Introducing the CEFR for English · 2015-07-02 · English Profile Introducing the CEFR for English...

Introducing the CEFR for English

Version 1.1August 2011

English ProfileIntroducing the CEFR for English

This booklet is aimed at ELT professionals, including curriculum planners, materials writers and teachers. It willhelp you make decisions about which English language points are suitable for learning, teaching or assessing ateach level of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR; Council of Europe 2001).

Section 1 explains what English Profile is whilst sections 2, 3 and 4 describe how Grammar, Functions andVocabulary are being researched in English Profile, together with a summary of the latest findings in all threeresearch strands. Section 5 suggests how you can use these resources and section 6 describes where theinformation in English Profile comes from and how reliable it is. Section 7 explains where you can access moreinformation and resources and how you can get involved with the ongoing development of English Profile,followed by the key references for English Profile research to date and a list of current English Profile Networkmembers.

ContentsPage

Section 1 What is English Profile? 2

Section 2 The English Grammar Profile 9

Section 3 The English Functions Profile 36

Section 4 The English Vocabulary Profile 53

Section 5 How to use the English Profile 57

Section 6 What is English Profile based on? 58

Section 7 How to get involved with English Profile 59

Section 8 References 60

Section 9 The English Profile Network 63

Acknowledgements: This publication has been compiled from existing resources by English Profile team membersat Cambridge ESOL and Cambridge University Press, aided by contributions from academic consultants at otherinstitutions. The production of this booklet was supported by a grant from The British Council.

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1 What is English Profile?

The aims of English Profile are:

To set up and manage a collaborative programme of interdisciplinary research to produce Reference LevelDescriptions for English linked to the general principles and approaches of CEFR.

To provide a core set of reference tools for practitioners working in English language education.

English Profile is a long term, collaborative programme of interdisciplinary research whose goal is to transpose theCommon European Framework of Reference for the English language (CEFR; Council of Europe 2001) and forteaching and assessment purposes where English is the language being learned. The intended output is a ‘profile’of English language learners in terms of the six proficiency bands of the CEFR A1 to C2 (see Saville & Hawkey2010). The English Profile Programme will do this by providing Reference Level Descriptions for English toaccompany the CEFR. These descriptions cover what learners know and can do in English at each of the six CEFRlevels. English Profile is registered with the Council of Europe and is managed by a core group of collaborators atthe University of Cambridge.

The research being carried out at the heart of the English Profile Programme is innovative, providing measurable,evidence based answers to important questions about how people acquire English and how they can improve theirskills. As well as adding to our understanding of language learning, the English Profile Programme is producingpractical outcomes that can be used in the development of curricula, course materials, teaching guides andassessment systems. This publication traces progress and outcomes in three main current areas of research forEnglish Profile: the grammatical, functional and lexical features of learner English. But English Profile will alsodescribe learner English at each CEFR level in other linguistic areas, including aspects of spoken language such aspronunciation.

An innovative feature of English Profile, distinguishing it from previous work in this field, is that research is basedon electronic corpora of learner data, including the largest annotated corpus of English language learner testoutput in the world: the Cambridge Learner Corpus. This approach is producing results which can be empiricallymeasured and which are not predictable from current language learning theories alone. Researchers are alsostarting to focus on the impact of different first languages, learning contexts and the effects of language transferon learning at the different CEFR levels (A1 to C2).

A steadily growing number of academics, government advisors and educationalists make up the English ProfileNetwork. Network Partners contribute directly to the development of English Profile by providing access to data orcontributing to work in progress through participation in workshops and seminars.

In summary, English Profile provides essential information for curriculum planners, teachers, materials writers, testdevelopers and researchers. The English Profile Programme aims to provide these ELT professionals withresources, information and events, including:

English Vocabulary Profile (EVP) – a rich online vocabulary database by CEFR level

English Grammar Profile – a database of grammatical structures by CEFR level (under development)

English Functions Profile – a database of real English examples for various functions in different contexts byCEFR level (under development)

English Profile Glossary – an online glossary including concise definitions of key EP terminology

English Profile Journal – on online peer reviewed journal for EP related research

The English Profile Studies series – launched in 2011 this series is dedicated to reporting different aspects ofresearch and development related to the EP Programme

Word of the Week email updates based on the EVP

English Profile Network community website, www.englishprofile.org

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Presentations at international education, applied linguistics and language testing conferences, e.g. IATEFL,AILA, LTRC

Regular EP Research Seminars (annually in Cambridge), EP Network Seminars (twice a year outside the UK) andother workshops.

For the latest information about English Profile and news of future events, workshops and publications, seewww.englishprofile.org

Who has developed English Profile?

The founding partners are:

Research is led by Cambridge ESOL and Cambridge University Press, with contributions from the Research Centrefor English and Applied Linguistics and the Cambridge Computer Laboratory.1

Cambridge University Press and Cambridge ESOL are the main funding partners in English Profile. In addition,English Profile has a growing number of Network Partners, including universities, schools, language trainingcentres and government departments, as well as individual researchers and specialists (see Section 9).

The development of the CEFR

The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages is a common framework of language ability dividedinto six main levels ranging from beginner to advanced. It appeared in its published form in 2001, ten years afterthe Rüschlikon Conference of 1991 which concluded that a "common framework of reference" of this kind wouldbe useful as a planning tool to promote "transparency and coherence" in language education. In the decade sinceits publication this ambition has been achieved to a large extent and the document itself has been translated into37 languages, widely disseminated in Europe and in parts of Asia and Latin America (see Little 2007 for anoverview). It is important to remember, however, that the CEFR in that format was intended to be "a work inprogress" rather than the finished article.

The CEFR was therefore envisaged as a planning tool which could provide a “common language” for describingobjectives, methods and assessment in language teaching, as put into practice in diverse contexts for manydifferent languages. It was to facilitate the development of syllabuses, examinations, textbooks and teachertraining programmes, and in particular, to stimulate reflection and discussion. As the CEFR authors themselvesemphasise in their Notes for the user:

We have NOT set out to tell practitioners what to do or how to do it. We are raising questions not answeringthem. It is not the function of the CEF to lay down the objectives that users should pursue or the methods theyshould employ. (Council of Europe 2001: xi)

1 Part of the Department of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics from August 2011.

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The six reference levels have been particularly influential and have generated a great deal of discussion in thefields of curriculum development, language teaching, and especially in assessment (see Coste 2007). The levels aredescribed through the six level Global Scale (A1 to C2) and the Illustrative Descriptors that can be applied to thelearning and teaching of any language. Table 1 presents the Global Scale descriptors for the six main CEFR levels,showing how the CEFR is a general document that needs to be further specified and contextualised for each areaof use.

Table 1: Global Scale descriptors for CEFR levels (Council of Europe 2001: 24)

C2 Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summariseinformation from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing argumentsand accounts in a coherent presentation. Can express him/herself spontaneously,very fluently and precisely, differentiating finer shades of meaning even in morecomplex situations.

Proficien

tUser C1 Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognise implicit

meaning. Can express him/herself fluently and spontaneously without much obvioussearching for expressions. Can use language flexibly and effectively for social,academic and professional purposes. Can produce clear, well structured, detailed texton complex subjects, showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectorsand cohesive devices.

B2 Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and abstract topics,including technical discussions in his/her field of specialisation. Can interact with adegree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with nativespeakers quite possible without strain for either party. Can produce clear, detailedtext on a wide range of subjects and explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving theadvantages and disadvantages of various options.

Indepen

dentUser

B1 Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularlyencountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arisewhilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simpleconnected text on topics, which are familiar, or of personal interest. Can describeexperiences and events, dreams, hopes & ambitions and briefly give reasons andexplanations for opinions and plans.

A2 Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of mostimmediate relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family information, shopping, localgeography, employment). Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring asimple and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine matters. Candescribe in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate environment andmatters in areas of immediate need.

BasicUser

A1 Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimedat the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/herself and othersand can ask and answer questions about personal details such as where he/she lives,people he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way providedthe other person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help.

The CEFR reference levels and illustrative descriptors (exemplified in Table 1) were intended to be used for theorganisation of learning and teaching within educational systems. These levels and descriptors were to provide acommunication tool to assist ELT practitioners in practical ways, having been selected and synthesised fromexisting scales which had been developed and operationalised in many diverse contexts. The CEFR itself,representing forty or more years of work by the Council of Europe Modern Languages Division, builds on earlierstudies of levels of language competences such as Threshold Level (van Ek 1975; van Ek & Trim 1998b), Waystageand Vantage Levels (van Ek & Trim 1998a; 2001).

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However, although the CEFR is an intuitively helpful descriptive scheme for researchers, curriculum designers,teachers, teacher trainers, and language testers, in many cases the existing scales and related descriptors have notproved to be operationally adequate as they stand. The details are not specific enough to help these professionalsmake decisions about language teaching and testing. So, while the CEFR can act as a focal point for referencepurposes, it must remain open to further development. In other words, the CEFR is not the finished article butneeds to be adapted or developed further for each specific context in which it is to be used. John Trim, one of the“fathers” of the CEFR, and now Council of Europe observer to the English Profile Programme and an activemember of the growing EP team, summarises this situation succinctly:

Overall, the apparatus of level description in the CEFR is rich and well differentiated for different purposes andusers. Even so, experience over the past decade has shown that for high stakes purposes, particularly the validand reliable calibration of qualifications and the tests and examinations leading to their award, the CEFRcannot be used as a ‘stand alone’ document. Indeed, it is probably impossible for any such document to be soused. (preface to Green 2011: xi)

Importantly the CEFR is neutral with respect to the language being learned. This means that the users have todecide what actually gets taught or assessed in terms of the linguistic features of a specific language at each of thecommon reference levels. To ensure that the framework is used appropriately and can be adapted to localcontexts and purposes, the Council of Europe has encouraged the production of instruments and supportmaterials to complement the CEFR. These instruments (sometimes known as the CEFR toolkit) include ReferenceLevel Descriptions (RLDs) for national and regional languages. RLDs seek to provide language specific guidance forusers of the Framework; the aim is to “transpose” the Framework descriptors that characterise the competencesof users or learners at a given level into the linguistic material which is specific to a given language (i.e. grammar,lexical items etc.) and considered necessary for the implementation of those competences. In providing adescription of the language across all six levels, the grammatical and lexical progression which is central to thelearning of that language can be addressed more precisely within the Framework concept. The RLDs represent anew generation of descriptions which identify the specific forms of any given language (words, grammar, etc.) ateach of the six reference levels which can be set as objectives for learning or used to establish whether a user hasattained the level of proficiency in question.

To assist the teams in developing RLDs for their own languages, the Language Policy Division of the Council ofEurope produced a general Guide for the production of RLDs which was discussed at a seminar held in Strasbourgin December 2005 (see Council of Europe website for details). Projects representing seventeen languages werepresented, including a proposal for English put forward by the University of Cambridge (represented at themeeting by Cambridge ESOL). This proposal subsequently became known as the English Profile Project, which, inturn, became the English Profile Programme in 2008.

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The English Profile Programme – the CEFR for English

A major objective of the EP Programme is to analyse language produced by learners of English in order to throwlight on what they can and can't do with the language at each of the Common European Framework of Referencelevels, for example, in using the grammar and lexis at their disposal. The founder members of the EPP first met inCambridge in mid 2005 to discuss the possibility of setting up an RLD project for English. Participating in thosediscussions were several departments of the University of Cambridge (Cambridge ESOL, Cambridge UniversityPress, the Research Centre for English and Applied Linguistics and the Computer Laboratory), together withrepresentatives from the British Council, English UK, and the University of Bedfordshire (Centre for Research inEnglish Language Learning and Assessment).

As a result of those meetings, the English Profile Project was established by a core group of partner organisationsin 2005 to with the aim of making the CEFR more specifically explicit with regards to English language learning,teaching and assessment. The core group was extended to create an English Profile Network from 2008 onwards(see pages 63 64 for a list of EP Network Partners). Coordination of the Programme is based at the University ofCambridge and involves interdisciplinary collaboration between different departments.

From an early stage the English RLDs were intended to be innovative with an emphasis on empirical researchrooted in data (such as learner corpora), and the collection of representative samples of learner language whichcould be used to explore language development across the reference levels. This has involved collaborators fromthe EP Network in different parts of the world who can supply samples of speaking and writing produced bylearners. It is an aspect of the project which has received external funding by the European Commission and is nowwell underway (see the EU funded English Profile Network project members on page 64).2 It has also requiredtechnical resources in developing new electronic corpora and analytical techniques so that the samples of learnerlanguage can be stored, accessed and analysed effectively.

Given the interdisciplinary nature of the research being undertaken, research teams are engaged in parallel andsimultaneous investigations on a set of related research questions, observing them from different angles. ThisEnglish Profile publication brings together findings from three areas of investigation – grammar, languagefunctions and vocabulary (see Sections 2 4).

“Profile” is a suitable name for the intended outputs of thisprogramme of research. A profile is dictionary defined as ‘a vividoutline of the most outstanding characteristics of the subject’(Webster’s). English Profile does indeed seek to specify the“outstanding characteristics” or, in our terms, the criterial featuresvalidated by empirical research that distinguish each proficiencylevel of learner English, from A1 to C2. Criterial features arelinguistic properties that are distinctive and characteristic of eachof the levels. They are not meant to capture all language featuresthat a learner uses at a certain level but to distinguish a level fromadjacent higher and lower levels. Criterial features describechanges from one level to the next, and hence are important forboth practitioners and theoreticians to know about. This approachis dealt with comprehensively in Hawkins and Filipovi (2011) andalso in Hawkins and Buttery (2009, 2010) and Salamoura andSaville (2009, 2010).

2 The EP Programme is endorsed by the Council of Europe, and has been funded by the European Commission.

Defining criteriality:

“Criteriality” means that the languagefeatures concerned serve as a basis fordistinguishing one proficiency level fromanother.

'The units of currency for English Profiledescriptions of the language levels will begrammatical, lexical and functionalexponents derived empirically as criterialfor the levels concerned'.(Saville & Hawkey 2010: 4)

English Profile Glossary

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The empirical approach makes use of learner data, especially samples of writing and speech produced by learnersat different levels of proficiency. The analysis of these data has produced informative results about the language oflearners and has added to our understanding of how the grammar and lexis of English is learned by differentgroups of learners. In addition to a focus on traditional grammatical and lexical features, psycholinguistic factorshave also been taken into account, including the effects of language transfer (i.e. the impact of different firstlanguages and learning contexts) on language learning. It is worth noting that some of the results would notalways be predicted from language acquisition theories or anticipated by researchers using experience andintuition alone, proving the validity and usefulness of an empirical approach that has real data at its core.

The Cambridge Learner Corpus (CLC) has been central to this work to date. The CLC consists of learners' writtenEnglish from the Cambridge ESOL examinations covering the ability range from A2 to C2, together with meta data(including gender, age and first language) and evidence of overall proficiency based on their scores for the otherskills components (typically reading, listening and speaking) which currently contains around 45 million words. Thetable below shows the six CEFR levels A1 C2 and their link to the Cambridge English suite of exams testing GeneralEnglish which have been at the heart of EP research to date.3

The demographic information about the learners within the CLC allows researchers to compare different L1learners with respect to the English that they produce. While lexical analysis has been carried out for many yearsby researchers in Cambridge ESOL and Cambridge University Press, error coding and parsing of the corpus haveextended the kinds of analysis which can be carried out and have allowed the research teams to investigate awider range of English language features (see Nicholls 2003 on the error coding system which has informed EPresearch). A computational strand of research was introduced into the EPP at the outset and the CLC has beentagged and parsed using the Robust Accurate Statistical Parser (RASP) by researchers in the Computer Laboratoryunder the supervision of Professor Ted Briscoe (Briscoe, Carrol & Watson, 2006). The error coding and the parsingmeans that sophisticated kinds of grammatical analysis are also possible and are an exciting current focus ofresearch. See the English Grammar Profile section for a fuller description of the CLC.

In addition to describing the "real language" used by learners, English Profile has sought to investigate the learningdimension and to connect the empirical work with relevant SLA and linguistic research. In particular EP researchersare interested in "how learners learn English" and how different learning factors interact under various contextualconditions. They have begun to address questions such as:

How do the different kinds of criterial features (lexical semantic, morpho syntactic, syntactic, discourse,notional, functional, etc.) interrelate and cluster together to define learner profiles in English? Which linguisticfeatures realise which language functions across the CEFR levels?

3 See www.CambridgeESOL.org/exams for a range of exams to meet different needs, including professional andacademic purposes.

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How does the profile of the learner vary depending on their L1? What are the pedagogical implications of suchL1 effects for the learning, teaching and assessment of English?

Which criterial features can be used as diagnostics of proficiency at the individual learner level? What are the similarities and differences between adult and young learners of English developmentally and at

each stage of learning? How does learning to speak differ from learning to write/type? What determines communicative success and

comprehensibility in these two language modes? What is the role of learner and learning strategies? How do all the previous factors interact during language learning? How do they predict likely versus less likely

patterns of learner output? What type of learning model can accommodate these multi factor interactionsthat underpin language learning?

