor some propellants. Continuous mixing is not, therefore, used to any largeextent.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Better solid propellants improve missilerange and payload capability. Solid propellant production equipment and ac-ceptance testing equipment are required for a nation to develop an indige-nous capability to produce propellants for rocket-motor-powered missiles.

Other Uses: N/A.

Appearance (as manufactured): Specialized devices are used to cast pro-pellant by creating a vacuum, which removes air from the propellant as thepropellant is poured into the rocket motor case. The size of these devicesvaries with the size of the rocket motors, but principles of operation are thesame. Cast-cure tooling for small tactical motors is shown in Figure 5-1. Theequipment and process for a small motor are shown in Figure 5-2. Themixed propellant is poured from the mix bowl into a large casting funnel,which is attached to the rocket motor. A large valve in the neck of the cast-ing funnel isolates the motor in the vacuum from ambient atmospheric con-

Figure 5-1:Tactical motors with

cast-cure toolingattached.

Photo Credit: B

ritish Aerospace Limited

5-4 I T E M 5

ditions. Once the casting funnel is full of propellant, the valve is opened

slowly to allow the propellant to flow into the rocket motor case. Very large

motors are sometimes cast in a cast/cure pit, which is an underground con-

crete structure lined with heating coils. The entire pit is evacuated before

casting operations start. A belowground casting/curing pit in operation is

shown in Figure 5-3. As with other specialized propellant equipment, the

casting equipment is generally constructed on-site; its size depends on the

size of the motor and the manner in which the casting operation is done.

Curing equipment ranges in kind and size from large, electrically or steam-

heated ovens to large, heated buildings. This equipment is not particularly

specialized because the process is a simple one, requiring only that motor

temperature be raised for a given amount of time. Large cast/cure pits are

permanent, on-site facilities.

The equipment used for acceptance testing of a batch of propellant is iden-

tical to the equipment found in an analytical chemistry or a materials testing

laboratory. This equipment is used to perform chemical testing to verify the

composition; to burn small amounts of propellant or test subscale motors to

Figure 5-2: Slurry cast double-base mixing equipmentfor a small motor.

Figure 5-3: A propellant casting pit, with a motor casebelowground.

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verify burning rate; and to conduct ten-sile testing to ensure that the propellanthas the physical properties required bythe rocket motor design.

Machining of solid propellant surfacesis generally done by large cutting ma-chines specially modified to accommo-date the safety hazards associated withsolid propellants. Many of these typesof machines are built specifically for aparticular rocket motor.

Solid propellant grains for the largerocket motors of interest are usually toolarge to be directly handled by an ex-truder. However, some propellants ofMTCR interest are extruded in a pre-liminary processing step. Extrusion isgenerally limited to propellant grainsless than 0.3 m in diameter and has more application to tactical air-to-air,surface-to-air, and air-to-surface missiles. Such an extruder producing arelatively small grain is shown in Figure 5-4.

Appearance (as packaged): The size of solid propellant production equip-ment dictates their packaging. Smaller machines are crated in shock-absorbing containers or attached to cushioned pallets. Larger machines aredisassembled for shipping and reassembled onsite. Their components arepackaged separately in crates or on pallets.

Figure 5-4: A solid propellant extruder and grain.

Photo Credit: B

ritish Aerospace Limited

(c) Equipment as follows:(1) Batch mixers with the provision for mixing under vacuum in the

range of zero to 13.326 kPa and with temperature control capa-bility of the mixing chamber and having;(i) A total volumetric capacity of 110 litres or more; and(ii) At least one mixing/kneading shaft mounted off centre;

(2) Continuous mixers with provision for mixing under vacuum inthe range of zero to 13.326 kPa and with temperature controlcapability of the mixing chamber and having;(i) Two or more mixing/kneading shafts; and(ii) Capability to open the mixing chamber;

Notes to Item 5:(1) The only batch mixers, continuous mixers usable for solid propellants

or propellants constituents in Item 4, and fluid energy mills specifiedin Item 5, are those specified in 5(c).

5-6 I T E M 5

Nature and Purpose: Batchmixers are powerful mixingmachines for batch quanti-ties of very viscous material.They are derived from ma-chines used to mix breaddough. Their purpose is tomix liquids and powders ofdiffering densities into a uni-form blend.

Continuous mixers are pow-erful mixing machines thatoperate in a flow throughmanner. They mix largerquantities than batch mixersfor high volume production.

Method of Operation:Batch mixers operate muchlike a household electricmixer. The bowl holds the

ingredients that may be added in sequence while the turning blades mix every-thing together. Temperature control and vacuum are maintained by surround-ing the bowl with a water jacket and covering the bowl with a sealed lid.

Continuous mixers gradually feed all the ingredients simultaneously in theircorrect proportions through the mix region. The mixing/kneading shaftsthoroughly mix the continuous flow of liquids and powders, and the uniformblend is gradually discharged out the large pipe in a steady viscous stream.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Batch and continuous mixers are used to mixprecise quantities of liquid propellant constituents and powdered propellantconstituents into a very unifrom blend. This mixture will burn violently if ig-nited so safety procedures are critical. The blend produced is later cast andcured in another process to create a rubbery composite material that serves asthe propellant in a solid rocket motor.

Other Uses: Batch and continuous mixers may be used whenever the pro-duction of a viscous blend is required. However, most commerical applicationswill not require the temperature control and vacuum capabilities specified inItem 5(c).

Appearance (as manufactured): The most distinctive components of abatch mixer are the mixing bowl and the mix blade assembly. The mixingbowls are typically 0.75 to 1.5 m deep and 1 to 2 m in diameter, as shownin Figure 5-5, but may be significantly larger for mixers greater than 450gallons (1,700 l). They are double-wall constructed; the inner wall is made

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Figure 5-5: A 420-gallon propellant mixing bowl.

5-7I T E M 5

of highly polished stainless steel, and theouter wall is generally made of cold-rolledsteel, sometimes painted. The space betweenthe walls is used for a hot/cold water heat-ing/cooling jacket. The outer wall has twovalves for the connection of inlet/outlet wa-ter hoses, as shown in Figure 5-5. The bowlis generally welded to a thick steel rectangu-lar plate with wheels at each corner. Thewheels may have grooves so that the bowl as-sembly can be placed on rails for easiermovement. Sometimes the upper rim of thebowl is a machined flat surface with a largegroove to accommodate an O-ring (gasket);other times the mixer head is provided withone or more such grooves. The purpose ofthe O-ring is to provide a seal while the mix-ing operation is under vacuum. The blade as-sembly consists of two or three large blades,also made of highly polished stainless steel.Most assemblies use twisted-paddle blades,and one of the blades has an opening, asshown in Figure 5-6. Other assemblies usecork-screw-shaped blades. Although it is notevident in the shipping configuration, theblade assembly operates in a “planetary”manner; that is, the central blade rotates in a fixed position while the otherone or two blades rotate about their own axes as well as rotating about thecentral fixed blade. The remaining mixer components include an electricmotor, gear assembly, mixer head, and supporting structure.

Appearance (as packaged): Mixers may be shipped as complete units or ascomponents. As precision-machined devices, mixer blades are packaged toprotect them from damage and the elements. They are likely to be incor-porated into the mixer head and frame assembly, and securely cradled inshock isolation material blocking during shipping. Mixing bowls are large,heavy pieces of equipment also likely to be shipped in large, strong, woodencrates. They are securely attached to the crates to avoid damage. Crates tendto lack any distinctive features or markings.

Nature and Purpose: Fluid energy mills use high-pressure air to cause par-ticles to rub against one another and thereby grind them down to very smallparticle sizes, generally 20 microns or less. Particle sizes in this range are noteasily obtained by other grinding means such as hammer mills. Fluid energy


•China•France•Germany•United Kingdom•United States

(3) Fluid energy mills usable for grinding or milling substances spec-ified in Item 4;

Figure 5-6: Open-blade configuration of a batch mixer.

Photo Credit: Thiokol C

orp.

mills are also much safer for grinding explosive materials such as Octogen(HMX) and Cyclonite (RDX).

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Fluid energy mills produce fine-grained AP,HMX, or RDX powders used as oxidizers or burn-rate modifiers for solidrocket fuel.

Other Uses: Fluid energy mills are also used in food, mining, and paintpigment industries.

Appearance (as manufactured): Fluid energy mills are extremely simpledevices with no moving parts. Most are flat, cylindrical devices made ofstainless steel and measuring 7 to 10 cm in height and 7 to 40 cm in diam-eter. They have an inlet and outlet port for the attachment of ancillaryequipment. The interior of the mill is a tubular spiral that the material to beground is forced through with high-pressure air. Particle size is controlledby the rate at which the material to be ground is fed in, and the air pressureor airflow rate. Three such mills are shown in Figure 5-7.

Appearance (as packaged): Fluid energy mills are generally shipped inwooden crates with foam or packing material used to protect them duringshipment. The crates are not distinctive.

Method of Operation: The most common approach for producing finemetal powders for use as constituents in missile propellants is the moltenmetal process using equipment specified in Item 5(c)(4)(iii) above. Thisprocess scales well and can be used to make large amounts of powderedmetal cost effectively. Both the plasma generator and electroburst methodsare relatively new in the application and are not in widespread use on pro-duction programs. They are currently considered laboratory or R&Dprocesses when compared to the molten metal process.

5-8 I T E M 5

(4) Metal powder “production equipment” usable for the “produc-tion,” in a controlled environment, of spherical or atomised ma-terials specified in 4(b) (3) or 4(b) (4) including:(i) Plasma generators (high frequency arc-jet) usable for ob-

taining sputtered or spherical metallic powders with organi-zation of the process in an argon-water environment;

(ii) Electroburst equipment usable for obtaining sputtered orspherical metallic powders with organization of the processin an argon-water environment;

(iii) Equipment usable for the “production” of spherical alu-minum powders by powdering a melt in an inert medium(e.g., nitrogen).

Notes to Item 5:(2) Forms of metal powder “production equipment” not specified in 5(c)

(4) are to be evaluated in accordance with 5(b).

5-9I T E M 5

Figure 5-7: Three examples of fluid energy mills showing their various configurations.

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5-10 I T E M 5

In the molten metal process, molten metal is sprayed into the top of a largetank with an inert or controlled atmosphere. This atmosphere may be ni-trogen, argon, or a mixture of both gases. A small controlled amount ofoxygen is added to the atmosphere inside the tank when a thin oxide coat-ing is desired on the metal powder. The molten metal spray causes smalldroplets to form, cool, and solidify into spherical particles of powder thatfall to the bottom of the tank. The particle size of the metal powder is con-trolled by the size of the spray orifice.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Atomized and spherical metallic powderproduction equipment is used to produce uniform, fine-grained metal pow-ders used as a constituent in solid and liquid rocket fuel. Metallic powder isused to enhance the performance characteristics of the motor. Powderedmetals are crucial in modern composite solid propellant motors. Atomizedand spherical metallic powders in missile propellant increase missile rangeand payload capability.

Other Uses: Atomized and spherical metallic powder production equip-ment may be used to produce metal powders for many commercial applica-tions, from pigments in metallic paints to fillers in structural adhesives.

Appearance (as manufactured): Equipment to produce atomized, spheri-cal metal powder via the method described above is readily assembled fromcommon equipment. The equipment includes a large tank into which theliquid metal is sprayed; a pump attached to the tank to remove the air; a fill-ing system for the inert gas (e.g., tanks and a valve); a heater in which themetal is melted; and a sprayer-and-nozzle assembly that injects the metalinto the tank.

Appearance (as packaged): An atomized-metal maker is not shipped as asingle unit. Instead, its components are disassembled, packaged, andshipped like most industrial equipment. Smaller pieces are boxed or cratedand secured to a pallet. The tank is boxed to protect it from denting. Spraynozzles are packaged separately in protected boxes.

ITEM 6Composite Production

6-1I T E M 6

Nature and Purpose: Filament winding machines lay strong fibers coated

with an epoxy or polyester resin onto rotating mandrels in prescribed pat-

terns to create high strength-to-weight ratio composite parts. The winding

machines look and operate like a lathe. After the winding operation is com-

pleted, the part requires autoclave and hydroclave curing.

Method of Operation: First, a mandrel is built to form the proper inner di-

mensions required by the part to be created. The mandrel is mounted on the

filament winding machine and rotated. As it spins, it draws continuous fiber

from supply spools through an epoxy or polyester resin bath and onto the

outer surface of the mandrel. After winding, the mandrel and the part built

up on it are removed from the machine, and the part is allowed to cure be-

fore the mandrel is removed in one of a variety of ways. Common types of

mandrels include water-soluble spider/plaster mandrels; and segmented, col-

lapsible mandrels. Large motor cases for solid rocket motors are usually man-

ufactured on water-soluble sand mandrels. Nonremovable liners are some-

times also used. For example, metal-lined pressure vessels are made by using

a metal liner as the mandrel, which is simply left inside the wound case.


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CompositeProduction

Equipment, “technical-data” and procedures for the production of struc-tural composites usable in the systems in Item 1 as follows and speciallydesigned components, and accessories and specially designed softwaretherefor: (a) Filament winding machines of which the motions for positioning,

wrapping and winding fibres can be coordinated and programmed inthree or more axes, designed to fabricate composite structures orlaminates from fibrous or filamentary materials, and coordinating andprogramming controls;

Note to Item 6:(1) Examples of components and accessories for the machines covered by

this entry are: moulds, mandrels, dies, fixtures and tooling for thepreform pressing, curing, casting, sintering or bonding of compositestructures, laminates and manufactures thereof.

6-2 I T E M 6

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Filamentwinding machines are used to make rocketmotor cases, propellant tanks, pressure ves-sels, and payload shrouds. The highstrength and low weight of the resultingstructures make increased missile rangesand payload rates possible.

Other Uses: Filament winding machinesare used to produce aircraft parts such astail stabilizers, parts of wings, and the fuse-lage. They can be used to make liquid nat-ural gas tanks, hot water tanks, compressednatural gas tanks, golf club shafts, tennisracquets, and fishing rods.

Appearance (as manufactured): The size of filament winding machinesvaries with the size of the part to be made. Filament winders used to man-ufacture parts 10 cm in diameter measure about 1 × 2 × 7 m and can fit ona tabletop, as shown in Figure 6-1. Winders for large components such as

large rocket motor seg-ments (approximately 3 mdiameter and 8 m inlength) are about 5 × 5 ×13 m and weigh severaltons, as shown inFigure 6-2; another viewof the same machine,Figure 6-3, shows themultiple spools of fiber.Most older filamentwinding machines devel-oped during the late1950s are gear-driven, andsettings are made by hand.Most newer winding ma-chines are numericallycontrolled and can windcomplex shapes to meetspecial requirements.

Appearance (as packaged): The size of filament winding machines dictatestheir packaging. Smaller machines are crated in shock-absorbing containersor attached to cushioned pallets isolated from other packages. Larger ma-chines are disassembled for shipping and reassembled onsite, and theircomponents are packaged separately in crates or on pallets.

Figure 6-1:Tabletop filamentwinding machine.

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Figure 6-2:A large multi spindlefilament windingmachine.

Photo Credit: Thiokol Corp.

6-3I T E M 6

Nature and Purpose: Tape-laying machines resemble filament windingmachines but are used in heavier applications that have sufficiently gradualcontours or angles to allow the use of thick or wide tapes. The purpose ofusing a tape-laying machine instead of a filament winding machine is to re-duce the number of revolutions of the mandrel needed to wind the partproduced. This speeds up production and lowers cost.

Method of Operation: Tape-layingmachines operate much like filamentwinding machines. The head on tape-laying machines can handle tape ofvarious widths. Structures with littlecurvature use tapes with larger widths(up to about 30 cm). Structures withmoderate to large curvature use tapesin smaller widths or apply them onthe bias with respect to the principaldirection of curvature.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Tape-laying machines are used to makereentry vehicle heat shields, exit noz-zles, igniters, and other parts exposedto high temperatures.

Other Uses: Tape-laying machinescan be used to make many of theitems made by filament winding machines, but they are most advanta-geously used to produce items that are largely cylindrical in shape. Examplesare certain aircraft parts, tubes for bicycle frames, and water heaters. Theyare also used to wrap columns for bridge supports, containers, and pipes.They are extensively used to wrap high-temperature, down-hole pipe in oil-drilling operations.

Appearance (as manufactured): The size of tape-laying machines varieswith the size of the required parts. Machines are either operator assisted ornumerically controlled (NC). NC machines have a keyboard to input datafor the desired composite lay-ups. The flatbed, which is the dominant fea-ture of the machine, measures 1 to 2 m in length for the manufacture ofsmall parts and 10 m for very large parts. The weight of large machines witha steel table and gantry could be 1000 to 2000 metric tons. Examples oftwo tape-laying machines are presented in Figures 6-4 and 6-5.


•France•Germany•Italy• Japan•Netherlands•Russia•United States

(b) Tape-laying machines of which the motions for positioning and lay-ing tape and sheets can be coordinated and programmed in two ormore axes, designed for the manufacture of composite airframes andmissile structures;

Figure 6-3:The filament winding

machine with themultiple spools offiber on the right.

Photo Credit: Thiokol Corp.

6-4 I T E M 6

Appearance (as packaged): The packaging of tape-laying machines dependson their size. Smaller machines can be completely encased in packing crates.Larger machines are disassembled for shipping and reassembled onsite. Theircomponents are packaged separately in crates or on pallets. Very large flatbedtables can also be disassembled for shipment. All packaging is suitably pro-tected for shock and vibration during transportation and handling.

Figure 6-4:A tape windingmachine thatresembles alathe.

Figure 6-5:A modern,multi-axisnumericallycontrolled tapelaying machine.

6-5I T E M 6

Nature and Purpose: Multi-directional, multi-dimensional weaving ma-

chines are used to interlink fibers to make complex composite structures.

Braiding machines provide a general method of producing multi-directional

material preforms. The purpose is to systematically lay down fibers along an-

ticipated lines of stress in complex preform configurations and thereby make

the parts stronger and lighter than otherwise possible.

Method of Operation: In one system, a weaving mandrel is first installed

onto the machine. As the mandrel assembly rotates, circumferential fibers

are continuously laid down at the weaving site by a tubular fiber delivery

system, which includes fiber-tensioning devices and missing-fiber sensors.

At each pie-shaped corridor formed by the weaving network, a radial knit-

ting needle traverses the corridor, captures a radial fiber at the inside of the

port, and returns to the outside of the port, where it makes a locking stitch

that prevents movement of the radial fiber during subsequent operations.

This process is continued and completed by final lacing.

Braiding machines intertwine two or more systems of fibers in the bias di-

rection to form an integrated structure instead of lacing them only in a lon-

gitudinal direction as in weaving. Thus, braided material differs from woven

and knitted fabrics in the method by which fiber is introduced into the fab-

ric and in the manner by which the fibers are interlaced.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Multi-directional, multi-dimensional weaving

machines are used to make critical missile parts such as reentry vehicle nose

tips and rocket nozzles that are exposed to high temperatures and stress.

Other Uses: Weaving machines are used to make a broad range of complex

composite parts such as aircraft propellers, windmill spars, skis, utility poles,

and sporting goods.

Appearance (as manufactured): A weaving machine has a work area on a

rotating table with a network of rods penetrating pierced plates around

which the fiber is woven. The work area is surrounded by spooled fiber dis-

pensers and by weaving and lacing needles. The drive motors, cams, and

push rods that do the weaving are also mounted on the main frame of the

machine.

Weaving machines used to make small parts might measure 2 m in length

and 1 m in width. Those used to make large parts might be 10 m long if

arranged horizontally or 10 m high if arranged vertically.


•France•Germany•Japan•Netherlands•United States

Textile machinery notcontrolled and readilymodified for low-enduse can be purchasedin many countries.

(c) Multi-directional, multi-dimensional weaving machines or interlacingmachines, including adapters and modification kits for weaving, in-terlacing or braiding fibres to manufacture composite structures, ex-cept textile machinery not modified for the above end uses;

6-6 I T E M 6

Braiding machines can be ei-ther floor-mounted or havean overhead gantry support-ing the spindle on which thepreform is made. In eitherconfiguration, the fiber isfed to the spindle radiallythrough a large wheel cen-tered on the spindle. Thecontrol panel is located atthe center of the gantry inorder to monitor preformdevelopment. A 144 carrierhorizontal braider capable ofbi-axial or tri-axial braidingis shown in Figure 6-6.Figure 6-7 shows a floor-mounted version. Both ma-chines can be controlled byspecial software run by acommon PC.

Appearance (as packaged): The packaging of weaving machines depends on their size. Smaller ma-chines can be completely encased in packing crates. The components of larger machines are disas-sembled for shipping and reassembled onsite, and are packaged separately in crates or on pallets. Allcomponents are suitably protected from shock and vibration during transportation and handling.

Additional Information:These machines have theintricate fiber handlingmechanisms to performtheir task with spools androtation/movement me-chanisms integral withineach machine. Some ma-chines, particularly thoseused for reentry vehicleheat shields, are mountedon a bed and rely on rigidrods in at least one direc-tion to stabilize the weavegeometry. For weavingmachines used to manu-facture 3-D polar pre-forms, the basic networkconstruction needed to dothe weaving includespierced plates with spe-

Figure 6-6: A 144 carrier overhead gantry braiding machine.

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Figure 6-7: A 144 carrier floor-mounted traverse braiding machine.

Photo Credit: W

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raiding Machine C

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cially designed hole patterns, plain plates, metallic rods, knitting needles, re-traction blades, and, if the process is fully automated, the machinery requiredto operate the knitting needles and retraction blades. The subelements forother types of weaving depend on the specific design of the machine.

Nature and Purpose: Polymeric fibers are precursors to high-temperaturecarbon and ceramic fibers that have great strength and stiffness at high tem-peratures. The conversion from a polymer to a high-temperature fiber oc-curs when the polymeric fiber is stretched and heated while exposed to aspecific reactive atmosphere. The equipment controlled under this subitemheats, stretches, and exposes the fiber to the required reactive atmosphere.

Method of Operation: The polymeric fibers are fed into a machine withcontrolled tensioning, speed, heating, and atmosphere. The fiber path is usu-ally long and complex because the total time for the conversion is lengthy sohigher production rates require a longer fiber processing length. The fiberpasses through a series of furnaces with controlled temperature and atmos-phere, and is driven at higher and higher speeds to convert it into a small-diameter, high-temperature fiber with a high degree of crystallographic or-der. Critical pieces of equipment include the process controllers, whichmaintain the desired temperatures at each step, and the textile rollers anddrive motors, which carry product through the various heat treatment steps.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: The equipment is used to convert or strain syn-thetic fibers to produce fibers used in missile applications where great strengthand light weight are paramount. These fibers are used in missiles to improvethe strength of the motor case, fairing, and propellant tank while reducingweight and thereby increasing the range and payload capacity of the missile.

Other Uses: The equipment is used to convert polymeric fibers for manyuses, including aircraft structures, tires, golf clubs, and boat hulls.

Appearance (as manufactured): Describing the appearance of the equipmentused to convert polymeric fibers is difficult because of the variety of ways inwhich equipment layout can occur. The layout is usually tailored to the pro-duction building and covers considerable floor space. The most noticeableitems are the many precision rollers and the mechanisms for their control. Therollers are typically 8 to 20 cm in diameter by 30 to 120 cm long, with theirsize related to the ovens in which they are to be used. Drive rollers are used toslowly pull the organic precursor fiber through an oven under controlled ten-sion. The drive rollers are typically made of polished stainless steel or chrome-


•Germany•Japan•Russia•United Kingdom•United States

(d) Equipment designed or modified for the production of fibrous orfilamentary materials as follows:(1) Equipment for converting polymeric fibres (such as polyacrylo-

nitrile, rayon or polycarbosilane) including special provisions tostrain the fibre during heating;

6-8 I T E M 6

plated steel and are either driven in a manner to keep the filaments at a con-stant tension or are driven at a preprogrammed rate to elongate the filamentsas a part of the process. Thus, rollers may be driven by individual motors ontheir shafts or proportionately driven by gears from one motor-driven shaft.

The machinery is designed to allow the fiber to make several passes throughthe heated zone with precise control of the speed of the fiber, the temperaturein each zone of the furnace, and the tension on the fiber. The fiber must passthrough several of these furnaces because the process requires a wide variety ofdifferent reactions. A typical fiber-drawing oven system has many rollers andisolated heating zones in the furnace. The size of the equipment varies widely.

Typically, the vertical-treating oven systems are used for higher temperaturethermal treatment. However, the diverse treatments required to produce acarbon or other refractory fiber from a polymeric fiber demand that severalpieces of equipment be used. Typical requirements include low-temperaturefurnaces with critical textile handling systems and high-temperature ovenswith fiber handling capability for conversion of the fiber to its final state.

Appearance (as packaged): The ovens, furnaces, and processing equipmentneeded to produce carbon fibers vary in packaging depending on their size,weight, and sensitivity to environmental factors. Generally, laboratory versionsof the equipment can be completely crated and shipped by rail or truck. Largerfurnaces designed for commercial use generally have to be shipped in compo-nent units and assembled onsite. However, some of the furnaces can be of suchlarge diameter that they must be specially handled as oversize cargo. Theweight for these larger furnaces approaches 1000 metric tons or more.

Nature and Purpose: The equipment for vapor deposition applies a verythin coating to filaments and thereby changes the properties of the filamentsin several different ways. Metallic coatings are conductive and add abrasionresistance; some ceramic coatings protect fibers from reacting with eitherthe atmosphere or adjacent materials. Coatings may also improve the even-tual compatibility of the fibers with a matrix material, as is the case for somemetal matrix composites.

Method of Operation: This equipment provides a suitable partial vacuumenvironment for condensing or depositing a coating on filaments. The va-por deposition process has several variations; two of the most importantbasic processes are chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and physical vapor de-position (PVD).

The CVD process deposits solid inorganic coatings from a reacting or decom-posing gas at an elevated temperature. Sometimes this process occurs in a radio-frequency-generated plasma to ensure thermal uniformity and improve thequality of CVD coatings in a process called plasma-assisted CVD (PACVD).



(2) Equipment for the vapor deposition of elements or compoundson heated filament substrates; and

6-9I T E M 6

The PVD processes use sputtering, evaporation, and ion plating to depositthe coating on the filaments. The equipment for PVD is similar to theequipment for CVD except that the chamber does not have to operate at ahigh temperature and does not require a reactive gas supply.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: The equipment for the deposition of ele-ments on heated filaments produces fibers used in rocket motor nozzles andreentry vehicle nose tips.

Other Uses: This equipment coats fibers used in jet aircraft. PACVD is cur-rently an important technique for the fabrication of thin films in the micro-electronics industry and has been applied to the continuous coating of car-bon fibers.

Appearance (as manufactured): CVD and PVD chamber configurationsvary greatly. Some are long tubes with seals at each end that permit the pas-sage of filaments but not gases. Others are large chambers, 2 to 3 m on aside, with room enough to hold the filament spools, filament guide equip-ment including spreading and tensioning rollers, a hot zone if needed, andthe reactant gases. Because of this variation, the only standardized and read-ily recognizable parts of the equipment are the gas supply system, a largepower supply, vacuum pumps, and possibly the instrumentation that con-trols the temperature. In all cases, the power supplies are of substantial sizeand weight, typically greater than 0.6 × 0.9 × 1.5 m with water inlets forcooling, pumping, and safety cutoffs. PACVD equipment looks like a con-ventional CVD or PVD system except that it has a radio-frequency powersupply to produce the plasma.

Appearance (as packaged): Packaging varies depending on size, weight,and sensitivity to environmental factors. Generally, laboratory versions ofthe equipment can be completely crated and shipped by rail or truck.However, even laboratory versions generally have components packagedseparately so that the textile spools, motors, and special glassware can re-ceive adequate protection. Larger systems designed for commercial use areusually shipped as components and assembled onsite.

Nature and Purpose: Wet-spinning equipment is used to produce long fil-aments from a mixture of liquids and solids. These filaments are furtherprocessed to produce high-strength, high-temperature ceramic filaments forceramic or metal-matrix composites.

Method of Operation: In wet-spinning of refractory ceramics, a slurry offiber-like particles is physically and chemically treated and drawn into a filamentthrough an orifice called a spinneret. The chamber in which the filaments are



(3) Equipment for the wet-spinning of refractory ceramics (such asaluminum oxide);

6-10 I T E M 6

created either rotates or contains an internal mixing device, either of which

produce the vortex in which filament entanglement occurs. The material

emerges from the spinneret and is solidified by a temperature or chemical

change, depending on the binder system used in the wet bath surrounding the

spinneret. The bath supports and stabilizes the filaments produced as it cools.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: The wet-spinning equipment is used to

make high-grade ceramic fibers for making missile nose tips and rocket en-

gine nozzles. Such fibers are also used to produce some ramjet and turbo-

jet engine parts applicable to cruise missiles.

Other Uses: Wet-spinning equipment is used to make ceramic fibers for

producing engine parts for small gas turbine engines, chemical processing

containers, and high-temperature structural applications. Ceramic fibers or

whiskers can be combined with other composite materials to enhance

strength and high-heat resistance in many commercial products.

Appearance (as manufactured): A major component of wet-spinning

equipment is the cylindrical chemical reaction chamber. Although glassware

is acceptable for laboratory and prototype wet-spinning equipment, stain-

less steel or glass-lined reaction chambers are used for production grade

wet-spinning equipment. Typically, the chamber is tapered at the bottom,

where the dies that extrude the filaments are located.

Other equipment associated with the chemical reaction chamber includes a

cylindrical vessel (much longer than its diameter) that contains the chemi-

cal slurry from which the filament is produced; a pressure gauge and gas ex-

haust line attached to the vessel; a tube assembly containing sections of both

fixed and rotating glass tubes; a ball valve connected to the fixed glass tube;

a motor and controller for driving the rotating tube; and a snubber roller

and take-up reel for the finished filaments.

Appearance (as packaged): Packaging is typical of any similarly sized in-

dustrial equipment. Generally, fully assembled laboratory versions of the

equipment can be crated and shipped by rail or truck. Components of larger

equipment designed for commercial use are shipped in separate boxes or

crates and assembled onsite.

(e) Equipment designed or modified for special fibre surface treatmentor for producing prepregs and preforms.

Note:(2) Equipment covered by subitem (e) includes but is not limited to

rollers, tension stretchers, coating equipment, cutting equipment andclicker dies.


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6-11I T E M 6

Nature and Purpose: Fiber surface treatment and prepregging equipmentis used to coat fibers in preparation for making high quality compositematerials. Surface treatments improve adhesion or change electrical proper-ties of the fibers; prepregging adds enough resin to the fiber (or filaments,roving, or tape) for curing it into a composite.

Method of Operation: The fiber filaments, roving, or tape to be processedin this equipment is passed through a series of dip baths made up of liquidreactants for etching or resins (sizings). A reactant etches or activates thesurface of the fiber for additional operations. Materials are fed on rollersthrough a bath of reactants in a simple dip operation. The number andspeed of rollers in the bath determines how long the part is etched or howmuch sizing is retained. Heaters are used to modify the reactivity of the etchsystem, to control the viscosityof the sizing bath, to promotechemical reactions that makethe sizing stable, and to drythe product.

Typical Missile-Related Uses:This equipment is used to sur-face treat various fibers used inthe manufacture of missileparts in order to improvebonding and to give additionalstrength to missile componentssuch as nose tips, motor cases,and exhaust nozzles.

Other Uses: This equipment is identical to that used to make the fibers for allcommercial applications of composite technology from boat hulls to golf clubs.

Appearance (as manufactured): A laboratory benchwith small rollers and heater guns is the only equipmentneeded to treat or prepreg fiber on a prototype basis.For production-level activity, the textile handlingequipment is much larger so that multiple lines can betreated at the same time. A machine adding resin toseven lines of roving is shown in Figure 6-8; dry fibersenter from the left and are coated by the wet wheel onthe right. A machine processing numerous lines of rov-ing is shown in Figure 6-9. Alternatively, a process mayinvolve heater stacks many stories high. All of the sys-tems have rollers for keeping the textile material mov-ing, maintaining tension on the fiber, and squeezingout excess liquid. They also have an oven with a com-plex path over the rollers so that the filaments traversethe oven several times.

Figure 6-8: A machine adding resin to seven lines of roving.

Photo Credit: H

unting Engineering, Ltd.

Figure 6-9: A machine processing numerouslines of roving.

Photo Credit: C

ytec Fibrite, Inc.

6-12 I T E M 6

Appearance (as packaged): The packaging of the equipment, with the ex-ception of small laboratory apparatus, usually requires that components beshipped separately and assembled onsite. The reason is that the base, thevats for holding chemicals, and the textile handling apparatus require dif-ferent types of packaging protection. The vats for chemicals can be pack-aged in simple corrugated boxes, but the rollers, which have a precision orspecial surface finish to avoid damaging the filaments, need cushioning andrigid mounting in substantial crates. Electrical control equipment, if in-cluded, will be packaged like other fragile electronics.

Nature and Purpose: Process control data are used to manage the process-ing of composites or partially processed composites into useful componentparts. The technical data of interest with respect to autoclaves and hydro-claves generally concern processing conditions and procedures, tooling andpreparation for cure, and cure control. Because the precise process settingsfor temperature, pressure, and duration have a critical effect on the strength,impact resistance, and flexural modulus of the parts produced, manufactur-ers have developed proprietary processes and rarely release the informationfor production of specific parts. Processing conditions, debulking periods,and procedures are usually individually tailored for the specific part.

Method of Operation: These data are used as guidance in making or par-tially processing specific, high-heat-tolerant, composite parts in autoclavesand hydroclaves. Cure control can be carried out by a human operator, butmore commonly it is carried out by computer. The latter may be based ona prescribed process cycle or may take the form of intelligent processing inwhich the computer makes decisions on the basis of the combined input ofanalytical process models, sensors in or near the part being processed, andhuman knowledge built into the system as artificial intelligence.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: These data are part of the instructions forpreparing the preform or composite for use as high-heat-tolerant and abla-tive components such as reentry vehicle nose tips and rocket motor nozzles.

Other Uses: Similar processes and procedures are used to make the mate-rials for commercial applications of composite technology from boat hullsto golf clubs.

Appearance (as manufactured): In general, technical data can take theform of blueprints, plans, diagrams, models, formulae, engineering designsand specifications, and manuals and instructions written or recorded on


The autoclaveor hydroclaveequipment isproduced in mostindustrialcountries becauseit is used incommonmanufacturingprocesses.Although generalknowledge ofthese processes iswidely known,data on processesfor specificapplications areproprietary.

(f) “Technical data” (including processing conditions) and proceduresfor the regulation of temperature, pressures or atmosphere in auto-claves or hydroclaves when used for the production of composites orpartially processed composites.

6-13I T E M 6

other media or devices such as disk, tape, and read-only memories. Thesedata are usually provided in handbooks and graphs as part of either the au-toclave or hydroclave manufacturer’s documentation, or as a part of theresin manufacturer’s recommendations. The manufacturer’s documentationrefers to each of the subcomponents and compiles specifications and in-struction manuals for each of them. These components include items suchas solid-state controllers or computers for controlling and monitoring tem-perature and pressure during the cure operation.

Appearance (as packaged): The data accompanying the equipment andcontaining the cure information are typically placed in loose-leaf books or acollated set of instructions. Documentation has a report format and accom-panies new equipment. Data supplied by manufacturers of resin or prepregare on data sheets and accompany the raw resin or prepreg material.

ITEM 7Pyrolytic Technology

7-1I T E M 7

Nature and Purpose: Pyrolytic deposition is a high-temperature processused to deposit a thin, dense coating of metal or ceramic onto a mold ormandrel in order to form a part. It also can be used to coat another mate-rial in order to achieve strong adhesion and bonding between the coatingmaterial and the underlying surface. The purpose of these processes is to im-prove the ability of the coated or densified items to survive the extremeenvironments in which critical rocket system parts operate.

The general procedures and methods used to create pyrolytically derivedmaterials and their precursor gasses are widely known. However, specificformulae, processes, and equipment settings are usually empirically derivedand considered proprietary trade secrets by industry. Controlled data (tech-nology) may take the form of technical assistance including instruction,skills, training, working knowledge, and consulting services. Technologymay take the physical form of blueprints, plans, diagrams, models, formu-lae, engineering designs and specifications, and manuals and instructionswritten or recorded on other media or devices such as disk, tape, and read-only memories.

Nature and Purpose: Nozzles for pyrolytic deposition direct an unreactedgas to a surface on which deposition is desired. The nozzles must be mov-able or located so they can cover the entire surface within a chemical vapordeposition (CVD) furnace at high temperature and pressure.


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PyrolyticTechnology

Pyrolytic deposition and densification equipment and “technology” asfollows:(a) “Technology” for producing pyrolytically derived materials formed

on a mould, mandrel or other substrate from precursor gases whichdecompose in the 1,300 degrees C to 2,900 degrees C temperaturerange at pressures of 130 Pa (1 mm Hg) to 20 kPa (150 mm Hg) in-cluding technology for the composition of precursor gases, flow-ratesand process control schedules and parameters;

(b) Specially designed nozzles for the above processes;

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Method of Operation: Nozzles used in CVD furnaces deliver cold, unre-acted gas to the surface being treated. The gas must be both unreacted sothat the coating occurs on the intended surface rather than on the inside ofthe nozzle, and close to the surface to be treated so that the surface and notthe walls of the furnace get sprayed. A nozzle is like a paint spray gun, whichmust be close to the part being painted.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: These nozzles are required parts of pyro-lytic deposition equipment used to make critical, high-heat-tolerant partssuch as rocket nozzles and reentry vehicle nose tips.

Other Uses: These nozzles are used to make high-heat-tolerant parts for jetengines.

Appearance (as manufactured): Nozzles for CVD furnaces are designedto tolerate high furnace temperatures either by construction from veryhigh-temperature-resistant material such as graphite or by water-cooling.Nozzle dimensions are approximately half the width of the furnace. Smallnozzles are typically made of graphite because it is inexpensive, easily re-placed, and lightweight (approximately 0.5 to 2.5 kg). Larger nozzles forproduction furnaces are often made of metal, require water cooling, mayhave integral attachment flanges, and weigh upwards of 25 kg.