The emerging performance patterns are informative for our understanding of second language acquisition (SLA),e.g. the order of acquisition of linguistic features and the interaction of factors such as frequency and transferfrom the first language. Just as EP findings can contribute to new aspects of theory and provide useful insights fordeveloping a model of L2 acquisition, SLA and other linguistic theories inform EP research in this and other areas.

In summary, English Profile has begun ‘a systematic and empirically based approach to specifying more precisely howthe CEFR can be operationalised for English, and this in turn will lead to better and more comprehensive illustrativedescriptors … . In this way the CEFR will become the really useful tool that it was intended to be’ (Milanovic 2009: 5). Description or Prescription?

Can English Profile provide a definitive set of RLDs that should be learnt, taught or assessed at each level? Theanswer is ‘no’ as this is not the intention of the Programme, which seeks to describe rather than prescribe. Theexact choice of language points that suit a particular course of study or other purpose will depend on a range offactors, such as:

the level and range of levels of learners on the programme

the age and educational background of the learners

their reasons for learning English

their areas of interest

their first language

their experience of learning English so far

other sources of input and opportunities to practise English.

The ELT professional will need to weigh these factors up in making decisions about what to include in a course.English Profile aims to provide resources to help those decisions, including examples of curricula that have beendrawn up using EP resources.

How can teachers and learners benefit from English Profile?

There is likely to be a widespread impact on English language teaching and learning in general through the supportEnglish Profile will give to those people who plan curricula, produce learning materials and design English languagetests. English Profile aims to help them to judge better what language to include at each level of learning. Theseimprovements should increase the relevance and efficiency of language learning. Individual teachers can accessEnglish Profile resources directly if they want to get more information about what is suitable for their learners ateach CEFR level, see Section 5 for some ideas and examples.

We present below the main findings from research to date in the areas of Grammar, Functions and Vocabulary.

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2 The English Grammar Profile

As mentioned above in the section on the development of the CEFR, the CEFR distinguishes six levels of proficiencyin terms of functions, that is the different uses to which language can be put and how learners learn to uselanguage in different ways as they master a second (or subsequent) language. The CEFR does this by providingillustrative descriptors in the form of Can Do statements (given in Table 1 above), for example, A2 level learners‘Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most immediate relevance’whereas at the next level up, B1, learners ‘Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiarmatters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc’.

These illustrative descriptors do not provide any language specific details about the grammar and lexis that arecharacteristic of each proficiency level as the CEFR’s authors intended it to be neutral with respect to the L2 beingacquired so as to be widely compatible across European languages, for example allowing a given level ofproficiency in L2 German to be comparable with a corresponding level in L2 French or English. The CEFR istherefore deliberately “underspecified” with respect to key linguistic features that teachers or assessors look for ina learner’s L2 production when they seek to assign a particular proficiency level (see Milanovic 2009). Learners canperform any of the functions in the CEFR’s illustrative descriptors by using a wide variety of grammaticalconstructions and words, and the ability to "do" the task does not indicate precisely how a learner does it or withwhat grammatical and lexical properties of English (or of another target language).

With respect to grammar the EP Programme aims to provide reference level descriptions (RLDs) that includegrammatical and lexical details of English to extend the CEFR’s functional characterisation of the different levels,primarily using the Cambridge Learner Corpus (CLC). This is done via criterial features, defined on page 6 andfurther exemplified below, which is central to the approach taken within the EP Programme to specify thereference levels for English.

The basic idea behind the criterial features concept is that there are certain linguistic properties that arecharacteristic and indicative of L2 proficiency at each level, on the basis of which teachers and examiners maketheir practical assessments (alongside the extent to which a learner fulfils the communicative functions requiredby the activity undertaken). In the area of grammar, English Profile aims to establish which grammatical featuresdistinguish learners at each level of the CEFR, in other words what structures are used, for example, by students atB1 level but are not fully acquired by learners at A2 level and, similarly, what structures do B1 learners not appearto master until they have progressed to B2 level. The explicit identification of these distinguishing properties forgrammar and lexis will add the necessary specification of linguistic features to the CEFR's functional descriptors foreach of the levels. For grammar this will have considerable practical benefits for the learning, teaching andassessment of English, together with associated materials development and curriculum planning activities.

In what follows, we provide a description about what learners know in terms of grammar at A2, B1, B2, C1 and C2levels on the basis of a list of linguistic features we have identified as being “criterial”, i.e. indicative of these levels.We should note that criterial features are linguistic properties that are not meant to capture all language featuresthat a learner uses at a certain level but distinguish a level from adjacent higher and lower levels. In the area ofgrammar, we focus on two types of criterial features (Hawkins & Buttery 2009, 2010; Hawkins & Filipovi 2011):

(i) correct linguistic properties of English that have been acquired at a certain level and that generally persist athigher levels (see Tables 2 7)

(ii) incorrect properties or errors, that occur at a certain level or levels and with a characteristic frequency (seeTables 8 11).

Both the presence or absence of the errors, and especially their characteristic frequency, can be criterial for alevel. It should also be emphasized, though, that no single feature can be criterial or distinctive for a whole level;only clusters of features have the potential to be criterial for a level.

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The details of the relationships between structures and CEFR level have been identified by careful analysis of theCambridge Learner Corpus (CLC),which has, so far, been the most important data source for English ProfileGrammar researchers. The CLC is a large collection of exam scripts written by students taking Cambridge ESOLEnglish exams around the world and has been collected since the early 1990s in a collaborative project byCambridge University Press and Cambridge ESOL. It grows each year by around 3 million words, and currentlycontains:

over 45 million words from more than 200,000 learners

over 333,000 exam responses

all CEFR levels

138 first languages

English from learners in 203 countries.

The CLC has some important features which are not found in other L2 learner corpora, including the nature of itsraw data, its size and structure, and how the material has been error coded, tagged and parsed. The exam scriptshave been systematically categorised by their CEFR level according to reliable information captured during theexamination process together with a large amount of demographic information about the learners, including theirL1, age and language learning motivation. This background information about the learners captured alongsidetheir responses (and the questions they responded to) allows researchers to compare different L1 learners withrespect to the English that they produce.

Half of the corpus has been painstakingly coded for errors by an expert team at Cambridge University Press andthe corpus has been tagged and parsed by computational linguists at the University of Cambridge ComputerLaboratory. Uniquely, over 21 million words of the CLC have been coded for errors using a coding system devisedby Cambridge University Press (see Nicholls 2003). These error codes are added to the corpus manually by a teamof language specialists who have been working with and refining the system for over 15 years. The CLC errorcoding system is therefore one of the most comprehensive and precise systems available, which means thatresearchers can quickly and accurately answer questions like:

How often do students make a particular type of mistake? Frequency information tells us whether aparticular type of mistake is common so that we can tell which are the most problematic areas for students.

Which students make which mistakes? We have a lot of information about the learners’ backgrounds inEnglish language learning, including information about their first language. This allows researchers to work outwhich areas of English are particularly problematic, for example, for speakers of Spanish, as opposed toChinese or Russian speakers, so that our profile of English can accurately reflect the particular needs oflearners everywhere.

In addition to being searchable lexically and by error type, the CLC is, to the best of our knowledge, the onlylearner corpus of English that can also be searched syntactically, i.e. for specific grammatical relations andpatterns. This is possible because the CLC has been syntactically analysed using RASP (Robust Accurate StatisticalParser), a state of the art automatic text parsing system developed at the University of Cambridge Computer Lab(Briscoe, Carroll & Watson 2006) and further advanced within the context of English Profile Programme (seeHawkins & Buttery 2009). Combining grammatical information and statistical patterns, the RASP system assignspart of speech tags to individual words, groups words into phrases by creating parse trees and extracts thegrammatical relations between these phrases. The application of RASP to the CLC by a team of computationallinguists enables detailed and highly accurate syntactic analyses of learner English, allowing a mapping of learnersyntax and error patterns across the CEFR levels.

The findings reported here are mostly from Hawkins & Filipovi (2011) but also from O’Keeffe & Mark (inpreparation), defined in pedagogic terms and enriched with CLC learner examples by the Cambridge English Profile

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team. These findings reflect the CLC as it currently stands. Since English Profile is a long term programme ofresearch, the list of criterial features presented here will be enhanced and amended as more examination andnon examination learner corpus data become available to the Programme (see Section 6 for further details).

Grammatical criterial features This section provides a comprehensive inventory of all grammatical criterial features identified thus far and givesfour types of information:

a) a summary of grammatical criterial features that distinguish each level, with example utterances from learnerEnglish (Table 2), followed by a more comprehensive description at each level

b) examples of more detailed grammatical Reference Level Descriptors (Tables 3 7)

c) examples of error types that significantly improve between adjacent levels (Tables 8 11)

d) an example of how a grammatical feature develops in learner language across the CEFR levels (O’Keeffe &Mark in preparation) (Table 12).

a. Grammatical criterial features that distinguish each level

Table 2: Key distinguishing features of learner English by CEFR level Level Some key features Examples from the CLC at the appropriate level

A2 Simple sentences

Sentences with clauses joined by that

Descriptive phrases introduced by a pastparticiple

Simple direct wh questions

Simple sentences using infinitives

Other infinitives

Some modals

We came back and went to bed

I know that you have a new house too

There are beautiful paintings painted by famousIranian painters

What are you going to wear?

I want to buy a coat

… something to eat

We must be there at 7 o’clock in the morning.

B1 ing clauses

Whose relative clauses

Indirect questions

Clauses with what as subject/object

Verb+object+infinitive

easy + infinitive

Some complex auxiliaries

Additional modal uses

Maria saw him taking a taxi

… this famous painter whose pictures I like somuch

Guess where it is?

This is what I think

I ordered him to gather my men.

The train station is easy to find.

would rather, had better

I have invited all his friends, so we should be 28people.

B2 ing clause before the main clause

It + verb + infinitive phrase

Wh clause as subject of main clause

Reported speech

Lexically specific verbs/adjectives + infinitive

Talking about spare time, I think we could go tothe Art Museum

It would be helpful to work in your group as well.

What came after was what really changed mysummer!

I told him I loved his songs.

… proved to be wrong, turned out to be …,expected to …

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C1 Lexically specific verbs + object + infinitive

Might for permission

Fewer grammatical errors with agreement,countability or word formation

I believe her to be this country’s bestrepresentative.

Might I tell you what we [should/will] discuss?

C2 Some new lexically specific verbs + object +infinitive

Longer utterances with greater accuracy

They declare some products to be the hits of theseason

So what language features could be said to criterial, i.e. distinguish a learner at each level? The features listedbelow are most – but not all – of the structural features that the corpus informed research has shown to besignificant for each level, from A2 C2 level (for a fuller inventory of grammatical criterial features identified thusfar see Tables 3 7 below). The focus is on grammar rather than vocabulary although the use of specific lexical itemsis also mentioned. We do not provide criterial features for A1 level, as investigation of this level is underway; ourinitial research suggests that some basic structures are already attested at this level. Currently, the most completedescription of the A1 level for English is provided by Breakthrough (Trim 2009), available on the EP website.

Structural features that are significant for each level (from A2 C2 levels)

A2

By the time the learner reaches A2, certain language features are emerging as being criterial, distinctcharacteristics. The average length of utterance is 7.9 words (based on learner data from the CambridgeLearner Corpus). These consist usually of simple sentences such as We came back and went to bed (seeexamples in A2.1 in the table below), I met a lot of interesting people (A2.2), or I can give you my guitar(A2.3). More complex sentences produced by A2 learners are of the type I knew that you have a new houseor I think the zoo is an interesting place. As these examples show, the that which may be used to joinclauses in sentences of this type may be included or omitted by learners at this level (A2.4). Users at thislevel are also able to write sentences such as There are beautiful paintings painted by famous Iranianpainters where there is a descriptive phrase introduced by a past participle (A2.8). However, similardescriptive phrases introduced by a present participle are a characteristic of a B1 rather than an A2 user(B1.3).

A2 learners are able to produce simple direct wh questions as well as statements (A2.6). For example,What are you going to wear? How did you know I liked skateboards? They are also able to produce simplesentences using infinitives – I want to buy a coat or I would like to sell a book, for example (A2.5). Infinitivesare also found to be used correctly by A2 users in phrases like something to eat (A2.7).

A2 users also have gained the ability to use some modals in some of their basic senses. They can forinstance use may, can and might for possibility (A2.10), must for obligation (A2.11) and should for advice(A2.12).

In other words an A2 level of English is characterised by the use of basic and relatively simple structures.


B1

As far as B1 is concerned, it can first of all be noted that learners typically continue to write steadily longersentences as they go up the levels. The mean length of a B1 utterance is 10.8 words in comparison with 7.9at A2 level and 14.2 at B2 level. One reason for the increasing length is that learners are able to cope withmore complex sentences. For example, they produce sentences containing ing clauses, which follow andcomplement the direct object of a main clause: Maria saw him taking a taxi (B1.2) or which function asadverbs and follow the main clause they modify: He was sitting there, drinking a coffee and writingsomething (B1.11). Interestingly, placing the –ing clause before the main clause as in Talking about sparetime, I think we could go to the Art Museum, is a feature that characterises B2 users of the language (B2.1).

There are a number of other types of complex sentence that appear to be criterial at B1 level. Whilelearners may cope well with simple relative clauses using who and which at lower levels, the use of whoseas a relative pronoun is typical of this level e.g. I met a very nice boy whose name’s John (B1.6). Indirectquestions similarly appear to be a marker of B1 language e.g. Guess where it is, I don’t know what to do(B1.8 9). Simple clauses beginning with what (…what I think, What I saw…) acting as either the object orsubject of a main sentence are also successfully used by learners at this level, for example, This is what Ithink, What I saw was so amazing (B1.7).

B1 learners are getting more confident in using the infinitive in more complex structures. While A2 levelstudents cope well with verb + infinitive (e.g. I would like to buy… or I want to sell… A2.5), at B1 levelstudents make use of structures consisting of verb + object + infinitive, with or without to e.g. I would likeyou to come, I want you to do it, I helped him bake the cake (B1.1). In addition, there are a number of otheruses of infinitives linked with specific vocabulary items that seem to feature as typical features of a learnerhaving reached B1 (B1.12 14). The level significant word in each case is bolded in the following examples:Monica seems to be good. I was supposed to go to the English class (B1.12). Your friends expect you tospend an amazing holiday with them. I would like you to spend a weekend at my house. I want you to say hi[to] everybody (B1.13). The train station is easy to find (B1.14).

Different auxiliary and modal uses help to map a learner’s progress from one level to another. As far as B1 isconcerned, the complex auxiliaries would rather and had better are typical features of a B1 learner (B1.10).So also are certain modal uses such as may for permission (May I borrow ….), must for logical necessity (Heis having a great time and must be really happy there) and should for probability (I have invited all hisfriends, so we should be 28 people) (B1.16 18). The number of error types that significantly improve fromA2 to B1 is fairly modest, and improvements focus on the use of quantifiers (e.g. some, a lot of, any, several,other, every etc.).

To sum up, the B1 language user has mastered the basic structures of the language and is beginning toattempt to produce more complex language.


B2

The mean length of a B2 user's utterance is 14.2 words, an increase of 3.4 words on B1. This can beexplained in part by the fact that increasingly complex sentences are used as the learner progressesthrough the levels.

B2 language use typically, for example, may include sentences beginning with an adverbial clauseintroduced by an ing word (B2.1) e.g. Talking about spare time, I could go to the Art Museum.

Another example of a more complex structure which characterises a B2 user is a sentence introduced by Itand followed by an infinitive phrase e.g. It would be helpful to work in your group as well (B2.2). Yet anotherB2 structure is a sentence beginning with a Wh word introducing a clause acting as the subject of the mainclause of the sentence (B2.3) e.g. What attracted me the most was the possibility of meeting people of thesame interests. A third example of a structure characterising a B2 level user is a main sentence with a directobject followed by a subordinate complement clause with or without that (B2.4), for example, I told him(that) I loved his songs.

As at B1 level, there are certain verbs and adjectives which, when associated with infinitive structures, canbe seen as characteristic of the level (B2.6 9); examples of some of these are given below with thesignificant words highlighted in bold:

My worries proved to be wrong.

Unfortunately for me the situation turned out to be opposite to what I thought it was.

And whenever money is involved, some problems are likely to happen.

You are sure to arrive at work on time.

I would prefermy accommodation to be in log cabins.

How many hours a day should I be expected to work?

Your theatre is known to present excellent spectacles.

So zoos could be the only place where people could spend their time avoiding the pollution we are obliged tolive with every day.

Woods is thought to stand for all of white people and this book could have an influence on them.

The grammar and vocabulary are a bit hard to learn.

There are no instances of modal use which can be seen as being criterial for a B2 level of language. Like inB1, the number of error types that appear to improve substantially at this level remains small.


To sum up, as learners progress from level A1 through to B2, they gradually acquire new structures which can beidentified as characteristic of each level. Once they reach C levels, learners’ progress is characterised by increasedstructural accuracy and by greater lexical accuracy and range rather than by the addition of new structures to theirrepertoire.

C1

At C1 level the average length of utterance continues to increase, rising from B2’s 14.2 to 17.3 words.

It is noticeable once learners move into C levels that the criterial, distinguishing features of their languageare a combination of lexis and structure. Learners use structures mastered at earlier levels but with a muchwider range of vocabulary and in more accurate ways. Verbs such as chance, believe, find, suppose, take,assume, discover, feel and prove used in complex structures which include an infinitival clause arecharacteristic of the language of a C1 level learner (C1.1 3). Here are some examples (see Table 6 for more): I chanced to know about your competition from an international magazine. Being born and raised in Mexico, I believe her to be the country’s best representative in the world. I can assure you that the strike isn’t as worrying as you suppose it to be. Secondly, the low cost of membership and entry was assumed to be an advantage as well. The internet is a valuable tool, which can be proved to be the most important aspect in the learning

process.

The only strictly grammatical features which might be seen as criterial, new features of language as thelearner moves from B2 to C1, are the use of a double ‘s genitive structure (e.g. the bride’s family’s house)(C1.4) and the use of might to convey the idea of permission (Might I tell you what we discussed?) (C1.5).

In general, however, it is not mainly the case that the C1 learner is mastering new grammatical features, itis more that he or she is using those that were already available at B2 level in a much more accurate way.Far fewer grammatical errors with, say, agreement, countability or word form occur at C1 than at B2 level.

C2

The trends noted at C1 continue into C2 in that what marks out C2 users of the language is the fact thatthey have a greater grammatical accuracy and a wider lexical range than C1 users; in other words there areno specific new structures appearing at this level. C2 users also continue the trend of producing a longeraverage utterance than at lower levels; the mean length of utterance for C2 is 19 words as opposed to 17.3at C1.

Lexical range in relation to specific structures continues to expand. For example declare, presume,remember and the adjective tough are used with the following complex infinitive complements at C2 level(C1.1 3):They declare some products to be the hits of the season, thus creating fashion and few of us want to beunfashionable. He presumed work to be the way to live. Not only meetings with new people are presumed to give new experiences.She remembered her father to be a lively, tall and broad shouldered man with a beard that tickled when hebent down to kiss her goodnight. What she knew would be really tough to live with was the reason of his death.

At the same time, the C2 level sees the highest number of significant grammatical error improvements of allCEFR levels. Like in C1, there are significant reductions of error rates for most of the error types identified inthe Cambridge Learner Corpus. Overall, it can be said that it is at the C levels where learners appear to bemastering and accurately using the majority of grammatical features in English.


b.G

rammaticalReference

LevelD

escriptorsforEn

glish

Table3:G

rammaticalcriterialfeaturesforA2level

Structure/feature

Exam

plesfrom

theCLC

(A2level)

A2.1

Simpleclau

seswithoutobject

[Intran

sitive

clau

ses,NPV]

Thes

ear

esi

mp

lecl

ause

sco

nsi

stin

go

fa

No

un

Ph

rase

and

anin

tran

siti

veV

erb

,i.e

.ave

rbth

atta

kes

no

ob

ject

(e.g

.go,

arrive)

.Th

eN

ou

nP

hra

seis

the

sub

ject

of

the

intr

ansi

tive

Ver

b.T

he

intr

ansi

tive

Ver

bca

nb

efo

llow

edb

ya

par

ticl

e(e

.g.

Wecameback

),an

adve

rb(e

.g.Youcanget

there)

or

ap

rep

osi

tio

nal

ph

rase

(e.g

.Youcangoto

YiltePark

).

Canyoucometo

myhouse

at2pmon

Saturday?

Youcanget

therebytrain.

A2.2

Clauseswithadirectobject

[Transitive

clau

ses,NPVNP]

Thes

ear

ecl

ause

sco

nta

inin

ga

No

un

Ph

rase

follo

wed

by

aV

erb

and

ano

ther

No

un

Ph

rase

(e.g

.helovedher

).Th

eN

ou

nP

hra

sep

rece

din

gth

eV

erb

isth

esu

bje

ctan

dth

eN

ou

nP

hra

sefo

llow

ing

the

Ver

bis

the

dir

ect

ob

ject

(i.e

.he

isth

esu

bje

ctan

dher

isth

ed

irec

to

bje

cto

fth

eve

rbloved

).Th

eN

ou

nP

hra

sese

rvin

gas

the

ob

ject

of

the

Ver

bca

nb

efo

llow

edb

ya

pre

po

siti

on

alp

hra

se(e

.g.N

owIw

rite

apostcard

foryou).

Im

etalotofinterestingpeople.

NowIw

rite

apostcard

foryou…

A2.3

Clauseswithadirectan

dindirectobject

[Ditransitive

clau

ses(i)NPVNPNP&(ii)NPVNPPP(P=to)]

(i)

Thes

ecl

ause

sco

mp

rise

aN

ou

nP

hra

se,a

Ver

ban

dtw

oN

ou

nP

hra

ses

afte

rth

eV

erb

(e.g

.Icangiveyoumyguitar)

.Th

eN

ou

nP

hra

sep

rece

din

gth

eve

rbis

its

sub

ject

(e.g

.I).

The

firs

tN

ou

nP

hra

sefo

llow

ing

the

Ver

bis

the

ind

irec

to

bje

ct(e

.g.

you

)an

dth

ese

con

dN

ou

nP

hra

seth

ed

irec

to

bje

ct(e

.g.m

yguitar)

.(i

i)In

thes

ecl

ause

s(I’llgiveitto

you

)th

eV

erb

isfo

llow

edb

ya

No

un

Ph

rase

wh

ich

isth

ed

irec

to

bje

ct(e

.g.it)

and

ap

rep

osi

tio

nal

ph

rase

wit

hto

wh

ich

istheindirectobject(e.g.toyou).

Icangiveyoumyguitar.

I’llgiveitto

you…

A2.4

Verb

+subordinateclau

sewithorwithoutthat

[Verb

withafinitecomplemen

tclau

seNPVS]

Thes

est

ruct

ure

sco

mp

rise

on

em

ain

clau

seco

nta

inin

ga

No

un

Ph

rase

and

aV

erb

and

asu

bo

rdin

ate

com

ple

men

tcl

ause

wit

ha

fin

ite

Ver

b(i

.e.a

verb

infl

ecte

dfo

rp

erso

nan

dte

nse

)(e

.g.they

thoughtthathewasalways

late

).that

atth

eb

egin

nin

go

fth

esu

bo

rdin

ate

clau

seca

nb

eo

vert

or

can

be

om

itte

d(e

.g.Ihope(that)youare

well)

.

Iknew

thatyouhave

anew

house

too.

Ithinkthezooisaninterestingplace.

A2.5

Verb

+infinitive

[Verb

withsubject

controlledinfinitivalcomplements,N

PVVPinfin]

Thes

ear

ecl

ause

sco

mp

risi

ng

aN

ou

nP

hra

sean

da

mai

nV

erb

,wh

ich

isfo

llow

edb

yan

oth

erV

erb

inth

ein

fin

itiv

e(t

o+V

erb

)(e

.g.Iwantedto

come)

.Th

ein

fin

itiv

alV

erb

isth

eco

mp

lem

ent

of

the

mai

nV

erb

.Th

eN

ou

nP

hra

seis

the

sub

ject

of

bo

thth

em

ain

Ver

ban

do

fth

ein

fin

itiv

alV

erb

.

Iw

antto

buyacoat.

Iw

ouldliketo

sellabook.

A2.6

DirectWHquestions

Thes

ear

eq

ues

tio

ns

beg

inn

ing

wit

ha

WH

wo

rd(e

.g.w

hat,who,w

here)

follo

wed

by

anau

xilia

ry(e

.g.have,do

)o

ra

cop

ula

(e.g

.be)

,aN

ou

nP

hra

se(e

.g.you,thepark

),an

da

Ver

b(e

.g.W

hatdoyoulike?

). Whatare

yougoingto

wear?

So

when

are

youcelebratingyour

birthday?

A2.7

Pronoun+infinitive

Thes

ear

ep

hra

ses

beg

inn

ing

wit

ha

Pro

no

un

(e.g

.something

)fo

llow

edb

ya

Ver

bin

the

infi

nit

ive

(to

+Ver

b)

(e.g

.something

Youcanbringsomethingto

eatifyou


todrink)

.wantto.

…I’mgoingto

afarm

thisweekendand

there’snothingto

do.

A2.8

Noun+descriptive

phrase

introducedbypastparticiple

[Postnominalmodificationwith–ed]

Thes

ear

ep

hra

ses

com

pri

sin

ga

No

un

Ph

rase

follo

wed

by

aP

ast

Par

tici

ple

end

ing

in–ed

(e.g

.theboydeprivedofhisice

cream

).

Thereare

beautifulpaintingspainted

byfamousIranianpainters

A2.9

Doubleembed

dedgenitivewith(of…

(of…

))[An[of[of]]doubleem

bed

dingofpostnominalgenitives]

Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

ph

rase

sco

nta

inin

ga

No

un

Ph

rase

(e.g

.thebeginning

)fo

llow

edb

yan

–of

gen

itiv

ep

hra

se(e

.g.ofthe

end

),w

hic

hco

nta

ins

ano

ther

–of

gen

itiv

ep

hra

se(e

.g.thebeginning

oftheen

dofcivilization

).

Ilikethecoloursoftheback

ofthe

mobile

phone…

A2.10

ModalsMAY,CANan

dMIGHTinthePossibility

(epistemic)sense

The

mo

dal

verb

smay,can

andmight

are

use

dto

den

ote

Po

ssib

ility

(e.g

.Itmayrainthisafternoon

). Then

wemaygosightseeing.

…thepaintmightmake

ourtshirts

dirty.

A2.11

ModalMUST

intheObligation(deontic)sense

The

mo

dal

verb

must

isu

sed

tod

eno

teO

blig

atio

n(e

.g.Youmustnotdrive

sofast

). Wemustbethereat7o’clock

inthe

morning.

A2.12

ModalSH

OULD

intheAdvice

(deo

ntic)sense

The

mo

dal

verb

should

isu

sed

tod

eno

teA

dvi

ce(e

.g.Youshouldseeadoctor)

. Youshouldwearoldclothes

because

we

willget

dirty.


Table4:G

rammaticalcriterialfeaturesforB1level

Structure/feature

Exam

plesfrom

theCLC

(B1level)

B1.1

Verb

+object+infinitive

[Verbswithobject

controlledinfinitivalcomplementsNPVNPVPinfin]

Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

clau

ses

com

pri

sin

ga

mai

ncl

ause

wit

ha

Ver

bfo

llow

edb

ya

No

un

Ph

rase

and

aco

mp

lem

ent

clau

sew

ith

anin

fin

itiv

alV

erb

(to

+Ver

b)

wit

ho

rw

ith

ou

tto

(e.g

.Ihelped

her

(to)bake

thecake

).Th

eN

ou

nP

hra

seher

isth

ed

irec

to

bje

cto

fth

em

ain

verb

and

the

logi

cals

ub

ject

of

the

infi

nit

ival

Ver

b.

Icalledmyassistantandordered

him

togather

mymen

tothehall.

B1.2

Verb

+object+Verb

endingin–ing

[Verbswithobject

controlled–ingcomplemen

tsNPVNPVPing]

Thes

ear

ecl

ause

sb

egin

nin

gw

ith

aN

ou

nP

hra

sean

da

Ver

bfo

llow

edb

yan

oth

erN

ou

nP

hra

sean

da

Ver

ben

din

gin

–ing

(e.g

.Icaughthim

stea

ling

).Th

eN

ou

nP

hra

sehim

isth

ed

irec

to

bje

cto

fth

em

ain

Ver

ban

dth

elo

gica

lsu

bje

cto

fth

eV

erb

end

ing

in–ing

.

Mariasawhim

takingataxi.

B1.3

Noun+descriptive

phrase

introducedbypresentparticiple

[Postnominalmodificationwith–ing]

Thes

ear

ep

hra

ses

con

sist

ing

of

aN

ou

nP

hra

sefo

llow

edb

ya

Pre

sen

tP

arti

cip

leen

din

gin

ing

(e.g

.theboywalkingdown

theroad

).

AsIw

asdesperate

Iputan

advertisem

entinthenew

spaper

asking

ifsomeonehadit,butnooneansw

ered

me.

B1.4

It+Verb

+subordinateclau

sewithorwithoutthat

[ItExtrap

ositionwithfiniteclau

ses]

Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

clau

ses

con

tain

ing

on

em

ain

clau

seb

egin

nin

gw

ithIt

and

aV

erb

Ph

rase

,fo

llow

edb

ya

sub

ord

inat

eco

mp

lem

ent

clau

sest

arti

ng

wit

hthat

and

con

tain

ing

afi

nit

eV

erb

(i.e

.ave

rbth

atis

infl

ecte

dfo

rp

erso

no

rte

nse

)(e

.g.It

doesn’tmatter

thatsheisnothere)

.Th

eu

seo

fthat

iso

pti

on

al(e

.g.Itisapity(that)they

cannotcome).

It’struethatId

on’tneedaringto

make

meremem

ber

you.

B1.5

Verb

+PrepositionalPhrase

+subordinateclau

sewithorwithoutthat

[VerbswithaPPplusfinitecomplemen

tclau

se,N

PVPPS]

Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

clau

ses

beg

inn

ing

wit

ha

No

un

Ph

rase

follo

wed

by

am

ain

Ver

bth

atta

kes

asco

mp

lem

ents

aP

rep

osi

tio

nal

Ph

rase

and

asu

bo

rdin

ate

com

ple

men

tcl

ause

star

tin

gw

iththat

and

con

tain

ing

afi

nit

eV

erb

(i.e

.ave

rbth

atis

infl

ecte

dfo

rp

erso

no

rte

nse

)(e

.g.They

admittedto

theauthorities

thatthey

hadenteredilleg

ally

).Th

eP

rep

osi

tio

nal

Ph

rase

tome

isth

ein

dir

ect

ob

ject

of

the

mai

nV

erbadmitted

and

the

sub

ord

inat

ecl

ause

isth

ed

irec

to

bje

cto

fth

eV

erb

.that

atth

eb

egin

nin

go

fth

esu

bo

rdin

ate

clau

seca

nb

eo

vert

or

can

be

om

itte

d(e

.g.They

admittedto

theauthorities

(that)they

haden

teredillegally

).

Hesaidto

mehewouldliketo

come

back

soon.

B1.6

Relative

clau

seswithwhose

[Relative

clau

sesform

edonagenitiveposition]

Thes

ear

ere

lati

vecl

ause

sb

egin

nin

gw

ithwhose

(i.e

.WH

wo

rdin

the

gen

itiv

e)an

dar

efo

llow

edb

yan

oth

erN

ou

nP

hra

se(e

.g.w

hose

pictures)

.

…abiographyofthisfamouspainter

whose

picturesIlikeso

much

B1.7

WHword

+NounPhrase

+Verbclau

sesusedas

subjectorobject

[Pseudocleftstype(i)

WH

NP

VP

]Th

ese

are

sub

ord

inat

ecl

ause

sb

egin

nin

gw

ith

aW

Hw

ord

(e.g

.what)

follo

wed

by

aN

ou

nP

hra

sean

da

Ver

b(e

.g.w

hatI

like)

.Th

eW

Hw

ord

isth

ed

irec

to

bje

cto

fth

eV

erb

inth

iscl

ause

(i.e

.what

isth

eo

bje

cto

flike)

.Th

eP

seu

do

clef

tty

pe

(i)

stru

ctu

rety

pic

ally

app

ears

wit

hin

ano

ther

sen

ten

ceas

asu

bje

ct(W

hatIlikeiswatchingfootball)

or

asan

ob

ject

(co

mp

lem

ent)

afte

rth

eV

erbbe

(ThisiswhatIlike)

WhatIa

bsolutelydislikeisgo

shopping,althoughIreally

likenew

clothes.

Iopened

thedoorandwhatIsawwas

soamazing.


B1.8

IndirectWHquestions

Thes

ear

esu

bo

rdin

ate

clau

ses

beg

inn

ing

wit

ha

WH

wo

rd(e

.g.w

hat)

follo

wed

by

aN

ou

nP

hra

sean

da

fin

ite

Ver

b,i

.e.a

verb

infl

ecte

dfo

rp

erso

nan

dte

nse

(e.g

.heasked

whatheshoulddo

). Guesswhereitis.

Idon’tknowhowIcouldhave

doneit.

B1.9

IndirectWHquestionswithinfinitive

Thes

ear

esu

bo

rdin

ate

clau

ses

beg

inn

ing

wit

ha

WH

wo

rd(e

.g.w

hat)

follo

wed

by

aN

ou

nP

hra

sean

dan

infi

nit

ival

Ver

b(t

o+V

erb

)(e

.g.heexplained

howto

doit

). Ididnotknowwhereto

lookforit

anym

ore.

Idon’tknowwhatto

do.

B1.10

Complexau

xiliariesWOULD

RATH

ERan

dHADBETTER

Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

auxi

liari

esth

atco

nsi

sto

fa

Sim

ple

Au

xilia

ryan

dan

Ad

verb

(e.g

.wouldrather,hadbetter)

and

are

follo

wed

by

aV

erb

(e.g

.Ihadbetterim

prove

mygame)

. They

won'tbevery

happyifyougoon

holidaywiththem

andthen

youare

bad

tempered

allthetimebecause

you

wouldrather

bewithyourfriends.