Nozzles are made in varying lengths, which depend on the size of the fur-nace and the surface. The larger, more complex, water-cooled nozzles areup to 1.5 m long, with their tubular portion 20 cm in diameter. However,because some portion of most nozzles is custom designed, there is no stan-dard shape or size.

Appearance (as packaged): Packaging for the nozzle and pyrolytic deposi-tion equipment is suitable for preventing damage to a highly durable pipewith somewhat fragile valves and fittings. Typically, several nozzles are shippedtogether in well protected packaging separate from any large furnace shell.

Nature and Purpose: Specialized equipment and process controls areessential for the densification and pyrolysis necessary to produce structuralcomposites used for rocket nozzles and reentry vehicle nose tips. Speciallydesigned software often is required to operate the equipment and/or con-trol the processes to produce these structural composites. Manufacturingitems from this type of material usually requires cycling through variousprocess conditions such as high temperature and/or pressure. Precise con-trol of the conditions during the cycles and their timing is key to ensuring

(c) Equipment and process controls, and specially designed softwaretherefor, designed or modified for densification and pyrolysis ofstructural composite rocket nozzles and reentry vehicle nose tips.

7-3I T E M 7

acceptable results. This subitem also includes documentation (technicaldata) of the various process conditions needed to produce these materials.

Method of Operation: Equipment, process controls, and software for den-sification and pyrolysis are used throughout the manufacturing process forstructural composites to handle, process, and finish the material and the re-sulting products (i.e., rocket nozzles and RV nose tips).

Typical Missile-Related Uses: This equipment, process controls, and soft-ware are used to produce structural composites (including carbon-carbonitems) used for rocket nozzles and reentry vehicle nose tips.

Other Uses: These items are also used for diffusion bonding of metals, inpowder metallurgy, and for treating metal components.

Appearance (as manufactured): The equipment resembles other manufac-turing equipment but can include smaller (research size) items. Process con-trols can take the forms of technical data such as paper, magnetic, or othermedia. Specially designed software is usually indistinguishable by visual in-spection from commercially available software and can take the form ofcomputer disks, CD ROMs, etc.

Appearance (as packaged): Larger pieces of equipment may be shipped ascomponents, while smaller items may be shipped assembled. These items areusually shipped in crates or on pallets in a similar manner to other industrialequipment. Process controls (including technical data) are shipped like otherinformation on paper, magnetic, or other media. Software can be transferredon disks, CD ROMs, etc., or over networks. Software and technical data maybe included in the shipping containers with its respective equipment.

Nature and Purpose: Isostatic presses are used to infuse carbon into aporous carbon preform of a rocket nozzle or reentry vehicle nose tip undergreat pressure. This process, referred to as densification, fills up and virtu-ally eliminates voids in the preform and thereby increases the density andstrength of the treated object.

Method of Operation: The object to be processed is placed in the appro-priate chamber and lowered into the hot zone of the furnace. All water and


•France•Germany•Russia•United States

Notes to Item 7:(1) Equipment included under (c) above are isostatic presses having all of

the following characteristics:(a) Maximum working pressure of 69 MPa (10,000 psi) or greater; (b) Designed to achieve and maintain a controlled thermal environ-

ment of 600 degrees C or greater; and(c) Possessing a chamber cavity with an inside diameter of 254 mm

(10 inches) or greater.

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electrical connections aremade and all process in-strumentation is con-nected before the lid islowered into the furnaceand sealed. As the objectis heated, it is subjected togreat pressure until theproper densification hasbeen achieved. Reactionproducts are removed byinternal plumbing so theydo not come into contactwith the electric heatersand cause them to short.

Typical Missile-RelatedUses: Isostatic presses areused in making nose tipsfor reentry vehicles andnozzle inserts for rocketmotors.

Other Uses: These presses are used in diffusion bonding of similar metals,diffusion bonding of dissimilar metals to form laminates (silver-nickel-silveror copper-stainless), and provision of seamless joints. They are used in var-ious powder metallurgy applications. They are also used to improve the

quality of metal castings and forgings by hy-drostatically forcing defects to close andbond shut.

Appearance (as manufactured): Isostaticpresses intended for densification are speciallymodified to operate while a pyrolysis reactionis occurring. A typical laboratory-size systemhas three main components: a pressure cham-ber, a high-pressure generator, and a controlconsole, as shown in Figure 7-1. The pressurechamber is usually a vertical, thick-walledcylinder with a removable, high-pressure clo-sure, or plug, at the upper end. Two examplesare shown in Figure 7-2. They are water-cooled and have attachments for hoses orpipes. The press may be surrounded by anenergy-absorbing shield, shown partially re-moved on the left of Figure 7-1. This shieldmay be engineered at the plant where the sys-tem operates and often involves installing the

Figure 7-1: A laboratory-sized isostatic press showing its three maincomponents: pressure chamber, pressure generator, and control console.

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Figure 7-2: Two removable high-pressure closures, showingholes for hoses or pipes.

7-5I T E M 7

chamber belowground. The pressure chamber also has anisolation chamber and plumbing to be sure that gas fromthe process zone is removed from the exhaust and doesnot flow to the heater zone.

The high-pressure generator uses air to drive a large pis-ton connected directly to a smaller piston, which pressur-izes the gas used in the chamber. These simple pumps op-erate at pressure ratios between 10 and 1000 and areavailable with maximum pressures up to about 1,400MPa. The piston-and-cylinder mechanisms of the pres-sure intensifiers can be seen in the high-pressure genera-tor system pictured in Figure 7-1.

The control console has an instrument panel with typi-cal industrial temperature and pressure control andrecording instrumentation, as shown in the right ofFigure 7-1. The console usually includes a computerand a keypad for entering data required to control theoperation of the press. Isostatic presses can be quitelarge. A top and side view, respectively, of two differentpresses are shown in Figures 7-3 and 7-4. Notice thethick-walled pressure vessel and the large threaded plugin Figure 7-3. Another isostatic press is shown in thebackground of Figure 7-5.

Appearance (as packaged): The components of an iso-static press system are likely to be shipped separately andassembled at the final work destination. Packagingvaries with the requirements of the purchaser, butwooden pallets and crates with steel banding and rein-forcement are common. Two wooden crates containingcomponents of an isostatic press system are shown inFigure 7-6; a different crate for a similar press is shownin Figure 7-7. Larger chambers are very heavy becauseof the thick walls and may be packaged in a cylindricalwooden crate with wide steel banding, as shown inFigure 7-8.

Additional Information: The distinction between anormal hot isostatic press and one modified for use inpyrolytic densification is that decomposition does notoccur in the former and does in the latter. To avoid thecarbon deposition on the heaters, which would other-wise cause an electrical short, the heater chamber fordensification has plumbing connections and controls topipe carbon decomposition products directly from theheated zone out to gas handling equipment.

Figure 7-4: Side view of a large isostaticpress.

Figure 7-3: A very large isostatic pressurevessel and threaded plug.

Photo Credit: Engineered Pressure Systems, Inc.

Photo Credit: A H

andbook for the Nuclear S

uppliers Group D

ual-Use Annex.

Report N

o. LA-13131-M

(April 1996).

7-6 I T E M 7

Figure 7-5:An isostatic press inthe background,surrounded by a light,metal frame.

Figure 7-6: Shipping crates for an isostatic press.

Figure 7-7: Alternative shipping crate for an isostatic press.

Figure 7-8:Shipping crate for avery large isostaticpress.

Photo Credit: Engineered Pressure Systems, Inc.

Phot

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Photo Credit: A H

andbook for the Nuclear S

uppliers Group D

ual-Use Annex.

Report N

o. LA-13131-M

(April 1996).

Photo Credit: A Handbook forthe Nuclear Suppliers GroupDual-Use Annex. Report No.LA-13131-M (April 1996)

7-7I T E M 7

Nature and Purpose: CVD furnaces are used to infuse carbon into a porouscarbon preform of a rocket nozzle or reentry vehicle nose tip. This process,referred to as densification, fills up and virtually eliminates voids in the pre-form and thereby increases the density and strength of the treated object.

Method of Operation: CVD furnaces use either isothermal or thermal-gradient processes for densification. The object to be processed is placed inthe appropriate chamber and lowered into the hot zone of the furnace. Allgas, water, and electrical connections are made, and all process instrumen-tation is connected before the lid is lowered into the furnace and sealed.The process sequence of heating and supplying the deposition gases is au-tomated, but furnace operators follow the part development through view-ports built into the furnace walls.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: CVD furnaces are used to make lightweightcarbon-carbon rocket nozzles and nose tips. Carbon-carbon pieces are lightand strong, and can increase system performance.

Other Uses: CVD furnaces are used in coating optics, some medical in-struments and components (e.g., heart valves), and cutting tools; in coatingand polishing precision surfaces; and in making semiconductors.

Appearance (as manufactured): CVD furnaces are large, double-walled,cylindrical vessels with gas-tight closures. Typical CVD furnaces are large be-cause they house an internal heat zone, electrically driven heaters, and insu-lation. Furnaces smaller than 1.5 m in height and 1 m in diameter are con-sidered laboratory scale and are barely able to process a single nose tip orrocket nozzle insert. Process production sizes are larger than 2 m in heightand 2 m in diameter. These furnaces have several ports: at least one large portfor power feeds, others for instrumentation, and, when temperatures aremeasured by optical or infrared pyrometers, one or more view-ports.

They are double-walled so that they can be water-cooled during operation.Power cables are large and may also be water-cooled. The actual retort ishoused inside the furnace and is heated by a graphite induction or resistiveheater to temperatures of up to 2,900°C. Two typical furnaces, without lidsin place, are shown in Figure 7-9. An induction power supply with heavy,water-cooled connections between the power supply and the smaller of thetwo furnaces is also shown. The induction coil, retort, and silicon steelshunts, which prevent inductive coupling to the furnace wall, are shown inFigure 7-10. A typical production setup of CVD furnaces consists of severalcomponents, as shown from left to right, in Figure 7-11: an impregnation


•France•Germany•Russia•United Kingdom•United States

Note(2) Equipment included under (c) above are chemical vapour deposition

furnaces designed or modified for the densification of carbon-carboncomposites.

7-8 I T E M 7

vessel for adding a liquid resin to the preform; instrumentation and controlpanels; a pressure-carbonization furnace with a 69 Mpa capacity; and aCVD furnace for pyrolytic deposition of carbon from a gas.

Appearance (as packaged): Packaging consists of pallets and crates for eachpart because of the large size and weight of the equipment. The large lids,the power supply, and the body of the furnace often have built-in lift pointsor rings to help move and assemble them.

Figure 7-9:Two small CVDfurnaces and aninduction powersupply.

Figure 7-10: Inside of a small CVD furnace showing the retort,heaters, and insulation.

Figure 7-11:A typical productionsetup for carbon-carbon or ceramicmatrix nose tips andnozzles.

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ITEM 8Structural Materials

8-1I T E M 8

Composite structures, laminates, and manufactures

Nature and Purpose: Composites and laminates are used to make missile

parts that are often lighter, stronger, and more durable than parts made of

metal or other materials.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Composites and laminates can be used al-

most anywhere in ballistic missiles or unmanned air vehicles (UAVs), includ-

ing cruise missiles. Uses include solid rocket motor cases, interstages, wings,

inlets, nozzles, heat shields, nosetips, structural members, and frames.

Other Uses: Composite structures can be formed into almost any shape to

meet required needs; they increase the speed of the production process and

give great flexiblity to the final product. They are used in both civilian and

military aircraft, recreational products (skis, tennis racquets, boats, and golf

clubs), and in infrastructure (bridge repairs and small bridges).

Appearance (as manufactured): Composites take the shape of the object

in which they are used, but they are light compared to metallic structures.


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StructuralMaterials

Structural materials usable in the system in Item 1, as follows:(a) Composite structures, laminates, and manufactures thereof, specially

designed for use in the systems in Item 1 and the subsystems in Item2, and resin impregnated fibre prepregs and metal coated fibre pre-forms therefor, made either with organic matrix or metal matrix uti-lizing fibrous or filamentary reinforcements having a specific tensilestrength greater than 7.62 × 104 m (3 × 106 inches) and a specificmodulus greater than 3.18 × 106 m (1.25 × 108 inches);

Notes to Item 8:(2) The only resin impregnated fibre prepregs specified in (a) above

are those using resins with a glass transition temperature (Tg), aftercure, exceeding 145 degrees C as determined by ASTM D4065 ornational equivalents.

8-2 I T E M 8

The reinforcement used to make a composite often results in a textile-likepattern on the surface of the object, especially when prepregged cloth isused. Even when cloth is not used, the linear pattern of the tape may stillbe present; however, a covering like paint sometimes conceals this pattern.

Appearance (as packaged): Composite structures are packaged much likeother structures, with foam or other materials to protect them from surfaceabrasions or distortions from stress. Such protection is important becausetheir surfaces are not as hard as metal, and their strength in non-designeddirections is much less than that of metal.

Resin Impregnated Fiber Prepregs and Metal Coated Fiber Preforms

Nature and Purpose: Prepregs and preforms are the basic materials fromwhich composites structures are made. Prepreg is the name given to a cloth-like material made of fibers and impregnated with resins. Prepregs are as-sembled over a form (e.g., a mandrel or mold) into the desired shape.Sometimes several layers are used to create laminates. Preforms are solid,three-dimensional, fiber structures with the same shape and roughly thesame dimensions as the desired part and impregnated with resin. Aftercuring, the preform is machined into the final configuration. Usually, thematerials of interest are then cured to temperatures above 175°C tocomplete polymerization of the resin and to achieve a high glass transitiontemperature.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Prepregs and preformsare precursors to the composites and laminates thatcan be used almost anywhere in ballistic missiles andUAVs, including cruise missiles. Uses include solidrocket motor cases, interstages, wings, inlets, nozzles,heatshields, nosetips, structural members, and frames.

Other Uses: Prepregs and preforms allow compositestructures to be formed into almost any shape to meetrequired needs. They are used in both civilian and mili-tary aircraft, recreational products, and in infrastructure.

Appearance (as manufactured): Prepregs are textile products that are im-pregnated with a pliable resin. They are manufactured in thin filaments,tapes from submillimeters to centimeters wide, and fabrics up to a few me-ters wide. They are usually stored on spools or in rolls, just like yarn or fab-ric. Three examples of prepreg yarn are shown in Figure 8-1. Other than avery slight yellow cast on some of the materials and the stiffness or sticki-ness of the yarn, this material looks much like unimpregnated yarn. Anassortment of yarns, fabrics, and tapes is shown in Figure 8-2. Although aprepreg can still deform, it is considerably less capable of draping than a fab-ric, tape, or yarn that has no resin; however, they are all still deformable


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Figure 8-1: Examples of prepreg yarn.

Photo Credit: Cytec Fiberite, Inc.

8-3I T E M 8

enough to be shaped into a compositestructural part. Prepregs may be used toform the approximate shape of a desiredpart, called a preform. Examples of pre-forms for rocket nozzle skirts are shownin Figure 8-3. After heating and curing,these preforms are machined to their finalshapes and finishes.

Appearance (as packaged): The fibrousmaterials discussed here must be refriger-ated after impregnation with resin.Refrigeration prevents the resin from poly-merizing and hardening before the prepregis used to manufacture composite materi-als. If the temperature is held at about–20°C, the shelf life of the prepreg is ap-proximately six months. To maintain suffi-ciently low temperatures during shipment,the prepreg material is packed in specialcontainers for dry ice cooling, or it isshipped in mechanically refrigerated cargocontainers. A packing configuration forshipment of prepreg material with dry icecooling is shown in Figures 8-4 and 8-5.

Figure 8-2: Examples of fabrics, tapes, and yarns.

Photo Credit: C

ytec Fiberite, Inc.

Figure 8-3: Preforms of rocket nozzle skirts.

Photo Credit: Aerospatiale Espace &

Defense

Figure 8-4: Specialcardboard containerfor holding dry icepacking around acarbon fiber prepregtape spool duringshipping. The dry iceis normally containedin a plastic bagpacked around thespool.

Photo Credit: A Handbook for the NuclearSuppliers Group Dual-Use Annex, Report No.LA-13131-M (April 1996).

Photo Credit: A Handbook for the NuclearSuppliers Group Dual-Use Annex, Report No.

LA-13131-M (April 1996).

Figure 8-5: Viewof the prepreg

shipping containerwith the lid openand the support

yoke removed.

8-4 I T E M 8

Nature and Purpose: Carbon-carbon is a composite of carbon fiber,usually made from pitch, rayon, or polyacrylonitrile (PAN), in a carbon-dominated matrix. It is usually made by using a high-content carbon resinas the initial matrix and then driving off the non-carbon elements throughhigh heat. It is lightweight, highly heat-resistant, thermal-shock-resistant,and malleable for shaping as necessary.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Carbon-carbon materialsare used for items such as rocket motor exit cones and noz-zles, and RV nosetips, heat shields, and leading edges ofcontrol surfaces that must resist the effects of high temper-atures and ablation.

Other Uses: Carbon-carbon structures are used in military and civilianaircraft applications such as high-temperature brake shoes, and in other ap-plications requiring high strength and low weight such as wing roots. Theycan also be used for tooling requiring long life in severe, usually very high-temperature manufacturing environments, such as pouring ladles for steel,heaters for very high-temperature furnaces, and hot press tools.

Appearance (as manufactured): Typical carbon-carbon materials designedfor rocket systems are black and have a patterned surface as a result of textilereinforcement. Nosetips and rocket nozzles are usually machined from blocksor billets or can be woven to shape. Blocks of material suitable for rocket sys-tems and a machined rocket nozzle throat are shown in Figures 8-6 and 8-7,respectively. The nozzle throat shows the characteristic fabric pattern on itsmachined surface.

Appearance (as packaged): Before machining, blocks of carbon-carbon ma-terial are rugged enough to be packed in filler and shipped in cardboardboxes. Machined parts require careful packaging because, although the mate-rials is resistant to breaking, it is not hard and can easily be gouged or scraped.

Figure 8-6:A block of carbon-carbon material readyto be machined into arocket nozzle. Thelarger cylindrical blockis about 70 cm indiameter.

Figure 8-7:A carbon-carbon

rocket nozzlethroat showing

the fabric patternof the underlying

fibers.


•France• India• Japan•Russia•United Kingdom•United States

(b) Resaturated pyrolyzed (i.e., carbon-carbon) materials designed forrocket systems;

8-5I T E M 8

Nature and Purpose: Fine-grain recrystallized bulk graphite is used tocreate very strong, heat-resistant parts. Graphite is the only known substancethat doubles in strength as the temperature increases from room temperatureto 2,700°C. Carbon particles are combined with pitch, a viscous coal tarresidue, in a suitable mold and subjected to heat and pressure. The resultingblock can be easily machined into the required part. It also has excellent ther-mal shock resistance and good thermal and electrical conductivity. Pyrolyticgraphite is formed by high-temperature vapor deposition but is not widelyused because its uneven thermal conductivity causes it to crack when heated.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Fine-grain recrystallized bulk graphites areused for reentry vehicle nose tips, thrust tabs, and nozzle throats. A typicalbillet for a nosetip could be as small as several centimeters in each dimension.

Other Uses: Graphite is used in biomedical applications, in nuclear reactors,as a mold in casting and manufacturing metal parts, and for critically-dimen-sioned furnace fixtures. Graphite is also thepreferred material for electrodes for electricdischarge machining. When infiltrated withmetals, graphite is used for brushes in electricmotors and as bearings in many mechanicalapplications.

Appearance (as manufactured): Bulkgraphite is a very fine, dark gray to blackpowder. The density of processed graphiteranges from 1.72 to 2.2 g/cc, the latter forpyrolytic graphite. Machined parts madefrom graphite are black and have a gloss de-pendent on the machining operation. Fine-grain graphite can be distinguished by itslack of surface pitting and some of the finedetails that are often in the manufacturedproduct. Graphite is much softer than met-als; a ball point pen can dent the surface.Typical products that demonstrate these fea-tures are shown in Figure 8-8.

Appearance (as packaged): These materials are packaged to protect theirdelicate surfaces and often to prevent any surface contamination. Typically,parts are placed in plastic bags or containers, which are packaged in materi-als normally used for fragile parts (i.e., bubble wrap, foam, etc.).

Figure 8-8:Various parts

machined from finegrained bulk graphite.


•Brazil•Russia•United States

(c) Fine grain recrystallized bulk graphites (with a bulk density of at least1.72 g/cc measured at 15 degrees C and having a particle size of100 × 10–6 m (100 microns) or less), pyrolytic, or fibrous reinforcedgraphites usable for rocket nozzles and reentry vehicle nose tips;

8-6 I T E M 8

Ceramic composite materials

Nature and Purpose: Ceramic composite materials have strength andthermal properties sufficient for some use as heatshield materials. Unlikecarbon-based materials, however, ceramics are insulators and do not con-duct electricity, and electromagnetic radiation (e.g., radio waves) can passthrough them. They are useful in protecting structures and equipment fromhigh heat while still allowing communications to and from the vehicle.

Silicon-carbide reinforced ceramic composites are suitable for use to 1,200°Cin an oxidizing atmosphere and to a somewhat higher temperature if coated.Silicon-carbide composites reinforced with filaments are very tough and, witha density of 2.3 g/cc, are considerably lighter than superalloys. These charac-teristics make them useable for reentry vehicle nosetips.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Ceramic composite materials have beenused in ballistic missile reentry vehicle antenna windows. Silicon-carbide un-fired ceramic nosetips are hard and extremely heat-resistant; however, be-cause they tend to chip but not break, they are not widely used.

Other Uses: High-heat-resistant ceramics are used in some gas turbine en-gines, automobile engines, furnaces, and solar energy receivers. Their usesinclude grinding rods and balls, furnace tiles, welding cups and nozzles,sandblast nozzles, and a variety of intricate parts for electronic applications.They are a common tooling material for use in manufacturing steps at ele-vated temperatures. Silicon-carbide reinforced ceramic composites are usedin some military jet engines for thrust vector control flaps. Uses for all thesematerials are growing.

Appearance (as manufactured): Ceramic composite materials used inreentry vehicle antenna windows generally use ceramic filament reinforce-ment to prevent thermal-stress-induced failure. A block of 3-D silica-silicafrom which antenna windows are made may have a textile pattern evidenton all surfaces. This material is often covered with a clear protective coatingas a barrier to moisture. A silicon-carbide reinforced ceramic has the samepattern but is dark gray or black. All of these ceramic materials are very hard,much harder than other composites, and have a surface patterned like the


CeramicComposites•France•Germany•India• Japan•Russia•United States

Silicon CarbideComposites•France• Japan•United States

(d) Ceramic composite materials (dielectric constant less than 6 at fre-quencies from 100 Hz to 10,000 MHz) for use in missile radomesand bulk machinable silicon-carbide reinforced unfired ceramicusable for nose tips;

8-7I T E M 8

textile reinforcement. They may be found in virtually any size between 1 mmdiscs and 50 cm cubes, which can be cut and ground to the required con-figuration by diamond tooling.

Appearance (as packaged): Because of their high cost and brittleness, thesecomposites are packed in shock-absorbent materials. Since silica-silica mate-rial is also hygroscopic (i.e., it absorbs water), it is also packed in sealed bagsof either mylar or other plastic, often with some type of a desiccant in thelarger packing container. Some shippers also fill the sealed bags with drynitrogen to protect the material from water absorption.

Nature and Purpose: These materials are controlled as powders, which canbe formed into missile parts by pouring them into a mold and subjectingthem to high heat and pressure (i.e., sintering). Parts made from these ma-terials are very hard, dense, and strong. They also have extremely high melt-ing temperatures: tungsten melts at 3,410°C and molybdenum at 2,610°C.Thus, finished parts are resistant to ablation in a high-heat and mass-flow en-vironment such as those experienced in reentry or in missile exhausts.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Because these materials are so dense andheavy, they tend to be used for smaller parts at critical points: reentry vehi-cle nosetips, nozzle throat inserts (but not the entire nozzle), and jet vanes,which are used to steer engine exhaust.

Other Uses: Tungsten powder is used in metal evaporation work, glass-to-metal seals, electrical contacts, and as an alloying element for steel. Tungstencarbide tool bits are critical for the metal working, mining, and petroleumindustries. Molybdenum is an element used for powder metalurgy.

Appearance (as manufactured): Tungsten, molybdenum, and their alloys asspherical or atomized particles look like many other powder metallurgy prod-ucts. The particles have a metallic sheen and flow freely because of their spher-ical shape. These materials are very heavy because both tungsten and molyb-denum are high-density materials. Tungsten has a density of 19.3 g/cc, andmolybdenum has a density of 10.2 g/cc. For comparison, iron has a densityof 7.87 g/cc, and aluminum has a density of 2.7 g/cc.

Appearance (as packaged): These materials are packaged in sealed con-tainers or drums to minimize contact with air and oxidation of the surfaceof the particles. The containers feel heavy for their size and are secured to apallet or container to prevent movement.


•Germany•Japan•Russia•United States

(e) Tungsten, molybdenum and alloys of these metals in the form of uni-form spherical or atomized particles of 500 micrometer diameter orless with a purity of 97 percent or higher for fabrication of rocketmotor components; i.e. heat shields, nozzle substrates, nozzle throatsand thrust vector control surfaces;

8-8 I T E M 8

Nature and Purpose: Maraging steel is a particular alloy of steel noted forits high-yield strength. Typical formulations of maraging steel have rela-tively low carbon content (less than 0.03%) and relatively high nickel con-tent (18 to 25%) as compared to most structural steels.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: The forms controlled by the MTCR(sheets, plates, and tubes) are generally used to make solid rocket motorcases, propellant tanks, and interstages.

Other Uses: These steels are used in special aircraft parts, submarine hulls,fencing blades, pipes, and reactors in the chemical and nuclear industries.

Appearance (as manufactured):Maraging steel has a lustrous graycolor when clean and freshly pre-pared. If the metal has been sub-jected to an aging treatment to im-prove strength, it may have a darkoxide layer on the surface. Thisdark layer may also indicate that themaraging steel has been subjectedto a controlled degree of oxidationin order to improve corrosion resis-tance during service. Heat-treatedmaraging steel and stainless steeland zirconium test samples areshown in Figure 8-9.

Appearance (as packaged): Marag-ing steel is often shipped in the low-

strength, non-heat-treated condition so that it can be formed into the de-sired shape by the end user. It is bundled and shipped much like stainlesssteel, which it closely resembles. Sheets and plates are stacked and securedto a pallet. Tubes are bundled and secured to a pallet as well. Both may becovered with plastic sheet to protect them from the elements.


•France• Japan•Russia•Sweden•United Kingdom•United States

(f) Maraging steels (steels generally characterized by high nickel, verylow carbon content and the use of substitutional elements or precip-itates to produce age-hardening) having an Ultimate Tensile Strengthof 1.5 × 109 Pa or greater, measured at 20 degrees C.

Notes to Item 8:(1) Maraging steels are only covered by 8(f) above for the purpose of this

Annex in the form of sheet, plate or tubing with a wall or plate thick-ness equal to or less than 5.0 mm (0.2 inch).

Figure 8-9:Top: stainlesssteel; middle: heat-treated maragingsteel; bottom:zirconium tubing.

Photo Credit: A Handbook for the Nuclear Suppliers Group Dual-Use Annex, Report No. LA-13131-M (April 1996)

8-9I T E M 8

Nature and Purpose: Titanium Stabilized Duplex Stainless Steel (Ti-DSS)is a special alloy of stainless steel noted for its ease of welding and resistanceto corrosive liquid propellant oxidizers. Typical formulations for Ti-DSSrange from 17 to 23 percent by weight of chromium and 4.5 to 7.0 percentby weight of nickel, and such steel contains traces of titanium which, com-pared to other stainless steels, makes Ti-DSS particularly resistant to oxi-dizers such as Inhibited Red Fuming Nitric Acid (IRFNA). Additionally,Ti-DSS is a preferred material for liquid propellant missile applications be-cause it is easily welded using common welding technology and, unlikeother forms of stainless steel, does not require heat treatment after welding.

Typical Missile Related Uses: The forms controlled by the MTCR (ingotsor bars, sheets, and tubes) are generally of sufficient size to be used to man-ufacture liquid propellant tanks and rocket engine plumbing.

Other Uses: There are very few known commercial uses for Ti-DSS.Although usable for many stainless steel applications, Ti-DSS is very hard,making it difficult to form into sheets or tubing. This makes it too expen-sive for common commercial applications. Additionally, although it is espe-cially resistant to IRFNA, it does not perform well when exposed to othersimilarly corrosive materials such as chemical fertilizers.

Appearance (as manufactured): Ti-DSS is virtually identical in appearanceto other stainless steels. It has a very fine grain, which usually requires amagnifying glass or microscope to view.

Appearance (as packaged): Ti-DSS is generally bundled and shipped muchlike other stainless steels. Sheets and ingots or bars are often stacked and se-cured to a pallet. Tubes are usually bundled and secured to a pallet as well.Both may be covered with plastic sheet to protect them from the elements.

(g) Titanium-stabilized duplex stainless steel (Ti-DSS) having:(1) All the following characteristics:

(a) Containing 17.0 to 23.0 weight percent chromium and 4.5to 7.0 weight percent nickel, and

(b) A ferritic-austenitic microstructure (also referred to as a two-phase microstructure) of which at least 10 percent is austen-ite by volume (according to ASTM E-1181-87 or nationalequivalents), and

(2) Any of the following forms:(a) Ingots or bars having a size of 100 mm or more in each

dimension,(b) Sheets having a width of 600 mm or more and a thickness of

3 mm or less, or(c) Tubes having an outer diameter of 600 mm or more and a

wall thickness of 3 mm or less.

ITEM 9Navigation Equipment

9-1I T E M 9

Nature and Purpose: Integrated flight instrument systems use a variety of

sensors as well as inertial instruments (accelerometers and gyroscopes) to

track a missile’s flight path. Because they collect and use more data than

purely inertial guidance sets, they are often more accurate. The additional

sensor data often allow the use of less expensive inertial instruments without

a reduction in accuracy. These systems utilize all available information in var-

ious and often innovative schemes to navigate accurately. Because manufac-

turers have used a variety of names for integrated flight instrument systems

(e.g., navigation systems), items with other names may actually be MTCR-

controlled integrated flight instrument systems.

Method of Operation: Integrated flight instrument systems collect and

process in-flight data from active and passive sensors, receivers, and inertial

instruments in order to track the missile’s flight path. They use one of sev-

eral hierarchical or voting schemes to derive the best estimate of position

and heading for comparison with the preprogrammed flight path. The re-

sults are used to generate signals to steer the vehicle along the intended

flight path and to trigger other preprogrammed functions at their appropri-

ate time.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Integrated flight instrumentation systems

are required equipment in unmanned air vehicles (UAVs), including cruise


•China•France•Germany•Israel• Italy• Japan•Norway•Russia•South Africa•Spain•Sweden•Switzerland•Ukraine•United Kingdom•United States

CAT

EGO

RY

II ~

ITE

M 9

Navigation

Instrumentation, navigation and direction finding equipment andsystems, and associated production and test equipment as follows; andspecially designed components and software therefor:(a) Integrated flight instrument systems, which include gyrostabilizers or

automatic pilots and integration software therefor, designed or mod-ified for use in the systems in Item 1;

Notes to Item 9:(1) Items (a) through (f) may be exported as part of a manned aircraft,

satellite, land vehicle or marine vessel or in quantities appropriate forreplacement parts for such applications.

9-2 I T E M 9

missiles. Systems capable of achieving system accuracy of 3.33 percent or

less of the range may be controlled as Category I under Item 2 (d).

Other Uses: Integrated flight instrumentation systems are used in both

civilian and military aircraft.

Appearance (as manufactured): The size of integrated flight instrumenta-

tion systems varies with the type of vehicle and the vintage of design. Recent

designs have been reduced in size to about a half meter on a side and re-

duced in weight to several kilograms or less. Integrated flight instrument

systems vary greatly in appearance because they are designed for different

interior configurations of different vehicles, and they use different combi-

nations of subsystems. Like missile guidance sets controlled under Category

I, Item 2 (d), most integrated flight instrumentation systems are enclosed

in metallic boxes, which often have removable access panels. However, be-

cause integrated flight instrumentation systems use more than just an iner-

tial measurement unit (IMU) for navigation information, they often look

much more modular than ballistic missile guidance sets that depend exclu-

sively on an IMU. Examples of this modular appearance are shown in

Figures 9-1 and 9-2. The components of the system may be distributed

throughout the missile with some of their sensors and antennas located well

apart from the computer and IMU.

Figure 9-1: The main body of a cruise missileintegrated flight instrumentation system.

Phot

o C

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itton

Gui

danc

e an

d C

ontr

ol S

yste

ms

Figure 9-2: Another view of the same integrated flightinstrument system shown in Figure 9-1.


uidance and Control S

ystems

9-3I T E M 9

Appearance (as packaged): Although integrated flight instrument systemsare not as delicate and expensive as some of the more expensive ballistic mis-sile guidance sets, their packaging is usually robust and includes desiccantsand air-tight wrappers for protection against moisture. These systems areusually shipped in cushioned containers with labels indicating the need forcareful handling.

Nature and Purpose: Gyro-astro compasses are precision assemblies ofsensitive optical and electro-mechanical equipment used for navigation.They provide an in-flight orientation update and thereby increase the navi-gational accuracy.

Method of Operation: These devices use an optical sensor to detect a dis-tant point-source of light in a known direction. Typically, these sensors relyon stars, but they can also use satellites travelling in known orbits. The guid-ance computer compares the expected direction of the star on the currenttrajectory with its measured direction and sends signals to the flight controlsystem to make any necessary course corrections.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Gyro-astro compasses are used in missilesthat fly a portion of their trajectory above the atmosphere.

Other Uses: Gyro-astro compasses are used in space probes and some air-craft as well as on some ships to aid in navigation.

Appearance (as manufactured): Improvements in optical sensor technologyhave reduced the size and weight of such sensors, and are likely to continue todo so. Although gyro-astro compasses vary considerably in de-sign, the optical sensors, or telescopes, all have a visible opticallens, which may be protected by an automatic shutter or trapdoor. Many telescopes are gimbal-mounted (i.e., mounted in-side one or more pivoting cages) and thus can be automaticallypointed to locate an optical reference. A typical unit mightmeasure less than half a meter and weigh less than 10 kg. Aphotograph of a gyro-astro compass is shown in Figure 9-3.Compasses without gimbals consist of little more than an op-tical sensor with precision mounting surfaces, a shutter, andsupporting electronics. Their metal cases often measure only 5to 7 cm on a side and weigh approximately 0.5 kg.



(b) Gyro-astro compasses and other devices which derive position or ori-entation by means of automatically tracking celestial bodies or satellites;



Figure 9-3: A high resolution gyro-astrocompass.

Photo Credit: Litton Alenia D

ifesa

9-4 I T E M 9

Appearance (as packaged): Because gyro-astro compasses are delicatemechanisms, they are usually packed in robust shipping containers that pre-vent damage from moisture and mild shock. Shipping containers usually havewarning labels indicating that they contain costly assemblies of sensitive op-tical, electrical, or mechanical equipment.

Nature and Purpose: Accelerometers are sensitive pieces of electro-mechanical equipment used in measuring acceleration, which is the rate ofchange of speed in a given direction. Acceleration is integrated once to pro-vide velocity and integrated again to provide distance traveled from thepoint of origin or launch. Two of the most important performance para-meters are the threshold, the smallest measurement detectable, and thelinearity error, the maximum error from the actual value measured.

Missile accuracy is directly dependent on the quality of the missile’s ac-celerometers and gyros; missiles that fly for a long time without external up-dates require high quality accelerometers. Missiles that use sensor systemslike Global Positioning System receivers, stellar fixes, or terrain-matchingsensors to make mid-flight corrections can use lower quality accelerometers.Much of the cost of inertial-grade accelerometers results from the extensivecalibration testing that must be performed on each unit.

Method of Operation: Accelerometers receive electrical power, sense ac-celeration and gravity, and provide measurement information as an electricsignal. Information from the accelerometer, along with information ontime, local gravity, orientation, and possibly other measurements, allows ve-hicle speed, heading, and position to be estimated by the guidance set or in-tegrated flight instrumentation system. Several different types of ac-celerometers exist, each with its own method of operation.

Many pendulous accelerometers (often referred to as force balance, force tobalance, or force rebalance accelerometers) use a small weight on a flexiblehinge that is supported against the forces of gravity and acceleration by amagnetic field. Numerous variations of this design exist, but the principles


•China•France•Germany•Israel• Italy• Japan•North Korea•Norway•Russia•South Africa•Sweden•United Kingdom•United States

(c) Accelerometers with a threshold of 0.05 g or less, or a linearity errorwithin 0.25 percent of full scale output, or both, which are designedfor use in inertial navigation systems or in guidance systems of alltypes;



(3) Accelerometers which are specially designed and developed as MWD(Measurement While Drilling) Sensors for use in downhole well ser-vice operations are not specified in Item 9 (c).

9-5I T E M 9

are much the same. The small weight is held in a null position by an elec-

tromagnet. As the acceleration changes, the weight moves, and control cir-

cuitry changes the current in the electromagnet to bring the weight back to

the null position. The amount of current required for this repositioning, or

rebalancing, is proportional to the acceleration.

A spinning mass gyroscope with an unbalanced mass added along its spin

axis can be used as an accelerometer. The gyroscope revolves about a pivot

perpendicular to its axis of spin at a rate proportionate to acceleration in-

cluding gravity. The sum of these revolutions serves as a mechanical inte-

gration of acceleration to provide an output proportionate to velocity rather

than acceleration. Accelerometers of this type are known as pendulous inte-

grating gyroscopic accelerometers (PIGAs). PIGAs can be very expensive

and have been used in some of the most accurate long-range ballistic mis-

sile systems.

Other accelerometer designs also exist such as vibrating element accelerom-eters that vary the tension and frequency of a vibrating element. Chip ac-celerometers use a flexible portion of the microcircuit semiconductor tovary electrical resistance and produce an electrical output. Accelerometers ofthis type are currently at the low end of the performance range, but designefforts will continue because of the potential for substantial cost reduction.Such modern accelerometers are already used in IMUs requiring less accu-racy such as UAVs, including cruise missiles.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Accelerometers are used in missile guidancesets or integrated flight instrumentation systems. Typically, three ac-celerometers mounted perpendicular to each other provide all the accelera-tion measurement information necessary for inertial navigation. They canbe installed in a gimbal structure (see Item 2 (d)), mounted in a floatingball, or affixed (strapped down) to the missile frame. Combined with gyro-scopes, they make up an IMU or inertial sensor assembly (ISA). Dependingupon mission requirements, some UAVs, including cruise missiles, canmake due with only one or two accelerometers.

Other Uses: Accelerometers are used in both civilian and military aircraftand space systems, in oil well drilling stress testing, as inertial navigators incars and other land vehicles, and in electronic equipment, manufacturing,gravity meters, robotics, and carnival rides (roller coasters). However, mostof these uses do not require the high stability and highly calibrated accuracyof inertial-grade accelerometers.

Appearance (as manufactured): Accelerometers vary greatly in appearancebecause many designs exist. They are usually cylindrical, metallic, and shinyfrom precision machining. The larger accelerometers used in ballistic mis-siles are several centimeters in length and can weigh up to several kilograms.Those used in UAVs, including cruise missiles, are smaller and lighter; theymay measure only a few centimeters on a side and weigh less than a kilo-

9-6 I T E M 9

gram. Many accelerometers of MTCR concern have highquality electrical connections and precision mounting sur-faces for accurate alignment. Many accelerometers are fac-tory-sealed instruments, not usually disassembled or evenopened for service by any customer. A modern integratedcircuit accelerometer is shown in Figure 9-4. The modeland serial number on the exterior of the accelerometershould appear on the associated documentation, whichcontains information about accuracy.

Distinguishing MTCR-controlled from other accelerome-ters simply by visual inspection can be difficult because,although different models of an accelerometer have differ-ent performance capabilities, they may look identical. Twoforce rebalance accelerometers covering a wide range ofperformance are shown in Figure 9-5. One variant of a so-phisticated gyroscopic accelerometer is the PIGA shownnext to an inch scale in Figure 9-6. Relevant informationunique to each model- and serial-numbered accelerometercan be derived from the associated documentation (often

called calibration sheet or cal-data), including the g-threshold and linearityerror. A major factor that makes an accelerometer accurate enough for usein sophisticated missile guidance sets is the exhaustive testing needed tocompile the calibration data. Thus, the detail and amount of the calibrationand error modeling data associated with each accelerometer are key indica-tors for determining the missile-related use of an accelerometer.

Appearance (as packaged): Because they are designed to be sensitive toacceleration, precision accelerometers are vulnerable to damage from rela-tively minor impact. They are usually protected from physical shock insmall, high quality packages with thick, contour-fitted foam lining muchlike a package for a fine pocket watch. For shipping, one or more of thesespecial boxes are packed in yet another box or other container with cush-

Figure 9-4: An integrated circuit accelerometer.

Phot

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itton

Sex

tant

Avi

onqu

e

Figure 9-5: Two force rebalance accelerometers thatcan be built with any of a wide range of performance

capabilities.

Photo Credit: Lockheed M

artin Federal System

s

Figure 9-6: A pendulous integrating gyroaccelerometer (PIGA) next to an inchscale.

Phot

o C

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he C

harle

s S

tark

Dra

per

Labo

rato

ries,

Inc.

9-7I T E M 9

ioned lining of some sort. The documentation on the accuracy of eachmodel- and serial-numbered accelerometer is usually contained in itspackage.

Nature and Purpose: Gyroscopes, or gyros, are sensitive pieces of electro-mechanical or electro-optical equipment that measure rotation about one ormore sensitive axis. Gyroscopes are usually mounted with accelerometers inthe guidance set or integrated flight instrumentation system. They measureany change in the angular orientation of the accelerometers, so that the di-rection of the accelerometer measurements is known. One of the most im-portant performance parameters is drift rate stability, usually measured infractions of a degree per hour. This determines how quickly the gyro losesknowledge of its orientation. For gyros used in strapdown guidance sys-tems, the stability of the scale factor—the factor relating the sensed rotationrate or angle and the gyro output signal—is also critical.

Missile accuracy is directly dependent on the quality of the missile’s ac-celerometers and gyros; missiles that fly for a long time without externalupdates require high quality gyros. Missiles that use sensor systems likeGlobal Positioning System receivers, stellar fixes, or terrain-matching sen-sors to make mid-flight corrections can use lower quality gyros. Much ofthe cost of inertial-grade gyros results from the extensive testing that mustbe performed on each unit.

Method of Operation: Gyros sense angular shifts (changes in orientation)and provide measurement information, usually as some form of electric sig-nal. The orientation information from the gyros, along with information ontime, local gravity, acceleration, and possibly other measurements, allowsvehicle speed, heading, and position to be estimated by the guidance set or


•Austria•Canada•China•France•Germany•Israel• Italy• Japan•North Korea•Russia•South Africa•Sweden•United Kingdom•United States

(d) All types of gyros usable in the systems in Item 1, with a rated driftrate stability of less than 0.5 degree (1 sigma or rms) per hour in a1 g environment;



(2) In subitem (d):(a) Drift rate is defined as the time rate of output deviation from the

desired output. It consists of random and systematic componentsand is expressed as an equivalent angular displacement per unittime with respect to inertial space.

(b) Stability is defined as standard deviation (1 sigma) of the varia-tion of a particular parameter from its calibrated value measuredunder stable temperature conditions. This can be expressed as afunction of time.

9-8 I T E M 9

integrated flight instrumentation system. Several different types of gyros ex-ist, each with its own method of operation. Most inertially guided missilesuse either spinning mass gyros or electro-optical gyros.

Spinning mass gyros contain a spinning disk and operate on the gyroscopicprinciple whereby a proportionate measurable torque is generated perpen-dicular to the angular disturbance. There are two common types of spinningmass gyros. Single degree-of-freedom (SDF) gyros sense rotation aboutonly one axis, while two degree-of-freedom (TDF) gyros sense rotationabout two axes. Since missile guidance systems usually require orientationknowledge for all three axes, three SDF gyros are required, but only twoTDF gyros (one axis will be redundant).

An SDF gyro has the spinning mass suspended cross-axis inside a cylinderthat floats inside yet another slightly larger cylinder fixed to the guidanceplatform. Many designs float the inner cylinder in a liquid while others sus-pend it with gaseous flow. Rotations of the floated inner cylinder are relatedto input orientation changes by the gyroscopic effect of the spinning mass.Measurement of those rotations or measurement of the force needed to pre-vent those rotations is the output of the SDF gyro.

The most commonly used TDF gyro is the dynamically tuned gyro (DTG).It uses no floatation fluid, so it is sometimes referred to as a “dry” tunedgyro. A DTG has the spinning mass suspended on a complex gimbaled flex-hinge assembly, essentially an ultra-precision universal joint. The complexhinge assembly is tuned so its error torques cancel at one specific speed, of-ten in excess of 10,000 rpm. Naturally, DTGs need very good speed regu-lation to operate reliably at the tuned rpm. Older types of TDF gyros con-sist of a series of mechanical gimbals that isolate the spinning rotor from thecase. The angular position of the spinning mass with respect to the case isused to measure the platform’s orientation changes.

Electro-optical gyros generate counter-rotating beams of laser light around aclosed path to form an interference pattern that is sensed by a detector. Whenrotation about an axis not in the plane of the loop occurs, the difference in theeffective lengths of the respective paths creates a relative shift of the interfer-ence pattern. This shift (known as the Sagnac effect) is observed by the detec-tor, which provides an output proportional to the rotation of the gyro.

There are two common types of optical gyros, the ring laser gyro (RLG) andthe fiber optic gyro (FOG), and there are several variations of each. RLGscreate their counter-rotating beams of laser light inside gas tubes that are cav-ities configured in a closed polygonal path, often triangular, but sometimesfour or five sided. These cavities are made in glass with a near-zero thermalexpansion for higher accuracy. FOGs use long spools of fiber optic cable tocarry the counter-rotating beams. An important difference between RLGsand FOGs is that the spool of fiber optic cable gives the FOG a much longeroptical path length and, at least theoretically, better accuracy. In practice,however, this improvement is offset by imperfections in the fiber optic cable

9-9I T E M 9

and cable interfaces. FOGs are under development in several countries, andtheir performance characteristics are continually improving. They hold muchpromise for becoming the lowest cost gyro yet devised.

FOGs are designed as single-axis gyros so most missiles that use them willneed three to track rotations about all three axes; the same is true of single-ring RLGs. Sometimes multi-axis RLGs are used that contain three or morerings in a single block of glass; only one such unit would be required in aguidance set.

Other types of gyros include the hemispherical resonating gyro, which es-tablishes and monitors a standing vibration wave in a hemispherical cup(somewhat like a small wineglass). There are also designs like small tuningforks that operate by a method that involves Coriolis force. However, anygyro capable of meeting MTCR performance specifications is controlled re-gardless of its method of operation.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Gyros are used in a missile’s guidance set orintegrated flight instrumentation system to sense changes in accelerometerorientation. Designs may use two, three, or four gyros. They usually aremounted perpendicular to each other in order to provide angular measure-ment information about all three axes. They can be used in a gimbal struc-ture (see Item 2 (d)), mounted in a floating ball, or affixed to a block whichis in turn affixed to the missile airframe in a strapdown configuration.Combined with accelerometers, they make up the IMU or ISA.

Other Uses: Gyros are used in non-missile guidance sets, integrated flightinstrumentation systems, gyrostabilizers, automatic pilots, and in naviga-tional equipment. Military applications include artillery, tanks, ships, andaircraft. Commercial applications include ships, aircraft, and oil drilling. Inmost non-missile applications, gyros can be smaller, cheaper,and less complex because operating environments and accu-racy requirements are usually less demanding.

Appearance (as manufactured): Modern SDF gyros can be5 to 8 cm in diameter and 8 to 12 cm long, and weigh up toone kg. DTGs are usually cylindrical with diameters of 4 to 6cm and lengths of 4 to 8 cm, and generally weigh less thanone kg. Older gyros can be somewhat larger, approximatelytwice the size and weigh several kilograms. Gyros used inUAVs, including cruise missiles, can be much smaller andlighter, perhaps tens of grams.

Many gyros of MTCR concern have precision mounting sur-faces for accurate alignment and high quality electrical con-nections. Because many designs exist, a gyro’s appearance canvary greatly. Spinning mass gyros are usually cylindrical, metal-lic, heavy for their size, and shiny from precision machining. Adynamically tuned spinning mass gyro is shown in Figure 9-7.

Figure 9-7: A DTG dynamically tunedspinning mass gyro.

Photo Credit: The C

harles Stark D

raper Laboratory, Inc.

9-10 I T E M 9

A vibrating structure gyro is shown in Figure 9-8.Individual optical gyros are usually pad-like andmounted in a low profile, sealed box. A three-ringRLG unit will tend to be cubic and between 4 and10 cm on a side. It may weigh between fractions ofa kilogram to over a kilogram. Some single-axis de-signs resemble cylinders with diameters exceeding20 cm. Three exposed RLG bodies are shown inFigure 9-9; an electrode for the gas laser can beseen at the bottom of each ring. The laser lighttravels the triangular path machined into the glass.Some FOG designs are only 2 to 4 cm in diameter,contain a fiber several hundred meters long, andweigh fractions of a kilogram. A FOG with its topremoved is shown in Figure 9-10. A more typicalexterior appearance for FOGs and RLGs is shownin Figure 9-11.

MTCR-controlled and uncontrolled gyros maylook identical. Relevant information unique to eachmodel- and serial-numbered gyro can be derivedfrom the associated documentation (calibrationsheet or cal-data), including the drift rate stability.As with accelerometers, the exhaustive testingneeded to compile this calibration data is a substan-

tial part of what makes a gyro accurate enough for use in a missile guidance set.Thus, the detail and amount of the calibration and error modeling data asso-ciated with each gyro are critical to determining the missile-related use of agyro. The cal-data normally cites a serial number that is visible on the gyro.

Appearance (as packaged): Spinning mass gyros are vulnerable to damagefrom shock, but optical gyros are fairly rugged. Spinning mass gyros are packedin high quality, cushioned containers. Optical gyros do not need as much cush-ioning material in the package, but they are still likely to be shipped in highquality packages typical of expensive electronic instruments and sensors.

Figure 9-8: A vibrating structure gyro.

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Figure 9-9: Three exposed ring laser gyros without theirassociated electronics.

Photo Credit: H

oneywell

Figure 9-10: A fiber optic gyro with its top removed.

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Figure 9-11: A fiber optic, rate sensing gyro.It is 2 × 6.5 × 8 cm.

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9-11I T E M 9

Nature and Purpose: Continuous output accelerometers and gyros speci-fied to function at acceleration levels greater than 100 g are a special cate-gory of accelerometers and gyros, which may include those in Item 9 (c)and (d), respectively. These devices produce uninterrupted signals through-out their specified range and are designed to operate under extreme accel-erations in excess of 100 g. All such instruments are controlled under thisitem regardless of performance specifications. Their purpose is to provideinertial instrument data under heavy accelerations like those experienced byreentry vehicles (RVs) during defense avoidance and reentry deceleration.These instruments may also be used as part of a fuzing system. No accuracyspecifications are included because instruments with significantly lower ac-curacy can be used due to the relatively short period of operation.

Method of Operation: These inertial instruments operate in much thesame way as those covered in Item 9 (c) and (d), but they are ruggedizedand have a greater operating range (in excess of 100 g).

Typical Missile-Related Uses: These accelerometers can be used as fusesin RVs, and continuous output accelerometers and gyros are used in theguidance sets that steer maneuvering RVs as they evade defenses or termi-nally guide themselves to a target. Such accelerometers and gyros are fairlyaccurate and probably nuclear hardened. Continuous output accelerometersrated in access of 100 g are also used in fusing and firing mechanisms forcruise missiles with penetrating warheads.

Other Uses: Continuous output accelerometersand gyros able to operate in a 100-g environ-ment can be used in guided munitions such asartillery shells. Such accelerometers are alsoused in laboratories for high-g tests that requirecontinuous output.

Appearance (as manufactured): Continuousoutput accelerometers, as shown in Figure 9-12,may look identical to those covered in Item 9 c.Similarly, gyros specified to function at levelsgreater than 100 g may also be virtually identi-cal in appearance to those covered in Item 9 d.They all are usually cylindrical or pad-like withprecision mounting flanges and high quality


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(e) Continuous output accelerometers or gyros of any type, specified tofunction at acceleration levels greater than 100 g;

Note to Item 9:(1) Items (a) through (f) may be exported as part of a manned aircraft,


Figure 9-12: Two continuous output accelerometers,visually identical to those of Figure 9-5, rated at 100 g.

Photo Credit: Lockheed M

artin Federal System

s

9-12 I T E M 9

electrical connectors. Because smaller instrumentsare inherently more g-tolerant, they tend to besmaller than most other accelerometers and gyros.There are even miniature high-g accelerometersintegrated into circuit elements, as shown inFigure 9-13.

Appearance (as packaged): Because of theirrugged nature, these instruments do not need spe-cial handling. They are shipped as small hardwareitems. The documentation on the operating grange of each model- and serial-numbered unit isusually contained in its package.

Nature and Purpose: This MTCR Annex item ensures that any of the ac-celerometers and gyros controlled in Item 9 remain controlled when theyare components of a larger assembly or a non-guidance related assembly.Examples of such assemblies include gimbal assemblies with the instrumentsinstalled, IMUs, complete guidance sets not controlled under Category I,Item 2 (d), gravity meters, and stabilized platforms for cameras, antennas,or other equipment. Any inertial system, subsystem, or other equipment,regardless of its intended use, is controlled as Category II under this item ifit contains one or more of Items 9 (c), 9 (d), or 9 (e).

Typical Missile-Related Uses: This equipment is used in guidance sets andintegrated flight instrumentation systems for ballistic missiles and cruisemissiles, as described in Item 2 (d) and Item 9 (a).

Other Uses: This equipment can also be used in guidance sets and naviga-tion systems for a whole range of space flight, aviation, gravity mapping,ocean navigation, land navigation, and well drilling uses.

Appearance (as manufactured): The appearance of inertial or other equip-ment using accelerometers or gyros varies widely. IMUs can be gimbaled; agimbaled IMU is shown in Figure 9-14. These can be designed to be spher-ical so as to float inside a liquid-filled chamber, as shown in Figure 9-15.


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(f) Inertial or other equipment using accelerometers described bysubitems (c) or (e) above or gyros described by subitems (d) or (e)above, and systems incorporating such equipment, and specially de-signed integration software therefor;



Figure 9-13: An integrated circuitaccelerometer ratedat over 100 g.

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IMUs can also be designed to be rigidlymounted in a strapdown configuration, asshown in Figures 9-16 and 9-17.Equipment using accelerometers and gyrosmay also use optical sensors, GlobalPositioning System satellite receivers, radar

units, horizon sensors, computers and software, andother items, depending on the specific application. Theequipment has electrical connectors and mounting sur-faces, and may have removable access panels for replacingaccelerometers, gyros, or other subelements. They varyin size from a few centimeters to a meter on a side.

Appearance (as packaged): Because many accelerome-ters and gyroscopes are inherently delicate, they arepacked in robust shipping containers with cushioning andinsulation to prevent damage from shock and moisture.Containers may be wood, metal, or plastic with foamcushioning. The shipping packages are likely to have thecautionary labels usually used on containers of costly as-semblies of sensitive electrical or mechanical equipment.

Figure 9-14: Agimbaled IMU thatcontains threeaccelerometers andthree gyros (gimbalsare internal).

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Figure 9-16: A strapdown IMU that contains threeaccelerometers and three ring laser gyros (in theend opposite the cables).

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Figure 9-17: A strapdown IMU containingthree accelerometers and three ring lasergyros.

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Figure 9-15: A model ofan inertial measurement

sphere that containsthree accelerometers

and three gyros,designed to float inside

a liquid-filled chamber(chamber shown open).


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9-14 I T E M 9

(g) Production equipment and other test, calibration and alignmentequipment, other than that described in 9(h), designed or modifiedto be used with equipment specified in a-f above, including the fol-lowing:(1) For laser gyro equipment, the following equipment used to char-

acterize mirrors, having the threshold accuracy shown or better:(i) Scatterometer (10 ppm); (ii) Reflectometer (50 ppm); (iii) Profilometer (5 Angstroms).

(2) For other inertial equipment:(i) Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU Module) Tester; (ii) IMU Platform Tester; (iii) IMU Stable Element Handling Fixture; (iv) IMU Platform Balance fixture; (v) Gyro Tuning Test Station; (vi) Gyro Dynamic Balance Station; (vii) Gyro Run-In/Motor Test Station; (viii) Gyro Evacuation and Filling Test Station; (ix) Centrifuge Fixture for Gyro Bearings; (x) Accelerometer Axis Align Station; (xi) Accelerometer Test Station.

(h) Equipment as follows:(1) Balancing machines having all the following characteristics:

(i) Not capable of balancing rotors/assemblies having a massgreater than 3kg;

(ii) Capable of balancing rotors/assemblies at speeds greaterthan 12,500 rpm;

(iii) Capable of correcting unbalance in two planes or more; and(iv) Capable of balancing to a residual specific unbalance of 0.2

gram mm per kg of rotor mass;(2) Indicator heads (sometimes known as balancing instrumenta-

tion) designed or modified for use with machines specified in9(h) 1;

(3) Motion simulators/rate tables (equipment capable of simulatingmotion) having all the following characteristics:(i) Two axis or more;(ii) Slip rings capable of transmitting electrical power and/or

signal information; and(iii) Having any of the following characteristics:

(a) For any single axis:(1) Capable of rates of 400 degrees/sec or more; or

30 degrees/sec or less; and(2) A rate resolution equal to or less than 6

degrees/sec and an accuracy equal to or less than0.6 degrees/sec;

9-15I T E M 9

Nature and Purpose: Alignment, calibration, and test equipment is used tobuild, calibrate, test, and characterize these instruments to meet the re-quirements. Gyroscopes, accelerometers, and IMUs are precision instru-ments that must be accurate and reliable over time. Particularly importantis test equipment that subjects an instrument to accelerations and orienta-tion changes while measuring the instrument’s response over time. Thisequipment is essential to the manufacture of high quality inertial instru-ments. Any specially designed test, calibration, alignment, and productionequipment is controlled even if it is not specified on the list.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: This equipment is required to produce andcalibrate inertial instruments for use in missiles of all types.

Other Uses: Most spacecraft, aircraft, and other vehicles using inertial nav-igation or guidance units require similar equipment and technologies fordevelopment, production, test, and calibration. However, many other non-missile applications can use inertial instruments with higher drift rates,lower vibration and acceleration tolerances, and lower stability require-ments. Thus, the test, calibration, alignment, and production equipment fornon-missile inertial equipment is often less sophisticated and less precisethan that required for accurate missiles.

(b) Having a worst-case rate stability equal to or better(less) than plus or minus 0.05 percent averaged over 10degrees or more; or

(c) A position accuracy equal to or better than 5 arc second;(4) Positioning tables (equipment capable of precise rotary position-

ing in any axes) having the following characteristics:(i) Two axes or more; and(ii) A positioning accuracy equal to or better than 5 arc second;

(5) Centrifuges capable of imparting accelerations above 100 g andhaving slip rings capable of transmitting electrical power and sig-nal information.

Notes to Item 9:(4) The only balancing machines, indicator heads, motion simulators,

rate tables, positioning tables, and centrifuges specified in Item 9 arethose specified in 9 (h).

(5) 9 (h) (1) does not control balancing machines designed or modifiedfor dental or other medical equipment.

(6) 9 (h) (3) and (4) do not control rotary tables designed or modifiedfor machine tools or for medical equipment.

(7) Rate tables not controlled by 9 (h) (3) and providing the characteris-tics of a positioning table are to be evaluated according to 9 (h) (4).

(8) Equipment that has the characteristics specified in 9 (h) (4) whichalso meets the characteristics of 9 (h) (3) will be treated as equipmentspecified in 9 (h) (3).

9-16 I T E M 9

Appearance (as manufactured): Specially de-signed alignment, calibration, test, and produc-tion equipment for these guidance and navigationitems described in (a) through (f) are usuallylimited-production items. They are as diverse insize, weight, and appearance as in function, andthese features change as the technology changes.Although far from a complete list, short descrip-tions of some examples are provided below.

Because ring laser gyros sense the phase changeof minute wavelengths in light, their accuracy isdetermined by the quality of their mirrors. Themirrors must be a precise shape and reflectalmost all the light falling on them and neitherabsorb nor scatter it. The following three piecesof equipment are designed to characterize mir-rors for use in such gyros.

• A scatterometer (10 ppm) measures the ten-dency of a mirror to scatter light away fromits intended direction to an accuracy of 10ppm or less. It provides a beam of known in-tensity and measures the intensity of scatteredrays.

• A reflectometer (50 ppm) measures the abilityof a mirror to reflect light to a measurement ac-curacy of 50 ppm or less. It works by shining abeam of known intensity on the mirror andmeasuring the intensity of the reflected light.

• A profilometer (5 Angstroms) measures the profile ofthe optical surface of a mirror to an accuracy of 5Angstroms (5 × 10–10 m) or less. Various methods areused to map the minute variations in optical surfaceheight. This mapping helps determine the localizeddeviations from theoretical perfect geometry, whetherit is designed flat, concave, or convex. A complete pro-filometer system is shown in Figure 9-18.

The accuracy of inertial guidance systems is determinedby the quality of their accelerometers and gyroscopes.

Most of the following equipment either characterizes or tests these instru-ments as they operate separately, as an assembly, or as a complete IMU.

• An IMU Module Tester operates an IMU module electrically, simulatesinputs, and collects response data to confirm proper electrical operation.Typical IMU module testers are shown in Figures 9-19 and 9-20.

Figure 9-18: A profilometer system used for measuringmirrors.

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Figure 9-19: A typical IMU module tester.

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Figure 9-20: Another portable IMU testerconnected to a miniature IMU.

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9-17I T E M 9

• An IMU Platform Tester operates a completeIMU platform, that is, the stable element orfully operational strapdown IMU. A three-axesrate table, also referred to as a motion simulator,often is used as part of an IMU platform tester;an example is shown in Figure 9-21. Such tablesare controlled under Item 9 (h) (3). An IMUtested by this equipment should correctly sensethe earth’s gravity and rotation through all ori-entation changes without misinterpreting it aslateral or vertical movement and without losingtrack of its initial alignment with respect to afixed coordinate reference frame.

• An IMU Stable Element Handling Fixturesafely handles the IMU stable element, that is,the inner portion of a gimbaled or floatedIMU, which contains the inertial instruments.Careful handling facilitates numerous neces-sary manipulations without degrading thestable element during its assembly, test, andadjustment.

• An IMU Platform Balance Fixture determinesIMU platform imbalance and thereby facili-tates adjustments to establish balance. Thecenter of balance must be established accu-rately to avoid torques under acceleration andvibration during flight.

• A Gyro Tuning Test Station energizes the gyro at the desired voltage overa range of speeds to determine the best operating rate of rotation, or rpm.The best rpm is achieved when the effects of gyro error sources are min-imized as indicated by data collected. A typical rate table used as part ofa gyro tuning test station is shown in Figure 9-22.

• A Gyro Dynamic Balance Station precisely balances the high-speed rotat-ing members of spinning mass gyroscopes. Balance is critical to gyro per-formance and longevity. These balancing machines are subject to controlunder Item 9 (h) (1) if they have the specified performance characteristics.

• A Gyro Run-In/Motor Test Station energizes the gyro or gyro motor at thedesired voltage and frequency to accumulate run time and thereby break inthe gyro bearings and measure motor performance at the design rpm.

• A Gyro Evacuation and Filling Test Station purges a gyro internal cavityand fills it with the design pressure of a desired liquid or blend of gases.Most gyros and accelerometers will be filled with an inert dry gas to

Figure 9-21: A three-axis rate table for testing IMUs orgyros.

Figure 9-22: A typical rate table used for tuning gyros.

Photo Credit: Ideal Aerosm

ith, Inc.

9-18 I T E M 9

• improve long term performance. In addition, cer-tain gyros have internal cavities that need either aspecific liquid of a given density and viscosity or aspecific blend of gases to function properly.

• A Centrifuge Fixture for Gyro Bearings facilitatestesting of gyros in a centrifuge to confirm the abil-ity of the bearings to withstand the accelerationforces expected during flight. Centrifuge fixturesare also used to remove excess lubricant from agyro’s bearing retainer rings. A centrifuge is shownin Figure 9-23.

• An Accelerometer Axis Align Station checks ac-celerometer axis alignment by rotating the ac-celerometer about its input axis while the input axisis horizontal. This test is often repeated after vibra-tion tests or temperature cycles to determine inputaxis alignment stabilities. Accelerometer input axisalignment is again checked after installation at theIMU level to determine the slight but importantdeviations from desired mutual perpendicularity ofthe input axis. The electronics associated with apendulous integrating gyro accelerometer (PIGA)alignment station are shown in Figure 9-24.

• Accelerometer Test Stations are used to test theaccuracy with which an accelerometer can mea-sure gravity over a range of positions and angles.These data are then used to calibrate the instru-ment. Accelerometers are mounted to a verticaltable surface and tumbled to experience gravita-tional acceleration while upright and alternately

upside down. Several PIGAtest stations are shown inFigure 9-25. Accelerometertest stations can run teststhat include temperaturecontrol, as shown inFigure 9-26. The tests usedata recording equipmentthat take data over a longperiod of time.

• Balancing machines areused primarily to balancespinning mass gyro-scopes to a high level of

Figure 9-23: A centrifuge used for gyro-bearingtesting and its controller.

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Figure 9-24: PIGA accelerometer alignment stationcontrol electronics.

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Figure 9-25: PIGA accelerometer test stations.

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9-19I T E M 9

precision. Balancing machines arecontrolled under Item 9 (h) (1).

• Indicator heads are precision roundsteel tables that can be rotated andlocked in a specific direction repeat-edly without loss of accuracy. Theyare also known as tumble testers, in-dexing heads, positioning tables, anddividing heads. Indicator headsmodified for use in Item 9 (h) (1)controlled balancing machines arecontrolled under Item 9 (h) (2), andhigh precision, multi-axis indicatorheads (i.e., positioning tables) arecontrolled under Item 9 (h) (4).

• Controlled motion simulators andrate tables are precision machinesthat rotate a mounting table aboutmultiple axes at precisely knownspeeds and angles. They are normallyused in guidance development to testinstruments and IMU assemblies asdescribed above. Figure 9-21 showssuch a rate table; Figure 9-27 showsa two-axis, rate-integrating gyro mo-tion simulator. Rate tables are con-trolled under Item 9 (h) (3).

• A centrifuge, as shown in Figure 9-23,is used as part of an accelerometer teststation in order to determine ac-celerometer non-linearities over arange substantially in excess of the plusand minus one g available in tumbletests. Centrifuges are controlled underItem 9 (h) (5).

Appearance (as packaged): Packaging varies greatly with the size, weight,and sensitivity of the specific equipment. However, because most of theseitems are precision equipment sensitive to shock or rust, packaging is likelyto be robust, with padding and coverings to protect against shock and mois-ture. Much of the equipment can be disassembled and shipped in separatecontainers or crates.

Figure 9-26: A dividing head with a temperature control chamberfor testing an accelerometer inside the chamber.


uidance &

Control S

ystems

Figure 9-27: A two-axis rate integrating gyro test station utilizinga motion simulator/rate table.

Photo Credit: C

ontraves Inc.

ITEM 10Flight Control

10-1I T E M 10

Nature and Purpose: The flight control system provides and controls thesteering mechanisms needed for a missile to achieve stable flight and exe-cute subsequent maneuvers without losing stability. It normally receivessteering commands from the guidance set, mission computer, or integratedflight instrumentation system.

The flight control system includes the actuators to move control surfaces,aim nozzles, control flows, and activate thrusters. It also includes sensors todetect changes in air vehicle attitude, rate of change of attitude, speed, alti-tude, throttle setting, air temperature, and air pressure. These sensor out-puts are often shared by other mechanisms in the missile. The flight controlsystem is distributed throughout the missile and sometimes overlaps withportions of other systems.

Information transmitted from the sensors to the flight control computerand to the actuators is either analog or digital and may be routed by elec-trical wires (fly-by-wire). State-of-the-art systems may use optical fibers toprovide digital communication between the flight control components (fly-by-light). Optical connections are lighter in weight and greatly reduce sus-ceptibility to the effects of electromagnetic pulse, electromagnetic interfer-ence, and lightning.

Method of Operation: When unmanned air vehicles (UAVs), includingcruise missiles, need to maneuver (turn, climb, etc.), the integrated flight in-


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FlightControl

Flight control systems and “technology” as follows; designed or modifiedfor the systems in Item 1 as well as the specially designed test, calibration,and alignment equipment therefor:(a) Hydraulic, mechanical, electro-optical, or electro-mechanical flight

control systems (including fly-by-wire systems);(b) Attitude control equipment;

Note to Item 10:Items (a) and (b) may be exported as part of a manned aircraft or satel-lite or in quantities appropriate for replacement parts for manned aircraft.

10-2 I T E M 10

strumentation system commands a change in air vehicle heading or altitude.The flight control system sets the actuators on control surfaces to introducepitch, roll, and/or yaw; holds those settings until the orientation has changed;and then resets the actuators to maintain the new profile. Flight control sys-tems often work in conjunction with a gyrostabilizer or automatic pilot (au-topilot), which determines the control surface motions necessary to achievethe desired maneuvers. Autopilots also continuously compensate for environ-mental disturbances. Ballistic missiles may also use flight control systems thatoperate similarly, but ballistic missiles use thrust vector control and possiblysmall steering jets to change missile direction. Some ballistic missiles also useaerodynamic fins while in the atmosphere.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Flight control systems are required toachieve stable missile flight and execute maneuvers without losing stability.These systems are usually tailored to the flight characteristics and missionprofile of the missile and thus tend to be missile-specific. Most missiles, in-cluding space launch vehicles (SLVs) and UAVs, use these systems.

Other Uses: Components usedin missile flight control systemsmay also be used in military andcivilian aircraft.

Appearance (as manufac-tured): The flight control sys-tem is not a single integral unit;it is distributed throughout themissile. The flight control sys-tem parts most likely to be en-

countered include the actuators, electronic assemblies, specialized cables,and some sensors.

The actuators used to move aerodynamic control surfacescan either be rotary or linear. A rotary actuator can be pow-ered by an electric motor. It responds proportionally to aninput command. The actuator is part of a closed-loop con-trol system, which includes an amplifier and a method forsensing the position of the actuator. The mechanical outputof the actuator is either a hub that can accept a control sur-face shaft or a shaft onto which a surface can be mounted.An actuator for thrust vector control (TVC) of a rocketnozzle is shown in Figure 10-1. An electromechanical flightcontrol actuator for a tail fin of a small missile is shown inFigure 10-2. Sometimes this actuator must not only be ca-pable of rotating the control surface into a significant aero-dynamic force, but also supporting the entire mass of thesurface during high-acceleration launches and maneuvers.Linear actuators are connected to control surfaces through

Figure 10-1: An electromechanical actuator for thrust vector control of arocket nozzle.

Figure 10-2: An electromechanical flightcontrol actuator for a tail fin of a smallmissile.

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mechanical linkages that convert the lin-ear actuator motion to an angular controlsurface motion. These actuators are pow-ered by an electric motor, pressurizedgas, or hydraulic fluid. A hydraulic TVCactuator for a very large solid rocket mo-tor is shown in Figure 10-3.

Appearance (as packaged): Aerody-namic control surfaces and actuators arefairly robust pieces of equipment. Typical packaging includes wooden cratesand cardboard or wooden boxes. They are securely attached to the shippingcontainer to avoid movement and probably packed in foam shaped like thepart. The sensors used in flight control systems are often more delicate andare normally individually wrapped and secured in a shock-resistant box orcrate. They are often wrapped in a moisture-proof bag.

Nature and Purpose: Stable and controlled air vehicle or missile flight is avery complicated dynamic control problem. Solving it requires in-depthknowledge of all subsystems and their interactions over all flight regimes.This knowledge is normally generated by wind tunnel testing, computermodeling to simulate vehicle performance, and a detailed flight test pro-gram. Design integration technology enables missile designers to size, con-figure, and optimize all the subsystems; to take into account their often-complicated interactions; and thereby to minimize errors. Thus, thistechnology decreases the time to design, test, and produce a missile or flightvehicle and may also support efforts to improve missile performance.

Method of Operation: Early in a development program, design integrationtechnology is often manifested in a computer program that models the air-frame and the propulsion, guidance, and control systems of the vehicle. Thesoftware simulates vehicle behavior in all expected flight regimes and pre-dicts theoretical performance. The designer can change the subsystem para-meters, rerun the simulation, and choose those parameters that give the bestperformance. Later in the development program “hardware-in-the-loop”simulations may be used where actual subsystems are connected together ona test bench and the computer simulates the flight environment and anyhardware missing from the simulation. Some test equipment, such as windtunnels, may be used to replicate actual flight conditions as part of the


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Figure 10-3:Hydraulic TVC actuator.

(c) Design technology for integration of air vehicle fuselage, propulsionsystem and lifting control surfaces to optimize aerodynamic perfor-mance throughout the flight regime on an unmanned air vehicle;

(d) Design technology for integration of the flight control, guidance, andpropulsion data into a flight management system for optimization ofrocket system trajectory.

Photo Credit: M

oog Inc.

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simulations. This technique finds real-world effects of hardware interac-tions, which may be difficult to detect or hard to simulate. For example, theUS Space Shuttle was never flight-tested in its final configuration. Althoughnumerous components and subsystems were extensively tested, the shuttleflew with a crew the first time it was launched—an event extremely unlikelywithout this technology.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Though not an absolute requirement, mod-ern UAVs, including cruise missiles, and rocket systems use design integra-tion technology to shorten development time, decrease costs, and validateand improve performance.

Other Uses: Similar design integration technology is used to design and in-tegrate commercial and military aircraft.

Appearance (as manufactured): Typically design integration technologytakes the form of a computer program stored on printed, magnetic, or othermedia. Any common media including magnetic tape, floppy disks, removablehard disks, compact disks, and documents can contain this software and data.

Appearance (as packaged): Magnetic tape, floppy disks, removable harddisks, compact disks, and documents containing design integration tech-nology are indistinguishable from any other storage media. Only labelingand accompanying documentation can indicate its use unless the software isrun on the appropriate computer. This technology, including the docu-mentation, is capable of being transmitted over a computer network.

ITEM 11Avionics

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Nature and Purpose: Radars, laser radars (LADARs), and infrared (IR)

laser radars (LIDARs) are sophisticated active sensor systems that can be

used for reconnaissance, target homing, or guidance in unmanned air vehi-

cles (UAVs), especially cruise missiles. Radar scene-matching correlators

have been used in UAVs and ballistic missiles. Radar and laser altimeters are

somewhat less sophisticated devices used for navigation and terrain avoid-

ance in cruise missiles and weapon fusing in cruise and ballistic missiles. In

recent years, significant technological improvements have occurred in trans-

mitters, receivers, antennas, and electronic processing.

Method of Operation: Radar, LADAR, and LIDAR systems operate simi-

larly. They emit a pulse of electromagnetic energy and detect the energy re-

flected to them from the terrain or target below. Distance is computed as a


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Avionics

Avionics equipment, “technology” and components as follows; designedor modified for use in the systems in Item 1, and specially designed soft-ware therefor:(a) Radar and laser radar systems, including altimeters;

Notes to Item 11:(1) Item 11 equipment may be exported as part of a manned aircraft or

satellite or in quantities appropriate for replacement parts for mannedaircraft.