Ifyoudon'tliketo

gowiththem

you

hadbettertellthem

whyyoudon't

wantto

come.

B1.11

Adverbialsubordinateclau

seswith–ingthat

follo

wtheclau

seto

whichtheyareattached

Thes

ear

esu

bo

rdin

ate

clau

ses

wit

hve

rbs

end

ing

in–ing

(e.g

.walkingdowntheroad

).Th

ese

sub

ord

inat

ecl

ause

sh

ave

anad

verb

ialf

un

ctio

nan

dca

nfo

llow

the

mai

ncl

ause

(e.g

.hepumped

into

alamppostwalkingdowntheroad).

Hewassittingthere,drinkingacoffee

andwritingsomething.

B1.12

seem

,supposed(adjective)+infinitive

[Subject

toSubjectRaising,NPVVPinfin]

Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

clau

ses

con

tain

ing

am

ain

clau

seb

egin

nin

gw

ith

aN

ou

nP

hra

sean

dfo

llow

edb

yth

eV

erbseem

(e.g.

Johnseem

s)o

rth

eV

erbbe

and

the

Ad

ject

ivesupposed

(e.g.Johnissupposed

)an

da

sub

ord

inat

ecl

ause

wit

han

infi

nit

ival

Ver

b(t

o+V

erb

)(e

.g.Johnseem

s/issupposedto

begood

).In

the

Sub

ject

toSu

bje

ctR

aisi

ng

con

stru

ctio

ns,

the

sub

ject

of

the

mai

nV

erb

isal

soth

elo

gica

lsu

bje

cto

fth

ein

fin

itiv

alV

erb

and

ith

asm

ove

do

ut

of

its

sub

ject

po

siti

on

wit

hin

the

sub

ord

inat

ecl

ause

tob

eco

me

the

sub

ject

of

the

mai

ncl

ause

(hen

ce‘S

ub

ject

toSu

bje

ctR

aisi

ng’

).

Monikaseem

sto

begood,intelligent

teacher,butIhave

abadfeelingabout

Paula.

Itlooks

likeIhave

arehearsalforthe

“YamahaConcert”atthesametimeI

wassupposedto

goto

theEnglishclass.

B1.13

expect,like,want+object+infinitive

[Subject

toObjectRaising,NPVNPVPinfin]

Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

clau

ses

con

tain

ing

am

ain

clau

seb

egin

nin

gw

ith

aN

ou

nP

hra

sean

dth

eV

erb

sexpect,like

orwant

(e.g

.Johnexpects

),fo

llow

edb

ya

No

un

Ph

rase

and

asu

bo

rdin

ate

clau

sew

ith

anin

fin

itiv

alV

erb

(to

+Ver

b)

(e.g

.Johnexpects

her

tocometo

theparty)

.Th

eN

ou

nP

hra

seher

isth

ed

irec

to

bje

cto

fth

em

ain

Ver

ban

dth

elo

gica

lsu

bje

cto

fth

esu

bo

rdin

ate

infi

nit

ival

clau

se,a

nd

ith

asm

ove

do

ut

of

its

po

siti

on

asth

esu

bje

ctto

bec

om

eth

ed

irec

to

bje

cto

fth

em

ain

clau

se(h

ence

‘Su

bje

ctto

Ob

ject

Rai

sin

g’).

Sara

toldmeshewouldcome,butI

didn'texpecther

tocomeso

early.

Iam

doingfine,Iexpecteditto

bemore

difficult,butitisnotso

hard.

Finally

Iwantyouto

sayhi[to]

everybodyandIam

lookingforw

ard

toseeingyou.


B1.14

easy

+infinitive

[Tough

Movementwiththead

jectiveeasy]

Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

clau

ses

com

pri

sin

ga

mai

ncl

ause

beg

inn

ing

wit

ha

No

un

Ph

rase

,th

eV

erbbe

and

the

adje

ctiv

eeasy

(e.g

.thebookiseasy

)fo

llow

edb

ya

sub

ord

inat

ecl

ause

wit

han

infi

nit

ival

Ver

b(t

o+V

erb

)(e

.g.Thebookiseasy

toread

).In

Tou

ghM

ove

men

tst

ruct

ure

sth

esu

bje

cto

fth

em

ain

clau

seis

the

logi

calo

bje

cto

fth

esu

bo

rdin

ate

infi

nit

ival

clau

se,w

hic

hh

asm

ove

dfr

om

the

ob

ject

po

siti

on

(e.g

.toreadthebook)

toth

ep

osi

tio

no

fth

esu

bje

cto

fth

em

ain

clau

se.T

he

bo

ok

isth

elo

gica

lob

ject

of

read

ing

and

this

wh

ole

even

t(r

ead

ing

the

bo

ok)

iscl

aim

edto

be

easy

,no

tn

eces

sari

lyth

eb

oo

kit

self

(e.g

.thebookcouldbeeasy

toreadbuthard

tocarry)

.Th

era

ised

No

un

Ph

rase

inTo

ugh

Mo

vem

ent

con

stru

ctio

ns

can

occ

up

yo

ther

no

nsu

bje

ctp

osi

tio

ns

inth

esu

bo

rdin

ate

clau

see.

g.Thestudentiseasy

tostudywith

Thetrainstationiseasy

tofind.

Theproblemyouhave

isnotvery

easy

tosolve.

B1.15

Doubleembed

dedgenitivewith(of…

(–’s))

(An[of[s]]doubleembeddingofan

–sgenitivewithinan

ofgenitive)

Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

ph

rase

sco

nta

inin

ga

No

un

Ph

rase

(e.g

.thebeginning

)fo

llow

edb

yan

–of

gen

itiv

ep

hra

sew

hic

hco

nta

ins

ans

gen

itiv

e(p

oss

essi

ve)

ph

rase

(e.g

.thebeginning

oftheprofessor’sbook)

.

Iam

abigfanoftheworld’smost

famousBritish

secret

serviceagent.

B1.16

ModalMAYinthePerm

ission(deontic)sense

The

mo

dal

verb

MA

Yis

use

dto

den

ote

Per

mis

sio

n.

MayIborrowyourbicycleforthis

weekend?

B1.17

ModalMUST

intheNecessity(epistemic)sense

The

mo

dal

verb

mu

stis

use

dto

den

ote

logi

calo

rp

hys

ical

Nec

essi

ty.

Thismoviemustbegreat.Mysister

told

methatshewasamazed[w

hen]she

[saw]thefilm

soIthinkit'sreally

good.

Heishavingagreattimeandmustbe

really

happythere.

B1.18

ModalSH

OULD

intheProbab

ility

(epistemic)sense

The

mo

dal

verb

sho

uld

isu

sed

tod

eno

teP

rob

abili

ty.

Ihave

invite[d]allhisfriends,[so]we

shouldbe28people.


Table5:G

rammaticalcriterialfeaturesforB2level

Structure/feature

Exam

plesfrom

theCLC

(B2level)

B2.1

Adverbialsubordinateclau

seswith–ingthat

precedetheclau

seto

whichthey

areattached

Thes

ear

esu

bo

rdin

ate

clau

ses

wit

hve

rbs

end

ing

in–ing

(e.g

.walkingdowntheroad

).Th

ese

sub

ord

inat

ecl

ause

sp

rece

de

the

mai

ncl

ause

and

act

like

adve

rbs

mo

dif

yin

gth

em

ain

clau

se(e

.g.W

alkingdowntheroad,hepumped

into

alamppost

).

Ta

lkingaboutspare

time,Ithinkwe

couldgoto

theArtMuseum

B2.2

It+Verb

+infinitive

[ItExtrap

ositionwithinfinitivalphrases]

Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

clau

ses

con

tain

ing

on

em

ain

clau

seb

egin

nin

gw

ithIt

and

aV

erb

,fo

llow

edb

ya

sub

ord

inat

eco

mp

lem

ent

clau

sew

ith

aV

erb

inth

ein

fin

itiv

e(t

o+V

erb

)(e

.g.Itislikelyto

raintomorrow).

…itwouldbehelpfultowork

inyour

groupaswell.

B2.3

WHword

+VerbPhrase

clau

sesusedas

subjectorobject

[Pseudoclefttype(ii)

WH

VP

]Th

ese

are

sub

ord

inat

ecl

ause

sb

egin

nin

gw

ith

aW

Hw

ord

(e.g

.what)

follo

wed

by

aV

erb

and

oft

ena

No

un

Ph

rase

(e.g

.whatinterestsme)

.Th

eW

Hw

ord

isth

esu

bje

cto

fth

eV

erb

inth

iscl

ause

(i.e

.what

isth

esu

bje

cto

finterest

).Th

eP

seu

do

clef

tty

pe

(ii)

stru

ctu

rety

pic

ally

app

ears

wit

hin

ano

ther

sen

ten

ceas

asu

bje

ct(W

hatinterestsmeispolitics)

or

asan

ob

ject

(co

mp

lem

ent)

(Iknowwhatinterestsme)

.

Whatattracted

methemostwasthe

possibilityofmeetingpeopleofthe

sameinterests.

Butwhatcameafter

waswhatreally

changed

mysummer!

B2.4

Verb

+object+subordinateclau

sewithorwithoutthat

[Verbswithan

NPplusfinitecomplemen

tclau

se,N

PVNPS]

Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

clau

ses

com

pri

sin

go

ne

mai

ncl

ause

beg

inn

ing

wit

ha

No

un

Ph

rase

and

aV

erb

follo

wed

by

aN

ou

nP

hra

sean

da

sub

ord

inat

eco

mp

lem

ent

clau

se(e

.g.hetoldmethattheaudience

wasleaving).

The

sub

ord

inat

eco

mp

lem

ent

clau

seca

nb

eo

pti

on

ally

intr

od

uce

db

ythat.

Itoldhim

Ilovedhissongs

Shetoldmethatshehadworked

for

summer

campforchildren

B2.5

Verb

+object+ad

jective

[Secondarypredications,NPVNPAdjP]

Thes

ear

ecl

ause

sco

mp

risi

ng

aN

ou

nan

da

Ver

b,w

hic

his

follo

wed

by

aN

ou

nP

hra

sean

dan

Ad

ject

ive

(e.g

.hepainted

thecarred).

The

No

un

Ph

rase

follo

win

gth

eV

erb

isth

ed

irec

to

bje

ct(thecar)

and

the

adje

ctiv

e(red

)co

mp

lem

ents

that

ob

ject

.In

Seco

nd

ary

Pre

dic

atio

nco

nst

ruct

ion

s,th

ed

irec

to

bje

cto

fth

eve

rb(thecar)

also

con

trac

tsa

seco

nd

ary

rela

tio

nw

ith

the

follo

win

gp

red

icat

e(is

orbecomes

red

).

Butifyoudon’twantto

take

anyrisks,

justgoandpaintthehousesyello

wandblue

B2.6

theverbsappea

r,cease,fail,happen

,prove,turn

out,an

dthead

jectivescertain,likely,sure,unlikely+infinitive

[Subject


Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

clau

ses

con

tain

ing

am

ain

clau

seb

egin

nin

gw

ith

aN

ou

nP

hra

sean

dfo

llow

edb

yth

eV

erb

sappear,

cease

,fail,happen

,prove

,turn

out

(e.g.Thenoiseceased

)o

rth

eV

erbbe

and

the

Ad

ject

ives

certain

,likely,sure

,unlikely

(e.g.Johnislikely)

and

asu

bo

rdin

ate

clau

sew

ith

anin

fin

itiv

alve

rb(t

o+V

erb

)(e

.g.Thenoiseceasedto

get

on

hisnerves)

.In

the

Sub

ject

toSu

bje

ctR

aisi

ng

con

stru

ctio

ns,

the

sub

ject

of

the

mai

nV

erb

isal

soth

elo

gica

lsu

bje

cto

fth

ein

fin

itiv

alV

erb

and

ith

asm

ove

do

ut

of

its

sub

ject

po

siti

on

wit

hin

the

sub

ord

inat

ecl

ause

tob

eco

me

the

sub

ject

of

the

mai

ncl

ause

(‘Su

bje

ctto

Sub

ject

Rai

sin

g’).

To

myregret,theeven

ingtotally

failedto

liveupto

myexpectations.


B2.7

imagine,prefer+object+infinitive

[Subject


Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

clau

ses

con

tain

ing

am

ain

clau

seb

egin

nin

gw

ith

aN

ou

nP

hra

sean

dth

eV

erb

sim

agineorprefer

(e.g

.Iwouldprefer)

,fo

llow

edb

ya

No

un

Ph

rase

and

asu

bo

rdin

ate

clau

sew

ith

anin

fin

itiv

alV

erb

(to

+Ver

b)

(e.g

.Iwouldprefermyaccommodationto

beinlogcabins)

.Th

eN

ou

nP

hra

semyaccommodation

isth

ed

irec

to

bje

cto

fth

em

ain

Ver

ban

dth

elo

gica

lsu

bje

cto

fth

esu

bo

rdin

ate

infi

nit

ival

clau

se,a

nd

ith

asm

ove

do

ut

of

its

po

siti

on

asth

esu

bje

cto

fth

esu

bo

rdin

ate

clau

seto

bec

om

eth

ed

irec

to

bje

cto

fth

em

ain

clau

se(‘

Sub

ject

toO

bje

ctR

aisi

ng’

).

Youwereso

kindandfriendlythatI

hadnever

imagined

myselfto

have

visitedfarforeigncountry,Alaska.

Iw

ouldprefermyaccommodationto

beinlogcabins,because

Iam

allergic

tosomeinsectsthatmightgointhe

tent.

B2.8

theverbsexpected,known,oblig

ed,thought(inPassive

voice)+infinitive

[Subject

toObjectRaisingplusPassive,N

PVVPinfin]

Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

clau

ses

con

tain

ing

am

ain

clau

seb

egin

nin

gw

ith

aN

ou

nP

hra

sean

dth

eV

erb

sexpect,know

,oblige

orthink

inth

ep

assi

vefo

rm(e

.g.Smokingisknown

),fo

llow

edb

ya

sub

ord

inat

ecl

ause

wit

han

infi

nit

ival

Ver

b(t

o+V

erb

)(e

.g.Smokingisknownto

cause

cancer)

.Th

eN

ou

nP

hra

seSm

oking

isth

esu

bje

cto

fth

esu

bo

rdin

ate

clau

seth

ath

asb

een

rais

edin

toth

eh

igh

ero

bje

ctp

osi

tio

n(e

.g.smoking

asinWeknowsm

okingto

cause

cancer)

(hen

ce‘S

ub

ject

toSu

bje

ctR

aisi

ng’

).It

isth

enfu

rth

erp

rom

ote

dto

sub

ject

po

siti

on

inth

em

ain

clau

seb

yth

eo

per

atio

no

fth

eP

assi

ve.

Yourthea

treisknownto

presentexcelle

spectacles.

So

zooscouldbetheonlyplace

where

peoplecouldspendtheirtime

avoidingthepollutionweare

oblig

edt o

livewitheveryday.

B2.9

difficult,good,hard

+infinitive

[Tough

Movementconstructionswiththead

jectivesdifficult,good,hard]

Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

clau

ses

com

pri

sin

ga

mai

ncl

ause

beg

inn

ing

wit

ha

No

un

Ph

rase

,th

eV

erbbe

and

the

adje

ctiv

esdifficult,good

orhard

(e.g

.Applesare

good

)fo

llow

edb

ya

sub

ord

inat

ein

fin

itiv

alcl

ause

(e.g

.Applesare

goodto

eat)

.In

Tou

ghM

ove

men

tst

ruct

ure

sth

esu

bje

cto

fth

em

ain

clau

seis

the

logi

calo

bje

cto

fth

esu

bo

rdin

ate

infi

nit

ival

clau

se,

wh

ich

has

mo

ved

fro

mth

eo

bje

ctp

osi

tio

n(e

.g.to

eatapples)

toth

ep

osi

tio

no

fth

esu

bje

cto

fth

em

ain

clau

se.Apples

isth

elo

gica

lo

bje

cto

fea

tin

gan

dth

isw

ho

leev

ent

(eatingapples)

iscl

aim

edto

begood

,n

ot

nec

essa

rily

theapples

them

selv

es.

The

rais

edN

ou

nP

hra

sein

Tou

ghM

ove

men

tco

nst

ruct

ion

sca

no

ccu

py

oth

ern

on

sub

ject

po

siti

on

sin

the

sub

ord

inat

ecl

ause

e.g.Thestudentiseasy

tostudywith.

ThefirstRestaurantis"M

exico",itis

situatednearthemetro

stationandis

notvery

difficultto

find.

Th

egrammarandvocabulary

are

abithard

tolearn.

B2.10

Doubleembed

dedgenitivewith((of…

)–’s)

(An[[of]

s]doubleembeddingofan

ofgenitivewithinan

sgenitive)

Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

ph

rase

sco

nta

inin

ga

No

un

Ph

rase

(e.g

.war)

pre

ced

edb

yan

sge

nit

ive

(po

sses

sive

)p

hra

sew

hic

hco

nta

ins

an–of

gen

itiv

ep

hra

se(e

.g.thekingofEngland’swar)

.