(2) Examples of equipment included in this Item:(a) Terrain contour mapping equipment;(b) Scene mapping and correlation (both digital and analogue)

equipment;(c) Doppler navigation radar equipment;(d) Passive interferometer equipment;(e) Imaging sensor equipment (both active and passive);

(3) In subitem (a), laser radar systems embody specialized transmission,scanning, receiving and signal processing techniques for utilization oflasers for echo ranging, direction finding and discrimination of tar-gets by location, radial speed and body reflection characteristics.

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product of half the elapsed time between signal transmission and reception,and the speed of light. The direction of the target or terrain is given by theangle between the two pulses. The image of the terrain or target therebycreated can be compared with stored images, and missile course can be al-tered as needed.

Radar and laser altimeters operate similarly, but measure only the distancefrom the missile to the ground. Such altimeters make precise measurementsof distance above ground to help low flying missiles avoid terrain and, whencompared with elevation maps, can be used as navigation aids. Radar al-timeters may also be used in altitude fusing of ballistic missiles.

Doppler navigation systems operate like radar altimeters, but compare thefrequencies, not the transit time, of the transmitted beams and the returnedenergy. The change in frequency is a result of missile movement relative tothe ground and can be directly converted to missile velocity. Multiple an-tennas can measure missile velocity in any direction if they receive enoughreturned energy. This velocity information can be used to correct for accu-mulated guidance errors.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: These systems are used in cruise missiles assensors for target discrimination, homing, and warhead fusing. They arealso used as navigation aids for keeping the missile on a prescribed flightpath and at certain flight altitudes. Such sensors can also be used for termi-nal guidance or fusing of ballistic missiles.

Other Uses: Radar and Doppler navigation systems are used on militaryand commercial aircraft and ships for navigation, weather detection, andcollision avoidance. Radar altimeters are commonly used for numerous pur-poses such as determining height above the terrain on many types of air-craft. LIDARs have been used for atmospheric measurements, oceano-graphic studies, and smokestack emissions studies.

Appearance (as manufactured): Radar systems for missiles and UAVs(seekers or sensors) are normally designed as a single assembly consisting ofan antenna subassembly located at one end of the system and the support-ing power, control, and processing subassemblies located in one or more(separate but connected) housings. The antenna subassembly is normally acircular or oblong radiating and receiving, beam-forming element linked toboth a power amplifier and waveguides, normally rectangular tubing thatcouples the signal from the amplifier to the radiating element. Antennas areeither flat or parabolic and must be sized to fit within the missile diameter.The antennas are fixed in electronically scanning systems or gimbaled in me-chanical scanning systems. The antenna-mounting features and supportstructure are strong enough to maintain stability and accuracy in the pres-ence of substantial accelerations caused by launch, turbulence, and maneu-vering. The shape and weight of the support structure and ancillary equip-ment housings vary greatly from system to system, but may have some

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features peculiar to missile applications. For example, to help reduce missilecross-sectional area and improve cooling, the equipment boxes may haveone or more cylindrical or conical surfaces and may have mounting featuresto ensure good contact with the missile skin or provide for coolant flowrather than external fins for air-cooling.

Radar altimeters are generally much smaller than radar seekers or other sen-sors with fixed, surface-mounted transmitter and receiver antennas. Theseantennas, which must point toward the ground, are usually flat, rectangu-lar, or circular plates with a mounting surface conforming to the exterior ofthe missile. The power- and signal-processing requirements are significantlyless than those for radar seeker systems. The transmitter and receiver arenormally enclosed within one box connected to the antenna by a coaxial ca-ble. This subassembly usually has a volume of less than 0.05m3 and does notrequire external cooling. A typical Doppler system consisting of a receiver/transmitter/antenna assembly typically occupies 0.007m3, weighs less than5 kg, and requires about 12 watts of power.

LADAR and LIDAR systems differ from radar systems in that they use themuch shorter visible-light and IR wavelengths respectively. They are easilydistinguished by the external appearance of an optical lens or window.Systems operating at longer IR wavelengths have an optical port that mayappear to be metallic. Like radar antennas, the optical unit of the system isfixed or movable, and it may be mounted separately. Construction is heavy,with rugged mounts. In general, all of these systems have mounting surfacesthat are unpainted but coated with a conductive anti-corrosion film. Theelectrical grounding of all avionics chassis is vital to survival in hostile elec-tromagnetic environments.

Appearance (as packaged): Although these systems are built to survivenormal missile handling and storage, and severe flight environments, theymust be carefully packaged to ensure that unusual stresses are not imposedby the shipping container and its environments. Because the antenna struc-ture and drive systems are especially sensitive, they are well protected. Thesystems are sealed in an air-tight enclosure and shipped in cushioned con-tainers. A wide range of outer containers may be used including metaldrums, wooden boxes, and composite or metal cases.

Nature and Purpose: Direction finding systems provide a vehicle withbearing information (angular orientation) to known sources of electromag-netic radiation emanating from ground-based transmitters. Terrain and tar-get characteristics may be determined by imaging systems, typically a visible


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(b) Passive sensors for determining bearings to specific electromagneticsources (direction finding equipment) or terrain characteristics;

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or infrared (IR) camera. These systems are passive because they receive butdo not transmit energy; thus, missiles using them are much less likely to bedetected. Both systems are used for UAV guidance and as payload sensors,and in some cases have been used for terminal guidance of ballistic missiles.

Method of Operation: Direction finding equipment uses passive sensors toreceive electromagnetic radiation from ground transmitters at variousknown points. For example, comparing the relative transit times of the sig-nals from two or more sites allows the computer on the missile to determineits location and heading. This information is used by the integrated flightinstrumentation system to follow the preprogrammed flight plan. An anti-radiation homing seeker guides the missile to the target by processing thereceived radar energy from a single emitter.

Imaging sensors may use terrain characteristics to navigate. The optical as-sembly consists of one or more lenses of fixed or variable focal length, animage intensifier, and a photosensitive array for converting the scene into adigital map. This assembly operates in the visible or IR wavelengths. Visiblelight systems using a high-intensity flash illuminator at night thus becomesemi-active sensors. The sensors collect images of ground scenes at prede-termined points along a preprogrammed flight path. The images are digi-tized and compared to stored scenes of the same locations. Differences be-tween the two scenes are converted into a position error used to correctvehicle heading. Alternatively, image sensors can be used in man-in-the-loop guidance where the image of the target area is relayed to a person whoactually flies the vehicle. The operator can either guide the UAV to impactor lock the missile on the target after which the missile homes autono-mously to impact.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Inertial guidance systems updated by imag-ing systems can be used to guide cruise missiles with extraordinary accuracyor for terminal guidance of ballistic missiles. Direction finding equipmentcan be used to guide UAVs and for ballistic missile terminal guidance.

Other Uses: Interferometer direction finding systems are used in aircraft,ships, and land vehicles. Image sensors are used in many tactical military sys-tems for ordnance delivery, particularly from aircraft. Imaging sensor tech-nology (sensors and algorithms) is also used extensively in robotics and pho-tography. Imaging systems built for cruise missiles, however, usually have nocommercial applications.

Appearance (as manufactured): Direction finders consist of three assem-blies: an antenna or antenna array, a receiver, and processing equipment.The antenna is a forward-looking parabolic dish, or a flat panel such as aphased array, usually mounted on a gimbaled assembly and sized for instal-lation in the missile structure. The receiver is a small, low power assemblywith connectors for power and signal outputs, and one or more coaxial an-tenna connectors. The signal processing equipment can be integral to other

11-5I T E M 11

electronics or resident in its own electronics box. The appearance of suchsignal processing electronics varies greatly and may reflect manufacturerpreferences rather than the functional purpose of the equipment. The sizeof the signal processing equipment ranges from a few centimeters to tens ofcentimeters on a side.

Imaging sensors consist of a lens and a visible or IR sensor, or camera. Theyare used with an electronic assembly consisting of a power supply and con-trol and processing electronics, as shown in Figure 11-1. Another IR cam-era is shown in Figure 11-2. Visible-light sensors are recognizable by theoptical lens or window. The optical port of IR light sensors may appearmetallic. The flash unit has a large optical window covering a reflector andglass tube.

Imaging sensors may be either fixed or movable, and they may be mountedseparately from the rest of the terrain-mapping equipment. The opticsmounting features and supporting structure are robust in order to maintainstability and accuracy in the presence of large accelerations during launch,turbulence, and maneuvering. The surface of the unit close to the lens maybe shaped to fit the contour of the bottom of the missile because the lensmust look at the ground during flight.

Appearance (as packaged): The antennas and optical elements may havespecial protective packaging because of their sensitivity to shock. These ele-ments are sealed in an airtight, moisture proof enclosures and shipped incushioned containers. In turn, these packages are shipped in a variety ofcontainers, including metal drums, wooden boxes, or specialized compositeor metal cases.

Figure 11-1: An infrared imaging sensor for anunmanned air vehicle (top) and its associatedelectronics.

Figure 11-2: A gyro stabilized IR camera with its window.

Photo Credit: LFK

-Lenkflugkorpersysteme G

mbH


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Nature and Purpose: Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers are smallelectronic units with power and antenna connections used to provide vehi-cle position and velocity information. The Global Navigation SatelliteSystem (GLONASS) is a satellite system similar to GPS.

Method of Operation: GPS receivers detect radio signals transmitted fromGPS satellites orbiting the earth in precisely known orbits. These radio signalsidentify the satellite and contain an accurate time reference. The receiver de-termines its position and velocity by measuring the signal delay among fouror more satellites simultaneously and calculating the results on the basis oftheir locations and other information contained in the signal. GLONASS op-erates in much the same way as GPS. Combined GPS/GLONASS receiversmay also be used.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Military-grade and commercially availableGPS and GLONASS receivers are used in integrated flight instrumentationsystems to provide very accurate navigation information to UAVs, includingcruise missiles. Specially designed receivers can also be used in ballistic mis-siles to supplement or update the guidance set and increase missile accuracy.

Other Uses: GPS and GLONASS receiversdescribed in Item 11(c) (1) have capabilitiesrequired primarily by rocket systems andhave few other uses. GPS and GLONASSreceivers described in Item 11(c) (2) can beused in airplanes and helicopters.

Appearance (as manufactured): GPS andGLONASS receivers are small, often just afew centimeters on a side, and quite light,often less than a kilogram in weight asshown in Figure 11-3. GPS receivers ofMTCR concern cannot always be visuallydistinguished from uncontrolled GPS re-ceivers because the altitude and velocity lim-its are implemented in firmware within themicrocircuits. Determination of whether agiven GPS receiver is MTCR-controlled is

(c) Global Positioning System (GPS) or similar satellite receivers;(1) Capable of providing navigation information under the following

operational conditions; (i) At speeds in excess of 515 m/sec (1,000 nautical miles/

hour); and(ii) At altitudes in excess of 18 km (60,000 feet); or

(2) Designed or modified for use with unmanned air vehicles cov-ered by Item 1.

Figure 11-3: Global positioning system receiver/processorunit with its patch antenna.

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best made on the basis of the receiver model, serialnumber, and associated documentation. GPS re-ceivers are also available as part of a complete guid-ance package, as shown in Figure 11-4.

Appearance (as packaged): Packaging is typical forsmall, expensive electronics items. Military-gradeitems are very well packaged to protect against mois-ture from prolonged periods of storage.

Nature and Purpose: Generally speaking, missile designers try to fit very ca-pable systems into small packages. “Very capable” means that a lot of poweris required (such as in a long-range radar or an accurate guidance set), and“small packages” means that power densities are high. If the electronics canbe designed to withstand high temperatures, then weight from materials oth-erwise required for cooling can be avoided. Electronic assemblies and com-ponents used in such situations result from extensive design and testing ef-forts to ensure reliability when used in high-temperature environments. Thepurpose of rugged, heat-tolerant electronic items is to ensure weapons sys-tem performance and reliability while minimizing weight and space.

Method of Operation: These military electronic assemblies and compo-nents typically run on batteries and operate much like other electronics.However, a greater margin against failure is designed into them, and theirimproved reliability has been confirmed by temperature-cycle testing andaccelerated-age testing.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Heat-tolerant electronics are used in guidancecomputers, inertial navigation systems, and reentry vehicles in ballistic mis-siles. They are also useful in radars, computers, and seeker systems on UAVs.

Other Uses: Electronic assemblies and components have virtually unlim-ited uses in all types of military aircraft and other military systems. The sametypes of assemblies with similar specifications are often used in commercialaircraft and marine vessels, although there may be no confirmation of theclaimed reliability through documented exhaustive testing as in the case ofmilitary assemblies.

Appearance (as manufactured): Electronic assemblies are usually small andlightweight, measuring a few centimeters in length on a side and a few gramsin weight. The components of these assemblies resemble those used in a wide

(d) Electronic assemblies and components spe-cially designed for military use and operationat temperatures in excess of 125 degrees C.

Figure 11-4: A complete guidancepackage based upon

Global Positioning System receivers.


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variety of commercial applications. However,electronic assemblies used in military applica-tions are often hermetically sealed in metal or ce-ramic cases, not in the transparent plastic DIPsused to contain commercial assemblies. Excep-tions are high-performance processors such asthe quad digital signal processor (DSP) in amulti-chip module package, as shown in Figure11-5. This DSP includes stacked, high-densitymemory chips for exceptional speed and mem-ory capacity. The presence of such high costdevices suggests a possible military use; however,some assemblies may look more conventionalsuch as that shown in Figure 11-6.

Electronic assemblies for military use areoften designed to dissipate heat. In someassemblies, the integral heat sinks are sup-plemented by water cooling. Cable inter-faces feature rugged circular connectorsor small bolt-on connectors with shieldedcables. The electronics are typicallymounted within an outer radio frequency(RF) shield (Faraday cage), which may behermetically sealed or vented to the ambi-ent pressure. Pressurized vessels are some-times used for missiles and UAVs whichmust operate at high altitude in order tohelp conduct heat to the case and the heatsink mounting. Cases are made mainly ofaluminum, with exposed metal surfacespainted or treated with corrosion-resistantmaterials such as nickel plating.

Appearance (as packaged): Electronic assemblies and components are usu-ally shipped in plastic bags marked to designate an electrostatic sensitive de-vice, cushioned in rubber foam or bubble wrap for shock protection, andshipped inside cardboard boxes or, for loads over 20 kg, wooden crates.

Figure 11-5: Digital signal processor with the lidremoved. The size is 5 to 7.5 cm on each side.

Figure 11-6: Unmanned air vehicle electronics boxes.

Photo Credit: AAI Corp.

(e) Design technology for protection of avionics and electrical subsys-tems against electromagnetic pulse (EMP) and electromagnetic in-terference (EMI) hazards from external sources, as follows: (1) Design technology for shielding systems; (2) Design technology for the configuration of hardened electrical

circuits and subsystems; (3) Determination of hardening criteria for the above.


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Nature and Purpose: Electromagnetic pulse (EMP) and electromagnetic

interference (EMI) technology is used to enhance the survival of systems in

environments that have intense manmade RF noise, particularly RF noise

caused by detonating nuclear weapons. The technology uses at least three

approaches, often simultaneously: it configures sensitive circuits in order to

minimize interference; it encloses curcuits in conductive boxes; and it pro-

tects input/output (I/O) wires by surge suppression devices, commonly

just inside the conductive box.

Although the technology used to protect circuits from EMP and EMI is com-mon and unremarkable, determining requirements and implementing themare difficult and sophisticated problems. Circuit topologies, suppression deviceusage, weapon effects prediction models, and criteria generation can be inves-tigated by interactive computer programs, which input weapon and system pa-rameters and output threat environments such as fields and current levels.

Method of Operation: EMP and EMI protection is generally passive. RF

enclosures dissipate RF energy as electrical eddy currents in the conductive

outer surface. Care is taken with lids and doors to ensure that fields cannot

leak into an enclosure; metal gaskets and screens are typically used to seal

such openings. I/O suppression devices simply short electric fields to

ground or provide high impedance (i.e., electrical opposition) by using RF

chokes and filters. However, some suppression devices like zener diodes,

transorbs, spark gaps, and metal oxide varistors change their impedance at

certain voltage or current levels.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: EMP and EMI design technology is used inballistic missiles to protect the guidance set and electronic equipment in thereentry vehicle from the EMP and EMI effects from nearby nuclear detona-tions. It is also used to protect pyrotechnic devices such as stage-separationsystems from premature ignition. This technology can be used in UAVs, butthey generally need only be protected against lower levels of EMP and EMIencountered at considerable distance from nuclear blasts or other sources ofinterference.

Other Uses: EMP and EMI design technology is used in satellites, some

military aircraft, and some weapons systems. Similar EMI technology is

used in the design of some commercial electronic systems such as shortwave

radios and stereo equipment to reduce or prevent interference from other

electrical devices. Surge suppression devices for lightning strikes on power

supplies and cords is another example of EMP/EMI protection.

Appearance (as manufactured): Such design technology can take the form oftechnical assistance, including training and consulting services. Technology canalso take the form of blueprints, plans, diagrams, models, formulae, engineer-ing designs and specifications, and manuals and instructions written or re-corded on other media or devices such as disk, tape, and read-only memories.

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Some design technology is conveyed by theequipment itself. Assemblies are RF-shielded inmetal enclosures, usually aluminum. For verylightweight applications, durable composite orrugged plastic boxes are used with a thin coatingof metal for RF shielding. The coating is usuallyaluminum, often on the inside surface of the box.Exposed metal surfaces are often painted ortreated with corrosion-resistant materials such asnickel plating. Some EMI suppression devices areshown in Figure 11-7. An EMI/EMP electronicsmodule is shown in Figure 11-8. The electronicsare protected by the aluminum perimeter thatserves as a RF Faraday cage when hermeticallysealed by the mating modules and cover. The alu-minum surface beneath the circuit board servesas an RF partition of the internal modules. Thebolt pattern for the cover is spaced every few cen-timeters to prevent gaps in the closure and tomaintain even pressure on an RF gasket that maybe soft metal, metal-filled gasket, metal spring, orwire mesh. EMI/EMP electronics may take onalmost any shape to fit space constraints.

Appearance (as packaged): Technology informs such as reports, data, and criteriagenerating programs may be packaged inoversized business envelopes or in ordinarycomputer electronic media mass distribu-tion packages. Electronic EMP/EMI as-semblies are typically shipped with rubberfoam or bubble wrap shock protection incardboard or, if they weigh more than 20kg, in wooden boxes. They are occasionallyshipped in electrostatic-sensitive device(ESD) marked plastic bags even thoughthey are not ESD-sensitive.

Figure 11-7: Some electromagnetic interferencesuppression devices.

Figure 11-8: Electromagnetic interference/electromagnetic pulse electronics module.

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ITEM 12Launch Support

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Nature and Purpose: The launch support equipment covered in

Item 12(a) includes all apparatus and devices designed or modified for per-

forming the function specified (handling, control, etc.) of Item 1 systems.

Items that provide these functions for mobile or fixed systems are con-

trolled. Examples of such apparatus and devices include, but are not limited

to, launch pad facilities, gantries, block houses, underground launch silos,

handling equipment, systems test and check-out equipment, and command-

and-control equipment. Some of this equipment is relatively simple such as

concrete launch pads. Other items are complex such as the sophisticated

pad and gantry type launch facilities used for modern space launch vehicles

(SLVs). The determining factor is whether the item is designed or modified

for an Item 1 system.

Method of Operation: The key operations and equipment used in launch-

ing a ballistic missile depend on the nature of the approach. In most ap-

proaches, the missile is delivered to the site by a truck, a train, or, at a launch

pad, a dolly. The missile is erected into position. The missile is positioned

either by special erectors built for the site and the missile or by a crane at-

tached to a permanent gantry. At silos, missiles are positioned by a crane on

the transporter, which lowers the missile into the silo; alternatively, missile

stages are lowered by crane or winch into the silo and assembled inside it.

A liquid-engine missile is fueled by means of pumps, tanks, pipes, and hoses.

The guidance system is often aligned and calibrated by compasses and/or

surveying equipment. The alignment operation may be performed initially

and then regularly updated or updated just before launch. Many guidance

systems are capable of self-alignment by sensing earth rotation. Prior to

launch, target data and flight profile are loaded into the guidance system.

Subsystem performance is verified by electrical and software testing equip-

ment attached to the missile by cables from the control center. Missiles


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LaunchSupport

Launch support equipment, facilities and software for the systems inItem 1, as follows:

(a) Apparatus and devices designed or modified for the handling, con-trol, activation and launching of the systems in Item 1;

12-2 I T E M 12

maintained on alert are verified con-tinuously. When the status of all re-sponses is verified as satisfactory, thevehicle is ready for launch, and thelaunch sequence is executed on com-mand. Unmanned air vehicles(UAVs), including cruise missiles,typically are designed for multiplelaunch platforms with standardizedinterfaces.

Typical Missile-Related Uses:Launch support equipment is re-quired to prepare and launch missiles.Sometimes these devices continue tomonitor and control the missilethroughout all or portions of theflight profile.

Other Uses: Hydraulic systems, con-trol electronics, computers, tanks andpipes, and communications equip-ment required for missile launchingare similar, if not identical, to thoserequired for numerous other pur-poses. Transportation, handling,erection equipment, and targetingand test algorithms are often unique

to each missile, with no other uses. Silo-based launch support equipment isoften unique to ballistic missiles and has no commercial uses.

Appearance (as manufactured): Launch pad facilities have a concreteapron, a relatively small stand upon which the missile is placed, and a gantrymade of steel I-beams. A minimal system including a gantry and connec-tions to a rocket is shown in Figure 12-1. Pads intended for military oper-ations usually lack propellant storage, pumping, or handling facilities; theseoperations are conducted from tank and pumper trucks. They also lack per-manent launch command, control, and system checkout equipment; again,these operations are conducted by equipment in trucks.

Appearance (as packaged): Pads, gantries, and silos are often built in placeand rarely shipped assembled. Consistent with their size and weight, theelectronic components and consoles are wrapped and sealed in padding toprotect them from shock and moisture during transport and storage, andthen packed separately in boxes or crates. The electronic equipment used insome small- to medium-sized launch control shelters is often installed in theshelter, and the whole shelter is mounted on a palette for transport. Somelaunch support electronic equipment is portable and has been reduced tothe size of a suitcase.

Figure 12-1:Minimal launch padwith a gantry andconnections to acomplete rocketsystem.

12-3I T E M 12

Nature and Purpose: Rockets and UAVs covered in Item 1 have been

launched from trucks, trains, aircraft, ships, and submarines. Most launches,

including launches from fixed sites, require vehicles, most often for trans-

port and handling. Vehicles modified to carry, erect, and launch missiles are

distinctive because they generally have no other practical use. Some of these

vehicles, referred to as transporter erector launchers (TELs), provide a mo-

bile launch platform independent of permanent launch facilities.

Alternatively, some missiles and UAVs are carried and launched from (mo-

bile) erector launchers (ELs or MELs), which are often towed by trucks

known as prime movers. Vehicles modified to carry command-and-control

equipment needed to activate, target, and control rockets or UAVs are also

distinctive. Under subitem 12(b), the MTCR Annex controls the vehicle,

including onboard equipment. Some of this onboard equipment (i.e., erec-

tor/launcher mechanism) would be controlled by 12(a) if removed from

the vehicle.

Method of Operation: TELs and other mobile launchers perform the same

preparation and launch functions as do the launch support facilities dis-

cussed in the preceding section. A TEL is usually loaded with its rocket(s)

or UAV(s) by crane at a staging area. The crane may be part of the TEL.

The TEL transports the rocket(s) or UAV(s) to the launch site, where it

erects them to launch position. Some missiles are fueled at this point by sep-

arate tanker and pumper trucks; others may be transported already fueled.

The launch crew makes electrical connections with the vehicle and ensures

that all rocket or UAV subsystems are ready for launch. Targeting or flight

plan information is loaded, and the guidance system is aligned and cali-

brated. When everything is ready, the crew launches the rocket(s) or

UAV(s), often from a separate command-and-control truck.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Relevant rocket systems or UAVs require

vehicles designed or modified for the system such as TELs and associated

command-and-control and support vehicles.

Other Uses: These vehicles, their hydraulic systems, control electronics,

and computers and communications equipment are generally derived from

a wide variety of commercial and military equipment.

Appearance (as manufactured): The distinguishing feature of TELs de-

signed for ballistic missiles is the presence of an erection mechanism capa-

ble of lifting the missile to a vertical position. The vehicle may be tracked,

but most are large vehicles about the size of a tractor-trailer or lorry, with 3

to 8 axles and rubber tires. MELs look more like elaborate dollies. Examples


•Australia•Brazil•China•Egypt•France•Germany•India• Iran• Iraq• Israel• Italy• Japan•Libya•North Korea•Pakistan•Russia•South Korea•Spain•Syria•Ukraine•United Kingdom•United States

(b) Vehicles designed or modified for the transport, handling, control,activation, and launching of the systems in Item 1;

12-4 I T E M 12

of both types of vehicles are shown in Figures 12-2,12-3, and 12-4. Two versions of vehicles that carryand install ballistic missiles in their silos are shown inFigure 12-5.

TELs or MELs designed for UAVs are characterized by their relative sim-plicity and the presence of a launch structure (such as a rail or canister),which is sometimes inclined for launch. The launch structure can vary greatlyin size and weight, depending on the UAVs to be launched. Launch struc-tures can be as small as 2 to 3 m for hydraulic-assisted or rocket-assistedlaunchers of UAVs. Similar launch structures may be mounted on a tracked

Figure 12-2:Transporter erectorlauncher with ashort-range ballisticmissile erected.

Figure 12-3: An ICBM transporter erector launcher with themissile in a launch canister.

Figure 12-4: An erector launcher detached from itsprime mover.

Figure 12-5: Two different approaches to silo-based missiletransporter and installation vehicles.

12-5I T E M 12

or wheeled vehicle. Four different ap-proaches for UAV launchers areshown in Figures 12-6, 12-7, 12-8,and 12-9.

Examples of command-and-controltrucks that accompany TELs andMELs are shown in Figures 12-10 and12-11. A UAV command-and-controlvan is also shown in Figure 12-7. Thecommand-and-control trucks shownin these figures could just as easily sup-port fixed missile operations.

Appearance (as packaged): Thelaunch rails and erection mechanismsused on TELs or MELs are generallyintegrated into the vehicle or trailerchassis. As a result, these devices areplaced in their normal stowed positionon the mobile vehi-cle or trailer whenpackaged for ship-ment from the pro-duction facility. Thevehicles are driven,towed, or shipped byrail to the user facil-ity. Other vehicleswill be packaged sim-ilarly to other mili-tary or commercialvehicles.

Figure 12-6: A transporter erector launcher for alarge, Category II cruise missile.

Figure 12-7: Rocket-assisted unmanned air vehicle erectorlauncher and its associated command-and-control van.

Figure 12-8: A transporter erector launcher used to transport andlaunch cruise missiles.

Figure 12-9: A pneumatic unmanned air vehicle launcher.


yan Aeronautical


Relative GravityMeters•Canada•China•Germany•Russia•United States

GravityGradiometers•United States

12-6 I T E M 12

Nature and Purpose: Gravity meters and gravity gradiometers make very ac-curate measurements of the magnitude of the force of gravity at various loca-tions. These data are used to create detailed maps of the earth’s gravitationalfield for several kilometers around a ballistic missile launch site because localvariations in gravity can cause inaccuracies in inertial guidance unless accountedfor in the missile guidance software. Airplanes, helicopters, ships, and sub-marines outfitted with gravity meters can make gravity maps at sea. Airplanes

and helicopters out-fitted with gravitymeters can makegravity maps overmountainous terrain.Gravity gradiometerscan also be used assensors in guidancesystems to improveaccuracy.

Method of Operation: The methods of operation vary with the differenttypes of equipment. Some accurately measure the fall time of a droppedmass; others use a set of pendulous electromagnetic force rebalance ac-celerometers that rotate on a carousel. Some are operated with the airplane,

ship, or submarine in motion, and othersare lowered to the surface of the land orsea floor to take a measurement. Systemsdesigned to operate on a moving plat-form such as a ship or airplane need iner-tial navigation quality gyros and ac-celerometers for two-axis stabilization ofthe sensor platform. Systems designed tobe lowered to the surface of the land orsea floor need only be self-leveling.

Gravity gradiometers use a set of veryhigh quality accelerometers on a preci-sion rotating turntable. As the acceler-

ometers rotate in a horizontal plane, they detect the subtle gravity differ-ences about the perimeter of the turntable. The difference between theaverage readings taken on the east and west sides of the turntable, dividedby the diameter of the turntable, yields the longitudinal gravity gradient.

(c) Gravity meters (gravimeters), gravity gradiometers, and specially de-signed components therefor, designed or modified for airborne ormarine use, and having a static or operational accuracy of 7 × 10–6

m/sec2 (0.7 milligal) or better, with a time to steady-state registrationof two minutes or less;

Figure 12-10:Command-and-controlvehicles suitable forlaunching missiles fromfixed or mobile locations.

Figure 12-11:A deployed command-and-control truck usedfor ballistic missileoperations.

12-7I T E M 12

Similarly, the difference between the average readings taken onthe north and south sides of the turntable, divided by the di-ameter of the turntable, yields the latitudinal gravity gradient.Use of multiple accelerometers reduces the effect of individualaccelerometer scale factor drift, and rotating the accelerometersabout the perimeter virtually eliminates the effect of bias drift.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Gravity maps for several to hun-dreds of kilometers in the area of ballistic missile launch sites arerequired for highly accurate systems. Airborne gravity meters canbe used to map a large area of rough terrain or open sea adjacentto mountain roads or other areas where mobile missiles mightoperate. Ship or submarine-borne gravity meters are used to mapthe gravitational attraction beneath the sea to facilitate increasedaccuracy of ballistic missiles launched from submarines or fromland installations near the coast. Because the effects of gravityvariations in the launch area are rather small, gravity maps areprimarily useful for ballistic missile systems that are already veryaccurate. Gravity gradiometers may be useful for UAV guidance,perhaps over water or other featureless terrain.

Other Uses: Gravity meters and gravity gradiometers are usedin petroleum and mineral resource exploration and in geotech-nical and environmental investigations. Gravity gradiometersare used as navigation aids on submarines.

Appearance (as manufactured): Gravity meters (gravimeters)and gravity gradiometers are high quality, sensitive electronicand mechanical instruments. Gravimeter appearance rangeswidely because companies build them differently for differentpurposes. Systems fully integrated into a single case may be assmall as 25 × 32 × 32 cm and weigh 14 kg. Systems with sepa-rate cases may be as large as a cubic meter and weigh 350 kg;these large systems are modular and may be packaged in morethan one container for shipping. The sensor unit of an air-seagravity meter that is below the performance threshold estab-lished by the MTCR and is thus not MTCR controlled is shownin Figure 12-12. A complete, non-MTCR-controlled air-seagravity meter system with mini-console is shown in Figure 12-13. Systems like the one shown in Figure 12-13 are MTCRcontrolled if they meet the performance criterion stated above.

Electronic and mechanical components are enclosed in either hardplastic or metal cases. Some systems have the instrument and control panelcontained in the same case; other systems have the instruments separatedfrom the control panels. The cases typically have visible electronic or me-chanical control panels, pads, rotating control knobs, toggle and pushswitches, and connections for external electronic and computer cables.

Figure 12-12: Sensor unit for a non-MTCR-controlled air-sea gravity meter.

Photo Credit: La C

oste & R

omberg

Figure 12-13: Complete non-MTCR-controlled air-sea gravity

meter system with mini-console.

Photo Credit: La Coste & Romberg


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12-8 I T E M 12

Some have screens for observing the data collected in either digital or ana-log form; some have ports for printing hard copies of the data. Most haveremovable access panels. Batteries may be supplied to operate the system.Some systems have built-in computers and software. Some gravity metersare built to be lowered by a cable to the ground and operated from a heli-copter, as shown in Figure 12-14. Others are built to be lowered to the seafloor by a ship or submarine; such a device, which is not MTCR controlled,is shown in Figure 12-15. Similar systems are MTCR controlled if theymeet the performance criterion stated above.

Appearance (as packaged): Because the systems are very sensitive and expen-sive, they are packaged and shipped in rigid containers, which include formedplastic, plastic popcorn, plastic bubble wrap, or other materials designed toprotect them from shock. The shipping containers usually have warning labelssuch as “fragile,” “handle with care,” or “sensitive instruments.”

Nature and Purpose: Telemetering equipment involves sensors, transmit-ters, and receivers that send in-flight information on rocket or UAV perfor-mance to the ground. These devices allow engineers to monitor a vehicle’sflight, learn how it performs, or determine what caused any failure. Suchequipment is used extensively during rocket and UAV flight testing. Duringflight tests, telemetry is normally collected throughout the entire flight.Telecontrol equipment that uses different sensors, receivers, and transmit-ters may be used to remotely control missiles or UAVs during poweredflight. However, many operational ballistic missiles and cruise missiles flyautonomously; that is, without any telecontrol.

(d) Telemetering and telecontrol equipment usable for unmanned air ve-hicles or rocket systems;

Figure 12-14: A gravity meter that operates suspendedfrom a helicopter. Its associated electronics, shown on theleft, are installed in the helicopter.

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Figure 12-15: A non-MTCR-controlled gravity meterlowered by a ship or submarine.

Photo Credit: La C

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omberg

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Method of Operation: Telemetering equipmentinstalled in developmental rockets and UAVs mon-itor the important flight parameters (acceleration,vibration, control surface settings, etc.) and trans-mit these data to a ground station. The receiver de-codes the data, displays them, and records them forplayback later. Most operations are set up inside abuilding with an external antenna connection. Ifgimbaled, this antenna can pivot in three axes totrack the rocket system or UAV in flight.

Typical telecontrol systems are different for rocketand UAV systems. Rockets using command guid-ance are usually tracked by a radar near the launchsite. Flight path data are processed to compare theactual and desired trajectory. If deviations occur,steering commands are sent from the ground sta-tion by radio to a receiver in the rocket system, which im-plements the commands to bring it on track. This commandloop is maintained until the engines are turned off; the restof the flight is ballistic. Telecontrol for UAVs is often imple-mented by a “man-in-the-loop” concept. A sensor such as aTV in the UAV transmits a visual image of the local terrainto a control van. A human pilot views this image and sendssteering commands to the vehicle over the data link.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Telemetering is importantin the verification of performance during flight tests forboth rockets and UAVs. Without such data, flight testingcan be lengthy and expensive. Telecontrol is frequently usedfor UAV applications. Telecontrol is rarely used in ballisticor cruise missiles that carry weapons because the data linkis vulverable to jamming or disruption.

Other Uses: Similar telemetry equipment is used to testcommercial and military aircraft. It is also used in industryto collect data from remote sites and from chemical orother plants with a hazardous environment. It is also usedin robotic land vehicles that must operate in hazardousenvironments.

Appearance (as manufactured): Telemetering equipment installed onflight vehicles is contained in small metal boxes with power, cable, and an-tenna connections. They have few distinctive features, as shown inFigure 12-16. The most notable telemetering equipment at the ground siteis the telemetry receiving antenna. They are often large parabolic dishes thatcan rotate in two dimensions, as shown in Figure 12-17. Electronic equip-ment used at the ground site to demodulate, read, record, interpret, and

Figure 12-16: Telemetry transmitters for installationin flight vehicles.

Photo Credit: Loral M

icrocom

Figure 12-17: A typical, but large telemetryreception antenna.

Photo Credit: SFIM Industries

12-10 I T E M 12

display the telemetry looks like most rack-mounted scientific equipment or computerswith few distinguishing features. Repre-sentative types of equipment are shown inFigure 12-18.

Telecontrol equipment installed in UAVs per-mits communication between the UAV andthe ground station. Like telemetry equip-ment, this equipment is housed in metalboxes with power, cabling, and antenna con-nections, all unremarkable in appearance, asshown in Figures 12-19 and 12-20. SomeUAVs communicate to their ground site byway of satellites and require special SATCOMantennas, as shown in Figure 12-21. A com-mercial satellite transceiver with streamlinedantenna is shown in Figure 12-22. Anothercommercial system with a mechanicallysteered antenna is shown in Figure 12-23.The equipment for UAVs at the ground sta-tion is comprised of a flight control system(usually a joystick console), a video monitor,and recording equipment. A flight controlstation is shown in Figure 12-24; a portablevideo monitor is shown in Figure 12-25; andan integrated ground control system for aUAV is shown in Figure 12-26.

Appearance (as packaged): Because of thesensitivity of the electronics, telemetryequipment is usually shipped in cushioned

Figure 12-18: Representative ground-site telemetry receivingand processing equipment.

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Figure 12-19: Unmanned air vehicle avionics. Left, a C-bandtransmitter; right, a UHF receiver.

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Figure 12-20: Unmanned air vehicle videoand telemetry transmitter.

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Figure 12-21: A SATCOM antenna installed in an unmannedair vehicle.

Photo Credit: G

eneral Atomics Aeronautical

12-11I T E M 12

Figure 12-23: A commercial system with amechanically steered antenna (streamlining

not shown).

Photo Credit: R

acal Avionics

Figure 12-22: A commercial satellite transceiver withstreamlined antenna.

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s

Figure 12-25: A portable video

monitor fordisplaying video

transmitted from anunmannedair vehicle.

Figure 12-24: A portable flightcontroller consolefor an unmanned airvehicle.

Figure 12-26: An integrated unmanned air vehicle control station.


•China•France•Germany•Israel• Japan•Russia•South Africa•Switzerland•United Kingdom•United States

12-12 I T E M 12

cardboard or wooden containers. Some containers may have labels indicat-ing the need for careful handling. Usually the equipment is sealed in plasticto protect the electronics from moisture and electrostatic discharges. Largeassemblies of equipment such as integrated telecontrol stations will be dis-assembled and shipped in separate containers.

Nature and Purpose: Precision tracking systems produce accurate recordsof rocket system trajectory or UAV flight path. Engineers use these data tohelp determine vehicle performance and the causes of any vehicle failure.Range safety engineers also use these data to monitor the missile flight path.If the missile veers into an unsafe trajectory, it is destroyed. Precision track-ing systems can be used in conjunction with, or as an alternative to, teleme-try equipment, which sends back data on vehicle acceleration time history,from which missile trajectory can be reconstructed.

Method of Operation: Code translators installed on a rocket or UAVprocess signals received from ground or satellite transmitters. Those signalscarry timing data that allow the code translator to determine the distance toeach transmitter. These data are sent back to the ground site on a differentdownlink frequency. Because the transmitters are in known locations, theground site can accurately determine missile position and velocity. Thesedata can be displayed in real time or recorded on magnetic disc or tape.

Range instrumentation radars are also used to determine missile positionand velocity. Usually a radar with a wide field-of-view is used to track theapproximate vehicle location, which is then used to aim radars with a nar-row field-of-view, optical trackers, or infrared trackers capable of determin-ing missile angle, range, and velocity with the required precision. These dataare recorded as they occur, along with an ongoing record of the time. Avariation on this approach is to install in the flight vehicle a small transmit-ter that broadcasts or a transponder that receives and re-broadcasts at the

(e) Precision tracking systems:(1) Tracking systems which use a code translator installed on the

rocket or unmanned air vehicle in conjunction with either surfaceor airborne references or navigation satellite systems to providereal-time measurements of in-flight position and velocity;

(2) Range instrumentation radars including associated optical/in-frared trackers and the specially designed software therefor withall of the following capabilities:(i) an angular resolution better than 3 milli-radians (0.5 mils);(ii) a range of 30 km or greater with a range resolution better

than 10 metres RMS;(iii) a velocity resolution better than 3 metres per second.

(3) Software which processes post-flight, recorded data, enabling de-termination of vehicle position throughout its flight path.

12-13I T E M 12

radar operating frequency and therebyprovides a beacon that allows the radar totrack the vehicle more easily.

No matter how the data are collected, tobe useful, information on time and posi-tion must be interpreted. Post-flight dataprocessing may take place anywhere, but itis often conducted in the telemetry dataprocessing center where real-time data arereceived and recorded. These recordeddata are read, filtered, and processed. Theprocessed tracking data are then re-recorded on disk or tape for further analy-sis or output plotting.

The post-flight and recorded data process-ing software typically consist of mathemati-cal filtering software routines that process the previously recorded data in or-der to provide a smooth estimate of the vehicle trajectory. This processingsoftware is used both to provide the estimated vehicle position data for periodsof time when a real-time data outage may have occurred and to perform fil-tering in order to get the best estimate of the trajectory. Many different typesof mathematical filter implementations are used, varying from the simplestsuch as a straight-line interpolation between data points, to more sophisticatedpolynomial-based filtering such as spline-fit filtering. Some filtering routinesalso use Kalman filtering to post-process these data, although the Kalman fil-tering is normally used for real-time tracking applications because of its abilityto use simplified matrix manipulations to arrive at tracking solutions.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Precision tracking systems and range in-strumentation radars are helpful during the testing phase of the flight pro-gram to determine whether the missile is traveling along the predicted tra-jectory and to monitor missile flight for any anomalies. Such information isused to evaluate and improve the performance of numerous subsystems.The software that processes post-flight recorded data and thereby helps de-termine vehicle position throughout missile flight path is essential to inter-pretation of those flight data.

Other Uses: These systems can be used to support commercial and militaryaircraft testing and the development of weapons, including artillery andsmall rockets. Industry uses post-processing of data to evaluate events afterthe fact, such as race car performance.

Appearance (as manufactured): Precision tracking systems and range in-strumentation radars look like ground-based portions of telemetering andtelecontrol equipment. They include familiar dish-type radars as shown inFigure 12-17, as well as phased-array radars, which are characterized bytheir flat (rather than dish) surface as shown in Figure 12-27. Also used are

Figure 12-27:A mobile phased arraymissile tracking radar.

12-14 I T E M 12

optical devices that look like telescopes as in Figure 12-28;large robotic binoculars as in Figures 12-29 and 12-30; andlaser tracking systems that resemble optical instruments asshown in Figure 12-31.

The precision tracking system hardware (transpon-ders) carried aboard rockets or UAVs are generallyvery small electronics enclosures that vary from 800 to2,500 cm3. They are generally solid, environmentallysealed enclosures with external power and antennaconnectors. The only subelement of these transpon-

ders is the antenna element, which is normally located on the external sur-face of the rocket or UAV.

Figure 12-28:An optical missiletracking telescope.

Figure 12-29: An optical missile tracking system.

Figure 12-30:An optical missiletracking system.

Figure 12-31: A mobile laser missile tracking system.

Photo Credit: Contraves

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Photo Credit: C

ontraves

Photo Credit: Contraves

12-15I T E M 12

Appearance (as packaged): Because of its sensitivity to shock, the elec-tronic equipment is usually shipped in cushioned containers. Some mayhave labels indicating the need for careful handling. This equipment is usu-ally sealed in plastic to protect it from moisture and electrostatic discharge.The larger radars, optical trackers, and laser trackers are shipped disassem-bled in wooden crates and assembled onsite. All optics are protected withenvironmental covers.

ITEM 13Computers

13-1I T E M 13

Nature and Purpose: Most missiles use at least one computer, typically in

the guidance set or integrated flight instrumentation system. Generally the

guidance computer calculates missile velocity and position information from

onboard reference sensors. It uses these data for comparison with the

prescribed missile flight path and sends steering commands to correct for

errors. Computers may also provide time references for the missile and give

cutoff commands to the propulsion system and arming commands to the

weapons payload at the appropriate flight times. Mission computers may

also be used to store and execute preprogrammed flight profiles.

Method of Operation: Onboard analog or digital computers rapidly inte-

grate the equations of motion for missile flight and compute the magnitude

and duration of the commands necessary to maintain the missile flight path.

The computers receive electrical signals from onboard sensors, perform the

appropriate calculations, and send command signals to the various missile

systems to try to match the preprogrammed flight path. These computer

systems are powered by batteries (typically 28V) and use connecting cables

to interface with the sensors and control systems.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Most complete rocket systems and un-

manned air vehicles (UAVs) including cruise missiles, have at least one

ruggedized digital computer for navigation and control computations and

digital integration of Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) data. Many also use


•Canada•China•France•Germany•India• Israel• Italy• Japan•North Korea•Russia•South Africa•South Korea•Sweden•Taiwan•Ukraine•United Kingdom•United States

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Computers

Analogue computers, digital computers, or digital differential analyzersdesigned or modified for use in the systems in Item 1, having either ofthe following characteristics:(a) Rated for continuous operation at temperatures from below minus 45

degrees C to above plus 55 degrees C; or(b) Designed as ruggedized or “radiation hardened.”

Notes to Item 13:Item 13 equipment may be exported as part of a manned aircraft or satel-lite or in quantities appropriate for replacement parts for manned aircraft.

13-2 I T E M 13

analogue computers to provideclosed loop control of analogue ser-vos for IMU gimbals and for flightcontrol surface stabilization. Thecomputer must be able to operate atthe temperature extremes experi-enced by ballistic missiles travelingthrough space, UAVs operating athigh altitude, or cruise missiles car-ried on external pylons at high alti-tude. Missiles require ruggedizedcomputers to handle the vibrationsand shocks of missile flight. Missilesdesigned to survive and operate innuclear environments need radiation-hardened computers.

Other Uses: Most military and civilianaircraft, tactical missiles, and spacecraftrequire ruggedized computers that oper-ate within the temperature extremes de-fined in the Annex. Long-lifetime space-craft and satellites stationed in or near theradiation belts also have requirements forradiation hardening, but those require-ments may be somewhat lower than theAnnex specification.

Appearance (as manufactured): Com-puters configured for missiles and UAVsare usually housed in metal enclosures withintegral heat sinks to dissipate power gen-erated by high operating speeds, as shownfor the inertial navigation system and guid-ance computer assembly in Figure 13-1. Aruggedized computer for aircraft, which issimilar to rocket and UAV computers, withits printed circuit boards partially removed, is shown in Figure 13-2. A radiation-hardened digital sig-nal processor (DSP), shown in Figure 13-3, is packaged on a single printed circuit board and is idealfor missile use. In these assemblies, the heat sinks are also augmented by water cooling. A radiation-hardened electronics assembly with liquid cooling connections is shown in Figure 13-4. Within suchassemblies are a wide variety of ordinary looking electronic parts with wide use in commercial applica-tions. A distinguishing characteristic (not unique to military use) is hermetically sealed metal and

Figure 13-2: A ruggedized computer for fighters, which issimilar to a missile or an UAV computer.

Photo Credit: LITEFFigure 13-1: A global positioning system (GPS)aided inertial navigation system with integralguidance computer.

13-3I T E M 13

ceramic components as opposed to morecommon plastic components (chips) foundin commercial electronics. The cable inter-faces feature rugged, circular connectors orsmall bolt-on connectors with shieldedcables. The electronics are typically withinan outer radio frequency (RF) Faraday cageenclosure, which may be hermeticallysealed or vented to the ambient pressure.Pressurized vessels are used to help con-duct heat to the case and heat-sink mount-ing of missiles and UAVs, which operate athigh altitude. For applications requiringlightweight assemblies, the computers canbe packaged in rugged plastic containerswith metal coatings inside the plastic coversfor RF shielding.

Appearance (as packaged): Elec-tronic computer assemblies andparts typically weigh less than25 kg. They are packaged in plas-tic bags, placed inside cardboardboxes, and packed in rubber foamor bubble wrap shock protection;box labels typically indicate thecontents as electrostatic sensitivedevices. Larger units integratedinto a larger system and over 25 kgmay be packed in metal or woodenboxes.

Figure 13-3: A radiation-hardened digital signal processor.

Figure 13-4: A radiation-hardened electronics assembly with liquidcooling.

Photo Credit: The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc.

ITEM 14Analogue to Digital Converters

14-1I T E M 14

Nature and Purpose: Analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) are electronic

devices for converting an analog signal, which is a continuously varying

voltage, to digital data, which are patterns of “1s” and “0s.” These con-

verters allow the analog outputs of various devices such as sensors, ac-

celerometers, and gyros to be understandable to digital devices, such as dig-

ital signal processors (DSPs) and computers.

Method of Operation: In its simplest form, an ADC is a voltmeter with a

binary “word” as its output. The longer the word (i.e., the more “bits” per

word), the more accurately the input voltage can be represented. For ex-

ample, an 8-bit word representing a voltage range of zero to one volt pro-

vides 256 discrete values. With one word assigned to zero, this results in

255 increments of just over 3.92 millivolts each. Increments of 3.92 milli-

volts limit the theoretical accuracy to plus or minus 1.96 millivolts or 0.196


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Analogue-to-DigitalConverters

Analogue-to-digital converters, usable in the systems in Item 1, havingeither of the following characteristics:(a) Designed to meet military specifications for ruggedized equipment;

or,(b) Designed or modified for military use; and being one of the follow-

ing types:(1) Analogue-to-digital converter “microcircuits,” which are

“radiation-hardened” or have all of the following characteristics:(i) Having a quantisation corresponding to 8 bits or more when

coded in the binary system; (ii) Rated for operation in the temperature range from below

minus 54 degrees C to above plus 125 degrees C; and(iii) Hermetically sealed.

(2) Electrical input type analogue-to-digital converter printed circuitboards or modules, with all of the following characteristics: (i) Having a quantisation corresponding to 8 bits or more when

coded in the binary system;(ii) Rated for operation in the temperature range from below

minus 45 degrees C to above plus 55 degrees C; and(iii) Incorporating “microcircuits” listed in (1), above.

14-2 I T E M 14

percent. Raising the frequency at which an ADC can update the outputword to reflect rapid changes in the input voltage allows the ADC to con-vert input signals with high-frequency content. Manufacturers use one ofseveral different circuit design approaches to make the conversion.

Most ADCs are designed to have a linear input-to-output relationship.However, in more elaborate schemes, input voltages are mapped to digitalvalues according to calibration data previously taken from the analog in-strument to which the ADC is mated. This mapping allows the ADC tocompensate for nonlinearities in the analog measurement.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Any missile using a digital computer re-quires ADCs. The ADCs need to work over the temperature range specifiedabove and be hermetically sealed if, like ballistic missiles, they are flown exo-atmospherically.

Other Uses: ADCs are in widespread use, with ruggedized parts commonin all aircraft, automobile electronic ignition systems, and engine sensors.Other commercial applications include a variety of sensor systems, elec-

tronic cameras, and radios. Long-duration spacecraftand satellites stationed in or near the radiation beltsrequire radiation-hardened ADCs, which operateover the temperature extremes indicated. Althoughthe space application requirements are about fivetimes lower than the Annex specification, such sys-tems often use MTCR-controlled ADCs.

Appearance (as manufactured): Military ADC com-ponents are hermetically sealed metal packages in or-der to ensure operation in adverse environment ex-tremes and to dissipate power associated with highdata rates from sensors. Aluminum is the primarymetal used for ADC board frames, structures, andheat sinks. ADCs can range from a few centimeters toabout 0.3 m or more on a side and weigh from 100 gup to 25 kg. Their package density approaches one-third the density of aluminum.

Integrated ADC assemblies consist of a wide variety ofelectronic parts that are not readily distinguishablefrom those used in commercial applications. ADCsmay be made of discrete electronic components andresemble other military electronics. Similar militaryand commercial-grade discrete ADCs are shown inFigure 14-1; they differ externally only in part num-ber. Radiation-hardened ADCs are often packaged ona single printed integrated circuit (IC) board ideal for

Figure 14-1: The military-grade (top) andcommercial-grade (bottom) analogue-to-digitalconverters appear identical except for partnumbers; pin styles are optional to both.

Photo Credit: Datel, Inc.

14-3I T E M 14

use in ballistic missiles, as shownin Figures 14-2 and 14-3. Thesedevices have special design fea-tures to make them rugged andresilient to missile environments.Although ADC circuit boards aresimilar to those for DSPs, they in-clude linear ICs and discrete cir-cuits for buffer amplifiers, multi-plexing, or signal conditioning(filters, voltage limiting, etc.). Asa result, a larger portion of theADC circuit board is made up ofdiscrete components (resistors,capacitors, diodes, operationalamplifiers, etc.). Printed circuitboards are fiberglass-epoxy withcopper heat sinks and traces.Electronics parts are in specialmetal cases (mostly copper-nickel) with aluminum or goldbond wires and silicon substrates.

Appearance (as packaged): ADCprinted circuit board assembliesand modules weigh less than 25kg. They are encased in plasticbags that are marked to indicateelectrostatic sensitive devices, andthey are packed in rubber foam orbubble wrap for shock protectioninside cardboard boxes.

Figure 14-3: A radiation hardened 11-bit analogue-to-digital converter.

Figure 14-2: Typical analogue-to-digital converter/digital signal processor board.

ITEM 15Test Equipment

15-1I T E M 15

Nature and Purpose: Vibration test systems of this type are large and pow-

erful equipment for simulating the flight vibrations and shocks that rockets

and unmanned air vehicles (UAVs) experience during launch, stage separa-

tion, and normal flight. Missiles and their subsystems are tested to determine

their elastic modes, frequencies, and sensitivities to vibration and shock. This

information is used to improve missile design and to qualify systems, subsys-

tems, and components as flight-worthy. Sometimes they are used in quality

assurance testing to detect poor connections and loose components.



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TestEquipment

Test facilities and test equipment usable for the systems in Item 1 andItem 2 as follows; and specially designed software therefor:(a) Vibration test systems and components therefor, the following:

(1) Vibration test systems employing feedback or closed loop tech-niques and incorporating a digital controller, capable of vibratinga system at 10g RMS or more over the entire range 20 Hz to2000 Hz and imparting forces of 50 kN (11,250 lb.), measured“bare table,” or greater;

(2) Digital controllers, combined with specially designed vibrationtest software, with a real-time bandwidth greater than 5 kHz anddesigned for use with vibration test systems in (1), above;

(3) Vibration thrusters (shaker units), with or without associated am-plifiers, capable of imparting a force of 50 kN (11,250 lb.), mea-sured “bare table,” or greater, and usable in vibration test sys-tems in (1), above;

(4) Test piece support structures and electronic units designed tocombine multiple shaker units into a complete shaker system ca-pable of providing an effective combined force of 50 kN, mea-sured “bare table,” or greater, and usable in vibration test sys-tems in (1) above.

Note to Item 15(a):The term “digital control” refers to equipment, the functions of whichare, partly or entirely, automatically controlled by stored and digitallycoded electrical signals.

15-2 I T E M 15

A typical vibration test system includes a vibration shaker unit, or thruster,to vibrate test articles attached to it; a power amplifier or other source ofpower to drive the shaker; a controller to command the power amplifier ac-cording to the desired vibration frequency and amplitude test profile; andan air- or liquid-cooling system for the shaker and amplifier.

Method of Operation: Vibration test systems use mechanical thrusters thatusually operate on an electromagnetic drive principle like that of an audioloudspeaker, except that they are much larger and drive a massive test itemrather than a delicate speaker cone. The digital controllers regulate complexvibration patterns with frequency content of controlled amplitude through-out the 20 to 2,000 Hz range. These patterns are designed to simulate thevibration frequencies and amplitudes expected during the mission, includ-ing simulation of vibration bursts or shocks. The output from these con-trollers must be greatly amplified to drive the thrusters. Hydraulic- andpneumatic-based vibration systems, although capable of the vibration test-ing of items of MTCR concern, are not generally capable of meeting theabove performance specifications.

The armatures of two or more thrusters may be joined together with a testequipment support structure to obtain the required vibration levels. Thesestructures must be both strong and light. Electronic units are needed tocontrol multiple thrusters in a synchronous manner. They accept commandsfrom the digital controller and relay them to multiple amplifiers, each driv-ing one of the thrusters.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: All rockets and UAVs are subjected to vi-bration and shock during transport and flight. If vibration and shock areproperly understood, flight vehicles can be made stronger and lighter be-cause safety margins can be reduced. Use of such equipment also helpsavoid costly test flight failures.

Other Uses: Vibration test systems are used to test other military and com-mercial equipment and products such as aircraft parts. Vibration testing isdone on numerous other consumer goods, but MTCR-controlled vibrationtest systems are much more powerful and expensive than those needed forless demanding applications.

Appearance (as manufactured): MTCR-controlled vibration test systemsare large devices that occupy a roughly 3 m by 3 m floor area. Details onthe components are given below.

• Digital controllers and specially designed vibration test software: The digitalcontroller is approximately the same size as the system unit for a personalcomputer (PC), 0.5 m wide × 0.5 m deep × 0.25 m high. In some cases,the controller is an electronic device small enough to be rack mountedabove the power amplifier. In others, it is a desktop computer completewith monitors and customized interface cards for connection to the power

15-3I T E M 15

amplifier, as shown in Figure 15-1. Controllers requirespecial purpose vibration control software. Manufac-turers of vibration test systems are now offering PC-based software that integrates the functions for test sys-tem control, data recording, and data analysis.

• Thrusters (shaker units): An MTCR-controlled thrusterusually has a very heavy, U-shaped, cast-steel base withthick flanges for securely attaching it to the floor. Itmeasures about 1.3 m on a side and weighs several met-ric tons. The cylindrical or drum-like steel shaker hous-ing, about 1 m in length and diameter, is hung betweenthe vertical sides of the base. These vertical sides usuallyhave trunnions (pivots) that allow the shaker housingto be rotated to change the thrust direction. A thruster in the vertical po-sition in preparation for vibration testing a cruise missile is shown inFigure 15-2; another thruster preparing to test a sounding rocket is shownin Figure 15-3.

The part of the thruster that shakes the test item is a round metal armatureemerging from one end of the shaker housing. The armature is drilled in apattern of holes for bolts used to attach the test item. A rubber diaphragmbetween the armature plate and the thruster housing body is often used toseal the inner workings. Figure 15-4 shows a thruster with an expandedhead for mounting larger test items.

Figure 15-1: A desktop computer with customized interface cards and software.

Figure 15-2: A thruster being prepared to vibration-test a missile.

Figure 15-3:A missile vibration test

facility and thruster.

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The thruster system may include an accessory slip table,which is often made of magnesium to minimize weight.It supports the weight of the test article on an oil filmor air bearing above the slip table base, which is oftenmade of granite. To use the slip table, the thruster itselfis pivoted on its trunnions until the axis of motion of itsarmature is horizontal. The armature is then attachedto the side edge of the slip table in order to vibrate theunit under test in either horizontal axis. Such a slip tableassembly has the same size and weight as the thrusterassembly itself, and both may be mounted on a com-mon base, as shown in Figure 15-5.

• Power amplifier: The power amplifier for anMTCR-controlled electrodynamic vibration testsystem occupies one or more full racks (each 0.5 mwide × .75 m deep × 2 m high) of electronic power

control equipment, as shown in Figure 15-6. The electric input power re-quired to drive such a system is about 60 to 80 kW. The power draw isso large that it must be hard-wired to the building electrical supply; itcannot use a standard electrical cord and plug.

• Cooling: Because the thruster and amplifier give off about one-half of theirinput electrical power as heat, cooling by forced air or circulating liquidcoolant is required. The fan for air-cooling a typical installation measures1.5 m × 0.5 m × 0.8m and weighs 200 to 250 kg. Liquid cooling circu-lates cooling water through the test system and into a cooling tower or aradiator equipped with electric fans. Either liquid-cooling system is at leastas large as the air-cooling fan. Alternatively, a continuous supply of sitewater can be simply run through the cooling system and drained away.

Figure 15-4: A thruster with an expanded head.

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Figure 15-5: Thruster (in rear) connected to a slip table oncommon base.

Photo Credit: A H

andbook for the Nuclear

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(April 1996).

Figure 15-6:A power amplifier andits associated thruster.

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• Support structures: Test equipment support structures used with such vi-bration test equipment are custom-made assemblies, which measure asmuch as 3 m × 3 m × 3 m or more, depending upon the test unit, andweigh as much as 5 to 10 tons. Electronic units designed to combinemultiple thruster units into a complete thruster system range from an or-dinary PC equipped with multiple, special internal interface cards, eachcontrolling a single thruster unit, to one or more racks of custom-builtelectronic equipment. Recent trends in vibration testing increasingly usePC-based systems because they provide flexibility at low cost. Becausespecialized vibration system control interface cards are installed withinthe PCs, it may not be evident from external examination that the PCsare MTCR controlled.

Appearance (as packaged): With the exception of the system controller,which is typically the same size as a personal computer and can be packagedfor shipping in typical PC packaging, the components of a vibration test sys-tem of MTCR concern are so large and heavy that they must be packagedin custom-built wooden crates of extremely robust construction.

Nature and Purpose: Wind tunnels are large enclosures in which air is cir-culated or blown through a test section containing a replica of the rocket orUAV. They are used to measure the aerodynamic performance of the air-frame design during a simulated flight through the atmosphere.Instrumentation in the test section gathers data on vehicle lift and drag, sta-bility and control, engine inlet and exhaust configuration, thermal effects,and infrared signature. Wind tunnels are of either the continuous-flow (e.g.,closed-circuit) or the blow-down (e.g., shock tube) type and measure aero-dynamic parameters for long or short duration, respectively.

Method of Operation: A continuous-flow wind tunnel uses a large, elec-trically driven fan compressor to move air through the tunnel entrance coneto achieve the desired Mach number in the throat, or test, section. After itleaves the test section, this air moves through a diffuser and then circulatesback through the fan to create a continuous flow of air past the test object.A blow-down wind tunnel stores air or other gas in a large reservoir underhigh pressure, releases it through a control valve into the tunnel entrancecone and on to the test section, and then exhausts it through a diffuser intothe atmosphere.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Wind tunnels capable of exceeding Mach 0.9are used to test rockets, supersonic UAVs, and reentry vehicles. For high-speedflight, generally above Mach 3, heat transfer tests may be conducted. High-enthalpy, continuous-flow tunnels, or shock tubes, are needed to produce windspeeds beyond Mach 5 for testing long-range ballistic missiles.


•Canada•China•France•Germany•Japan•Netherlands•Russia•Switzerland•United Kingdom•United States

(b) Wind-tunnels for speeds of Mach 0.9 or more;

15-6 I T E M 15

Other Uses: Wind tunnels are usedin designing supersonic aircraft.

Appearance (as manufactured):Wind tunnels are usually large facili-ties with several buildings housing thetest section, compressors, data acqui-sition systems, and power supplies. Acontinuous-flow wind tunnel suitablefor testing full size missiles is usually50 to 100 m in length and 25 to 50min width, with diffusers 10 to 15 m indiameter. The large closed-loop cir-cuit for airflow can be seen inFigure 15-7. A tunnel to test small-scale models may be much smaller indiameter. The larger-size wind tunnelis generally laid out in a horizontaloval 10 to 20 times the length of thetest section length and 5 to 10 timesits width. The tubular sections of thetunnel are generally made of steelplates welded together to form thecircuit, which is supported from theoutside by steel I-beams. Some windtunnels use adjustable nozzle sec-tions, as shown in Figure 15-8, tovary the characteristics of the airflow.

The test section, located on one side ofthe tunnel, often has large access doorsso that test objects can be moved intoand out of the wind tunnel andmounted on the test support. The testsection may have windows for observ-ing supersonic air flow around the mis-sile with special Schlieren photographicrecording devices (or other flow visual-

ization devices). Test objects in typical wind tunnel test sections are shown inFigures 15-9 and 15-10. The test section usually has an associated operationsbuilding that houses the controls and data collection instrumentation, andmay handle the insertion, positioning, or removal of test objects. Testing offull size missiles in continuous-flow wind tunnels produces the most accurateresults but requires high power (on the order of 200,000 hp) to move thelarge volumes of air at flight speeds.

The blow-down tunnel stores air or other gases under high pressure in largetanks or cylinders. An air duct sealed by a large valve or diaphragm connectsthe tanks to the tunnel entrance cone and test section. The tunnel walls are

Figure 15-8: Exposed adjustable nozzle section of wind tunnel.

Figure 15-7: The exterior of a large wind tunnel showing the closed-loop circuit for continuous airflow.

15-7I T E M 15

generally made of relatively thick steel and aresometimes coated with insulation because of thehigh temperatures generated by very high windspeeds. A large compressor is used to pump air un-der pressure into the tanks before each test.

Appearance (as packaged): Because wind tunnelsand their associated operations buildings are verylarge structures, they are seldom, if ever, shipped in their assembled state.Individual components like the compressor motor, fan blades, corner turningvanes, complete test section or test section walls, viewing windows, and con-trol and instrumentation panels are crated or mounted on heavy pallets forshipping. The main tunnel walls are generally shipped as structural compo-nents to be assembled together at the facility location.

Nature and Purpose: Test benches and test stands for testing rocket sys-tems, solid rocket motors, and liquid rocket engines of more than 90 kN ofthrust are large rigid structures. They securely hold test items being oper-ated at full power in order to collect performance data on critical parame-ters. These data support design development and confirm design integrityand performance. Liquid rocket engines are sometimes tested in test standsto verify performance before delivery.

Method of Operation: The test item is mounted on the test bench or teststand. Sensors are positioned and checked. Personnel are cleared from thetest area, and data are collected while the rocket is operated at full power.


•China•Germany•Japan•Russia•United Kingdom•United States

(c) Test benches/stands which have the capacity to handle solid or liquidpropellant rockets or rocket motors of more than 90 kN (20,000 lbs)of thrust, or which are capable of simultaneously measuring the threeaxial thrust components;

Figure 15-9: Test objects in test section of ahypersonic wind tunnel.

Figure 15-10:Test object underinspection in test

section of a5-meter transonic

wind tunnel.

15-8 I T E M 15

Solid rocket motors are usually tested horizontally, andliquid rocket engines are usually tested vertically. Sensorsmeasure pressures, propellant flow rates, forces, eventtiming, vibrations, displacements, and temperatures.Solid propellant rocket motors run to exhaustion; bycontrast, liquid rocket engines and hybrid rocket motorscan be throttled or shut down. Post-test inspections areconducted, and data are analyzed.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Test benches and standsare essential equipment in the development phase of amissile program. Liquid rocket engine test stands arealso used for full-scale testing of engine componentssuch as turbopumps.

Other Uses: Similar, though often smaller, horizontaltest benches and stands are used to test jet engines, in-cluding for use in UAVs.

Appearance (as manufactured): A horizontal solidrocket motor test stand generally consists of a dolly,thrust cup, load cell, thrust block, and instrumentation.The solid rocket motor is first secured horizontally on amovable dolly and locked down. Larger motors are of-ten connected to a frame, which is then inserted intothe thrust-cup; smaller motors are often inserted di-rectly into the thrust-cup. The thrust-cup is mated to aload cell, which measures the three axial thrust compo-nents, and the load-cell is mounted on a large concretevertical block or metal frame called the thrust block,which absorbs the forward force as the motor is beingfired. Instrumentation connected to the load cell sendsdata to a blockhouse containing recording equipment.The entire assembly is usually outdoors but may beeither partially or totally enclosed in a concrete buildingor a trench, as shown in Figures 15-11 and 15-12.

Most liquid rocket engines use a vertical test stand, alarge gantry-type structure made of steel beams andgirders. The liquid rocket engine is attached to loadcells, which measure the three axial thrust components;these data are sent to a block house for recording. Runtanks carrying the propellants, the flame bucket, andusually a concrete apron that directs the exhaust awayfrom the test stand are also parts of the installation.Two different test stand configurations are shown inFigures 15-13 and 15-14; a close up of the middle testbay of the latter stand is shown in Figure 15-15.

Figure 15-11: A small rocket motor test stand.

Figure 15-12: An outdoor, horizontal solidrocket motor test stand showing the dolly andframe holding the motor

Figure 15-13: A single liquid rocket enginevertical test stand.

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Appearance (as packaged): Rocket test benchesand stands are seldom shipped as assembledstructures. Instead, their materials and compo-nents are shipped separately and assembled atthe test site. A review of the design drawings andfabrication or assembly instructions can identifythe intended use of the construction materialsand components.

Nature and Purpose: Environmental testing in ground facilities exposescomponents, subsystems, and entire vehicles to the low pressures, high andlow temperatures, vibrations, and acoustics of powered flight in order tomeasure the responses. The data generated are used to confirm or correctdesigns and thereby ensure flight worthiness.


•Canada•China•France•Germany•India• Israel• Italy• Japan•Russia•United Kingdom•United States

(d) Environmental chambers and anechoic chambers capable of simulat-ing the following flight conditions:(1) Altitude of 15,000 meters or greater; or(2) Temperature of at least minus 50 degrees C to plus 125 degrees

C; and either(3) Vibration environments of 10 g RMS or greater between 20 Hz

and 2,000 Hz imparting forces of 5 kN or greater, for environ-mental chambers; or

(4) Acoustic environments at an overall sound pressure level of 140dB or greater (referenced to 2 × 10-5 N per square metre) or witha rated power output of 4 kiloWatts or greater, for anechoicchambers.

Figure 15-14: A liquid rocket engine test stand withthree testing bays. The bay on the right is for testingturbopumps.

Figure 15-15: Close-up of the missile testing bay inFigure 15-14 showing the engine, feed lines,

and run tanks.

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Method of Operation: High altitude is simulated by sealing test objectsinto rugged pressure chambers that are then evacuated with vacuum pumps.Flight temperatures are simulated inside thermally insulated chambersequipped with heaters and refrigeration equipment. MTCR-controlled tem-perature chambers must also be equipped to replicate specific vibration oracoustic environments. Vibration equipment are motor-driven tables capa-ble of providing amplitude-frequency spectra to the levels stated above andreplicating the range of vibrations experienced by a component, subsystem,or system during powered flight. Acoustic chambers use a combination ofelectrostatically or electromagnetically driven horns, like loudspeakers, toprovide a spectrum of sound pressures like those generated by rocket mo-tor exhaust and very high-speed aerodynamic flight.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Altitude tests are used to investigate engineperformance, heat transfer, altitude ignition, nozzle development, and pro-pellant dynamics phenomena. Simultaneous temperature-vibration andtemperature-acoustic tests are used to subject missile hardware to high-fidelity flight environments to develop technology and qualify missiles forflight. Such testing is not required for basic missile programs, but is neces-sary for advanced development. This equipment can also decrease the costof a flight test program, but some of this equipment, particularly the largeenvironmental chambers, can be quite expensive.

Other Uses: High-altitude and simultaneous temperature-vibration andtemperature-acoustic testing is routinely done on satellites, tactical missiles,and aircraft components.

Appearance (as manufactured): Environmental pressure chambers arerugged, usually metal, airtight, cylindrical chambers with bulged or hemi-spherical ends to withstand the external pressure of one atmosphere (plussafety margin). They often have thick glass or acrylic viewing ports. An ac-cess panel or door at one end is used to insert and remove test items. Theyare often linked to large vacuum pumps that evacuate the chamber. Theirsize is a function of the items to be tested; thus, they can range from lessthan a meter to tens of meters on a side. They are usually supported by nu-merous buildings housing pumps, power, data collection, and operations.Two different approaches to pressure chambers suitable for rocket motortesting are shown in Figures 15-16 and 15-18; Figure 15-17 shows an in-terior view of a solid rocket motor being tested at simulated altitude in a fa-cility similar to that shown in Figure 15-16. A large facility capable of test-ing large solid rocket motors at simulated altitudes of up to 33,000 m isshown in Figure 15-19, and a view of the inside of the test cell of that fa-cility is shown in Figure 15-20.

Temperature chambers are thermally insulated chambers or rooms withheating and cooling equipment. MTCR-controlled temperature chambershave provisions for vibration or acoustic testing at various temperatures en-countered in flight.

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Figure 15-16: A large environmental chamberfor simulating high altitude.

Figure 15-18: A different approach to analtitude test stand. The test object is shown inred inside the pressure vessel.

Figure 15-20:The test cell of the

facility shown inFigure 15-19.

Figure 15-19: A large rocket test facility capable of simultatedaltitudes of up to 33,000 m.

Figure 15-17:A solid rocket

motor beingtested at

simulatedaltitude.

15-12 I T E M 15

Temperature chambers for vibration testing contain apowerful device to shake test items. This device,known as a thruster or shaker, usually has a round, flat,steel table, which may have predrilled/tapped mount-ing locations for attaching test articles. Table motion isoften driven by a cylindrical, variable-speed linear elec-tric motor. Depending on the size of the items tested,these tables range from tens to thousands of kilogramsin weight. A table capable of imparting 5 kN or greateris shown in Figure 15-21. Environmental chamberscontrolled under this item can simulate flight condi-tions of 10 or more g rms from 20 Hz to 2,000 Hz,impart forces of 5 kN or greater, and have operatingtemperatures of at least –50° C to +125° C, as shownin Figure 15-22. Figure 15-23 shows a different com-bined environmental test apparatus.

Temperature chambers for acoustic testing are largerooms with acoustic horns mounted in the walls.The horns themselves are monotonic (operate at onefrequency) and range in length from several cen-timeters for high-frequency horns to 1 m for low-frequency horns, with corresponding exit area, ormouth, sizes. Acoustic testing usually requires that

the chamber be lined with very coarsely corrugated (often conic-shaped),soft, porous, sound-absorbing material.

Appearance (as packaged): External pressure chambers vary in size, but theyare usually very large and constructed onsite. Large MTCR-controlled temper-ature chambers may be shipped as prefabricated panels of construction ma-terials. The assembly instructions or construction plans can help identify in-

Figure 15-21: A thruster table and itspower supply.

Figure 15-23: Another vibration and environmentaltest apparatus configuration.

Figure 15-22: A controlled environmental chamber with vibrationcapability.

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tended use. Smaller temperature chambers are shipped much like a common re-frigerator. Dynamic test tables in a partially assembled state are shipped in sim-ple wooden crates, usually with some internal contouring and cushioning forthe parts. The shipping containers of these rugged pieces of equipment are notlikely to have any special handling markings. Acoustic horns are shipped in metalcanisters or wooden crates. Because the driver diaphragms in these horns aresensitive components, shipping containers may have special handling markings.

Nature and Purpose: MTCR-controlled accelerators are of three basictypes: linear radio frequency (RF) accelerators (linac), flash X-ray machines,and mechanically charged, high-voltage electrostatic accelerators (Van deGraaff type). Their primary use is to create X-rays capable of penetratingmissile parts (such as solid rocket motors) so that X-ray photographs can bemade of their interiors. Other uses for energetic X-rays include simulatingnuclear weapon effects and stop-action X-ray photography of very high-speed events like explosions and impacts.

Method of Operation: The accelerators of most interest are the linac type.They accelerate a beam or cluster of electrons to speeds approaching thespeed of light by passing them through cavities charged with an electric po-tential (voltage) supplied by an RF generator. Because the effect of thesecavities is additive, total electron energies of millions of electron volts(MeV) can be obtained from relatively small devices. This energetic beamof electrons exits the linac and strikes a target (usually a dense metal such astungsten). The electrons give off X-ray radiation as they are decelerated in-side the target; this phenomenon is called “bremsstrahlung,” German forbraking radiation. The X-rays pass through the object and are recorded onfilm or, increasingly, in electronic sensors that immediately display the pic-ture on a computer screen. A Van de Graaff accelerator normally creates alarge electrostatic potential by mechanically driving a vulcanized rubber beltor insulating string of polished metallic beads on an insulating surface. Thetargets used to stop the electrons in the electrostatic generators are metalfoil like that used in linear accelerators. Most flash X-ray machines operateby charging a very large bank of capacitors to high voltage and then sud-denly discharging them. Like the linac, the resulting electron current strikesa heavy metal target and creates X-rays.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: One of the most important uses of linacs is toproduce X-rays for non-destructive testing of solid rocket motors. They are


•China•Germany•India• Japan•Russia•United Kingdom•United States

(e) Accelerators capable of delivering electromagnetic radiation pro-duced by “bremsstrahlung” from accelerated electrons of 2 MeV orgreater and systems containing those accelerators.