After

thatIw

entto

afriendofmine’s

house

whereIspentoneweek.


Table6:G

rammaticalcriterialfeaturesforC1level

Structure/feature

Exam

plesfrom

theCLC

(C1level)

C1.1

theverb

chance

+infinitive

[Subject


Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

clau

ses

con

tain

ing

am

ain

clau

seb

egin

nin

gw

ith

aN

ou

nP

hra

sean

dth

eV

erbchance

(e.g

.Ichance

),fo

llow

edb

ya

sub

ord

inat

ecl

ause

wit

han

infi

nit

ival

Ver

b(t

o+V

erb

)(e

.g.Ichancedto

know

aboutyourCompetitionfrom

aninternationalmagazine)

.In

the

Sub

ject

toSu

bje

ctR

aisi

ng

con

stru

ctio

ns,

the

sub

ject

of

the

mai

nV

erb

isal

soth

elo

gica

lsu

bje

cto

fth

ein

fin

itiv

alV

erb

and

ith

asm

ove

do

ut

of

its

po

siti

on

asa

sub

ject

of

the

sub

ord

inat

ecl

ause

tob

eco

me

the

sub

ject

of

the

mai

ncl

ause

(hen

ce‘S

ub

ject

toSu

bje

ctR

aisi

ng’

).

DearSirs,Ichancedto

knowaboutyour

Competitionfrom

aninternational

magazine.

C1.2

believe,find,suppose,take

+object+infinitive

[Subject


Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

clau

ses

con

tain

ing

am

ain

clau

seb

egin

nin

gw

ith

aN

ou

nP

hra

sean

dth

eV

erb

sbelieve,find,suppose

or

take

follo

wed

by

aN

ou

nP

hra

sean

da

sub

ord

inat

ecl

ause

wit

han

infi

nit

ival

Ver

b(t

o+V

erb

)(e

.g.Ifindthisto

bemore

interestingthanthewalkingroute

toLake

Hawksmere)

.Th

eN

ou

nP

hra

sethis

isth

ed

irec

to

bje

cto

fth

em

ain

Ver

bfind

and

the

logi

cal

sub

ject

of

the

sub

ord

inat

ein

fin

itiv

alcl

ause

,an

dit

has

mo

ved

ou

to

fit

sp

osi

tio

nas

the

sub

ject

of

the

sub

ord

inat

ecl

ause

tob

eco

me

the

dir

ect

ob

ject

of

the

mai

ncl

ause

(‘Su

bje

ctto

Ob

ject

Rai

sin

g’).

Ifindthisto

bemore

interestingthan

thewalkingroute

toLake

Hawksmere.

OverallIfoundthisto

bepretty

satisfyingasitdoes

fulfillmostofthe

students'w

ishes.

C1.3

assumed

,discovered,felt,found,proved(inPassive

voice)+infinitive

[Subject


PVVPinfin]

Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

clau

ses

con

tain

ing

am

ain

clau

seb

egin

nin

gw

ith

aN

ou

nP

hra

sean

dth

eV

erb

sassumed,discovered,

felt

orfound

inth

ep

assi

vefo

rm,

(e.g

.Th

echild

renstories

werefelt

),fo

llow

edb

ya

sub

ord

inat

ecl

ause

wit

han

infi

nit

ival

Ver

b(t

o+V

erb

)(e

.g.Th

echild

renstories

werefeltto

bethebestidea

forkids)

.Th

eN

ou

nP

hra

seThechildrenstories

isth

esu

bje

cto

fth

esu

bo

rdin

ate

clau

seth

ath

asb

een

rais

edin

toth

eh

igh

ero

bje

ctp

osi

tio

n(e

.g.W

efeltthechildrenstories

werethebestidea

forkids)

(‘Su

bje

ctto

Ob

ject

Rai

sin

g’).

Itis

then

furt

her

pro

mo

ted

tosu

bje

ctp

osi

tio

nin

the

mai

ncl

ause

by

the

op

erat

ion

of

the

Pas

sive

.

Th

echild

renstories

werefeltto

bethe

bestidea

forkids,after

ofcoursethe

ponyrides.

C1.4

Doubleembed

dedgenitivewith((–’s)–’s)

(An[[s]

s]doubleembeddingofan

–sgenitivewithinan

–sgenitive)

Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

ph

rase

sco

nsi

stin

go

fa

No

un

Ph

rase

(e.g

.ho

use

)p

rece

ded

by

ans

gen

itiv

e(p

oss

essi

ve)

ph

rase

wh

ich

con

tain

san

oth

ers

gen

itiv

e(p

oss

essi

ve)

ph

rase

(e.g

.thebride’sfamily’shouse).

After

spendingthefirstdayoftheir

marriageinthebride’sfamily’shouse

C1.5

ModalMIGHTinthePerm

ission(deontic)sense

The

mo

dal

verb

might

isu

sed

tod

eno

teP

erm

issi

on

. MightItellyouwhatwediscuss?


Table7:G

rammaticalcriterialfeaturesforC2level

Structure/feature

Exam

plesfrom

theCLC

(C2level)

C2.1

declare,presume,remem

ber

+object+infinitive

[Subject


Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

clau

ses

con

tain

ing

am

ain

clau

seb

egin

nin

gw

ith

aN

ou

nP

hra

sean

dth

eV

erb

sdeclare,presume

or

remem

ber

follo

wed

by

aN

ou

nP

hra

sean

da

sub

ord

inat

ecl

ause

wit

han

infi

nit

ival

Ver

b(t

o+V

erb

)(e

.g.Hepresumed

work

tobethewayto

live.

).Th

eN

ou

nP

hra

sework

isth

ed

irec

to

bje

cto

fth

em

ain

Ver

bpresumed

and

the

logi

cals

ub

ject

of

the

sub

ord

inat

ein

fin

itiv

alcl

ause

tobe,

and

ith

asm

ove

do

ut

of

its

po

siti

on

asth

esu

bje

cto

fth

esu

bo

rdin

ate

clau

seto

bec

om

eth

ed

irec

to

bje

cto

fth

em

ain

clau

se(‘

Sub

ject

toO

bje

ctR

aisi

ng’

).

Th

eydeclare

someproductsto

bethe

hitsoftheseason,thuscreatingfashion,

andfewofuswantto

beunfashionable

Plus,Irem

ember

myclasses

tobevery

participative,anddynamic.

C2.2

theverb

presumed

(inPassive

Voice)+infinitive

[Subject


PVVPinfin]

Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

clau

ses

con

tain

ing

am

ain

clau

seb

egin

nin

gw

ith

aN

ou

nP

hra

sean

dth

eV

erbpresumed

inth

ep

assi

vefo

rm,

(e.g

.Notonly

meetingswithpeo

ple

are

presumed

),fo

llow

edb

ya

sub

ord

inat

ecl

ause

wit

han

infi

nit

ival

Ver

b(t

o+V

erb

)(e

.g.Notonlymeetingswithpeople

are

presumed

togivenew

experiences)

.Th

eN

ou

nP

hra

semeetings

isth

esu

bje

cto

fth

esu

bo

rdin

ate

clau

seth

ath

asb

een

rais

edin

toth

eh

igh

ero

bje

ctp

osi

tio

n(e

.g.Wepresumemeetingsto

be)

(‘Su

bje

ctto

Ob

ject

Rai

sin

g’).

Itis

then

furt

her

pro

mo

ted

tosu

bje

ctp

osi

tio

nin

the

mai

ncl

ause

by

the

op

erat

ion

of

the

Pas

sive

.

Notonlymeetingswithpeo

pleare

presumed

togivenew

experiences.

C2.3

tough+infinitive

[Tough

Movementconstructionswiththead

jectivetough]

Thes

ear

eco

mp

lex

clau

ses

beg

inn

ing

wit

ha

No

un

Ph

rase

,th

eV

erbbe

and

the

Ad

ject

ivetough

(e.g

.ourteam

wastough

)fo

llow

edb

yan

infi

nit

ival

Ver

b(t

o+V

erb

)(e

.g.o

urteam

wastoughto

beat).I

nTo

ugh

Mo

vem

ent

stru

ctu

res,

the

sub

ject

of

the

mai

ncl

ause

isth

elo

gica

lob

ject

of

the

sub

ord

inat

ein

fin

itiv

alcl

ause

,wh

ich

has

mo

ved

fro

mth

eo

bje

ctp

osi

tio

n(e

.g.to

beatourteam

)to

the

po

siti

on

of

the

sub

ject

of

the

mai

ncl

ause

.Ourteam

isth

elo

gica

lob

ject

ofbeat

and

this

wh

ole

even

t(beatingourteam

)is

clai

med

tob

etough

,n

ot

nec

essa

rilyourteam

itse

lf.

The

rais

edN

ou

nP

hra

sein

Tou

ghM

ove

men

tco

nst

ruct

ion

sca

no

ccu

py

oth

ern

on

sub

ject

po

siti

on

sin

the

sub

ord

inat

ecl

ause

e.g.Whatsheknew

would

bereally

tough

tolivewithwasthereasonofhisdeath

Whatsheknew

wouldbereally

tough

tolivewithwasthereasonofhisdeath.


c) E

xamplesoferrortypesthat

significan

tlyim

prove

betw

eenad

jacentlevels

Table8:Errortypesthat

improve

significan

tlybetw

eenA2to

B1levels

Key

tofourerrortypes

tables811:bold=error,(w

ord)=correction,[word]=errorhasbeencorrected,[]=unnecessary

word

removed

Errortype

Exam

plesfrom

theCLC

(A2level)

1.

Anap

horAgreement

Wh

enth

ean

aph

or

wo

rdis

corr

ect

and

the

form

of

the

anap

ho

ris

valid

bu

tw

ron

gin

the

con

text

bec

ause

itd

oes

no

tag

ree

gram

mat

ical

lyw

ith

its

coo

rdin

ates

,it

isan

An

aph

or

Agr

eem

ent

erro

r.

It'sthreeyearsoldandheworksvery

well,butIw

ouldlikeanew

computer.(it)

Ihave

alotof[books].Iboughtoneyearsago.(them

)

2.

Form

ofDeterm

iner

Wh

enth

ear

ticl

es‘a

’an

d‘a

n’a

reco

nfu

sed

.…amonth

agoIboughtanhandheld.(a)

Thisisainterestingplace!(an)

3.

MissingAdjective

Wh

ena

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

req

uir

esan

adje

ctiv

efo

rco

mp

lete

nes

san

dth

atad

ject

ive

has

bee

no

mit

ted

,it

isa

Mis

sin

gA

dje

ctiv

eer

ror.

Here're

alotofkindsofanim

als.(lotofdifferentkinds)

Theweather

isfantastic,w

e[allhave]really

fun…(really

goodfun)

4.

MissingAdverb

Wh

ena

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

req

uir

esan

adve

rbfo

rco

mp

lete

nes

san

dth

atad

verb

has

bee

no

mit

ted

,it

isa

Mis

sin

gA

dve

rber

ror.

Ithinkwewill[]have

agoodtime[.]Hopeto

seeyou(see

yousoon)

Youcanget

bycar.(get

thereby)

5.

MissingConjunction(LinkWord)

Wh

ena

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

req

uir

esa

con

jun

ctio

n/

link

wo

rd(o

rw

ord

s)fo

rco

mp

lete

nes

san

dth

atw

ord

has

bee

no

mit

ted

,it

isa

Mis

sin

gC

on

jun

ctio

ner

ror.

You[w

ant]thisplease

callme.(Ifyou)

IhopeIgobytrainso

Iwillarriveat5o'clock,especially

Iwantto

play[]yournew

videogame…

(especially

because

Iwant)

6.

MissingQuan

tifier

Wh

ena

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

req

uir

esa

qu

anti

fier

for

com

ple

ten

ess

and

that

qu

anti

fier

has

bee

no

mit

ted

,it

isa

Mis

sin

gQ

uan

tifi

erer

ror.

Iwillbuynew

trousersandapairofshoes.(buysomenew

)

7.

InflectionofQuan

tifier

Wh

enth

ele

arn

erh

ascr

eate

da

feas

ible

bu

tn

on

valid

infl

ecte

dfo

rmo

fth

eq

uan

tifi

er.

Ithinkthatwecangoforawalk,rideabike,playfootballandotherssports.(other)

Iboughta[pairof]trouser[s]andsomes

[Tshirts].(some)

8.

Replace

Quan

tifier

Wh

ena

valid

qu

anti

fier

wo

rdin

the

lan

guag

eh

asb

een

use

dan

dit

isth

eco

rrec

tp

art

of

spee

chb

ut

no

tth

eco

rrec

tq

uan

tifi

er,i

tis

aR

epla

ceQ

uan

tifi

erer

ror.

Iwantto

sellmanydolls.(alotof)

Iwillmove

toother

cityso

Iwantto

sellit.(another)


9.

UnnecessaryQuan

tifier

Wh

enan

un

nec

essa

ryex

tra

qu

anti

fier

has

bee

nu

sed

ina

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

insu

cha

way

that

itm

akes

the

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

inco

rrec

t,it

isan

Un

nec

essa

ryQ

uan

tifi

erer

ror.

Myhobbiesare

such

assinging,dancinganddrawing.

Iwantto

sellthistablebecause

Ihave

anew

other

table!


improve

significan

tlybetw

eenB1to

B2levels

Errortype

Exam

plesfrom

theCLC

(B1level)

1.

DerivationofConjunction(LinkWord)

Wh

ere

aco

nju

nct

ion

/lin

kw

ord

rese

mb

les,

or

incl

ud

esth

est

emo

f,a

valid

wo

rdb

ut

has

bee

nin

corr

ectl

yd

eriv

ed,

usu

ally

bec

ause

ith

asb

een

give

nan

inco

rrec

taf

fix,

itis

aD

eriv

atio

no

fC

on

jun

ctio

ner

ror.

Ididn'tdoanything,accept[put]anew

bed

inmybedroom.(except)

Now,I'm

more

attentive

inreadingletters...(w

hen)

2.

DerivationofDeterm

iner

Wh

ere

ad

eter

min

erre

sem

ble

s,o

rin

clu

des

the

stem

of,

ava

lidd

eter

min

erb

ut

has

bee

nin

corr

ectl

yd

eriv

ed,

usu

ally

bec

ause

ith

asb

een

give

nan

inco

rrec

taf

fix,

itis

aD

eriv

atio

no

fD

eter

min

erer

ror.

I'mreally

glad,because

youwantto

visitminecountry.

(my)

Youasked

meaboutthebestplace

tospendyoutime...(your)

3.

Form

ofDeterm

iner

Wh

enth

ear

ticl

es‘a

’an

d‘a

n’a

reco

nfu

sed

.Thefilm

hasanhappyend...(a)

Sendmeaemail…

(an)

4.

InflectionofDeterm

iner

Wh

enth

ele

arn

erh

ascr

eate

da

feas

ible

bu

tn

on

valid

infl

ecte

dfo

rmo

fth

ed

eter

min

er,

usu

ally

bec

ause

of

am

ista

ken

bel

ief

that

the

det

erm

iner

mu

stag

ree

inn

um

ber

wit

hth

en

ou

nw

hic

hit

pre

ced

es.

Itwas

really

interesting

tohear

aboutall

the

differentpeople

and

theirs

[backgrounds].(their)

5.

InflectionofQuan

tifier

Wh

enth

ele

arn

erh

ascr

eate

da

feas

ible

bu

tn

on

valid

infl

ecte

dfo

rmo

fth

eq

uan

tifi

er.

Ifyouhave

othersquestionsplease

contactme!

(other)

IthinkIwill

go[to]thepark,nearthezoo,whereseverals

sportsare

[played].

(several)

6.

InflectionofVerb

Wh

enth

ele

arn

erh

asm

ade

afa

lse

assu

mp

tio

nab

ou

tw

het

her

ave

rbis

regu

lar

or

irre

gula

ran

din

flec

ted

itac

cord

ingl

y.M

ost

com

mo

nly

,th

eer

ror

isca

use

db

yp

utt

ing

regu

lar

infl

ecti

on

so

nir

regu

lar

verb

s.

…allthewalls

are

whiteandI'vehanged

[a]fewpaintingsonthem

.(hung)

After

thefilm

wehaddinner

andwechatedaboutthefilm

…(chatted)



improve

significan

tlybetw

eenB2to

C1levels

Errortype

Exam

plesfrom

theCLC

(B2level)

1.

Agreement

Wh

enth

ew

ord

isco

rrec

tan

dth

efo

rmo

fth

ew

ord

isva

lidb

ut

wro

ng

inth

eco

nte

xtb

ecau

seit

do

esn

ot

agre

egr

amm

atic

ally

wit

hit

sco

ord

inat

es,i

tis

anA

gree

men

ter

ror.

Iknowthatthiskindofjobsare

wellpaid...(thesekinds)

…youcantrytheclothes

youchoose

onandbesure

thatitfitsyou.(they

fit)

2.

NounAgreement

Wh

enth

en

ou

nis

corr

ect

and

the

form

of

the

no

un

isva

lidb

ut

wro

ng

inth

eco

nte

xtb

ecau

seit

do

esn

ot

agre

egr

amm

atic

ally

wit

hit

sco

ord

inat

es,i

tis

aN

ou

nA

gree

men

ter

ror.

Ifyouworked

withmewewouldspendagoodsummer

holid

ays

together.(holiday)

Thishasbeenthemainreasonto

banthesekindofplacesnowadays.(kinds)

3.

ArgumentStructure

Wh

ere

the

stru

ctu

reo

fa

sen

ten

ceo

rp

hra

seco

ntr

aven

esru

les

of

bo

thgr

amm

aran

dw

ord

ord

erit

isan

argu

men

tst

ruct

ure

erro

r.Butplease

tellmehowisthewea

ther

inScotlandatthistime.(w

hatistheweather

like)

Therefore,Ithinkyoushouldpaysomemoney

back

forme.(paymesomemoney

back)

4.

Countability

ofDeterm

iner

Wh

ena

det

erm

iner

form

isu

sed

wh

ich

isin

corr

ect

bec

ause

of

the

cou

nta

bili

tyo

fth

en

ou

nto

wh

ich

itre

fers

,it

isa

Co

un

tab

ility

of

Det

erm

iner

erro

r.Whydoyougivethose

inform

ationinanadvertis[e]m

ent?

(this)

…justto

findthatperfecttinofbeansoratoothpaste.(some)

5.

DerivationofAnap

hor

Wh

ere

anan

aph

or

rese

mb

les,

or

incl

ud

esth

est

emo

f,a

valid

wo

rdb

ut

has

bee

nin

corr

ectl

yd

eriv

ed,u

sual

lyb

ecau

seit

has

bee

ngi

ven

anin

corr

ect

affi

x,it

isa

Der

ivat

ion

of

An

aph

or

erro

r.

Itwasvery

kindofyoursto

invite

usto

yourhome.(you)

6.

DerivationofConjunction

Wh

ere

aco

nju

gati

on

/lin

kw

ord

rese

mb

les,

or

incl

ud

esth

est

emo

f,a

valid

wo

rdb

ut

has

bee

nin

corr

ectl

yd

eriv

ed,u

sual

lyb

ecau

seit

has

bee

ngi

ven

anin

corr

ect

affi

x,it

isa

Der

ivat

ion

of

Co

nju

nct

ion

erro

r.

…youare

ableto

take

books

anyw

hereyouwantto

[,]even

thebookistooheavy.

(unless)

Idon'tthinktelevisioncanreplace

books,aswellasIdon'tbel[ie]ve

books

can

replace

television.(and)

7.

DerivationofDeterm

iner

Wh

ere

ad

eter

min

erre

sem

ble

s,o

rin

clu

des

the

stem

of,

ava

lidd

eter

min

erb

ut

has

bee

nin

corr

ectl

yd

eriv

ed,u

sual

lyb

ecau

seit

has

bee

ngi

ven

anin

corr

ect

affi

x,it

isa

Der

ivat

ion

of

Det

erm

iner

erro

r.

PeoplerelyonmeasIalways

keep

mepromises.(my)

Clara

lookedathewatch.(her)

8.

InflectionofDeterm

iner

Wh

enth

ele

arn

erh

ascr

eate

da

feas

ible

bu

tn

on

valid

infl

ecte

dfo

rmo

fth

ed

eter

min

er,u

sual

lyb

ecau

seo

fa

mis

take

nb

elie

fth

atth

ed

eter

min

erm

ust

agre

ein

nu

mb

erw

ith

the

no

un

wh

ich

itp

rece

des

.

…Ithinkthisexperience

wouldbeuseful[on]yourscampsites.(your)

Ithinkanim

alshelpuswithunderstandingnotonlytheirsbutalsoourown

[behaviour].(their)


9.

Form

ofAdjective

Wh

ena

valid

form

of

the

adje

ctiv

e(p

osi

tive

,co

mp

arat

ive,

or

sup

erla

tive

)h

asb

een

use

db

ut

isth

ew

ron

gfo

rmin

the

con

text

.

Well,inmyopinionmythirdchoiceisthebetter.(best)

…Ihadtheworsetime[of]mylife.(w

orst)

10.

Form

ofAdverb

Wh

ena

valid

form

of

the

adve

rb(p

osi

tive

,co

mp

arat

ive,

or

sup

erla

tive

form

)h

asb

een

use

db

ut

isth

ew

ron

gfo

rmin

the

con

text

.…[the]solution[that]better[satisfies]ourneeds.(best)

ButIw

ouldliketo

livenea

rest,andto

gotherebybicycle.(nearer)

11.

Form

ofNoun

Wh

enth

esi

ngu

lar

form

of

an

ou

nis

use

dw

her

eth

eco

nte

xtd

eman

ds

ap

lura

l,o

rvi

ceve

rsa.

She'sonholidays

next15th

ofJuly.(holiday)

…mostofuswouldnever

have

hadthechance

toseesomekindofanimals.(kinds)

12.

Form

ofQuan

tifier

Wh

ena

valid

form

of

the

qu

anti

fier

(sin

gula

ro

rp

lura

lfo

rm)

has

bee

nu

sed

bu

tis

the

wro

ng

form

inth

eco

nte

xt.

…inmore

ofthecases…(inmostcases)

The[I]nternet

makesusableto

followsportsevents,concertsandpoliticalspeeches

whichare

thousandofmilesawayfrom

us.(thousands)

13.

Form

ofVerb

Wh

enei

ther

of

the

bas

e,in

gan

dto

+in

fin

itiv

efo

rms

of

the

verb

hav

eb

een

use

dw

her

ean

oth

erfo

rmis

req

uir

ed.

Ifyouhave

anymore

questionsdon'thesitate

askingme!

(toask)

Youridea

aboutfindajobbefore

startingcollegeisgreat.(finding)

14.

InflectionofAdjective

Wh

enth

ele

arn

erh

ascr

eate

da

feas

ible

bu

tn

on

valid

infl

ecte

dfo

rmo

fth

ead

ject

ive.

This

cod

eal

soco

vers

inst

ance

sw

her

ele

arn

ers

mis

take

nly

mak

ead

ject

ives

agre

ew

ith

the

no

un

sth

eym

od

ify.

…Ialsoknowthatyouorganiseconferencesanddifferentsactivities.(different)

Themostea

siestway...(easiest)

15.

InflectionofAnap

hor

Wh

enth

ele

arn

erh

ascr

eate

da

feas

ible

bu

tn

on

valid

infl

ecte

dfo

rmo

fth

ep

ron

ou

n.

This[choice]doesn'tgivemanyartiststhe[opportunity]to

[express]them

self.

(them

selves)

…each

friendofmines

…(m

ine)

16.

InflectionofQuan

tifier

Wh

enth

ele

arn

erh

ascr

eate

da

feas

ible

bu

tn

on

valid

infl

ecte

dfo

rmo

fth

eq

uan

tifi

er.

…we[can]findfews[in]thenew

spaper.(afew)

…Im

adeseveralsphonecalls…

(several)

17.

MissingAdjective

Wh

ena

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

req

uir

esan

adje

ctiv

efo

rco

mp

lete

nes

san

dth

atad

ject

ive

has

bee

no

mit

ted

,it

isa

Mis

sin

gA

dje

ctiv

eer

ror.

Are

they

atadiscount,too?(they

availableata)

Ifthereare

manycarsinacity,youwasteyourtime[]standing.(standingstill)

18.

MissingConjunction(LinkWord)

Wh

ena

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

req

uir

esa

con

jun

ctio

n/

link

wo

rd(o

rw

ord

s)fo

rco

mp

lete

nes

san

dth

atw

ord

has

bee

no

mit

ted

,it

isa

Mis

sin

gC

on

jun

ctio

ner

ror.

SoitwouldbebetterI[wrote]aletter

(betterifI)

Thatwasmybestdayever,theoneIsharedamealw

ithPaulM

cPartney.(onewhen

Ishared)

19.

MissingDeterm

iner

Her

neighboursweremakingnoiseagain.(makinganoise)


Wh

ena

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

req

uir

esa

det

erm

iner

for

com

ple

ten

ess

and

that

det

erm

iner

has

bee

no

mit

ted

.Playingfootballisgoodforhealth.(foryourhealth)

20.

MissingPreposition

Wh

ena

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

req

uir

esa

pre

po

siti

on

for

com

ple

ten

ess

and

that

pre

po

siti

on

has

bee

no

mit

ted

.Ilookforw

ard

hea

ringfromyou.(forw

ard

tohearing)

OnethingIdon'tknowisthepay.(knowaboutis)

21.

MissingQuan

tifier

Wh

ena

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

req

uir

esa

qu

anti

fier

for

com

ple

ten

ess

and

that

qu

anti

fier

has

bee

no

mit

ted

,it

isa

Mis

sin

gQ

uan

tifi

erer

ror.

Theorganiser

gave

mearadioandIhadto

advise

theother

staffmem

bersincase

of

disorder.(case

ofanydisorder)

Inthelastyears,therehasbeenagreatim

provement...(lastfewyears)

22.

MissingVerb

Wh

ena

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

req

uir

esa

verb

for

com

ple

ten

ess

and

that

verb

has

bee

no

mit

ted

.After

thatwewillback

home.(w

illcomeback)

While

before

itwoulden

oughto

know…(w

ouldhave

beenenough)

23.

UnnecessaryConjunction(LinkWord)

Wh

enan

un

nec

essa

ryex

tra

con

jun

ctio

n/

link

wo

rdh

asb

een

use

din

ase

nte

nce

or

con

stru

ctio

nin

such

aw

ayth

atit

mak

esth

ese

nte

nce

or

con

stru

ctio

nin

corr

ect.

…Iw

asalsoworkingwithchildreninmytown,because

inorder

toget

more

money

.Shethoughtonlymagicthatcouldhelpher

butitwasim

possible.

24.

UnnecessaryPreposition

Wh

enan

un

nec

essa

ryex

tra

pre

po

siti

on

has

bee

nu

sed

ina

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

insu

cha

way

that

itm

akes

the

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

inco

rrec

t.Iam

lookingforw

ard

tohearingaboutyouransw

er.

Goingforshoppingisagoodthing…

25.

UnnecessaryQuan

tifier

Wh

enan

un

nec

essa

ryex

tra

qu

anti

fier

has

bee

nu

sed

ina

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

insu

cha

way

that

itm

akes

the

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

inco

rrec

t,it

isan

Un

nec

essa

ryQ

uan

tifi

erer

ror.

That'swhyIdon'tagreewithsomepeoplewhothinkthatkeepinganimalsiscruel

andunnecessary.

Yourfriendswillwithoutnodoubt[]tryto

helpyou,anddon'tforget

itisnottoo

late

yet.

26.

UnnecessaryVerb

Wh

enan

un

nec

essa

ryex

tra

verb

has

bee

nu

sed

ina

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

insu

cha

way

that

itm

akes

the

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

inco

rrec

t.Couldyoutellmeabouthowmuch

doyouwantto

get

per

hour...

Wealldecided

togoto

have

adaybytheseaside...

27.

Negative

Form

ation

Wh

enan

atte

mp

tto

con

stru

cta

neg

ativ

ere

sult

sin

anin

valid

con

stru

ctio

n.

Ihadn'tagoodtime!

(didn’thave)

Icouldnothardlybelieve

it.(hardly)

28.

ComplexError

Wh

ere

anu

ngr

amm

atic

alan

din

com

pre

hen

sib

lest

rin

go

fw

ord

sar

ew

ritt

enan

dit

isim

po

ssib

leto

corr

ect

them

,it

isa

Co

mp

lex

Erro

r.Iw

ishyouto

spen

dyourstayasmore

excitingasyoucan.

Withoutstatesofminds,shesucceeded

inmakingmefeelthatlifewasgoingon.



improve

significan

tlybetw

eenC1to

C2levels

Errortype

Exam

plesfrom

theCLC

(C1level)

1.

Anap

horAgreement

Wh

enth

ean

aph

or

wo

rdis

corr

ect

and

the

form

of

the

anap

ho

ris

valid

bu

tw

ron

gin

the

con

text

bec

ause

itd

oes

no

tag

ree

gram

mat

ical

lyw

ith

its

coo

rdin

ates

,it

isan

An

aph

or

Agr

eem

ent

erro

r.

Iwasexpectingto

meetafriendofminewhichlives

inSt.A

ndrews…(who)

Thesetw

ocomputergames

are

currentlyoneofthebestfootballgame[s][]madein

thisdecade.(two)

2.

Determ

inerAgreement

Wh

enth

ed

eter

min

eris

corr

ect

and

the

form

of

the

det

erm

iner

isva

lidb

ut

wro

ng

inth

eco

nte

xtb

ecau

seit

do

esn

ot

agre

egr

amm

atic

ally

wit

hit

sco

ord

inat

es,i

tis

aD

eter

min

erA

gree

men

ter

ror.

Despitethelength

ofthejourney

therewasnotanytoiletavailable[on]thecoach.

(a)

Fashionwasa[general]word,m

eaningthetw

otypes

ofclothes

whichwereworn

inthatdays:...those)

3.

Verb

Agreemen

tW

hen

the

verb

isco

rrec

tan

dth

efo

rmo

fth

eve

rbis

valid

bu

tw

ron

gin

the

con

text

bec

ause

itd

oes

no

tag

ree

gram

mat

ical

lyw

ith

its

coo

rdin

ates

,it

isa

Ver

bA

gree

men

ter

ror.

Somethingwhichgrowsinpopularity

are

thesolarcells.(is)

Theworldhave

changed.(has)

4.

ArgumentStructure

Wh

ere

the

stru

ctu

reo

fa

sen

ten

ceo

rp

hra

seco

ntr

aven

esru

les

of

bo

thgr

amm

aran

dw

ord

ord

erit

isan

argu

men

tst

ruct

ure

erro

r.Th

ese

erro

rsar

eo

ften

calq

ues

or

dir

ect

tran

slat

ion

so

fL1

stru

ctu

res.

Idem

andanapologyto

bepublished

inyournew

spaper...(dem

andthatanapology

be)

Then

intheadvertisem

entitiswritten

somethingaboutasocialprogrammewhich

istotally

absent.(somethingiswritten)

5.

Countability

ofDeterm

iner

Wh

ena

det

erm

iner

form

isu

sed

wh

ich

isin

corr

ect

bec

ause

of

the

cou

nta

bili

tyo

fth

en

ou

nto

wh

ich

itre

fers

,it

isa

Co

un

tab

ility

of

Det

erm

iner

erro

r.Ihopeyouwillbeableto

improve

theprogrammewiththese[inform

ation]...(this)

…weare

quitesure

thatyouwillfindasuitableaccommodation()

6.

Countability

ofNoun

Wh

ena

no

un

can

take

on

lyo

ne

form

bec

ause

itis

un

cou

nta

ble

,bu

tan

inva

lidp

lura

lized

form

has

bee

nu

sed

,it

isa

Co

un

tab

ility

of

No

un

erro

r.[However]wehave

anicegarden,w

hereinsummer

ourstudentsoften

spendtheir

breakordotheirhomew

orks.(homew

ork)

Itisknownthatradiationscomingfrom

amobile

phonecanbe[heartdamaging].

(radiation)

7.

Countability

ofQuan

tifier

Wh

ena

qu

anti

fier

isin

corr

ect

bec

ause

of

the

cou

nta

bili

tyo

fth

en

ou

nto

wh

ich

itre

fers

,it

isa

Co

un

tab

ility

of

Qu

anti

fier

erro

r.…thegroupsshouldhave

included

less

people.(fewer)

Notonlyhaditsm

alllegroom

butalsothesafetybeltswereoutoforder.(little)

8.

DerivationofAdjective

Wh

ere

anad

ject

ive

rese

mb

les,

or

incl

ud

esth

est

emo

f,a

valid

adje

ctiv

eb

ut

has

bee

nin

corr

ectl

yd

eriv

ed,u

sual

lyb

ecau

seit

has

bee

ngi

ven

anin

corr

ect

affi

x,it

isa

Der

ivat

ion

of

Ad

ject

ive

erro

r.

Tosumup,thetourwasacompletelydisaster.(complete)


9.

DerivationofAdverb

Wh

ere

anad

verb

rese

mb

les,

or

incl

ud

esth

est

emo

f,a

valid

adve

rbb

ut

has

bee

nin

corr

ectl

yd

eriv

ed,u

sual

lyb

ecau

seit

has

bee

ngi

ven

anin

corr

ect

affi

x,it

isa

Der

ivat

ion

of

Ad

verb

erro

r.

…inoneword,everythingisso

simple.(inaword)

Asrecentastenyearsago,...(recently)

10.

DerivationofAnap

hor

Wh

ere

anan

aph

or

rese

mb

les,

or

incl

ud

esth

est

emo

f,a

valid

anap

ho

rb

ut

has

bee

nin

corr

ectl

yd

eriv

ed,u

sual

lyb

ecau

seit

has

bee

ngi

ven

anin

corr

ect

affi

x,it

isa

Der

ivat

ion

of

An

aph

or

erro

r.

It'sapleasure

towork

withyourforanother

year.(you)

Alltogether

Iwouldliketo

stressthattheconference

wasvery

usefultomyand

helped

meinmycareer.(me)

11.