Note: The above equipment does not include that specially designed formedical purposes.

15-14 I T E M 15

used to find cracks and voids in thepropellant grain, cracks and incom-plete welds in the case, or incompletebonds to the insulation or interior lining. Such X-ray equipment can be usedto inspect most missile components such as structural members, welds,nozzles, and turbopump parts. Linacs are also used to investigate nuclearradiation effects of missile electronics and to test equipment and parts for

radiation hardness. These are also the primary usesof large flash X-ray machines. Van de Graaff accel-erators are not usually used for these purposes be-cause of their size and low beam current (and thuslow X-ray) output.

Other Uses: Industrial microwave, accelerator-based, high-energy X-ray machines have beenroutinely used for a wide variety of industrial ap-plications for more than 30 years. These applica-tions include defect-detection large casting and

welded assemblies used in automotive, shipbuilding, aerospace, and powerproduction component manufacturing. A high-energy X-ray machine used

for sterilization is shown in Figure 15-24. These machinesalso are used in large security systems for detection of con-traband or explosives in container shipments. Similar tech-nology is employed in the production of machines used totreat cancer.

Appearance (as manufactured): The most commonlyused 2 MeV + accelerator is the linac, as shown in Figure15-25, because of its small size and ruggedness. TheseX-ray machines consist of five major parts: the accelerator,the X-ray head, the RF amplifiers or modulators, a controlconsole, and a water pump cabinet. The box-like structureof Figure 15-25 contains the accelerator and the X-rayhead. Figure 15-26 shows the control console. Figure 15-27shows the RF amplifier on the left and the water pumpcabinet on the right.

The source of the X-rays is the X-ray head. It is connected to the RF modula-tor by means of a waveguide, which is a rectangular rigid or semi-rigid conduit

Figure 15-24:A 10 MeV X-raymachine used forsterilization (not MTCR-controlled).

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Figure 15-26: A linaccontrol console.

Photo Credit: VarianAssociates, Inc.

Figure 15-27: A linacRF amplifier on the leftwith the water pumpcabinet on the right.

Photo Credit: VarianAssociates, Inc.

Figure 15-25: Typical linac X-ray system.

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or cable. The accelerator portion of the X-ray head is a tube or pipe with semi-circular disks on alternating sides along its length. This assembly may be in thecenter of a larger diameter electromagnet. The modulator or RF amplifier,which supplies RF energy to the acceleration tube, is often in a separate cabi-net. This energy is normally coupled through a rectangular waveguide or, lessfrequently, a coaxial cable. The modulator operates at a frequency correspond-ing to the accelerating structure, normally in the 1 to 3 GHz range. The othersupporting components are the control system and the water-cooling system.These systems control and cool the accelerator to keep it within a narrow rangeof operating temperatures. Typical dimensions for the X-ray head, modulatorcabinet, and control console are shown in Table 15-1.

X-rays produced by MTCR-controlled accelerators are energetic enough torequire lead shielding several centimeters thick. These accelerators are oftenshipped without shielding since the shielding can be readily manufacturedand installed by the recipient. Often an unshielded system is placed inside ashielded building.

The other type of accelerator for use in high-energy X-ray generation is amechanically driven Van de Graaff type generator. These systems are muchlarger than linear accelerators and more difficult to position, and thus arenot normally used for radiography. They consist of a high-voltage powersupply capable of generating electrostatic potentials of 2 MV or more, anacceleration tube made of highly polished nickel, and a control console. Thepower supply and the acceleration tube are usually integral parts. They arecontained within a high-pressure tank made of thick-walled steel, whichwhen operational, contains a high dielectric gas such as sulfur hexafloride orpure nitrogen at a pressure of several atmospheres. Unlike the linear accel-erators, which are small enough to be rotated around the piece beingX-rayed, the very large electrostatic accelerators remain stationary, and thetest piece is moved as needed to achieve the desired relative positioning.Typical dimensions of a Van de Graaff system are given in Table 15-2.

Table 15-1: Typical linac dimensions.

X-ray Head Modulator Cabinet Control Console

Height: 0.5 m 1.0 m 0.2 mWidth: 0.5 m 0.5 m 0.3 mDepth: 1.0 m 1.0 m 0.3 mWeight: 200 kg 300 kg 2 kg

Table 15-2: Typical dimensions for a Van de Graaff system.

Pressure Vessell Control Console

Length: 2.5 m 0.2 mDiameter: 1.0 mWidth: 0.2 mWeight: 1,200 kg 2 kg

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Flash X-ray equipment varies in sizefrom a desktop unit to huge sys-tems that require special buildings.A typical unit used for inspection ofsolid rocket motor grains is shownin Figure 15-28.

Appearance (as packaged): Linearaccelerators are packaged for ship-ment in crates or boxes. They mayappear as three separate cabinets.The X-ray head and modulator nor-mally come from the same vendor.

The cooling system and the control system can be purchased separately. Thepackaging uses foam, Styrofoam, or other shock-attenuating fill to protectthe modulator from excessive vibration and shock. The equipment may belabeled with X-ray caution labels, RF field signs, and possibly labels indicat-ing high-voltage. The system may be heavier than lower-energy systemsbecause of the amount of lead shielding, if shipped with shielding installed,required to shield personnel from penetrating X-rays.

The electrostatic accelerators are much larger. The high-voltage supply andthe acceleration tube are shipped together inside the pressure vessel.Because of its weight, the pressure vessel is most likely shipped in a cratemade for fork-lift handling. The unit is not likely to be shipped in opera-tional condition and usually has additional packing material inside thepressure vessel to support the high-voltage supply and acceleration column.

Figure 15-28:A 2.3MeV flash X-ray unit used forinspecting solidrocket motors.

ITEM 16Modeling and Design Software

16-1I T E M 16

Nature and Purpose: Modeling, simulation, and design integration soft-

ware tools permit the designer to build and fly a missile using a computer.

Numerous design changes and flight environments can be investigated by

using these tools and thereby avoiding the expense of building, testing, and

redesigning actual hardware. This modeling capability dramatically de-

creases the cost and time required to develop a rocket or an unmanned air

vehicle (UAV). Various computer-generated codes have a critical role in de-

signing a missile with desired performance capability, especially for longer

range missiles. Using a full library of software models to validate perfor-

mance in the design stage leads to missiles with the most appropriate, mis-

sion related trade-offs, including range and payload capabilities.

Hybrid computers combine analog and digital components to exploit the

advantages of each. They are useful in situations in which data rates are ex-

tremely high and the signal-to-noise ratio is low, such as focal plane arrays

in advanced sensors. These conditions may be stressing to purely digital

computers because such computers cannot always keep up with the data

stream, and the low signal strength sometimes does not create the clear “1”

or “0” required by a digital device. Thus, analog circuitry is sometimes used

to collect and process the output of the sensor before digitizing the data.

Method of Operation: Most missile design software models represent the

physics of missile operation. Modern aerodynamic models may offer a

highly accurate treatment of flows internal and external to the missile and

can be tailored to the specific missile geometry under evaluation.


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Modelingand DesignSoftware

Specially designed software, or specially designed software with relatedspecially designed hybrid (combined analogue/digital) computers, formodelling, simulation, or design integration of the systems in Item 1 andItem 2.

Note to Item 16:The modeling includes in particular the aerodynamic and thermodynamicanalysis of the systems.

16-2 I T E M 16

Thermodynamic models predictboth the frictional heating andchemical reactions involved inmissile propulsion and thermalprotection, and the resulting flowof heat into critical missile compo-nents. Applications of finite ele-ment models in designing missilestructures are now common, asare applications of models com-bining guidance hardware and

missile controls to test performance. An example of the output of a struc-tures code is shown in Figure 16-1. Once designed, subsystem hardware isfrequently tested by means of hardware-in-the-loop simulators. Thesesimulators may range from straightforward actuation of mechanical linkageson a rocket nozzle during simulated test firing to highly sophisticated lab-oratory assemblies involving the measurement of the responses of complexsubsystems such as guidance and control.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Missile design software may be applied earlyin the design process to define overall configurations, thrust capabilities,aerodynamic flight loads, structural requirements, thermal insulation re-quirements, and the guidance or control requirements of candidate designconcepts, or models. Subsystem hardware designs based on these modelsare performance tested, often with simulation software in-the-loop, to vali-date their capabilities and to refine the models to make them more designspecific. The computer then combines these design-specific models in orderto represent an integrated rocket or UAV system in flight and to confirm itsdesign capabilities before actual flight testing. This modeling approacheliminates much of the need for expensive iterative flight testing.

Other Uses: Many of the more fundamental software models used in rocketsystems or UAV design are commonly used commercially. A popular struc-tural model, NASTRAN, is used in designing trucks and building bridges.Thermodynamic codes such as SINDA are used in satellite and power plantdesign. Flight motion computers have wide applications for pilot trainingand other flight simulators.

Appearance (as manufactured): Software for missile design is physically in-distinguishable from commercial software. It is contained on the same com-puter disks or CD-ROMs, etc. Missile analog/hybrid computers are customelectronics generally smaller than a breadbox. Flight motion computers arecabinets with commercial standard electronics racks. A hardware-in-the-loop missile simulator testbed for a missile with high accuracy requirementsis shown in Figure 16-2. Alternatively, missile software and specialized flightdynamics models can be loaded on a pure digital, real-time computer (flightemulator), as shown in the lower portion of Figure 16-2. Real-time modelscan be used to replace the test article hardware in the loop.

Figure 16-1:The output of afinite-elementmissile structurescode showingrelative deformationacross a missilebody.

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Appearance (as packaged): Typical pack-aging schemes for missile simulation andsoftware test equipment are shown inFigure 16-3. Custom electronics like theanalog/hybrid computers may be pack-aged in a variety of ways, including trunkcontainers used for shipping sensitive in-struments and computer monitors. Flightmotion computers are generally shippedlike other electronic equipment. Otherflight simulator hardware, including flightmotion tables, may be packed in woodencrates for shipment. Models and real-timesoftware look like any other softwareproduct and are packaged in cardboardboxes, possibly in shrink wrap (if com-mercial/new) or on unmarked standardtransfer media, such as floppy disks, CD-ROMs, or 1/4″ magnetic tape cartridges.

Additional Information: High speed dig-ital computers based on industry bus stan-dard definitions such as Virtual MachineEuropa, Multibus, and Futurebus+, pro-vide considerable leverage for developingreal-time missile flight software. Thesecommercial standards are fast enough tosupport real-time missile performance sim-ulations. The flight motion computer is theessential integrator that makes these com-mercial computers useful as emulators formissile software development and testing.Flight motion computers have specialized operating systems that enable themto act as simulation controllers and flight performance data loggers.

Figure 16-2: Hardware-in-the-loop missile hardware simulation.

Figure 16-3: Packaged missile simulator equipment andsoftware appearance.

ITEM 17Stealth

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Nature and Purpose: The need to protect missiles from detection and de-

struction has led to the development of technologies to reduce their ob-

servables; when reduced observables are a primary design goal for a new ve-

hicle, they are often referred to generically as “stealth” technology.

Reflections and emissions are reduced or tailored through the use of care-

fully designed shapes and special materials. Other devices such as low prob-

ability intercept radar may be used. The objective is to make the object dif-

ficult to detect.

Method of Operation: Emissions and reflections are acoustic or electro-

magnetic in nature. Emissions are held to a minimum by any of a wide

range of techniques such as frequency staggering, vibration isolation, shield-

ing, masking, directing, and dampening.

Electromagnetic emissions and reflections occur in numerous frequency

bands, including microwave (radar), infrared (IR), visible, and ultraviolet

bands. Because radiation behavior varies significantly between and even

within frequency bands, different methods must be applied across the spec-

trum. Emissions and reflections can be directed away from the observer

and/or reduced in amplitude or altered in frequency response with the aid

of carefully selected shapes and materials. This reduction is achieved by

shaping, material, or devices for controlled emissions, reflectance, absorp-

tion, and second surfaces (added insulators and reflectors). These tech-

niques or devices either conceal or disguise the true nature of the object

from the observer or allow the vehicle to be detectable only at certain an-


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Stealth

Materials, devices, and specially designed software for reduced observ-ables such as radar reflectivity, ultraviolet/infrared signatures and acousticsignatures (i.e., stealth technology), for applications usable for thesystems in Item 1 or Item 2, for example:(a) Structural materials and coatings specially designed for reduced radar

reflectivity;(b) Coatings, including paints, specially designed for reduced or tailored

reflectivity or emissivity in the microwave, infrared or ultraviolet spec-tra, except when specially used for thermal control of satellites;

17-2 I T E M 17

gles and for brief intervals, thereby delaying or avoiding detection andengagement.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Stealth technology is used to make ballisticmissiles, unmanned air vehicles (UAVs), including cruise missiles, and theirpayloads more difficult to detect, track, identify, and engage by defensiveweapon systems. Most design elements of a missile are subject to treatmentwith stealth technology, including its basic shape, its structural components,its surfaces and leading edges, and its inlets and openings.

Other Uses: Most of the materials used for signature control were origi-nally developed for military aircraft and are found on both fixed- androtary-wing systems. Modified versions of the materials and treatment tech-niques are found on some ships, submarines, and ground combat and tac-tical vehicles. Emission control materials technology also is used to controltemperatures in satellites. Several devices can be used with communicationgear to reduce detectability. There are commercial uses for some of the lowcost, low performance materials for reducing electromagnetic interferenceand for reducing solar loading.

Appearance (as manufactured): Typical materials for reduced-observabletreatments include, but are not limited to, the following categories:

• There are two kinds of conductive fillers: conductive fibers, which look likevery light whiskers 2 to 6 mm long, are made of carbon, metals, orconductive-material coated glass fibers; and conductive-material coatedparticles, which may look like colored sand.

• Sprays include conductive inks or paints, which normally contain silver,copper, zinc, bronze, or gold as the base ingredient. They appear black,metallic gray, copper, bronze, or gold in color.

• Small cell foams, both open and closed, are painted, or loaded, with ab-sorbing inks and paints. These foams resemble flexible foam rubber sheetsor air conditioning filters. They can be single-layered or noticeably multi-layered, with glue lines separating the strata. A ground plane, if applied,can consist of a metallic paint, a metallic sheet (aluminum foil or metal-ized thin plastic), or undetectable sprayed inks. Some manufacturers maymark the front of these foams with lettering saying “front” or with serialnumbers if the ground plane is not obvious. Some foams may containcomposite fiber to make them more rigid or even structural. Four suchfoams are shown in Figure 17-1.

• Magnetic Radar Absorbing Material (MAGRAM), as applied to vehicles,may appear in forms such as surface coverings, molded edges, or gapfillers. It consists of very fine grained ferromagnetic or ferrite particles sus-

17-3I T E M 17

pended in a variety ofrubber, paint, or plasticresin binders. At least onecommercially availableversion uses a silicon-based binder, as shown inFigure 17-2. It may beapplied as sprays, sheets,molded or machinedparts, or putties. Becauseof the general colors oftypical binders and ferro-magnetic particles, thenatural colors ofMAGRAM range fromlight gray to nearly black;however, with additionalpigments added for otherreasons (e.g., visual cam-ouflage or manufactur-ing/maintenance-aidcoding), almost any coloris possible. Thin films ofplastic or paper materialmay cover one or both sides of sheets for identification cod-ing or maintaining preapplication surface cleanliness. Sheetthickness may range from less than a millimeter to severalcentimeters. The density of the material is likely to rangefrom 50 to 75 percent of solid iron.

• Resistive Cards (R-Cards) consist of a sheet of fiber paper orvery thin plastic covered with a continuous coat of a con-ductive ink, paint, or extremely thin metallic film. The sur-face electrical resistivity of the coating may be constant ormay vary continuously in one or two directions. The con-ductive ink versions are likely to be dark gray to black. Themetallic coated versions may vary in color depending onboth the specific metals used and the thicknesses involved,but black, yellow, green, and gold tints are common. AKapton R-card is shown in Figure 17-3.

• Loaded ceramic spray tiles are sprayed-on and fired ceramiccoatings heavily loaded with electrically conductive fillers orferromagnetic particles. They are likely to range from darkgray to black in color. Depending on the specific filler andsurface-sealing glaze used, they may range from smooth toabrasive in surface texture. Sprayed-on coatings may rangefrom a few millimeters to tens of centimeters in thickness.

Figure 17-1: Four radar absorbing material foams, clockwise from upper left:low-dielectric foam (epoxy); lightweight lossy foam (urethane); thermoplastic

foam (polytherimide); and sprayable lightweight foam (urethane).

Figure 17-2: A sample of a thinMAGRAM silicone resin sheet.

Figure 17-3: A sample of resistivecard (R-card) made of metallized

Kapton.

17-4 I T E M 17

• Absorbing honeycomb is a lightweight com-posite with open cells normally 3 to 12 mm indiameter and 25 to 150 mm maximum thick-ness. It is treated with partially conductiveinks, paints, or fibers. The honeycomb coremay be shipped without being loaded, inwhich case it might be indistinguishable frommaterials used solely for structural purposes.The conductive inks and paints for subsequentloading are likely to come from an entirely dif-ferent source than the core itself. Absorbinghoneycomb is shown in Figure 17-4.

• Transparent RAM (T-RAM) looks like sheetpolycarbonate. It is normally 75 to 85 per-cent transparent in the visible spectrum.Absorbing materials can vary from fibers orspheres spread throughout the material tothin coatings, which look like yellow/greenmetallic window tinting. A clear sample isshown in Figure 17-5.

• Infrared (IR) Treatments usually consist of paintsand coatings. Often these coatings are customized totailor reflectance and/or radiation of IR energy.Because of the wide spectrum (0.8 to 14 micronswavelength) of IR energy and the variety of applica-tions, IR coatings may either be reflective (low emis-sivity) or designed to absorb (high emissivity).Coatings used for IR treatment include specially de-signed military paints in camouflage colors or com-mercial paints designed to reflect solar heat. Some ofthese products have a noticeable metal content in thepaint/binder due to the IR pigments used. Othersare designed to have high emissivity and as such,contain pigments that absorb IR. These high emis-sivity coatings contain carbon-based or other highlyemissive particle-based pigments (normally nearlyblack). In either case, these IR pigments are some-times shipped separately from the paint/binder.


• Absorbing fibers vary from 2 to 6 mm in length and are usually packagedin plastic bags, vials, or jars. Their weight depends on the materials used.Fibers shipped before being chopped to their functional length may be inthe form of conventional spools of textile fibers or in bundles 1 to 2 m inlength and 2 to 10 cm in diameter.

Figure 17-4: A sampleof radar absorbinghoneycomb material.

Figure 17-5: A smallsample of transparentRAM. Notice theprotective coveringadhered to the surface.

17-5I T E M 17

• Spray paints and inks are generally shipped in standard size cans. The cansmay be in boxes containing desiccants, or the pigments and binders maybe shipped separately. Pigments are shipped in jars, plastic bags, or cans,and the binders are shipped in cans or drums. Most are highly toxic orcaustic materials until applied and cured.

• Foams come in sheets usually no larger than 1 × 1 m, ranging from 6 to200 mm in thickness, and weighing less than 40 g per square meter. Theyare packaged in cardboard boxes.

• MAGRAM may be shipped in sheets, uncured slurries, and finished parts,or in raw material form (particles, binder, and polymerization-activator allshipped separately). The particles would most likely be shipped in a veryfine powder or short fiber form, but possibly also immersed in a hy-drophobic fluid to prevent rusting. It may be shipped in sheets up to afew meters in length and width. Sheet thickness may range from less thana millimeter up to tens of centimeters. It may be shipped several layersdeep on flat pallets or as a rolled sheet inside a cardboard tube. If shippedas formed parts, it may be in rectangular cardboard or wooden boxes aslarge as 0.1 × 0.1 × 2 m or as small as 20 × 20 × 20 cm.

• R-Cards are packaged in an envelope or box with a nonabrasive papersheet between each card. Larger quantities may be shipped in rolls from0.2 to 1 m in length and 15 cm in diameter, inside desiccated tubes, orin cardboard boxes.

• Loaded ceramic spay tiles are usually bubble wrapped and packaged incardboard boxes.

• Absorbing honeycomb is shipped in cardboard boxes.

• T-RAM is packaged like sheet polycarbonate or like a window or canopypart. It can have an adhesive protective paper applied to the outside. Ifshipped in smaller pieces, it can be boxed.

• IR thermal paints and coatings are usually packaged in cans like any paintproduct. IR paint pigments can be packaged in cans, vials, or plastic bags.

Nature and Purpose: Designing and producing materials for, and systemswith, signature reduction normally requires software and databases for ana-lyzing these materials and systems. Software and databases specially de-signed for analysis of signature reduction are controlled. These databasesand software will include data or functions essential to analysis of the signa-ture reduction capability of systems and materials.


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(c) Specially designed software or databases for analysis of signaturereduction;

17-6 I T E M 17

Method of Operation: Because emissions and reflections may take manyforms such as acoustic, radio frequency, or infrared energy, software and/ordatabases containing information or methodologies specially designed foranalysis of emissions and reflectance (signatures) are used to evaluate mate-rials for their signature reducing properties. Similarly, software and data-bases may be used to analyze systems in order to determine effectiveness ofthe materials and devices already incorporated as well as to determine whatareas need improvement.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: These items are used to analyze airframeshape and materials for ballistic missile and UAV, including cruise missiles,applications in order to select signature reducing treatments or identify hotspots (potential areas for improvement). Similarly, these items may be usedto evaluate the signature of systems, quantify performance of designs andmaterial choices in systems, and evaluate areas for improvement.

Other Uses: Similar items may be used to analyze signature reduction onmany military articles including ground vehicles, manned aircraft, and ships,as well as analysis of effectiveness of energy management systems for satel-lites and homes. Additionally, passive and active detectors used for securityalarm systems also may require analysis using similar technologies.

Appearance (as manufactured): Software forsignature reduction design tools may be packagedon floppy discs, tapes, and compact discs. A fewexamples are shown in Figure 17-6. Alternatively,a computer network can be used to distributesoftware and its documentation electronically.

Additional Information: Each spectrum has itsown specific design software. Most countries anddefense contractors have developed one-, two-,or three-dimensional computer codes for analysisand design optimization. In the radio frequency

(RF)/radar spectrum, any code that can model antennas or radomes can bemodified and used as a radar cross-section (RCS) tool. As a rule of thumb,any software code name that includes the letters SIG, RF, or RCS should beregarded as suspect RCS code. Basic codes that run on personal computerscan give good fundamental design guidance. When exotic materials andcomplex shapes come into play, supercomputers and specially designed codesare required.

The key elements of RCS design codes involve the ability to define a vehi-cle surface profile within an adequate margin (which can be as small as 1/20of a wavelength of the highest frequency of interest); the ability to repre-sent very small elements of the surface as vectors; and the ability to handlethe four real and complex terms associated with magnetic permeability andelectrical permittivity. These items indicate the value of general purpose

Figure 17-6: Software in the formof a computer disc,a cassette tape,and written media.

17-7I T E M 17

codes and machines capable of rapidly inverting and manipulating very largematrices of numbers.

IR thermal codes are less readily available or mature, but there are commer-cial codes available that can be used or modified for military applications.These codes include those used for thermal quality control. As in RF, a codecapable of vector representation of the size and orientation of surface ele-ments is a critical starting point. Codes estimating the atmospheric transmis-sion of IR radiation at different altitudes, seasons, and types of gaseous envi-ronments are used in the design process. Codes for determining heat transferin aircraft are essential. Codes for determining plume temperature from thevolume of combustion products passing through the tailpipe and expandingand dissipating in the atmosphere are typically involved. (This plume model-ing often involves engine deck codes but goes beyond their use for deter-mining propulsion performance.) Codes that use material emissivity andbidirectional reflection coefficients of materials as inputs may indicate theirpotential use in IR signature control design.

Appearance (as packaged): Software on floppy discs, tapes, and compactdiscs will be packaged in any of a wide variety of packets, pouches, mailers,or boxes. Software may also be packed with related hardware.

Nature and Purpose: RCS measurement equipment has been developed toevaluate, tailor, and reduce the RCS of missile systems in order to reducedetectability by air defense radars. RCS measurement equipment can beused in either indoor or outdoor ranges. Many of the ranges are usable forboth military and commercial purposes. RCS measurement equipment canbe used for evaluating material samples, missile components, scale modelsof missiles, and actual rocket systems or UAVs.

Method of Operation: An object under test, often called the target, is po-sitioned or suspended in a test area with a few or no other objects in orderto minimize sources of extraneous radar scattering. The target is then illu-minated repeatedly by a radar over a select range of radar frequencies ofknown amplitude, and the reflections are measured. The resulting data areevaluated, and radar reflectivity of the target as a function of frequency andviewing angle is determined.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: This equipment is necessary to determine,tailor, and reduce the radar signature of a rocket, UAV, or payload. Thesemeasurement systems also assess computer-modeled performance and ascer-tain whether the missiles have the desired reduced and tailored observables.Certain RCS equipment is used to characterize radar-absorbing materials.

Other Uses: RCS measurement systems can be used to determine the radarsignature of any military vehicle such as land vehicles aircraft, and ships. The


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(d) Specially designed radar cross section measurement systems.

17-8 I T E M 17

m e a s u r e m e n t sprovide informa-tion that aids intailoring or reduc-ing the RCS.Indoor RCS mea-surement rangescan be adapted tomeasure antennaperformance pat-terns for variouscommercial appli-cations such as cellphones, automo-bile antennas, andsatellite dishes.

Appearance (asmanufactured):The basic elements

of an indoor RCS test range are explained below and shown in Figure 17-7.

• Radar Source Equipment: RF equipment is a rack-mounted collection ofelectronic equipment that, when assembled, occupies the space of a filingcabinet and is used in all types of RCS measurement systems. Up/downconverters with feed horns provide radar illumination. To provide a widerange of frequencies, the conical feed horns vary in diameter from 1 to 100cm in internal width. The feed horn length is generally two and a halftimes the internal width. They are metal lined and have provisions for at-taching a coaxial cable or waveguide on the rear end. In RCS measure-ment systems, radar feed sources can be replaced by a radar source from acommercial radar system (e.g., marine radar). Network analyzers can mea-sure absorption and reflection, and are commonly used commercially todevelop antennas and electromagnetic interference shielding materials. RFcabling is low-loss coaxial cabling and is required for connecting the com-ponents. These cables vary in length but are normally 1 to 2 cm in diam-eter and have a metal mesh outer surface.

• Dual Reflectors: Cassegrain measurement systems use two large plates ordishes of different dimensions as reflectors; they can be circular, elliptical,or rectangular. The plates may have calibration marks on several portionsof the surfaces and may be painted. Reflectors may be assembled frompieces and may have rolled or serrated edges. For measuring the RCS of atypical cruise missile, the two reflectors are 2 to 5 cm in thickness, andtheir major axes are 4 m and 5 m in length. These reflectors create ameasurement “sweet spot” 2 m in diameter. A typical RCS dual-reflectormeasurement system is shown in Figure 17-8. This type of system isalmost invariably used for indoor measurements. It should be noted that

Figure 17-7: Schematicof a typical Cassegrainindoor RCSmeasurement range.

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a measurement system could be de-vised using a single reflector.

• Target Support Devices: These deviceshold the target off the floor orground and in the radar illumination;they need to be as imperceptible toradar as possible. Styrofoamcolumns, metal blades coated withradar absorbing material (RAM), andpuppet strings from overheadmounts are common methods ofsupporting and suspending targets tobe measured. The Styrofoamcolumns may range from 2 m inheight and 0.5 m in diameter to 5 min height and 2 m in diameter. Theirhorizontal cross-section may beround (with or without taper),square, triangular, or diamond-shaped; Figure 17-8 shows a truncated-cone column. The metal blades, or pylons, may range from 2 to 40 m inlength and be 5 × 30 cm at the top; short pylons are 50 × 90 cm at thebottom, and tall pylons are 2 × 8 m at the bottom. Both Styrofoamcolumns and pylons can be mounted on a mechanism that tilts them for-ward. Rotating interfaces can also turn the Styrofoam column and target.Sets of three to five Styrofoam columns mounted on a common turntablecan be used to support and rotate a target. Some pylons also have arotating interface with the target at the top.

• Bidirectional Arches: Another approach to mea-suring missile RCS is to use a bidirectional arch,which can be made out of plywood, fiberglass, ormetal. An electric motor drive system is used torelocate the feed horns along the arch, as shownin Figure 17-9. Custom cabling links the arch toa control computer (normally a PC with a key-board and monitor) and the feed controls. A testarticle, with its surface perpendicular to the planedefined by the arch, is placed at the center of thearch. The articles are typically 0.3 to 1.0 m on aside. The calibration reference is a flat, smoothmetal plate the same size as the test article.

Appearance (as manufactured): Transmission/reflection tunnel RCS mea-surement systems look like large, sheet metal, air vent ducting. They have twomatching metal feed horns with coaxial cabling or waveguides leading to theradar source and detector measurement electronics. They are controlled by acomputer that looks like any PC with a keyboard and a monitor. There may be

Photo Credit: S

ikorsky Aircraft

Figure 17-8: RCS measurement equipment using a dualreflector system.

Figure 7-9:Bidirectional

reflectance arch.

Photo Credit: S

ikorsky Aircraft

17-10 I T E M 17

radar-absorbing foam (normally medium blue or black in color and spiked onthe surface) inserted in portions of the ducting. Direct illumination indoor sys-tems and bounce range outdoor systems use conventionally shaped, parabolicradar reflectors ranging in size from a few centimeters up to 10 m in diameter.

Appearance (as packaged): Radar ranges are seldom shipped as one piece;rather, they are assembled onsite from many components. There are nounique packaging requirements for this equipment beyond those of the in-dustry standard for rack-mounted electronics and commercial computercomponents. Some of the components (such as the Cassegrain reflectors)can be fairly large and require special crates. Styrofoam target supports aredelicate and must be packaged to prevent denting.

ITEM 18Nuclear Effects Protection

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Nature and Purpose: Microcircuits require protection from ionizing radi-

ation in the form of gamma and X-rays from detonated nuclear weapons.

Ionizing radiation causes two problems in microcircuits. The first problem

is the build-up of a permanent electrical charge in a circuit, which disrupts

its ability to respond or causes it to fail completely (latch-up). This effect de-

pends on the total dose of radiation delivered to the circuit. The second

problem is excess flow of electrical current in a circuit, which disrupts or de-

stroys it. This effect depends on how quickly the radiation is delivered to

the circuit (dose rate). Of the several ways to protect circuits from such ef-

fects, the two covered by the MTCR Annex are to make microcircuits in-

trinsically resistant to the total dose of ionizing radiation (hardening) or to

use a radiation detector to sense the dose rate from a nuclear event and turn

the circuit power off or trigger protection devices until the event is over.

Method of Operation: Hardened microcircuits are similar in operation and

appearance to regular microcircuits, but they are made of materials and by

processes that resist accumulating excess charge. Improved oxide insulating

layers, increased material purity, decreased porosity, and sometimes polishing

of the insulating layers are all used to reduce the charge-holding tendencies

of the oxide. These techniques greatly increase the cost of a hardened mi-

crocircuit, and they tend to lower digital operating rates. Radiation detectors

are relatively simple devices that sense an increase in current caused by inci-

dent radiation. After the radiation passes a threshold, the detectors issue a


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NuclearEffectsProtection

Devices for use in protecting rocket systems and unmanned air vehiclesagainst nuclear effects (e.g. Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP), X-rays, com-bined blast and thermal effects), and usable for the systems in Item 1, asfollows:(a) “Radiation hardened” “microcircuits” and detectors.

Note to Item 18 (a):A detector is defined as a mechanical, electrical, optical or chemical de-vice that automatically identifies and records, or registers a stimulus suchas an environmental change in pressure or temperature, an electrical orelectromagnetic signal or radiation from a radioactive material.

18-2 I T E M 18

control signal to protection circuitry, which eithershunts currents away from sensitive devices or turnsoff the equipment to avoid burn out. The detectorsusually have a test input to activate the detector dur-ing construction or maintenance activities to verify op-eration. They must usually resist radiation effects (e.g.,they must work again), and they must be fast in issu-ing protection commands before damage occurs in themicrocircuits.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: Radiation-hardenedmicrocircuits and detectors are used in ballistic mis-siles intended to operate in a nuclear environment.Protecting unmanned air vehicles (UAVs) from ioniz-ing radiation is generally not required because theyare usually more vulnerable to blast overpressure,which would impact a UAV at greater distances froma nuclear explosion than radiation.

Other Uses: Radiation-hardened devices are used inspacecraft for long-duration missions, including mili-tary, telecommunications, scientific, and meteorologi-cal satellites, space stations, and planetary probes.However, the total dose that these applications are re-quired to withstand is generally significantly lowerthan that specified by the MTCR Annex (5 × 10

5

rads(Si)), but MTCR-controlled items are often used.Hardened microcircuits are also used in high-radiationenvironments such as nuclear reactor safety; instru-mentation, control, and robotics systems; and high-energy physics accelerator instrumentation, detectors,control, and safety systems.

Appearance (as manufactured): Hardened elec-tronic component devices and their assemblies aretypically mounted in hermetically sealed metal or ce-ramic packages with surface-mounted devices com-mon in high-density assemblies. They look like com-mercial devices, but they may have part numbersidentifying them as hardened. Two circuit boardspopulated with hardened microcircuits are shown inFigures 18-1 and 18-2.

Radiation detector circuits can be a dozen or sosquare centimeters of circuit board space or a singlemicrocircuit with a few external select components asshown in Figure 18-3.

Figure 18-1: A circuit board populated withmicrocircuits hardened against nuclear effects.

Phot

o C

redi

t: T

he C

harle

s S

tark

Dra

per

Labo

rato

ry,

Inc.

Figure 18-2: Another circuit board populated withmicrocircuits hardened against nuclear effects.

Photo Credit: The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc.

Figure 18-3: Single microcircuit radiationdetector.

18-3I T E M 18

Appearance (as packaged): Electronic assemblies and components are typ-ically shipped in plastic bags marked to designate an electrostatic sensitivedevice. They are cushioned in rubber foam or bubble wrap for shock pro-tection and packed inside cardboard boxes.

Nature and Purpose: Radomes are non-metallic structures that protect an-tennas from the environment while allowing transmission of radio fre-quency signals with minimal signal loss and distortion. They are usuallymade of an insulating material such as ceramics or silicon phenolic. The in-dicated specifications limit concern to radomes intended to survive a severeheat and pressure environment.

Method of Operation: Radome materials are selected for their strengthand signal transparency in the frequency bands of interest throughout theexpected temperature range. They are usually shaped to enhance the aero-dynamic performance of the vehicle and to avoid undue perturbations ofthe signal from prismatic, or lens, effects. Properly designed radomes allowthe enclosed antenna to transmit and receive signals through the radomewith minimal distortions.

Typical Missile-Related Uses: The severe environments specified in thisItem typically limit the missile-related uses of these radomes to some cruisemissiles and to the reentry vehicles (RVs) carried by short- to intermediate-range ballistic missiles. One use of such radomes is to protect active radarseekers installed in the nose of RVs as they guide the RVs to their targets.Longer-range missiles reenter the atmosphere too fast for nose mountedradomes to survive. For these RVs, radomes (windows) may be located fur-ther back on the RV body. These radomes are notgenerally needed for UAVs because most UAVs can-not survive the specified nuclear effects. In any case,radomes also can be hardened to the specified nucleareffects to protect antennas at missile silos or commandposts designed to survive nuclear attack.

Other Uses: These radomes have few if any com-mercial uses.

Appearance (as manufactured): Radomes used toprotect nose-mounted sensors in RVs are conical, asshown in Figures 18-4 and 18-5. They range in sizefrom 30 cm to 1 m or more in diameter and length,depending on the size of the RVs to which they are


•Russia•United States

(b) Radomes designed to withstand a combined thermal shock greaterthan 100 cal/sq cm accompanied by a peak over pressure of greaterthan 50 kPa (7 pounds per square inch).

Figure 18-4: Aerodynamic radomes.

Photo Credit: British Aerospace Defense Limited

18-4 I T E M 18

attached. The materials are basically dielectrics insolid laminates or sandwiched foam formed as asingle, one-piece molded radome. A thin wall,dielectric space frame (DSF) radome, usually 0.1 cmor less in thickness, may be used for small antennas. Asolid laminate-wall DSF radome typically is 0.25 cmin thickness. For two-layer, sandwich DSF radomes, afoam layer is added to the inside of the thin wallradome. The foam thickness is chosen primarily forthermal insulation and resistance to thermal shockloads of 100 cal/sq cm. A composite sandwich, foam-core wall radome is the most expensive design andprovides the strength to withstand peak over-pressure

loads greater than 50 kPa. A sandwiched foam-core wall is one-quarterwavelength thick for the highest radio frequency signal.

Appearance (as packaged): Radomes are shipped in wooden crates thathave contour braces within them to support their thin wall structure.Radomes have closure frames mounted on their aft flanges to maintainstructural rigidity in transit and are wrapped in polyethylene bags. Cratescan use either formed wooden bulkheads for contour bracing orpolyurethane, foamed in place, to support the radome.

Figure 18-5:Radomes similar tothose that might beused to protect RVseekers on reentry.

Phot

o C

redi

t: A

mer

ican

Tec

hnol

ogy

&

Res

earc

h In

dust

ries,

Inc.

ITEM 19Other Rocket and UAV Systems

19-1I T E M 19

Nature and Purpose: This item covers missiles that can reach a range of atleast 300 km, but only with payloads less than 500 kg. (Otherwise, the mis-siles would be controlled under Item 1.) Evaluations of missiles covered un-der this item must take into account the ability to trade payload for range.This inherent capability may differ significantly from manufacturers specifi-cations or intended operational concept. The determination of an un-manned air vehicle’s (UAV) inherent capability may be more complex thanthat for a ballistic missile. These systems are MTCR controlled because oftheir suitability for delivering chemical and biological weapons, which arenot constrained to substantial minimal weights as nuclear weapons are bycritical mass.

Rockets and UAVscaptured under thisItem are identical inmost respects to, butsmaller than, the mis-siles and UAVs de-scribed in Item 1. Theyoperate in the samemanner, have similaruses, look almost thesame (except possiblyfor size), and are simi-larly packaged for ship-ment. Some represen-tative Category IIsystems are shown inFigures 19-1, 19-2,and 19-3.


•Australia•Brazil•Bulgaria•China•Czech Republic•Egypt•France•Germany•India• Iran• Iraq• Israel• Italy• Japan•Libya•North Korea•Pakistan•Russia•South Africa•South Korea•Spain•United Kingdom•United States

CAT

EGO

RY

II ~

ITE

M 1

9

OtherRocketand UAVSystems

Complete rocket systems (including ballistic missile systems, space launchvehicles and sounding rockets) and unmanned air vehicles (includingcruise missile systems, target drones and reconnaissance drones), not cov-ered in Item 1, capable of a maximum range equal or superior to 300 km.

Figure 19-1: A jet-powered Category II unmanned airvehicle in front of its transporter erector launcher.

19-2 I T E M 19

Figure 19-3: A propeller-driven

UAV launched from arocket booster.

Figure 19-2:A typical

unmanned airvehicle design

normally used forreconnaissance

missions.

Photo Credit: G

eneral Atomics Aeronautical

Photo Credit: S

TN ATLAS

Electronik Gm

bH

ITEM 20Other Complete Subsystems

20-1I T E M 20

Nature and Purpose: Solid rocket stages and rocket motors used in systemsfalling under Item 19 are similar in every respect except perhaps size to thosedescribed in Item 2. They operate identically to larger motors; they look thesame except for their smaller size, and they use the same packaging methods.Some Category I and II solid rocket motors are shown in Figure 20-1. Awooden shipping crate for four Category II solid rocket motors from the sideand end views, respectively, is shown in Figures 20-2 and 20-3.


•Brazil•China•France•Germany•India• Iran• Iraq• Israel• Italy• Japan•North Korea•Pakistan•Russia•South Korea•Spain•Ukraine•United Kingdom•United States

CAT

EGO

RY

II ~

ITE

M 2

0

OtherCompleteSubsystems

Complete subsystems as follows, usable in systems in Item 19, but not insystems in Item 1, as well as specially designed “production facilities” and“production equipment” therefor:(a) Individual rocket stages(b) Solid or liquid propellant rocket engines, having a total impulse

capacity of 8.41 × 105 Ns (1.91 × 105 lb-s) or greater, but less than1.1 × 106 Ns (2.5 × 105 lb-s).

Figure 20-1: On the right, solid rocket motors controlled under Category II. Motors onthe left are large enough to be controlled under Item 2, Category I.

20-2 I T E M 20

Liquid engines meeting the re-quirements of Item 20 are rela-tively rare. They tend to beeither large propulsion enginesor small reaction controlengines designed to adjust aspacecraft’s trajectory outsidethe atmosphere. An example ofa relatively small propulsionengine for a sounding rocketsustainer is shown schematicallyin Figure 20-4. Reaction con-trol engines are not really suit-able for rocket propulsion be-cause they operate at low levels

of thrust. But since they can typically operate forseveral minutes, they can exceed the impulse al-lowed under Item 20. An example of such an en-gine is shown in Figure 20-5, a reaction controlengine used in a space launch program. It cangenerate 440 N of thrust for up to 2,000 sec-onds. Furthermore, all liquid rocket engines canproduce greater impulse simply by increasing thesize of the propellant tanks.

Production facilities and equipment here are sim-ilar to those discussed in Item 2. These facilitiesand equipment may be indistinguishable fromthose for larger items but may be smaller in size.

Figure 20-2: Side view of a shipping container containing four Category IIsolid rocket motors.

Figure 20-3: End view of a shipping containercontaining four Category II solid rocket motors.

Figure 20-5: A reaction control engine that can generate 100 lbs.of thrust for up to 2,000 seconds.

Figure 20-4: A sounding rocket sustainerengine that develops 1.8 × 104 N of thrustfor approximately 51 seconds.

Ove

rvie

w o

f C

ompo

site

s

Figu

res

A-1

and

A-2

depi

ct th

e pr

oces

sse

quen

ces

and

equi

pmen

t use

d to

man

ufac

ture

com

posi

te m

ater

ials

con

trolle

d un

der t

he M

TCR.

The

flow

beg

ins

with

the

prec

urso

r mat

eria

ls (o

nth

e le

ft) a

nd p

rogr

esse

s to

the

cont

rolle

d en

dpr

oduc

ts. T

he c

ontro

lled

equi

pmen

t and

proc

esse

s ar

e de

scrib

ed, a

nd th

e ap

plic

able

MTC

R ite

ms

are

liste

d be

low

the

desc

riptio

ns.

NOTE

:The

pro

duct

s sh

own

here

are

typi

cal e

xam

ples

. Man

y co

mbi

natio

nsof

pro

duct

s an

d pr

oces

s se

quen

ces

are

poss

ible

. Rep

rese

ntat

ive

proc

ess

exam

ples

usi

ng s

ome

of th

epr

oduc

ts s

how

n he

re a

re il

lust

rate

din

Fig

ure

A-2

on th

e fo

llow

ing

page

.

Non

-MTC

R-

Con

trolle

dEq

uipm

ent o

rPr

oces

s

Non

-MTC

R-

Con

trolle

dPr

oduc

t

MTC

R-

Con

trolle

dEq

uipm

ent o

rPr

oces

s

MTC

R-

Con

trolle

dPr

oduc

t

Proc

ess:

Fibe

rs a

re o

xidi

zed

at 1

80–3

00°C

und

er c

ontro

lled

tens

ion,

follo

wed

by

carb

oniz

atio

n in

an

iner

tat

mos

pher

e.Eq

uipm

ent:

Con

trolle

dte

mpe

ratu

re a

nd p

ress

ure

furn

aces

, ten

sion

ing

rolle

rs,

and

driv

e m

otor

s.M

TCR:

Item

6(d

)(1) E

quip

men

tfo

r con

verti

ng p

olym

eric

fibe

rs.

Proc

ess:

An a

lum

inum

oxi

de b

ased

slu

rry is

dra

wn

thro

ugh

a sp

inne

ret t

o fo

rmfib

ers

cons

istin

g of

480

–700

fila

men

ts p

er to

w (f

iber

bun

dle)

.Eq

uipm

ent:

Slur

ry s

olut

ion

pipi

ng c

onne

cted

to s

pinn

eret

, coa

gula

tion

tank

, and

take

-up

rolle

rs.

MTC

R:Ite

m 6

(d)(3

) Equ

ipm

ent f

or th

e w

et-s

pinn

ing

of re

fract

ory

cera

mic

s.

Alum

inum

Oxi

deBa

sed

Slur

ry

Wet

Spi

nnin

gC

eram

ic

Prep

reg

Ope

ratio

n

Con

vers

ion

ofFi

bers

Cont

inue

don

Figu

re A

-2

Cont

inue

don

Figu

re A

-2

Cont

inue

don

Figu

re A

-2

Cont

inue

don

Figu

re A

-2C

hem

ical

Vap

or D

epos

ition

(CVD

)Pl

asm

a As

sist

ed C

hem

ical

Vap

or D

epos

ition

(PAC

VD)

Phys

ical

Vap

or D

epos

ition

(PVD

)

Cer

amic

Fila

men

ts

Prep

reg

Fila

men

ts

SEM

Pho

to o

f coa

ted

fiber

Cer

amic

Fila

men

ts

Text

ile, o

ne-d

imen

sion

alw

eavi

ng m

achi

ne.

Unt

reat

ed F

ilam

ents

Unt

reat

ed F

abricTr

eate

d Fi

lam

ents

Coa

ted

Fila

men

ts

Fila

men

ts

Proc

ess:

The

filam

ents

are

coa

ted

with

resi

ns o

r siz

ings

by

imm

ersi

onin

a b

ath.

Equi

pmen

t:D

rive

mot

ors,

tens

ioni

ngro

llers

, and

tem

pera

ture

-con

trolle

dre

sin

bath

s co

mpr

ise

the

maj

ority

of

the

equi

pmen

t.M

TCR:

Item

6(e

) Equ

ipm

ent

desi

gned

or m

odifi

ed fo

r spe

cial

fibe

rsu

rface

trea

tmen

t or f

or p

rodu

cing

prep

regs

and

pre

form

s.

Proc

ess:

Fila

men

ts a

re c

oate

d by

pas

sing

them

thro

ugh

gas

fille

d C

VD o

r PVD

cha

mbe

rs a

t tem

pera

ture

s ne

ar12

00°C

. Gas

reac

tion

bypr

oduc

ts (s

uch

as S

iC) a

rede

posi

ted

on th

e fib

ers.

Equi

pmen

t:Th

e eq

uipm

ent u

sed

for C

VD, P

ACVD

, or

PVD

will

incl

ude

a re

actio

n ch

ambe

r, co

ntro

ls fo

rte

mpe

ratu

re, a

nd g

as fl

ow.

MTC

R:Ite

m 6

(d)(2

) Equ

ipm

ent f

or th

e va

por d

epos

ition

of

elem

ents

or c

ompo

unds

on

heat

ed fi

lam

ent s

ubst

ance

s.

Figu

re A

-1: R

epre

sent

ativ

e Ex

ampl

es o

f Fila

men

t and

Com

posi

te P

rodu

ctio

n Pr

oces

ses

Non

-MTC

R-

Con

trolle

dEq

uipm

ent o

rPr

oces

s

Non

-MTC

R-

Con

trolle

dPr

oduc

t

MTC

R-

Con

trolle

dEq

uipm

ent o

rPr

oces

s

MTC

R-

Con

trolle

dPr

oduc

t

Proc

ess:

Fila

men

ts a

re d

raw

nth

roug

h a

resi

n ba

th a

nd w

ound

onto

the

rota

ting

man

drel

.Eq

uipm

ent:

Rot

atin

g la

the-

type

mac

hine

s ca

pabl

e of

win

ding

filam

ents

in th

ree

or m

ore

axes

.M

TCR:

Item

6(1

)(a) F

ilam

ent

win

ding

mac

hine

s.

Proc

ess:

Fabr

ics

are

treat

ed w

ithre

sin

and

cut i

nto

strip

s to

mak

eta

pe.

Equi

pmen

t:R

esin

bat

h an

dcu

tting

mac

hine

s.M

TCR:

Item

6(1

)(e) E

quip

men

tde

sign

ed o

r mod

ified

for s

peci

alfib

er s

urfa

ce tr

eatm

ent o

r for

prod

ucin

g pr

epre

gs a

nd p

refo

rms.

Proc

ess:

The

prep

reg

tape

isw

ound

on

a fo

rm o

r man

drel

.Eq

uipm

ent:

Rot

ary

lath

e-ty

pede

vice

s si

mila

r to

filam

ent w

indi

ngm

achi

nes,

or n

umer

ical

lyco

ntro

lled

devi

ces

capa

ble

ofw

indi

ng ta

pe in

two

or m

ore

axes

.M

TCR:

Item

6(1

)(b) T

ape-

layi

ngm

achi

nes.

Proc

ess:

The

carb

on fi

ber p

refo

rm is

impr

egna

ted

with

hyd

roca

rbon

gas

at 7

00–2

000°

C v

ia is

othe

rmal

, pre

ssur

e gr

adie

nt, o

r tem

pera

ture

grad

ient

met

hods

.Eq

uipm

ent:

Pres

sure

cha

mbe

r, pr

essu

re g

ener

ator

, tem

pera

ture

and

pres

sure

con

trols

.M

TCR:

Item

7(c

)(1) I

sost

atic

pre

sses

.

Proc

ess:

Fila

men

ts a

re in

terla

ced

tofo

rm a

fabr

ic p

refo

rm.

Equi

pmen

t:R

otat

ing

tabl

e w

ith a

netw

ork

of ro

ds, f

iber

spo

ols,

driv

em

otor

s, a

nd la

cing

nee

dles

.M

TCR:

Item

6(c

) Mul

ti-di

rect

iona

l,m

ulti-

dim

ensi

onal

wea

ving

mac

hine

s.

Proc

ess:

The

carb

on fi

ber p

refo

rm is

impr

egna

ted

with

hyd

roca

rbon

gas

at 7

00–2

000°

C v

ia is

othe

rmal

, pre

ssur

e gr

adie

nt, o

r tem

pera

ture

grad

ient

met

hods

.Eq

uipm

ent:

CVD

/CVI

Fur

nace

s, a

ssoc

iate

d pi

ping

, val

ves,

pre

ssur

ean

d te

mpe

ratu

re c

ontro

ls.

MTC

R:Ite

ms

7(b)

(2) &

7(c

)(2) C

VD fu

rnac

es a

nd n

ozzl

es fo

r CVD

furn

aces

.

Figu

re A

-2: R

epre

sent

ativ

e Ex

ampl

es o

f Fila

men

t and

Com

posi

te P

rodu

ctio

n Pr

oces

ses

Fila

men

ts

Unt

reat

ed F

ilam

ents

Unt

reat

ed F

abric

From

Page

1

≈

Tape

-Lay

ing

Mac

hine

sTa

peC

ompo

site

Pro

duct

(e.g

., R

ocke

t Mot

or N

ozzl

es)

Isos

tatic

Pre

sses

Car

bon

Car

bon

Com

posi

tes

Fila

men

t Win

ding

Mac

hine

sW

eavi

ng/B

raid

ing

Com

posi

te P

rodu

ct(e

.g.,

Roc

ket M

otor

Cas

es)

Pref

orm

s

Che

mic

al V

apor

Dep

ositi

on (C

VD)

orC

hem

ical

Vap

orIn

filtra

tion

(CVI

)Fu

rnac

esC

arbo

n C

arbo

nC

ompo

site

s

Prep

reg

Ope

ratio

n

MTCR Guidelines and Annex

1A P P E N D I X

Guidelines for Sensitive Missile-Relevant Transfers

1. The purpose of these Guidelines is to limit the risks of proliferation ofweapons of mass destruction (i.e. nuclear, chemical and biologicalweapons), by controlling transfers that could make a contribution todelivery systems (other than manned aircraft) for such weapons. TheGuidelines are not designed to impede national space programs or in-ternational cooperation in such programs as long as such programscould not contribute to delivery systems for weapons of mass de-struction. These Guidelines, including the attached Annex, form thebasis for controlling transfers to any destination beyond theGovernment’s jurisdiction or control of all delivery systems (otherthan manned aircraft) capable of delivering weapons of mass destruc-tion, and of equipment and technology relevant to missiles whose per-formance in terms of payload and range exceeds stated parameters.Restraint will be exercised in the consideration of all transfers of itemscontained within the Annex and all such transfers will be consideredon a case-by-case basis. The Government will implement theGuidelines in accordance with national legislation.

2. The Annex consists of two categories of items, which term includesequipment and technology. Category I items, all of which are in AnnexItems 1 and 2, are those items of greatest sensitivity. If a Category Iitem is included in a system, that system will also be considered asCategory I, except when the incorporated item cannot be separated,removed or duplicated. Particular restraint will be exercised in the con-sideration of Category I transfers regardless of their purpose, and therewill be a strong presumption to deny such transfers. Particular restraintwill also be exercised in the consideration of transfers of any items inthe Annex, or of any missiles (whether or not in the Annex), if theGovernment judges, on the basis of all available, persuasive informa-tion, evaluated according to factors including those in paragraph 3,that they are intended to be used for the delivery of weapons of massdestruction, and there will be a strong presumption to deny such trans-fers. Until further notice, the transfer of Category I production facili-ties will not be authorized. The transfer of other Category I items willbe authorized only on rare occasions and where the Government (A)

AP

PE

ND

IX Missile

TechnologyControlRegime(MTCR)Guidelines

2 A P P E N D I X

obtains binding government-to-government undertakings embodyingthe assurances from the recipient government called for in paragraph 5of these Guidelines and (B) assumes responsibility for taking all stepsnecessary to ensure that the item is put only to its stated end-use. It isunderstood that the decision to transfer remains the sole and sovereignjudgment of the Government.

3. In the evaluation of transfer applications for Annex items, the follow-ing factors will be taken into account:

A. Concerns about the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction;

B. The capabilities and objectives of the missile and space pro-grams of the recipient state;

C. The significance of the transfer in terms of the potential devel-opment of delivery systems (other than manned aircraft) forweapons of mass destruction;

D. The assessment of the end-use of the transfers, including therelevant assurances of the recipient states referred to in sub-paragraphs 5.A and 5.B below;

E. The applicability of relevant multilateral agreements.

4. The transfer of design and production technology directly associatedwith any items in the Annex will be subject to as great a degree ofscrutiny and control as will the equipment itself, to the extent per-mitted by national legislation.

5. Where the transfer could contribute to a delivery system for weaponsof mass destruction, the Government will authorize transfers of itemsin the Annex only on receipt of appropriate assurances from the gov-ernment of the recipient state that:

A. The items will be used only for the purpose stated and that suchuse will not be modified nor the items modified or replicatedwithout the prior consent of the Government;

B. Neither the items nor replicas nor derivatives thereof will be re-transferred without the consent of the Government.

6. In furtherance of the effective operation of the Guidelines, theGovernment will, as necessary and appropriate, exchange relevant in-formation with other governments applying the same Guidelines.

7. The adherence of all States to these Guidelines in the interest of in-ternational peace and security would be welcome.

iA P P E N D I X

AP

PE

ND

IX Missile

TechnologyControlRegime(MTCR)EquipmentandTechnologyAnnex

1. INTRODUCTION

(a) This Annex consists of two categories of items, which term in-cludes equipment and “technology.” Category I items, all ofwhich are in Annex items 1 and 2, are those items of greatestsensitivity. If a Category I item is included in a system, that sys-tem will also be considered as Category I, except when the in-corporated item cannot be separated, removed or duplicated.Category II items are those items in the Annex not designatedCategory I.

(b) The transfer of “technology” directly associated with any itemsin the Annex will be subject to as great a degree of scrutiny andcontrol as will the equipment itself, to the extent permitted bynational legislation. The approval of any Annex item for exportalso authorizes the export to the same end user of the minimumtechnology required for the installation, operation, mainte-nance, and repair of the item.

(c) In reviewing the proposed applications for transfers of completerocket and unmanned air vehicle systems described in Items 1and 19, and of equipment or technology which is listed in theTechnical Annex, for potential use in such systems, theGovernment will take account of the ability to trade off rangeand payload.

2. DEFINITIONS

For the purpose of this Annex, the following definitions apply:

(a) “Development” is related to all phases prior to “production”such as:

—design—design research—design analysis—design concepts—assembly and testing of prototypes—pilot production schemes

ii A P P E N D I X

—design data

—process of transforming design data into a product

—configuration design

—integration design

—layouts

(b) A “microcircuit” is defined as a device in which a number of

passive and/or active elements are considered as indivisibly as-

sociated on or within a continuous structure to perform the

function of a circuit.

(c) “Production” means all production phases such as:

—production engineering

—manufacture

—integration

—assembly (mounting)

—inspection

—testing

—quality assurance

(d) “Production equipment” means tooling, templates, jigs, man-

drels, moulds, dies, fixtures, alignment mechanisms, test equip-

ment, other machinery and components therefor, limited to

those specially designed or modified for “development” or for

one or more phases of “production.”

(e) “Production facilities” means equipment and specially designed

software therefor integrated into installations for “develop-

ment” or for one or more phases of “production.”

(f) “Radiation Hardened” means that the component or equip-

ment is designed or rated to withstand radiation levels which

meet or exceed a total irradiation dose of 5 × 105 rads (Si).

(g) “Technology” means specific information which is required for

the “development,” “production” or “use” of a product. The

information may take the form of “technical data” or “technical

assistance.”

(1) “Technical assistance” may take the forms such as:

—instruction

—skills

—training

—working knowledge

—consulting services

iiiA P P E N D I X

(2) “Technical data” may take forms such as:

—blueprints

—plans

—diagrams

—models

—formulae

—engineering designs and specifications

—manuals and instructions written or recorded on other

media or devices such as:

—–disk

—–tape

—–read-only memories

NOTE:

This definition of technology does not include technology “in the

public domain” nor “basic scientific research.”

(i) “In the public domain” as it applies to this Annex means

technology which has been made available without re-

strictions upon its further dissemination. (Copyright re-

strictions do not remove technology from being “in the

public domain.”)

(ii) “Basic scientific research” means experimental or theoret-

ical work undertaken principally to acquire new knowl-

edge of the fundamental principles of phenomena and ob-

servable facts, not primarily directed towards a specific

practical aim or objective.

(h) “Use” means:

—operation

—installation (including on-site installation)

—maintenance

—repair

—overhaul

—refurbishing

3. TERMINOLOGY

Where the following terms appear in the text, they are to be understood ac-

cording to the explanations below:

(a) “Specially Designed” describes equipment, parts, components

or software which, as a result of “development,” have unique

iv A P P E N D I X

properties that distinguish them for certain predetermined pur-poses. For example, a piece of equipment that is “specially de-signed” for use in a missile will only be considered so if it has noother function or use. Similarly, a piece of manufacturing equip-ment that is “specially designed” to produce a certain type ofcomponent will only be considered such if it is not capable ofproducing other types of components.

(b) “Designed or Modified” describes equipment, parts, compo-nents or software which, as a result of “development,” or mod-ification, have specified properties that make them fit for a par-ticular application. “Designed or Modified” equipment, parts,components or software can be used for other applications. Forexample, a titanium coated pump designed for a missile may beused with corrosive fluids other than propellants.

(c) “Usable In” or “Capable Of” describes equipment, parts, com-ponents or software which are suitable for a particular purpose.There is no need for the equipment, parts, components or soft-ware to have been configured, modified or specified for the par-ticular purpose. For example, any military specification memorycircuit would be “capable of” operation in a guidance system.

ITEM 1—CATEGORY I

Complete rocket systems (including ballistic missile systems, space launchvehicles and sounding rockets) and unmanned air vehicle systems (includ-ing cruise missile systems, target drones and reconnaissance drones) capableof delivering at least a 500 kg payload to a range of at least 300 km as wellas the specially designed “production facilities” for these systems.

ITEM 2—CATEGORY I

Complete subsystems usable in the systems in Item 1, as follows, as well asthe specially designed “production facilities” and “production equipment”therefor:

(a) Individual rocket stages;

(b) Reentry vehicles, and equipment designed or modified therefor,as follows, except as provided in Note (1) below for those de-signed for non-weapon payloads:

(1) Heat shields and components thereof fabricated of ce-ramic or ablative materials;

(2) Heat sinks and components thereof fabricated of light-weight, high heat capacity materials;

vA P P E N D I X

(3) Electronic equipment specially designed for reentry

vehicles;

(c) Solid or liquid propellant rocket engines, having a total impulse

capacity of 1.1 × 106 N-sec (2.5 × 105 lb-sec) or greater;

(d) “Guidance sets” capable of achieving system accuracy of 3.33

percent or less of the range (e.g. a CEP of 10 km or less at a

range of 300 km), except as provided in Note (1) below for

those designed for missiles with a range under 300 km or

manned aircraft;

(e) Thrust vector control sub-systems, except as provided in Note

(1) below for those designed for rocket systems that do not ex-

ceed the range/payload capability of Item 1;

(f) Weapon or warhead safing, arming, fusing, and firing mecha-

nisms, except as provided in Note (1) below for those designed

for systems other than those in Item 1.

Notes to Item 2:

(1) The exceptions in (b), (d), (e) and (f) above may be treated as

Category II if the subsystem is exported subject to end use statements

and quantity limits appropriate for the excepted end use stated above.

(2) CEP (circle of equal probability) is a measure of accuracy; and defined

as the radius of the circle centered at the target, at a specific range, in

which 50 percent of the payloads impact.

(3) A “guidance set” integrates the process of measuring and computing

a vehicle’s position and velocity (i.e. navigation) with that of comput-

ing and sending commands to the vehicle’s flight control systems to

correct the trajectory.

(4) Examples of methods of achieving thrust vector control covered by

(e) include:

(a) Flexible nozzle;

(b) Fluid or secondary gas injection;

(c) Movable engine or nozzle;

(d) Deflection of exhaust gas stream (jet vanes or probes); or

(e) Use of thrust tabs.

vi A P P E N D I X

(5) Liquid propellant apogee engines specified in Item 2(c), designed ormodified for satellite applications, may be treated as Category II, ifthe subsystem is exported subject to end use statements and quantitylimits appropriate for the excepted end use stated above, when havingall of the following parameters:

(a) Nozzle throat diameter of 20 mm or less, and

(b) Combustion chamber pressure of 15 bar or less.

ITEM 3—CATEGORY II

Propulsion components and equipment usable in the systems in Item 1, asfollows, as well as the specially designed “production facilities” and“production equipment” therefor, and flow-forming machines specified inNote (1):

(a) Lightweight turbojet and turbofan engines (including turbo-compound engines) that are small and fuel efficient;

(b) Ramjet/scramjet/pulsejet/combined cycle engines, includingdevices to regulate combustion, and specially designed compo-nents therefor;

(c) Rocket motor cases, “interior lining,” “insulation” and nozzlestherefor;

(d) Staging mechanisms, separation mechanisms, and interstagestherefor;

(e) Liquid and slurry propellant (including oxidizers) control sys-tems, and specially designed components therefor, designed ormodified to operate in vibration environments of more than10 g RMS between 20 Hz and 2,000 Hz.

(f) Hybrid rocket motors and specially designed components there-for.

Notes to Item 3:

(1) Flow-forming machines, and specially designed components and spe-cially designed software therefor, which:

(a) According to the manufacturer’s technical specification, can beequipped with numerical control units or a computer control,even when not equipped with such units at delivery, and

(b) With more than two axes which can be coordinated simultane-ously for contouring control.

viiA P P E N D I X

Technical Note:

Machines combining the functions of spin-forming and flow-formingare for the purpose of this item regarded as flow-forming machines.

This item does not include machines that are not usable in the pro-duction of propulsion components and equipment (e.g. motor cases)for systems in Item 1.

(2) (a) The only engines covered in subitem (a) above, are the follow-ing:

(1) Engines having both of the following characteristics:

(a) Maximum thrust value greater than 1000 N(achieved un-installed) excluding civil certified en-gines with a maximum thrust value greater than8,890 N (achieved un-installed), and

(b) Specific fuel consumption of 0.13kg/N/hr or less(at sea level static and standard conditions); or

(2) Engines designed or modified for systems in Item 1, re-gardless of thrust or specific fuel consumption.

(b) Item 3 (a) engines may be exported as part of a manned aircraftor in quantities appropriate for replacement parts for mannedaircraft.

(3) In Item 3(c), “interior lining” suited for the bond interface betweenthe solid propellant and the case or insulating liner is usually a liquidpolymer based dispersion of refractory or insulating materials, e.g.,carbon filled HTPB or other polymer with added curing agents to besprayed or screeded over a case interior.

(4) In Item 3(c), “insulation” intended to be applied to the componentsof a rocket motor, i.e., the case, nozzle inlets, and case closures, in-cludes cured or semi-cured compounded rubber sheet stock contain-ing an insulating or refractory material. It may also be incorporated asstress relief boots or flaps.

(5) The only servo valves and pumps covered in (e) above, are the fol-lowing:

(a) Servo valves designed for flow rates of 24 liters per minute orgreater, at an absolute pressure of 7,000 kPa (1,000 psi) orgreater, that have an actuator response time of less than100 msec.

viii A P P E N D I X

(b) Pumps, for liquid propellants, with shaft speeds equal to or

greater than 8,000 RPM or with discharge pressures equal to or

greater than 7,000 kPa (1,000 psi).

(6) Item 3(e) systems and components may be exported as part of a

satellite.


Propellants and constituent chemicals for propellants as follows:

(a) Composite Propellants

(1) Composite and composite modified double base propellants;

(b) Fuel Substances

(1) Hydrazine with concentration of more than 70 percent and its

derivatives including monomethylhydrazine (MMH);

(2) Unsymmetric dimethylhydrazine (UDMH);

(3) Spherical aluminum powder with particles of uniform diameter

of less than 500 × 10–6 m (500 micrometers) and an aluminum

content of 97 percent by weight or greater;

(4) Zirconium, beryllium, boron, magnesium and alloys of these in

particle size less than 500 × 10–6 m (500 micrometers), whether

spherical, atomized, spheroidal, flaked or ground, consisting of

97 percent by weight or more of any of the above mentioned

metals;

(5) High energy density materials such as boron slurry, having an

energy density of 40 × 106 J/kg or greater.

(c) Oxidizers/Fuels

(1) Perchlorates, chlorates or chromates mixed with powdered met-

als or other high energy fuel components.

(d) Oxidizer Substances

(1) Liquid

(a) Dinitrogen trioxide;

(b) Nitrogen dioxide/dinitrogen tetroxide;

ixA P P E N D I X

(c) Dinitrogen pentoxide;

(d) Inhibited Red Fuming Nitric Acid (IRFNA);

(e) Compounds composed of flourine and one or more of

other halogens, oxygen or nitrogen.

(2) Solid

(a) Ammonium perchlorate;

(b) Ammonium Dinitramide (ADN);

(c) Nitro-amines (cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine (HMX),

cyclotetrimethylene-trinitramine (RDX)).

(e) Polymeric Substances

(1) Carboxyl-terminated polybutadiene (CTPB);

(2) Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB);

(3) Glycidyl azide polymer (GAP);

(4) Polybutadiene-acrylic acid (PBAA);

(5) Polybutadiene-acrylic acid-acrylonitrile (PBAN).

(f) Other Propellant Additives and Agents

(1) Bonding Agents

(a) Tris (1-(2-methyl)) aziridinyl phosphine oxide (MAPO);

(b) Trimesoyl-1-(2-ethyl) aziridene (HX-868, BITA);

(c) “Tepanol” (HX-878), reaction product of tetraethylene-

pentamine, acrylonitrile and glycidol;

(d) “Tepan” (HX-879), reaction product of tetraethylene-

pentamine and acrylonitrile;

(e) Polyfunctional aziridene amides with isophthalic, trimesic,

isocyanuric, or trimethyladipic backbone and also having

a 2-methyl or 2-ethyl aziridene group (HX-752, HX-874

and HX-877).

(2) Curing Agents and Catalysts

(a) Triphenyl Bismuth (TPB);

x A P P E N D I X

(3) Burning Rate Modifiers

(a) Catocene;

(b) N-butyl-ferrocene;

(c) Butacene;

(d) Other ferrocene derivatives;

(e) Carboranes, decarboranes, pentaboranes and derivatives

thereof;

(4) Nitrate Esters and Nitrated Plasticizers

(a) Triethylene glycol dinitrate (TEGDN);

(b) Trimethylolethane trinitrate (TMETN);

(c) 1,2,4-Butanetriol trinitrate (BTTN);

(d) Diethylene glycol dinitrate (DEGDN);

(5) Stabilizers, as follows

(a) 2-Nitrodiphenylamine;

(b) N-methyl-p-nitroaniline


Production technology, or “production equipment” (including its specially

designed components) for:

(a) Production, handling or acceptance testing of liquid propellants or

propellant constituents described in Item 4.

(b) Production, handling, mixing, curing, casting, pressing, machining,

extruding or acceptance testing of solid propellants or propellant con-

stituents described in Item 4 other than those described in 5(c).

(c) Equipment as follows:

(1) Batch mixers with the provision for mixing under vacuum in the

range of zero to 13.326 kPa and with temperature control ca-

pability of the mixing chamber and having;

(i) A total volumetric capacity of 110 litres or more; and

(ii) At least one mixing/kneading shaft mounted off centre;

xiA P P E N D I X

(2) Continuous mixers with provision for mixing under vacuum inthe range of zero to 13.326 kPa and with temperature controlcapability of the mixing chamber and having;

(i) Two or more mixing/kneading shafts; and

(ii) Capability to open the mixing chamber;

(3) Fluid energy mills usable for grinding or milling substancesspecified in Item 4;

(4) Metal powder “production equipment” usable for the “produc-tion,” in a controlled environment, of spherical or atomised ma-terials specified in 4(b) (3) or 4(b) (4) including:

(i) Plasma generators (high frequency arc-jet) usable for ob-taining sputtered or spherical metallic powders with orga-nization of the process in an argon-water environment;

(ii) Electroburst equipment usable for obtaining sputtered orspherical metallic powders with organization of theprocess in an argon-water environment;

(iii) Equipment usable for the “production” of spherical alu-minum powders by powdering a melt in an inert medium(e.g., nitrogen).

Notes to Item 5:

(1) The only batch mixers, continuous mixers usable for solid propellantsor propellants constituents specified in Item 4, and fluid energy millsspecified in Item 5, are those specified in 5(c).

(2) Forms of metal powder “production equipment” not specified in5(c) (4) are to be evaluated in accordance with 5(b).


Equipment, “technical-data” and procedures for the production of struc-tural composites usable in the systems in Item 1 as follows and specially de-signed components, and accessories and specially designed software there-for:

(a) Filament winding machines of which the motions for position-ing, wrapping and winding fibres can be coordinated and pro-grammed in three or more axes, designed to fabricate compos-ite structures or laminates from fibrous or filamentary materials,and coordinating and programming controls;

xii A P P E N D I X

(b) Tape-laying machines of which the motions for positioning andlaying tape and sheets can be coordinated and programmed intwo or more axes, designed for the manufacture of compositeairframes and missile structures;

(c) Multi-directional, multi-dimensional weaving machines or in-terlacing machines, including adapters and modification kits forweaving, interlacing or braiding fibres to manufacture compos-ite structures, except textile machinery not modified for theabove end uses;

(d) Equipment designed or modified for the production of fibrousor filamentary materials as follows:

(1) Equipment for converting polymeric fibres (such as poly-acrylonitrile, rayon or polycarbosilane) including specialprovisions to strain the fibre during heating;

(2) Equipment for the vapor deposition of elements or com-pounds on heated filament substrates; and

(3) Equipment for the wet-spinning of refractory ceramics(such as aluminum oxide);

(e) Equipment designed or modified for special fibre surface treat-ment or for producing prepregs and preforms.

(f) “Technical data” (including processing conditions) and proce-dures for the regulation of temperature, pressures or atmos-phere in autoclaves or hydroclaves when used for the produc-tion of composites or partially processed composites.

Notes to Item 6:

(1) Examples of components and accessories for the machines covered bythis entry are: moulds, mandrels, dies, fixtures and tooling for the pre-form pressing, curing, casting, sintering or bonding of compositestructures, laminates and manufactures thereof.

(2) Equipment covered by subitem (e) includes but is not limited torollers, tension stretchers, coating equipment, cutting equipment andclicker dies.


Pyrolytic deposition and densification equipment and “technology” as follows:

(a) “Technology” for producing pyrolytically derived materialsformed on a mould, mandrel or other substrate from precursor

xiiiA P P E N D I X

gases which decompose in the 1,300 degrees C to 2,900 de-grees C temperature range at pressures of 130 Pa (1 mm Hg)to 20 kPa (150 mm Hg) including technology for the compo-sition of precursor gases, flow-rates and process control sched-ules and parameters;

(b) Specially designed nozzles for the above processes;

(c) Equipment and process controls, and specially designed soft-ware therefor, designed or modified for densification and pyrol-ysis of structural composite rocket nozzles and reentry vehiclenose tips.

Notes to Item 7:

(1) Equipment included under (c) above are isostatic presses having all ofthe following characteristics:

(a) Maximum working pressure of 69 MPa (10,000 psi) or greater;

(b) Designed to achieve and maintain a controlled thermal envi-ronment of 600 degrees C or greater; and

(c) Possessing a chamber cavity with an inside diameter of 254 mm(10 inches) or greater.

(2) Equipment included under (c) above are chemical vapour depositionfurnaces designed or modified for the densification of carbon-carboncomposites.


Structural materials usable in the system in Item 1, as follows:

(a) Composite structures, laminates, and manufactures thereof,specially designed for use in the systems in Item 1 and the sub-systems in Item 2, and resin impregnated fibre prepregs andmetal coated fibre preforms therefor, made either with organicmatrix or metal matrix utilizing fibrous or filamentary rein-forcements having a specific tensile strength greater than 7.62 ×104 m (3 × 106 inches) and a specific modulus greater than 3.18× 106 m (1.25 × 108 inches);

(b) Resaturated pyrolyzed (i.e., carbon-carbon) materials designedfor rocket systems;

(c) Fine grain recrystallized bulk graphites (with a bulk density ofat least 1.72 g/cc measured at 15 degrees C and having a par-

xiv A P P E N D I X

ticle size of 100 × 10–6 m (100 microns) or less), pyrolytic, or fi-

brous reinforced graphites usable for rocket nozzles and reentry

vehicle nose tips;

(d) Ceramic composite materials (dielectric constant less than 6 atfrequencies from 100 Hz to 10,000 MHz) for use in missileradomes and bulk machinable silicon-carbide reinforced unfiredceramic usable for nose tips;

(e) Tungsten, molybdenum and alloys of these metals in the formof uniform spherical or atomized particles of 500 micrometerdiameter or less with a purity of 97 percent or higher for fabri-cation of rocket motor components; i.e. heat shields, nozzlesubstrates, nozzle throats and thrust vector control surfaces;

(f) Maraging steels (steels generally characterized by high nickel, verylow carbon content and the use of substitutional elements or pre-cipitates to produce age-hardening) having an Ultimate TensileStrength of 1.5 × 109 Pa or greater, measured at 20 degrees C.

(g) Titanium-stabilized duplex stainless steel (Ti-DSS) having:

(1) All the following characteristics:

(a) Containing 17.0 to 23.0 weight percent chromiumand 4.5 to 7.0 weight percent nickel, and

(b) A ferritic-austenitic microstructure (also referred toas a two-phase microstructure) of which at least10 percent is austenite by volume (according toASTM E-1181-87 or national equivalents), and

(2) Any of the following forms:

(a) Ingots or bars having a size of 100 mm or more ineach dimension,

(b) Sheets having a width of 600 mm or more and athickness of 3 mm or less, or

(c) Tubes having an outer diameter of 600 mm or moreand a wall thickness of 3 mm or less.