DerivationofConjunction(LinkWord)

Wh

ere

aco

nju

nct

ion

/lin

kw

ord

rese

mb

les,

or

incl

ud

esth

est

emo

f,a

valid

wo

rdb

ut

has

bee

nin

corr

ectl

yd

eriv

ed,u

sual

lyb

ecau

seit

has

bee

ngi

ven

anin

corr

ect

affi

x,it

isa

Der

ivat

ion

of

Co

nju

nct

ion

erro

r.

Bythetimemygrandparentswereyoung,therewereso

manynorm

sandrulesand

restrictionsabouthowyoushouldlook:…

(When)

…peopleseem

notto

have

enoughtimeto

have

somerest,noteven

tocook!(or)

12.

DerivationofDeterm

iner

Wh

ere

ad

eter

min

erre

sem

ble

s,o

rin

clu

des

the

stem

of,

ava

lidd

eter

min

erb

ut

has

bee

nin

corr

ectl

yd

eriv

ed,u

sual

lyb

ecau

seit

has

bee

ngi

ven

anin

corr

ect

affi

x,it

isa

Der

ivat

ion

of

Det

erm

iner

erro

r.

Youreportintentionally

hurtourfeelings…

(Your)

Itnameis"Superstar".(Its)

13.

DerivationofPreposition

Wh

ere

ap

rep

osi

tio

nre

sem

ble

s,o

rin

clu

des

the

stem

of,

ava

lidp

rep

osi

tio

nb

ut

has

bee

nin

corr

ectl

yd

eriv

ed,u

sual

lyb

ecau

seit

has

bee

ngi

ven

anin

corr

ect

affi

x,it

isa

Der

ivat

ion

of

Pre

po

siti

on

erro

r.

Notlikealotofother

banks

whichhurried[into]lau[n]chingtheirownproduct...

(Unlike)

Relatedto

thegym

,it[cannot]beclosed.(Regarding)

14.

DerivationofQuan

tifier

Wh

ere

aq

uan

tifi

erre

sem

ble

s,o

rin

clu

des

the

stem

of,

ava

lidq

uan

tifi

erb

ut

has

bee

nin

corr

ectl

yd

eriv

ed,u

sual

lyb

ecau

seit

has

bee

ngi

ven

anin

corr

ect

affi

x,it

isa

Der

ivat

ion

of

Qu

anti

fier

erro

r.

AlthoughIlikecomputersthecompanywhichIusedto

work

fordidn'tgiveaspecial

[training]…

(any)

…apparentlythesedays

therewasnoneshowprepared.(no)

15.

Form

ofAdjective

Wh

ena

valid

form

of

the

adje

ctiv

e(p

osi

tive

,co

mp

arat

ive,

or

sup

erla

tive

)h

asb

een

use

db

ut

isth

ew

ron

gfo

rmin

the

con

text

.They

saidthatitwastheworsestrike

ever

andthatitwouldlastalongtime.(worst)

Thisisthemostsimplewayforourcompanyto

reach

thetop.(simplest)

16.

Form

ofAnap

hor

Wh

ena

valid

form

of

the

pro

no

un

(un

infl

ecte

do

rin

flec

ted

form

)h

asb

een

use

db

ut

itis

the

wro

ng

form

inth

eco

nte

xt.

Everyonewantsto

achieve

higher

marksthanother.(others)

…a[cheque]fromyourself…

(you)

17.

Form

ofDeterm

iner

Wh

enth

ear

ticl

es‘a

’an

d‘a

n’a

reco

nfu

sed

.Thesethreethingsare

theones

thatweconsider

tobeofmore

importance.(most)

Weare

fortunate

enoughto

have

agovernmentwhichregardseducationasa

importantthing…(an)


18.

Form

ofNoun

Wh

enth

esi

ngu

lar

form

of

an

ou

nis

use

dw

her

eth

eco

nte

xtd

eman

ds

ap

lura

l,o

rvi

ceve

rsa.

Despitehavingto

paysuch

heftyamountto

drive,…

(amounts)

Thankyouforyourconsiderations.

(consideration)

19.

Form

ofQuan

tifier

Wh

ena

valid

form

of

the

qu

anti

fier

(sin

gula

ro

rp

lura

lfo

rm)

has

bee

nu

sed

bu

tis

the

wro

ng

form

inth

eco

nte

xt.

…movies

andcopiesfrom

another

countries…

(other)

Justtryto

get

outmore

anduse

moderntechnologyasless

aspossible.(little)

20.

InflectionofAdjective

Wh

enth

ele

arn

erh

ascr

eate

da

feas

ible

bu

tn

on

valid

infl

ecte

dfo

rmo

fth

ead

ject

ive.

This

cod

eal

soco

vers

inst

ance

sw

her

ele

arn

ers

mis

take

nly

mak

ead

ject

ives

agre

ew

ith

the

no

un

sth

eym

od

ify.

…whichresulted

inhuges

queues.(huge)

…you'llseethattheirlifestylewasmuch

quieter,simplierandslower.(simpler)

21.

InflectionofAdverb

Wh

enth

ele

arn

erh

ascr

eate

da

feas

ible

bu

tn

on

valid

infl

ecte

dfo

rmo

fth

ead

verb

.Nobodyfrom

mygroupgotfarerfrom

theHotel's

[lobby]...(further)

…weneedto

dothingsquicklierthanbefore

…(m

ore

quickly)

22.

InflectionofAnap

hor

Wh

enth

ele

arn

erh

ascr

eate

da

feas

ible

bu

tn

on

valid

infl

ecte

dfo

rmo

fth

ean

aph

or.

Theseservices

are

onlythefirstpackageofseverals[]whichwillfollowoverthenext

12months[.](several)

Each

timeeverythingschanges.(everything)

23.

InflectionofDeterm

iner

Wh

enth

ele

arn

erh

ascr

eate

da

feas

ible

bu

tn

on

valid

infl

ecte

dfo

rmo

fth

ed

eter

min

er,u

sual

lyb

ecau

seo

fa

mis

take

nb

elie

fth

atth

ed

eter

min

erm

ust

agre

ein

nu

mb

erw

ith

the

no

un

wh

ich

itp

rece

des

.

…because

oursclasses

finishatseveno'clock

p.m

.(our)

…andthen

traveltoyour'sfriend[s']countries.(your)

24.

MissingAdverb

Wh

ena

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

req

uir

esan

adve

rbfo

rco

mp

lete

nes

san

dth

atw

ord

has

bee

no

mit

ted

.Thesecasesare

fewandfarbetweento

take

place

inreallife.(are

toofew)

Furthermore,because

ofthisincidentIm

issedachance

toseemyfriend,w

hen

we

hadarranged

ourmeeting.(hadalreadyarranged)

25.

MissingDeterm

iner

Wh

ena

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

req

uir

esa

det

erm

iner

for

com

ple

ten

ess

and

that

wo

rdh

asb

een

om

itte

d.

…itwasreally

very

difficultto

findsomekindofentertainmentexceptwatchingTV

inrooms.

(inourrooms)

Thequalityoflunch

youprovided

wasthenextproblem.(ofthelunch)

26.

MissingNoun

Wh

ena

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

req

uir

esa

no

un

for

com

ple

ten

ess

and

that

wo

rdh

asb

een

om

itte

d.

Bytheway,thetrainwilltake

youaboutthreeandahalfhoursandcostaround40

marks.(trainjourney

will)

…thedepartmenthasaverylim

ited

officeequipment.(lim

ited

amountofoffice)

27.

MissingVerb


Wh

ena

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

req

uir

esa

verb

for

com

ple

ten

ess

and

that

wo

rdh

asb

een

om

itte

d.

…theorganisershadnever

promised

that45stalls

bepresent…(stalls

wouldbe)

Thiswouldnotonlyreduce

thetrafficcon[g]estionprobleminthecity,italsoenable

peopleto

ownacar...(itwillalso)

28.

Replace

Adverb

Wh

ena

valid

adve

rbin

the

lan

guag

eh

asb

een

use

dan

dit

isth

eco

rrec

tp

art

of

spee

chb

ut

no

tth

eco

rrec

tad

verb

.…theoneabouttourism

washighabove

standard.(well)

Ihave

noticedthatbreakfastisnomore

afamily

thing.(longer)

29.

Replace

Quan

tifier

Wh

ena

valid

qu

anti

fier

inth

ela

ngu

age

has

bee

nu

sed

and

itis

the

corr

ect

par

to

fsp

eech

bu

tn

ot

the

corr

ect

wo

rd.

Ihopemysuggestionswillbeofanyuse

toyou.(some)

Moreover,thereare

onlytw

otelephones

forallofthedepartment.(thewholeof

the)

30.

Replace

Verb

Wh

ena

valid

verb

inth

ela

ngu

age

has

bee

nu

sed

and

itis

the

corr

ect

par

to

fsp

eech

bu

tn

ot

the

corr

ect

verb

.Inthiscontext,w

ecannotoversee

thechangingroleofwomen

...(overlook)

Itdep

endsfrom

onepersonto

thenext.(differs)

31.

UnnecessaryConjunction(LinkWord)

Wh

enan

un

nec

essa

ryex

tra

con

jun

ctio

n/

link

wo

rdh

asb

een

use

din

ase

nte

nce

or

con

stru

ctio

nin

such

aw

ayth

atit

mak

esth

ese

nte

nce

or

con

stru

ctio

nin

corr

ect.

Wehave

gotenoughtimeto

dosomethingforentertainment,such

asdoingsports,

watchingmovies,andetc.

AsIknowtw

opeople[in]thegroupwouldliketo

goforlongwalks.

32.

UnnecessaryDeterm

iner

Wh

enan

un

nec

essa

ryex

tra

det

erm

iner

has

bee

nu

sed

ina

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

insu

cha

way

that

itm

akes

the

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

inco

rrec

t.Thehostfamilies

are

verykindandhospitableandthey

willalsogiveyouavery

good

food.

33.

UnnecessaryNoun

Wh

enan

un

nec

essa

ryex

tra

no

un

has

bee

nu

sed

ina

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

insu

cha

way

that

itm

akes

the

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

inco

rrec

t.So,w

esuggestavisitto

anightclubdisco

wherewecanhearsomemodernmusic

anddance.

Both

hotelscanprovidefullboard

mea

lsandnicecomfortablerooms.

34.

UnnecessaryQuan

tifier

Wh

enan

un

nec

essa

ryex

tra

qu

anti

fier

has

bee

nu

sed

ina

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

insu

cha

way

that

itm

akes

the

sen

ten

ceo

rco

nst

ruct

ion

inco

rrec

t.After

allthisterribleexperience

withyourcompany...

Weare

hardly[ever]atalossforwordswhen

meetingsomeclients.

35.

ComplexError

Wh

ere

anu

ngr

amm

atic

alan

din

com

pre

hen

sib

lest

rin

go

fw

ord

sar

ew

ritt

enan

dit

isim

po

ssib

leto

corr

ect

them

,it

isa

Co

mp

lex

Erro

r.Pacino'scareer

experience

seem

sto

beexplodingathismaximum.

Andfinally

Iwouldliketo

make

againnote

wecouldn'ttake

anexam.(mention

againthat)


d) Anexampleofhowagram

maticalfeature

developsinlearnerlanguageacross

theCEFRlevels

Table12:Thedevelopmentofusage

ofuncountablenounsacross

CEFRlevels

Typicaluse

ofstructure/feature

Exam

ples

Mostcommonerrorsan

dCLC

examplesat

thelevel

A1

Can

use

som

eu

nco

un

tab

len

ou

ns

corr

ectl

y:inform

ation,m

oney,tim

e,work

wit

ha

limit

edra

nge

of

det

erm

iner

s:some,alotof,the

Sheusually

does

thehousework

onSunday.

Ihave

alotofwork

incollege.

Ihave

gotalotofinform

ationabouttheshops

nearourarea.

ho

mew

ork

s,b

read

s,h

ou

sew

ork

s

Idon’tlikehomew

orks.

Shelooks

after

thechildreneveryday.Then

shedoes

thehouseworksinher

house.

Youcanbuyalltypes

offruits,sauces,breads.

A2

Can

use

anin

crea

sin

gra

nge

of

com

mo

nu

nco

un

tab

len

ou

ns

corr

ectl

yw

ith

anin

crea

sin

gsm

allr

ange

of

item

sb

efo

rea

no

un

:alotof,some,more,theim

portant

Canyouhelpme?

Ineedmore

inform

ationabout

thiscourse.

info

rmat

ion

s,m

usi

cs,p

aper

s,lo

ves,

ho

mew

ork

s

Ihave

someinform

ationsabouttheartclass.

Youhave

tobringapen

andsomepapers.

B1

Can

use

anin

crea

sin

gre

per

toir

eo

fu

nco

un

tab

len

ou

ns

corr

ectl

yw

ith

agr

eate

rra

nge

of

item

sb

efo

reth

en

ou

n:

the,further,m

ore,some,this,interesting,detailed,

useful

Erro

rsp

ersi

stw

ith

the

mo

stco

mm

on

item

s.

Ourpresentaccommodationistoosm

allforus.

Ifyouneedfurther

inform

ationjustask.

info

rmat

ion

s,eq

uip

men

ts,h

om

ewo

rks,

advi

ces,

furn

itu

res,

cou

ntr

ysid

es,w

ork

s,so

ftw

ares

,tra

inin

gs

I’m

lookingforw

ard

tohearingfromyouifyourequire

further

inform

ations.

250ofthem

are

veryyoungandthey

needalotof

trainings.

B2

Can

use

anin

crea

sin

gre

per

toir

eo

fu

nco

un

tab

len

ou

ns

corr

ectl

yw

ith

agr

eate

rra

nge

of

item

sb

efo

reth

en

ou

n:

the,further,m


useful,following,no

Erro

rsin

crea

sew

ith

the

mo

stco

mm

on

item

s.

Abetterwayofspendingthemoney

isto

build

anew

fitnessclub.

Iwouldliketo

knowifIneedextramoney.

Tourism

hasaninevitablefactofbringingahuge

sum

ofmoney

tolocalbusinesses.

info

rmat

ion

s,ad

vice

s,eq

uip

men

ts,t

ran

spo

rts,

kno

wle

dge

s,w

ork

s,sp

end

ing,

trai

nin

gs,h

om

ewo

rks,

rese

arch

es,f

urn

itu

res,

beh

avio

urs

,dam

ages

Please

sendmealltheinform

ationsandthe

application.

Ithinkboth

ofthem

have

reasonablepricesfortheir

foods.

C1

Can

use

anin

crea

sin

gre

per

toir

eo

fu

nco

un

tab

len

ou

ns

corr

ectl

yw

ith

agr

eate

rra

nge

of

item

sb

efo

reth

en

ou

n:

the,further,m


useful,additional,essential,upto

date

Formore

detailedinform

ationyoumaycontact

meon...

They

have

alreadybeenequipped

withthe

necessaryhardware

andsoftware

andhave

access

totheinternet

andourdatabase.

info

rmat

ion

s,tr

ansp

ort

s,tr

ain

ings

,eq

uip

men

ts,a

dvi

ces,

kno

wle

dge

s,so

ftw

ares

,res

earc

hes

,fu

rnit

ure

s,tu

itio

ns,

spen

din

gs,a

cco

mm

od

atio

ns,

feed

bac

ks,c

on

gest

ion

s

Forreadersthatare

lesskeen

onsports,anarticle

containingsomesimpleadvicesonhowto

keep

fitwill


Erro

rsin

crea

sew

ith

the

mo

stco

mm

on

item

san

dw

ith

det

erm

iner

s.Theonlycriticism

wecanmake

istheamountof

equipmen

t.

bemore

pleasantto

read.

Ihadasm

allproblem

withtransports,because

the

nearestbusstopwasabouttw

omilesfaraway.

Thethreecomputerswereacquired

inorder

toreplace

theoutofdate

equipmentsthatwereusedbythe

GeneralM

anager.

C2

Can

use

anin

crea

sin

gre

per

toir

eo

fu

nco

un

tab

len

ou

ns

corr

ectl

yw

ith

agr

eate

rra

nge

of

item

sb

efo

reth

en

ou

n:

the,further,m


useful,additional,essential,upto

date,enough,

provide

Erro

rsd

ecre

ase

bu

tp

ersi

stw

ith

the

mo

stco

mm

on

item

s.

Researchanddevelopmenthaspreventedmanyof

usfromillnesses...

Itisforthesepeoplethatamagazinesuch

asyours

shouldgiveextensive

advice.

Inaddition,therehasalsobeensignificant

damageto

ourhouses:walls

andceilingscracking,

rooftilescomingloose,andoccasionally

window

panes

beingshattered!

advi

ces,

beh

avio

urs

,in

form

atio

ns,

rese

arch

es

Readingthesebooks

are

veryinteresting,asmany

advicesare

hidden

inside.

Even

thoughsomeofourchildhoodinfluencesmay

leadusto

negative

beh

avioursasadults,such

asbeing

messy,itmightbeagoodidea

tobethankfulforthe

goodinfluences.

Youcaneven

exchangeyourteachingandlearning

experiencesorinform

ationswithother

schools

throughcomputers.

Allinform

ationsinthisstatementare

provided

with

mybestknowledge.