Notes to Item 8:

(1) Maraging steels are only covered by 8(f) above for the purpose of thisAnnex in the form of sheet, plate or tubing with a wall or plate thick-ness equal to or less than 5.0 mm (0.2 inch).

xvA P P E N D I X

(2) The only resin impregnated fibre prepregs specified in (a) above arethose using resins with a glass transition temperature (Tg), after cure,exceeding 145 degrees C as determined by ASTM D4065 or nationalequivalents.


Instrumentation, navigation and direction finding equipment and systems,and associated production and test equipment as follows; and specially de-signed components and software therefor:

(a) Integrated flight instrument systems, which include gyrostabi-lizers or automatic pilots and integration software therefor, de-signed or modified for use in the systems in Item 1;

(b) Gyro-astro compasses and other devices which derive positionor orientation by means of automatically tracking celestial bod-ies or satellites;

(c) Accelerometers with a threshold of 0.05 g or less, or a linearityerror within 0.25 percent of full scale output, or both, which aredesigned for use in inertial navigation systems or in guidancesystems of all types;

(d) All types of gyros usable in the systems in Item 1, with a rateddrift rate stability of less than 0.5 degree (1 sigma or rms) perhour in a 1 g environment;

(e) Continuous output accelerometers or gyros of any type, speci-fied to function at acceleration levels greater than 100 g;

(f) Inertial or other equipment using accelerometers described bysubitems (c) or (e) above or gyros described by subitems (d) or(e) above, and systems incorporating such equipment, and spe-cially designed integration software therefor;

(g) Production equipment and other test, calibration, and align-ment equipment, other than that described in 9(h), designed ormodified to be used with equipment specified in a–f above, in-cluding the following:

(1) For laser gyro equipment, the following equipment usedto characterize mirrors, having the threshold accuracyshown or better:

(i) Scatterometer (10 ppm);

(ii) Reflectometer (50 ppm);

xvi A P P E N D I X

(iii) Profilometer (5 Angstroms).

(2) For other inertial equipment:

(i) Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU Module) Tester;

(ii) IMU Platform Tester;

(iii) IMU Stable Element Handling Fixture;

(iv) IMU Platform Balance fixture;

(v) Gyro Tuning Test Station;

(vi) Gyro Dynamic Balance Station;

(vii) Gyro Run-In/Motor Test Station;

(viii) Gyro Evacuation and Filling Test Station;

(ix) Centrifuge Fixture for Gyro Bearings;

(x) Accelerometer Axis Align Station;

(xi) Accelerometer Test Station.

(h) Equipment as follows:

(1) Balancing machines having all the following characteristics:

(i) Not capable of balancing rotors/assemblies having

a mass greater than 3 kg;

(ii) Capable of balancing rotors/assemblies at speeds

greater than 12,500 rpm;

(iii) Capable of correcting unbalance in two planes or

more; and

(iv) Capable of balancing to a residual specific unbalance

of 0.2 gram mm per kg of rotor mass;

(2) Indicator heads (sometimes known as balancing instru-

mentation) designed or modified for use with machines

specified in 9 (h) 1;

(3) Motion simulators/rate tables (equipment capable of sim-

ulating motion) having all the following characteristics:

xviiA P P E N D I X

(i) Two axis or more;

(ii) Slip rings capable of transmitting electrical power

and/or signal information; and

(iii) Having any of the following characteristics:

(a) For any single axis:

(1) Capable of rates of 400 degrees/sec or

more; or 30 degrees/sec or less; and

(2) A rate resolution equal to or less than 6

degrees/sec and an accuracy equal to or

less than 0.6 degrees/sec;

(b) Having a worst-case rate stability equal to or

better (less) than plus or minus 0.05 percent

averaged over 10 degrees or more; or

(c) A position accuracy equal or better than 5 arc

second;

(4) Positioning tables (equipment capable of precise rotary po-

sitioning in any axes) having the following characteristics:

(i) Two axes or more; and

(ii) A positioning accuracy equal to or better than 5 arc

second;

(5) Centrifuges capable of imparting accelerations above

100 g and having slip rings capable of transmitting elec-

trical power and signal information.

Notes to Item 9:

(1) Items (a) through (f) may be exported as part of a manned aircraft,

satellite, land vehicle or marine vessel or in quantities appropriate for

replacement parts for such applications.

(2) In subitem (d):

(a) Drift rate is defined as the time rate of output deviation from

the desired output. It consists of random and systematic com-

ponents and is expressed as an equivalent angular displacement

per unit time with respect to inertial space.

xviii A P P E N D I X

(b) Stability is defined as standard deviation (1 sigma) of the varia-

tion of a particular parameter from its calibrated value measured

under stable temperature conditions. This can be expressed as a

function of time.

(3) Accelerometers which are specially designed and developed as MWD

(Measurement While Drilling) Sensors for use in downhole well ser-

vice operations are not specified in Item 9 (c).

(4) The only balancing machines, indicator heads, motion simulators, rate

tables, positioning tables, and centrifuges specified in Item 9 are those

specified in 9(h).

(5) 9(h) (1) does not control balancing machines designed or modified

for dental or other medical equipment.

(6) 9(h) (3) and (4) do not control rotary tables designed or modified for

machine tools or for medical equipment.

(7) Rate tables not controlled by 9(h) (3) and providing the characteris-

tics of a positioning table are to be evaluated according to 9(h) (4).

(8) Equipment that has the characteristics specified in 9(h) (4) which also

meets the characteristics of 9(h) (3) will be treated as equipment spec-

ified in 9 (h) (3).


Flight control systems and “technology” as follows; designed or modified

for the systems in Item 1 as well as the specially designed test, calibration,

and alignment equipment therefor:

(a) Hydraulic, mechanical, electro-optical, or electro-mechanical

flight control systems (including fly-by-wire systems);

(b) Attitude control equipment;

(c) Design technology for integration of air vehicle fuselage, pro-

pulsion system and lifting control surfaces to optimize aerody-

namic performance throughout the flight regime on an un-

manned air vehicle;

(d) Design technology for integration of the flight control, guid-

ance, and propulsion data into a flight management system for

optimization of rocket system trajectory.

xixA P P E N D I X

Note to Item 10:

Items (a) and (b) may be exported as part of a manned aircraft or satellite

or in quantities appropriate for replacement parts for manned aircraft.


Avionics equipment, “technology” and components as follows; designed or

modified for use in the systems in Item 1, and specially designed software

therefor:

(a) Radar and laser radar systems, including altimeters;

(b) Passive sensors for determining bearings to specific electro-

magnetic sources (direction finding equipment) or terrain

characteristics;

(c) Global Positioning System (GPS) or similar satellite receivers;

(1) Capable of providing navigation information under the

following operational conditions;

(i) At speeds in excess of 515 m/sec (1,000 nautical

miles/hour); and

(ii) At altitudes in excess of 18 km (60,000 feet); or

(2) Designed or modified for use with unmanned air vehicles

covered by Item 1.

(d) Electronic assemblies and components specially designed for mili-

tary use and operation at temperatures in excess of 125 degrees C.

(e) Design technology for protection of avionics and electrical sub-

systems against electromagnetic pulse (EMP) and electromagnetic

interference (EMI) hazards from external sources, as follows:

(1) Design technology for shielding systems;

(2) Design technology for the configuration of hardened

electrical circuits and subsystems;

(3) Determination of hardening criteria for the above.

Notes to Item 11:

(1) Item 11 equipment may be exported as part of a manned aircraft or

satellite or in quantities appropriate for replacement parts for manned

aircraft.

xx A P P E N D I X

(2) Examples of equipment included in this Item:

(a) Terrain contour mapping equipment;

(b) Scene mapping and correlation (both digital and analogue)

equipment;

(c) Doppler navigation radar equipment;

(d) Passive interferometer equipment;

(e) Imaging sensor equipment (both active and passive);

(3) In subitem (a), laser radar systems embody specialized transmission,

scanning, receiving and signal processing techniques for utilization of

lasers for echo ranging, direction finding and discrimination of targets

by location, radial speed and body reflection characteristics.


Launch support equipment, facilities and software for the systems in Item 1,

as follows:

(a) Apparatus and devices designed or modified for the handling,

control, activation and launching of the systems in Item 1;

(b) Vehicles designed or modified for the transport, handling, con-

trol, activation, and launching of the systems in Item 1;

(c) Gravity meters (gravimeters), gravity gradiometers, and specially

designed components therefor, designed or modified for air-

borne or marine use, and having a static or operational accuracy

of 7 × 10–6 m/sec2 (0.7 milligal) or better, with a time to steady-

state registration of two minutes or less;

(d) Telemetering and telecontrol equipment usable for unmanned

air vehicles or rocket systems;

(e) Precision tracking systems:

(1) Tracking systems which use a code translator installed on

the rocket or unmanned air vehicle in conjunction with ei-

ther surface or airborne references or navigation satellite

systems to provide real-time measurements of in-flight

position and velocity;

(2) Range instrumentation radars including associated optical/

infrared trackers and the specially designed software there-

for with all of the following capabilities:

xxiA P P E N D I X

(i) an angular resolution better than 3 milli-radians

(0.5 mils);

(ii) a range of 30 km or greater with a range resolution

better than 10 metres RMS;

(iii) a velocity resolution better than 3 metres per second.

(3) Software which processes post-flight, recorded data, en-

abling determination of vehicle position throughout its

flight path.


Analogue computers, digital computers, or digital differential analyzers de-

signed or modified for use in the systems in Item 1, having either of the fol-

lowing characteristics:

(a) Rated for continuous operation at temperatures from below

minus 45 degrees C to above plus 55 degrees C; or

(b) Designed as ruggedized or “radiation hardened.”

Note to Item 13:

Item 13 equipment may be exported as part of a manned aircraft or satel-

lite or in quantities appropriate for replacement parts for manned aircraft.


Analogue-to-digital converters, usable in the systems in Item 1, having either

of the following characteristics:

(a) Designed to meet military specifications for ruggedized equip-

ment; or,

(b) Designed or modified for military use; and being one of the fol-

lowing types:

(1) Analogue-to-digital converter “microcircuits,” which are

“radiation-hardened” or have all of the following charac-

teristics:

(i) Having a quantisation corresponding to 8 bits or

more when coded in the binary system;

(ii) Rated for operation in the temperature range from

below minus 54 degrees C to above plus 125 de-

grees C; and

xxii A P P E N D I X

(iii) Hermetically sealed.

(2) Electrical input type analogue-to-digital converter printedcircuit boards or modules, with all of the following char-acteristics:

(i) Having a quantisation corresponding to 8 bits or

more when coded in the binary system;

(ii) Rated for operation in the temperature range frombelow minus 45 degrees C to above plus 55 degreesC; and

(iii) Incorporating “microcircuits” listed in (1), above.


Test facilities and test equipment usable for the systems in Item 1 and Item

2 as follows; and specially designed software therefor:

(a) Vibration test systems and components therefor, the following:

(1) Vibration test systems employing feedback or closed looptechniques and incorporating a digital controller, capableof vibrating a system at 10g RMS or more over the entirerange 20 Hz to 2000 Hz and imparting forces of 50 kN(11,250 lb.), measured “bare table,” or greater;

(2) Digital controllers, combined with specially designed vi-

bration test software, with a real-time bandwidth greater

than 5 kHz and designed for use with vibration test sys-

tems in (1), above;

(3) Vibration thrusters (shaker units), with or without associ-

ated amplifiers, capable of imparting a force of 50 kN

(11,250 lb.), measured “bare table,” or greater, and us-

able in vibration test systems in (1), above;

(4) Test piece support structures and electronic units de-signed to combine multiple shaker units into a completeshaker system capable of providing an effective combinedforce of 50 kN, measured “bare table,” or greater, and us-able in vibration test systems in (1) above.

(b) Wind-tunnels for speeds of Mach 0.9 or more;

(c) Test benches/stands which have the capacity to handle solid orliquid propellant rockets or rocket motors of more than 90 kN

xxiiiA P P E N D I X

(20,000 lbs) of thrust, or which are capable of simultaneouslymeasuring the three axial thrust components;

(d) Environmental chambers and anechoic chambers capable ofsimulating the following flight conditions:

(1) Altitude of 15,000 meters or greater; or

(2) Temperature of at least minus 50 degrees C to plus 125degrees C; and either

(3) Vibration environments of 10 g RMS or greater between20 Hz and 2,000 Hz imparting forces of 5 kN or greater,for environmental chambers; or

(4) Acoustic environments at an overall sound pressure levelof 140 dB or greater (referenced to 2 × 10–5 N per squaremetre) or with a rated power output of 4 kiloWatts orgreater, for anechoic chambers.

(e) Accelerators capable of delivering electromagnetic radiation pro-duced by “bremsstrahlung” from accelerated electrons of 2 MeVor greater and systems containing those accelerators.

Note: The above equipment does not include that specially de-signed for medical purposes.

Note to Item 15(a):

The term “digital control” refers to equipment, the functions of which are,partly or entirely, automatically controlled by stored and digitally codedelectrical signals.


Specially designed software, or specially designed software with related spe-cially designed hybrid (combined analogue/digital) computers, for model-ling, simulation, or design integration of the systems in Item 1 and Item 2.

Note to Item 16:

The modeling includes in particular the aerodynamic and thermodynamicanalysis of the systems.


Materials, devices, and specially designed software for reduced observablessuch as radar reflectivity, ultraviolet/infrared signatures and acoustic signa-

xxiv A P P E N D I X

tures (i.e., stealth technology), for applications usable for the systems in

Item 1 or Item 2, for example:

(a) Structural materials and coatings specially designed for reduced

radar reflectivity;

(b) Coatings, including paints, specially designed for reduced or tai-

lored reflectivity or emissivity in the microwave, infrared or ul-

traviolet spectra, except when specially used for thermal control

of satellites;

(c) Specially designed software or databases for analysis of signature

reduction;

(d) Specially designed radar cross section measurement systems.


Devices for use in protecting rocket systems and unmanned air vehicles

against nuclear effects (e.g. Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP), X-rays, combined

blast and thermal effects), and usable for the systems in Item 1, as follows:

(a) “Radiation Hardened” “microcircuits” and detectors.

(b) Radomes designed to withstand a combined thermal shock

greater than 100 cal/sq cm accompanied by a peak over pres-

sure of greater than 50 kPa (7 pounds per square inch).

Note to Item 18 (a):

A detector is defined as a mechanical, electrical, optical or chemical device

that automatically identifies and records, or registers a stimulus such as an

environmental change in pressure or temperature, an electrical or electro-

magnetic signal or radiation from a radioactive material.


Complete rocket systems (including ballistic missile systems, space launch

vehicles and sounding rockets) and unmanned air vehicles (including cruise

missile systems, target drones and reconnaissance drones), not covered in

Item 1, capable of a maximum range equal or superior to 300 km.


Complete subsystems as follows, usable in systems in Item 19, but not in

systems in Item 1, as well as specially designed “production facilities” and

“production equipment” therefor:

xxvA P P E N D I X

(a) Individual rocket stages

(b) Solid or liquid propellant rocket engines, having a total impulsecapacity of 8.41 × 105 Ns (1.91 × 105 lb-s) or greater, but lessthan 1.1 × 106 Ns (2.5 × 105 lb-s).

1I N D E X

1,2,4-butanetriol trinitrate, 4-16, x2-NDPA, 4-16, 41-7 (See also 2-nitrodiphenylamine)2-nitrodiphenylamine, 4-16, xaccelerators, 9-15, 15-13, 15-14, 15-15, 15-16, 18-2accelerometer axis align station, 9-14, 9-18, 9-19, viaccelerometer test station, 9-14, 9-18, 9-19, viaccelerometers, 2-12, 2-15, 2-19, 2-20, 9-1, 9-4, 9-5, 9-6, 9-7, 9-9,

9-10, 9-11, 9-12, 9-13, 9-15, 9-16, 9-17, 9-18, 12-6, 12-7, 14-1,15-13, xv, xviii, xxiii

acoustic signatures, 17-1, xxiiiacrylonitrile, 4-13additives, 4-1, 4-13, 4-15, 4-16, ixADN, 4-2, 4-9, 4-10, 4-11, ix (See also ammonium dinitramide)aerodynamic analysis, 16-1, xiiialtimeters, 2-13, 2-19, 11-1, 11-2, 11-3, xixaluminum powder, 4-2, 4-4, 4-5, 4-6, 5-8, viii, xiammonium dinitramide, 4-2, 4-9, ixammonium perchlorate 4-2, 4-5, 4-9, 4-10, 5-2, ixanalogue computers, 13-1, 13-2, xxianalogue-to-digital converters, 14-1, 14-2, 14-3, xxi, xxiianechoic chambers, 15-9, xxiiiattitude control equipment, 10-1, xviiiautoclaves, 6-1, 6-12, 6-13, xiiavionics, 2-8, 11-1, 11-3, 11-8, 12-10, xixbalancing machines, 9-14, 9-15, 9-17, 9-18, 9-19, xvi, xviiibatch mixers, 4-11, 5-5, 5-6, 5-7, x, xiberyllium, 2-6, 4-4, 4-5, viiiBITA, 4-13, 4-14, ix (See also trimesoyl-1-(2-ethyl) aziridine)bonding agents, 4-13, ixboron, 4-4, 4-5, viiiboron slurry, 4-4, viiibremsstrahlung, 15-13, xxiiiBTTN, 4-16, x (See also 1,2,4-butanetriol trinitrate)bulk graphite, 3-11, 8-5, xiiiburning rate modifiers, 4-14, 4-15, xbutacene, 4-14, xcarbon-carbon composites, 7-7, xiii

IN

DE

X

Index

2 I N D E X

carboranes, 4-14, 4-15, xcarboxyl-terminated polybutadiene, 4-11, ixcatalysts, 4-3, 4-5, 4-14, 4-15, ixcatocene, 4-14, 4-15, xcentrifuges, 9-14, 9-15, 9-18, 9-19, xvi, xvii, xviiicentrifuge fixture for gyro bearings, 9-14, 9-18, xvi CEP, 2-12, v (See also circle of equal probability)ceramic composites, 8-6, xivchemical vapor deposition, 6-8, 7-1, 7-7, xiiichlorates, 4-6, viiichromates, 4-6, viii circle of equal probability, 2-12, vcode translator, 12-12, xxcombined cycle engines, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, vicomposite propellants, 4-1, 4-2, 4-5, viii composite structures, 6-1, 6-5, 8-1, 8-2, xi, xii, xiiicomposites, 1-2, 2-1, 2-6, 2-7, 4-17, 6-1, 6-8, 6-9, 6-12, 7-2, 7-3, 8-1,

8-2, 8-6, 8-7, xi, xiicontinuous mixers, 4-11, 5-5, 5-6, xicontinuous output accelerometers, 9-11, xvCTPB, 4-2, 4-11, 4-12, 4-13, ix (See also carboxyl-terminated

polybutadiene)curing agents, 3-8, 4-13, 4-14, 5-3, vii, ix cyclotrimethylene-tetranitramine, ixcyclotrimethyl-trinitramine, ixdecarboranes, 4-14, 4-15, x DEGDN, 4-16, x (See also diethylene glycol dinitrate)densification, 7-1, 7-2, 7-3, 7-4, 7-5, 7-7, xii, xiiideposition furnaces, 7-7, xiii detectors, 9-8, 17-6, 17-9, 17-12, 18-1, 18-2, xxiv dies, iii, 6-1, 6-10, ii, xiidiethylene glycol dinitrate, 4-16, xdigital computers, 13-1, 14-2, 15-1, 16-1, 16-3, xxi digital controllers, 15-2, xxii digital differential analyzers, 13-1, xxi dinitrogen pentoxide, 4-6, 4-7, ixdinitrogen tetroxide, 4-6, 4-7, viiidinitrogen trioxide, 4-6, 4-7, viiidirection finding equipment, 9-1, 11-3, 11-4, xv, xixDoppler navigation radar, 11-1, xxelectromagnetic interference, 10-1, 11-8, 11-10, 17-2, 17-8, xixelectromagnetic pulse, 2-7, 10-1, 11-8, 11-9, 11-10, 18-1, xix, xxivelectronic equipment, 2-3, 2-7, 2-8, 3-19, 9-5, 11-9, 12-2, 12-10, 12-14,

15-5, 16-3, 17-8, venvironmental chambers, 15-9, 15-10, 15-11, 15-12, xxiii EMI, 11-8, 11-9, 11-10, xix (See also electromagnetic interference)emissivity, 17-1, 17-4, 17-7, xxivEMP, 11-8, 11-9, 11-10, 18-1, xix, xxiv (See also electromagnetic pulse)

3I N D E X

ferrocene derivatives, 4-14, 4-15, x fiber optic gyro, 2-14, 9-8, 9-10fibrous reinforced graphite, 8-5, xivfilament winding machines, 6-1, 6-2, 6-3, xi fixtures, iii, 1-11, 1-12, 1-13, 2-2, 6-1, 8-5, 9-18, ii, xii flight control systems, 2-12, 9-2, 9-20, 10-1, 10-2, 10-3, 12-10, v, xviii flow-forming machines, 3-1, 3-18, 3-19, 3-20, vi, vii fluid energy mills, 5-5, 5-7, 5-8, 5-9, xi fluid injection, 2-16, 2-17, 2-18fly-by-light, 10-1 fly-by-wire, 10-1, xviiiFOGs, 9-8, 9-9, 9-10 (See also fiber optic gyro)flourine, 4-6, ixfusing, 2-4, 2-5, 2-18, 2-19, 2-20, 9-11, 11-1, 11-2 GAP, 4-11, 4-12, ix (See also glycidyl azide polymer)global positioning systems, 2-12, 2-13, 9-4, 9-7, 9-13, 11-6, 11-7,

13-2, xixglycidyl azide polymer, 4-11, ixGPS, 2-13, 2-15, 11-6, 11-7, 13-2, xix (See also global positioning systems)gravimeters, 12-6, 12-7, xx gravity gradiometers, 12-6, 12-7, xx gravity meters, 9-5, 9-12, 12-6, 12-7, 12-8, xx guidance, i, v, 1-1, 1-2, 1-8, 2-3, 2-7, 2-13, 2-14, 2-15, 2-17, 2-19,

3-14, 6-12, 9-3, 9-4, 9-7, 9-8, 9-12, 9-15, 9-16, 9-19, 10-3, 11-1,11-2, 11-4, 11-7, 12-1, 12-2, 12-6, 12-7, 12-9, 13-1, 13-2, 16-2,17-6, iv, xv, xviii

guidance sets, 2-12, 2-13, 2-14, 2-15, 2-17, 3-12, 9-1, 9-2, 9-3, 9-4, 9-5, 9-6, 9-7, 9-9, 9-10, 9-11, 9-12, 10-1, 11-6, 11-7, 11-8, 11-9,12-16, 13-1, v

gyro dynamic balance station, 9-14, xvigyro evacuation and filling station, 9-14, 9-17, xvi gyro run-in/motor test station, 9-14, 9-17, xvigyro tuning test station, 9-14, 9-17, xvigyro-astro compasses, 2-13, 2-15, 9-3, 9-4, xv gyros, 2-13, 2-14, 9-4, 9-6, 9-7, 9-8, 9-9, 9-10, 9-11, 9-12, 9-13, 9-14,

9-16, 9-17, 9-18, 9-19, 11-5, 12-6, 14-1, xv, xvigyroscopes, 2-12, 2-15, 9-1, 9-5, 9-7, 9-13, 9-15, 9-16, 9-17 halogens, 4-6, 4-7, 4-8, ix heat shields, 2-3, 2-4, 2-6, 2-7, 6-3, 6-6, 8-1, 8-5, 8-6, 8-7, iv, xiv heat sinks, 2-3, 2-6, 2-7, 11-8, 13-2, 14-2, 14-3, iv HMX, 3-13, 4-2, 4-9, 4-10, 4-11, 4-16, 5-8, ix (See also

cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine)HTPB, 3-8, 4-2, 4-11, 4-12, 4-13, 4-14, 4-15, vii, ix

(See also hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene)HX-752 (See polyfunctional aziridene amides)HX-868 (See trimesoyl-1-(2-ethyl) aziridine)HX-874 (See polyfunctional aziridene amides)HX-877 (See polyfunctional aziridene amides)

4 I N D E X

HX-878 (See Tepanol)HX-879 (See Tepan)hybrid, 3-17, 16-1, 16-2, 16-3, xxiiihybrid rocket, 3-8, 3-10, 3-17, 3-18, 4-11, 15-8, vihydrazine, 4-3, 4-4, 4-7, viiihydroclaves, 6-1, 6-12, 6-13, xii hydroxyl-terminted polybutadiene, 4-2, 4-11, iximaging sensor equipment, 11-1, xximpulse, 2-9, 2-10, 4-4, 4-9, 20-1, 20-2, v, xxvIMU module tester, 9-14, 9-16, xviIMU platform balance fixture, 9-14, 9-17, xviIMU platform tester, 9-14, 9-17, xviIMU, 2-12, 9-2, 9-5, 9-9, 9-12, 9-13, 9-15, 9-16, 9-17, 9-18, 9-19,

13-1, 13-2IMU stable element handling fixture, 9-14, 9-17, xviindicator heads, 9-14, 9-15, 9-19, xvi, xviii inertial measurement unit, 2-12, 9-2, 9-14, 13-1, xviinertial sensor assembly, 9-5infrared signatures, 17-1, xxiii inhibited red fuming nitric acid, 4-6, 4-7, 5-1, 8-9, ixinterstages, 3-12, 3-14, 3-15, 8-1, 8-2, 8-8, vi IRFNA, 4-6, 4-7, 4-8, 4-9, 5-2, 8-9, ix (See also inhibited red fuming

nitric acid)isostatic presses, 7-3, 7-4, 7-5, 7-6, xiii jet vanes, 2-15, 2-16, 2-17, 2-18, 8-7, v laminates, 6-1, 7-4, 8-1, 8-2, 18-4, xi, xii, xiii laser gyro equipment, 9-14, xvlaser radar, 11-1, xix, xxlaunch support equipment, 12-1, 12-2, xxlining, 3-8, 3-9, 4-14, 9-6, 9-7, 15-14, vi, viimagnesium, 4-4, 4-5, 5-1, 15-4, viiimandrels, iii, 3-9, 3-19, 3-20, 5-3, 5-10, 6-1, 6-5, 7-1, 8-2, ii, xii MAPO, 4-13, 4-14, ix (See also tris (1-(2-methyl))

aziridinyl phosphine oxide)maraging steels, 8-8, xiv measurement while drilling, xviiimicrocircuit, iii, 2-7, 9-5, 11-6, 14-1, 18-1, 18-2, ii, xxi, xxii, xxivMMH, 4-3, 4-4, viii (See also monomethylhydrazine)MNA, 4-16, 4-17 (See also n-methyl-p-nitroaniline)molybdenum, 8-7, xivmonomethylhydrazine, 4-3, viii motion simulators/rate tables, 9-14, 9-15, 9-19, xvi motor cases, 1-11, 2-10, 3-6, 3-8, 3-9, 3-10, 3-18, 3-19, 4-7, 5-3, 5-4,

6-1, 6-2, 6-11, 8-1, 8-2, 8-8, vi, viii moulds, iii, 6-1, ii, xii movable nozzle, 3-11navigation, 1-6, 2-12, 2-13, 9-1, 9-3, 9-4, 9-5, 9-12, 9-15, 9-16, 11-1,

11-2, 11-6, 11-7, 12-6, 12-7, 12-12, 13-1, 13-2, v, xv, xix, xx

5I N D E X

n-butyl-ferrocene, 4-14, xnitrate esters, 4-16nitro-amines, 4-9, ixnitrogen dioxide, 4-6, 4-7, viiin-methyl-p-nitroaniline, 4-16, xnose tips, 2-3, 6-5, 6-9, 6-10, 6-11, 6-12, 7-2, 7-3, 7-4, 7-7, 7-8, 8-3,

8-4, 8-5, 8-6, xiii, xivnozzle substrates, 8-7, xiv nozzle throats, 2-7, 2-11, 8-4, 8-5, 8-7, vi, xiv NTO, 4-7, 4-9 (See also dinitrogen tetroxide)numerical control, 3-18, vioptical/infrared trackers, 12-12 oxidizers, 1-1, 1-11, 2-9, 3-15, 3-17, 3-18, 4-1, 4-2, 4-3, 4-4, 4-6, 4-7,

4-9, 4-10, 4-11, 5-8, 8-9, vi, viii passive interferometer, 11-1, xxpassive sensors, 9-1, 11-3, 11-4, xix PBAA, 4-3, 4-11, 4-12, ix (See also polybutadiene-acrylic acid)PBAN, 4-3, 4-11, 4-12, 4-13, ix (See also polybutadiene-acrylic

acid-acrylonitrile)pentaboranes, 4-14, 4-15, x perchlorates, 4-2, 4-5, 4-6, 4-10, 5-2, viii plasticizers, 4-16, x polybutadiene-acrylic acid, 4-2, 4-11, ixpolybutadiene-acrylic acid-acrylonitrile, 4-3, 4-11, ixpolyfunctional aziridine amides, 4-13, ix positioning tables, 9-15, 9-19, xvii, xviii powdered metals, 4-6, 5-8, 5-9, viii precision tracking systems, 12-12, 12-13, 12-14, xx preforms, 3-20, 6-1, 6-5, 6-6, 6-10, 6-12, 7-3, 7-7, 8-1, 8-2, 8-3, xii, xiii prepregs, 6-10, 6-11, 6-13, 8-1, 8-2, 8-3, xii, xiii, xv production equipment, iii, 1-11, 2-1, 2-20, 3-1, 5-1, 5-2, 5-3, 5-5, 5-8,

5-9, 9-14, 9-15, 9-16, 20-1, ii, iv, vi, x, xi, xv, xxivproduction facilities, i, iv, 1-1, 1-11, 2-1, 2-20, 3-1, 3-20, 20-1, 20-2,

i, ii, iv, vi, xxiv profilometer, 9-14, 9-16, xvipropellants, v, 1-2, 2-1, 2-11, 3-10, 3-15, 3-16, 3-17, 4-1, 4-2, 4-6, 4-7,

4-9, 4-10, 4-13, 4-14, 4-15, 4-16, 4-17, 5-1, 5-2, 5-3, 5-5, 5-8, 15-8, iv, viii, x, xi

propulsion, ii, 1-1, 3-1, 3-4, 3-14, 3-15, 3-18, 10-3, 13-1, 16-2, 17-7,20-2, vi, vii, xviii

pulsejet, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, vipumps, 2-1, 2-9, 2-11, 2-12, 2-17, 3-6, 3-8, 3-15, 3-16, 3-17, 3-18, 5-1,

5-10, 6-9, 7-5, 12-1, 15-7, 15-10, 15-14, iv, vii, viii pyrolytic deposition, 7-1, 7-2, 7-8, xiiradar, 1-8, 2-7, 2-8, 2-19, 2-20, 9-13, 11-1, 11-2, 11-3, 11-4, 11-7,

12-9, 12-12, 12-13, 12-14, 17-1, 17-2, 17-3, 17-4, 17-6, 17-7, 17-8, 17-9, 17-10, 18-3, xix, xx, xxiii, xxiv

radar cross section, 17-6, 17-7, xxiv

6 I N D E X

radiation hardened, iv, 2-7, 13-1, 13-2, 13-3, 14-1, 14-2, 14-3, 17-12,

18-1, ii, xxi, xxiv

radomes, 8-6, 17-6, 18-1, 18-3, 18-4, xiv, xxiv

ramjet, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, 3-7, 3-8, 4-5, 6-10, vi

range instrumentation radars, 12-12, 12-13, xx

RDX, 3-13, 4-2, 4-9, 4-10, 4-11, 5-8, ix

(See also cyclotetrimethylene-trinitramine)

reconnaissance drones, 1-1, 1-5, 1-6, 1-7, 19-1, iv, xxiv

reduced observables, 17-1, xxiii

reentry vehicles, 2-3, 2-7, 7-4, 6-3, 6-5, 6-6, 6-9, 6-12, 7-2, 7-3, 7-7,

8-5, 8-6, 8-7, 9-11, 11-7, 11-9, 15-5, 18-3, iv, v, xiii, xiv

reflectivity, 17-1, 17-7, xxiii, xxiv

reflectometer, 9-14, 9-16, xvi

refractory ceramics, 6-9, xii

regulator, 3-15

ring laser gyro, 9-8

rocket engines, 2-1, -2, 2-9, 2-11, 2-12, 2-16, 2-17, 3-11, 3-16, 3-17,

4-3, 4-4, 4-7, 6-10, 8-9, 15-7, 15-8, 15-9, 20-1, 20-2, xxv

rocket motors, 1-12, 2-1, 2-9, 2-10, 2-11, 2-16, 3-4, 3-5, 3-8, 3-9, 3-10,

3-11, 3-14, 3-17, 3-18, 4-1, 4-2, 4-4, 4-6, 4-7, 4-9, 4-11, 4-13,

4-14, 4-15, 5-2, 5-3, 5-4, 5-5, 6-1, 6-2. 6-9, 6-12, 7-4, 8-1, 8-2,

8-4, 8-6, 8-7, 10-3, 15-7, 15-8, 15-10, 15-13, 15-16, 20-1, 20-2,

vi, xiv, xxii

rocket stages, 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 3-12, 3-14, 20-1, iv, xxv

rocket systems, 1-1, 1-2, 1-5, 1-11, 2-1, 2-13, 2-15, 4-1, 7-1, 8-4, 8-5,

10-3, 10-4, 11-6, 12-2, 12-8, 12-9, 12-12, 13-1, 15-7, 16-2, 17-7,

18-1, 19-1, iv, xiii, xviii, xx, xxiv

SAFF, 2-7, 2-8, 2-18, 2-19, 2-20, 2-21, v (See also safing, arming, fusing,

and firing)

safing, arming, fusing, and firing, 2-18, v

scatterometer, 9-14, 9-16, xv

scene mapping, 11-1, xx

scramjet, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, vi

secondary gas injection, 2-15, v

separation, 3-12, 3-13, 3-14, 15-1, v

servo valves, 3-15, 3-16, 3-17, vii

shaker units, 15-1, 15-3, xxii

shielding systems, 11-8, xix

silicon-carbide, 8-6, xiv

sintering, 6-1, 8-7, xii

slurry propellant, 3-15, vi

sounding rockets, i, 1-1, 1-2, 15-3, 19-1, 20-2, iv, xxiv

space launch vehicles, i, 1-1, 1-2, 10-2, 12-1, 19-1, iv, xxiv

specific fuel consumption, 3-1, vii

stabilizers, 4-16, 4-17, 5-2, 6-2, 9-1, 10-2, x

staging, 3-11, 3-12, 3-13, 3-14, 12-2, vi

structural materials, 8-1, 17-1, xiii, xxiv

7I N D E X

subsystems, 1, 1-1, 1-5, 2-1, 2-3, 2-9, 2-12, 2-13, 2-15, 2-16, 2-17, 2-18, 2-20, 8-1, 9-2, 9-12, 10-2, 10-4, 11-8, 11-11, 12-3, 12-13,15-1, 15-9, 15-10, 16-2, 20-1, iv, v, vi, xiii, xix, xxiv

tape-laying machines, 6-2, 6-3, 6-4, xii target drones, 1-1, 1-5, 1-6, 19-1, iv, xxiv technical data, iv, 6-12, 7-3, ii, iii, xiiTEGDN, 4-16, x (See also triethylene glycol dinitrate)telecontrol, 12-8, 12-9, 12-10, 12-12, 12-13, xxtelemetering, 12-8, 12-9, 12-13, appendix xxTepan, 4-13, 4-14, ix Tepanol ,4-13, 4-14, ix terrain contour mapping equipment, 11-1, xxtest benches and test stands, 15-7 test equipment, iii, 1-11, 9-1, 9-15, 10-3, 15-1, 15-2, 15-5, 15-16,

15-17, ii, xv, xxiitest facilities, 15-1, 15-3, 15-11, xxii test piece support structures, 15-1, xxii tetraethylenepentamine, 4-13, ixtetroxide, 4-6, 4-7, viiithermodynamic analysis, 16-1, xxiiithrust tabs, 2-15, 8-5, v thrust vector control, 2-15, 2-16, 2-17, 8-6, 8-7, 9-20, 10-2, iv, v, xivtitanium-stabilized duplex stainless steel, 8-9, xivTi-DSS, 8-9, xiv (See also titanium-stabilized duplex stainless steel)TMETN, 4-16, x (See also trimethylolethane trinitrate)tooling, iii, 5-3, 6-1, 6-12, 8-4, 8-6, 8-7, ii, xxiiTPB, 3-8, 4-2, 4-10, 4-13, 4-14, ix (See also triphenyl bismuth)triethylene glycol dinitrate, 4-16, xtrimesoyl-1-(2-ethyl) aziridine, 4-13, ixtrimethylolethane trinitrate, 4-16, xtriphenyl bismuth, 4-14tris (1-(2-methyl)) aziridinyl phosphine oxide, 4-13, ixtungsten, 2-18, 8-7, 15-13 turbofan, 2-22, 3-1, 3-2, 3-6, viturbojet, 2-22, 2-23, 3-1, 3-2, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, 6-10, viturbopump, 2-17, 3-13, 3-15, 3-16, 3-17, 15-8, 15-9 UDMH, 4-3, viii (See also unsymmetric dimethylhydrazine)unsymmetric dimethylhydrazine, 4-3, viiivapor deposition, 6-6, 6-8, 7-1, 8-5, xiivibration test systems, 15-1, 15-2, 15-3, 15-4, 15-5, xxiii vibration thrusters, 15-1, xxii weaving machines, 6-5, 6-6, xii wet-spinning, 6-9, 6-10, xiiwet-spinning equipment, 6-9, 6-10 wind tunnels, 10-3, 15-5, 15-6, 15-7 X-ray machines, 15-13, 15-14 zirconium, 4-4, 4-5, 8-8, viii

Introduction - FAS

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