Manyresearches

have

beenmadealreadyinorder

tofindoutifother

planets,likethemoon,M

arsorVenus,

are

suitableforhumanlife.

Thes

efi

nd

ings

on

gram

mar

are

still

ten

tati

vean

dsu

gges

tfu

ture

rese

arch

dir

ect

ion

s,in

clu

din

gex

ten

din

gth

eco

nce

pt

of

"cri

teri

alit

y"to

the

anal

ysis

too

ther

sam

ple

so

fle

arn

erla

ngu

age

and

inp

arti

cula

rto

spee

ch.

Spo

ken

lan

guag

ed

ata

isb

ein

gco

llect

edan

dco

rpo

raar

eb

ein

gb

uilt

wit

hth

en

eces

sary

com

pu

tati

on

alto

ols

toen

able

the

rese

arch

tob

ee

xten

de

din

that

dir

ect

ion

.In

add

itio

n,

afo

cus

on

the

Cle

vels

con

tin

ues

wit

hth

eco

llect

ion

of

acad

emic

Engl

ish

wri

tin

gsa

mp

les.

Wo

rkis

un

der

way

top

rod

uce

anEnglishGrammarProfile

reso

urc

eth

atb

oth

do

cum

en

tsan

dp

rese

nts

thes

efi

nd

ings

ina

use

rfr

ien

dly

way

,in

line

wit

hth

ege

ner

alEn

glis

hP

rofi

leap

pro

ach

.


3 The English Functions Profile

This research strand re examines the use of language functions in defining language constructs across the abilityrange and in setting learning objectives which are sensitive to the proficiency level of learners. This part of the EPProgramme is primarily concerned with the input to the learners: in other words, the functions that provide thelearning objectives as part of a communicative syllabus at each level of the CEFR, and the reading texts which arejudged to be suitable for different levels and which are presented to the learners for pedagogic purposes. Thisresearch work is based on the functional notional approach which underpins the CEFR and which led to the use ofCan Do statements within its Global Scale and bank of Illustrative Scales. English Profile suggests practical ways inwhich the existing Can Do statements in the CEFR can be expanded and refined by providing additional detail withreference to contexts of use which are particularly relevant to learners of English.

Language functions aim to capture not what learners know about a language, or what aspects of the language theyare able to use (i.e. the lexico grammatical aspects of language), but rather they intend to convey how learners usethe language: what they can do with it in social contexts. When investigating functions, in addition to the CEFR,English Profile builds on the Threshold Series or T series (van Ek 1975; van Ek & Trim 1998a, 1998b, 2001; Trim2009). The T series was instrumental in promoting a communicative approach to language teaching from the1970s onwards and covered proficiency levels that are now associated with CEFR A2 (Waystage), B1 (Threshold),and B2 (Vantage). An A1 (Breakthrough) specification by John Trim has also been made available electronically forthe EP Programme and all T series publications are now freely accessible from the English Profile website.

As Green (2011) points out, the CEFR’s approach was clearly influenced by Hymes (1972) and a conceptualizationof communicative competence which comprises both a “linguistic” and a “sociolinguistic” element. Thesociolinguistic dimension includes the dynamic interaction that occurs between the context and the discourseproduced. The interaction between context and the cognitive processes of the learner underpins a socio cognitiveapproach to learning, teaching and assessment on which the CEFR itself is based, and which has been important indeveloping the English Profile Programme of research.

English Profile proposes a new, generative, Can Domodel consisting of five elements which can be linkedto specific contexts and which can lead to a moredetailed and technical definition of the CEFR levels forEnglish (see definition alongside).

These Can Do statements are intended to help andencourage practitioners to develop and validate CanDo statements to fit more appropriately with theirown context and purposes, while at the same time,finding a way to relate them coherently to thecommon framework. This aligns with the CEFR’sfunctions which are ‘widely interpretable … based onthe everyday expressions used by teachers’ (Green2011: 14).

Defining generative Can Do statements:

‘frames setting out how the elements of the CEFRmodel may interact in shaping the difficulty of definedlanguage activities and tasks.’ (Green 2011: 160)

‘Can Do statements … should provide enoughinformation to guide users in carrying out a variety ofpurposes. They should offer sufficient detail to informmaterials writers and test developers (who need tooperationalise the general CEFR framework throughspecific, contextualized tasks); but they should alsosupport briefer summary statements that mightcommunicate suitably general information to others,such as the users of test results … The statementsshould also serve as a link between these differentpurposes: users should be able to trace the waysin which the elements of the framework areinterpreted and represented in the specific demandsmade of learners in using language to carry out a task.’

(Green 2011: 47)


The component elements proposed for the new Can Do statements include the following:

Activity: Can… The social act (function) or related sequence of acts (activity) that the learnermight be expected to accomplish by means of the language, i.e. what the learnercan do

Theme/Topic/Setting: Concerned with… The themes, topics and settings in relation to which the learner might beexpected to perform. In the CEFR, applicable themes are grouped under the fourdomains: educational, public, professional and personal, i.e. what the interactionis concerned with

Input text: Based on… The nature of the text that the learner might be required to process as a basis forhis or her own contribution or to demonstrate his or her comprehension, i.e.what the communication is based on

Output text: Producing… The nature of the text that the learner might be expected to produce orparticipate in producing to demonstrate (a specified degree of) understanding orto accomplish a task

Qualities: How well? The qualities that the learner would be expected to demonstrate in carrying outlanguage activities. For production, these qualities are grouped under the CEFRheadings of Linguistic, Pragmatic, Sociolinguistic and Strategic competences andwould answer the question How well?

Restrictions: Provided that… Physical or social conditions and constraints under which the learner would beexpected to perform, i.e. Provided that …

In terms of language functions, English Profile has focused on getting a better understanding of English used at theC levels because these are the least well defined in the CEFR and were not covered by the T series. In keeping withthe evidence led stance of the English Profile Programme, these Can Do statements have a strong empirical basis.English Profile researchers collected data in the form of language learning materials which are aligned to the CEFRand are in use around the world. The range of sources that have informed the English Profile Can Do statements todate include:

CEFR illustrative scales

bestselling international textbooks and related support materials from different publishers includingCambridge University Press

examination handbooks from Cambridge ESOL

curriculum and syllabus documents sourced by English Profile partners such as the British Council, English UKand others

the Bank of descriptors for self assessment in European Language Portfolios (Lenz & Schneider 2004)

online publications by educational institutions such as test specifications and handbooks, proficiency scalesand textbook support materials

additional non publicly available materials from various educational contexts.

Through the EP Network (see Sections 7 and 9), the research team consulted widely on the development of thenew Can Dos for the C levels. The inventory of these refined and contextualised functions is given in Green 2011 inthe form of sets of English Profile Can Do statements. These Can Do Statements are reproduced here and aredivided by mode (spoken or written) and whether relevant for interaction, production or reception.


EnglishProfileCan

DostatementsfortheClevels

Table13:C

anDostatementsforSp

okenInteractionat

theClevels

Activity

Can

…To

pic/Setting

Concernedwith…

Input

Basedon…

Text

Producing…

Qualities–howwell?

Linguistic/

Pragm

atic/Sociolin

guistic/

(XStrategic)

Restrictions

Provided

that…

1.

acco

un

tfo

ran

dsu

stai

nh

is/h

ero

pin

ion

s

com

ple

xte

chn

ical

/ab

stra

ctto

pic

s[s

po

ken

inte

ract

ion

]d

iscu

ssio

nP

9.p

rovi

din

gre

leva

nt

exp

lan

atio

ns,

argu

men

tsan

dco

mm

ents

L2.i

sre

adily

com

pre

hen

sib

leL3

.in

ton

atio

nis

use

dto

sup

po

rtm

ean

ing

L4.u

ses

ara

nge

of

gram

mat

ical

form

san

dvo

cab

ula

ryap

pro

pri

ate

toth

eau

die

nce

,to

pic

and

soci

alco

nte

xtS2

.ad

just

sle

velo

ffo

rmal

ity

and

styl

eo

fsp

eech

tosu

itso

cial

con

text

:fo

rmal

,in

form

al,c

ollo

qu

ial

P1

0.c

on

trib

uti

on

sar

ere

leva

nt

and

are

inte

grat

edin

toth

efl

ow

of

the

dis

cou

rse

usi

ng

linki

ng

wo

rds,

rep

etit

ion

of

wo

rds

use

db

yo

ther

par

tici

pan

ts2

. d

iscu

ssth

en

atu

rean

dre

lati

vem

erit

so

fp

arti

cula

rch

oic

es

goo

ds

or

serv

ices

,p

roce

du

res,

cou

rses

of

acti

on

[sp

oke

nin

tera

ctio

n]

L2.i

sre

adily

com

pre

hen

sib

leL3

.in

ton

atio

nis

use

dto

sup

po

rtm

ean

ing

L4.u

ses

ara

nge

of

gram

mat

ical

form

san

dvo

cab

ula

ryap

pro

pri

ate

toth

eau

die

nce

,to

pic

and

soci

alco

nte

xtS2

.ad

just

sle

velo

ffo

rmal

ity

and

styl

eo

fsp

eech

tosu

itso

cial

con

text

:fo

rmal

,in

form

al,c

ollo

qu

ial

P1

0.c

on

trib

uti

on

sar

ere

leva

nt

and

are

inte

grat

edin

toth

efl

ow

of

the

dis

cou

rse

usi

ng

linki

ng

wo

rds,

rep

etit

ion

of

wo

rds

use

db

yo

ther

par

tici

pan

tsX

2.r

epai

rsin

tera

ctio

nas

nec

essa

ry3

. fo

llow

and

con

trib

ute

toco

mp

lex

inte

ract

ion

sb

etw

een

thir

dp

arti

es

abst

ract

,co

mp

lex

un

fam

iliar

top

ics

[sp

oke

nin

tera

ctio

n]

gro

up

dis

cuss

ion

P1

1.t

urn

taki

ng

isn

atu

ral

P1

0.c

on

trib

uti

on

sar

ere

leva

nt

and

are

inte

grat

edin

toth

efl

ow

of

the

dis

cou

rse

usi

ng

linki

ng

wo

rds,

rep

etit

ion

of

wo

rds

use

db

yo

ther

par

tici

pan

tsP

8.c

on

veys

idea

sw

ith

som

ep

reci

sio

n,d

oes

no

tre

sort

tosi

mp

lific

atio

nL2

.is

read

ilyco

mp

reh

ensi

ble

L3.i

nto

nat

ion

isu

sed

tosu

pp

ort

mea

nin

gL4

.use

sa

ran

geo

fgr

amm

atic

alfo

rms

and

voca

bu

lary

app

rop

riat

eto

the

aud

ien

ce,t

op

ican

dso

cial

con

text


S2.a

dju

sts

leve

lof

form

alit

yan

dst

yle

of

spee

chto

suit

soci

alco

nte

xt:f

orm

al,i

nfo

rmal

,co

lloq

uia

lX

2.r

epai

rsin

tera

ctio

nas

nec

essa

ry4

. ev

alu

ate,

rest

ate

and

chal

len

gem

atte

rsw

ith

inth

eir

acad

emic

or

pro

fess

ion

alco

mp

eten

ce

con

trib

uti

on

sfr

om

oth

erp

arti

cip

ant

[sp

oke

nin

tera

ctio

n]

P1

0.c

on

trib

uti

on

sar

ere

leva

nt

and

are

inte

grat

edin

toth

efl

ow

of

the

dis

cou

rse

usi

ng

linki

ng

wo

rds,

rep

etit

ion

of

wo

rds

use

db

yo

ther

par

tici

pan

ts.

L2.i

sre

adily

com

pre

hen

sib

leL3

.in

ton

atio

nis

use

dto

sup

po

rtm

ean

ing

L4.u

ses

ara

nge

of

gram

mat

ical

form

san

dvo

cab

ula

ryap

pro

pri

ate

toth

eau

die

nce

,to

pic

and

soci

alco

nte

xtS2

.ad

just

sle

velo

ffo

rmal

ity

and

styl

eo

fsp

eech

tosu

itso

cial

con

text

:fo

rmal

,in

form

al,c

ollo

qu

ial

5.

fram

ecr

itic

alre

mar

kso

rex

pre

ssst

ron

gd

isag

reem

ent

insu

cha

way

asto

min

imis

ean

yo

ffen

ce

fam

iliar

top

ics/

mat

ters

wit

hin

thei

rac

adem

ico

rp

rofe

ssio

nal

com

pet

ence

[sp

oke

nin

tera

ctio

n]

P1

2.r

emar

ksar

ere

leva

nt

P1

0.c

on

trib

uti

on

sar

ere

leva

nt

and

are

inte

grat

edin

toth

efl

ow

of

the

dis

cou

rse

usi

ng

linki

ng

wo

rds,

rep

etit

ion

of

wo

rds

use

db

yo

ther

par

tici

pan

ts.

S2.a

dju

sts

leve

lof

form

alit

yan

dst

yle

of

spee

chto

suit

soci

alco

nte

xt:f

orm

al,i

nfo

rmal

,co

lloq

uia

lL2

.is

read

ilyco

mp

reh

ensi

ble

;L3

.in

ton

atio

nis

use

dto

sup

po

rtm

ean

ing

L4.u

ses

ara

nge

of

gram

mat

ical

form

san

dvo

cab

ula

ryap

pro

pri

ate

toth

eau

die

nce

,to

pic

and

soci

alco

nte

xtX

2.r

epai

rsin

tera

ctio

nas

nec

essa

ry6

. ex

pre

sssy

mp

ath

yo

rco

nd

ole

nce

,en

qu

ire

into

the

cau

ses

of

un

hap

pin

ess

or

sad

nes

san

do

ffer

com

fort

per

son

alre

lati

on

ship

s/co

un

selli

ng

role

s

[sp

oke

nin

tera

ctio

n]

con

vers

atio

nL2

.is

read

ilyco

mp

reh

ensi

ble

L6.u

ses

into

nat

ion

and

wo

rdch

oic

eto

exp

ress

mo

od

,d

isti

ngu

ish

ing

bet

wee

nsh

ades

of

feel

ing

L4.u

ses

ara

nge

of

gram

mat

ical

form

san

dvo

cab

ula

ryap

pro

pri

ate

toth

eau

die

nce

,to

pic

and

soci

alco

nte

xtS2

.ad

just

sle

velo

ffo

rmal

ity

and

styl

eo

fsp

eech

tosu

itso

cial

con

text

:fo

rmal

,in

form

al,c

ollo

qu

ial

7.

dis

cuss

wo

rkw

ith

colle

agu

esm

atte

rsw

ith

inth

eir

acad

emic

or

pro

fess

ion

alco

mp

eten

ce

[sp

oke

nin

tera

ctio

n]

L5.u

sin

gap

pro

pri

ate

tech

nic

alte

rmin

olo

gyL2

.is

read

ilyco

mp

reh

ensi

ble

L3.i

nto

nat

ion

isu

sed

tosu

pp

ort

mea

nin

gP

8.c

on

veys

idea

sw

ith

som

ep

reci

sio

n,d

oes

no

tre

sort

tosi

mp

lific

atio

nL4

.use

sa

ran

geo

fgr

amm

atic

alfo

rms

and

voca

bu

lary

app

rop

riat

eto

the

aud

ien

ce,t

op

ican

dso

cial

con

text


S2.a

dju

sts

leve

lof

form

alit

yan

dst

yle

of

spee

chto

suit

soci

alco

nte

xt:f

orm

al,i

nfo

rmal

,co

lloq

uia

lP

10

.co

ntr

ibu

tio

ns

are

rele

van

tan

dar

ein

tegr

ated

into

the

flo

wo

fth

ed

isco

urs

eu

sin

glin

kin

gw

ord

s,re

pet

itio

no

fw

ord

su

sed

by

oth

erp

arti

cip

ants

X2

.rep

airs

inte

ract

ion

asn

eces

sary

8.

ind

icat

ele

vels

of

will

ingn

ess

or

relu

ctan

cean

dst

ate

con

dit

ion

sw

hen

agre

ein

gto

req

ues

tso

rgr

anti

ng

per

mis

sio

n

req

ues

ts[s

po

ken

inte

ract

ion

]L2

.is

read

ilyco

mp

reh

ensi

ble

L3.i

nto

nat

ion

isu

sed

tosu

pp

ort

mea

nin

gL4

.use

sa

ran

geo

fgr

amm

atic

alfo

rms

and

voca

bu

lary

app

rop

riat

eto

the

aud

ien

ce,t

op

ican

dso

cial

con

text

S2.a

dju

sts

leve

lof

form

alit

yan

dst

yle

of

spee

chto

suit

soci

alco

nte

xt:f

orm

al,i

nfo

rmal

,co

lloq

uia

l

9.

invi

tep

arti

cip

atio

n,

intr

od

uce

sis

sues

,m

anag

esco

ntr

ibu

tio

ns

mee

tin

gso

nm

atte

rsw

ith

inth

eir

acad

emic

or

pro

fess

ion

alco

mp

eten

ce

[sp

oke

nin

tera

ctio

n]

P1

2.p

lays

ale

adin

gp

art

ind

iscu

ssio

no

rn

ego

tiat

ion

L2.i

sre

adily

com

pre

hen

sib

leL3

.in

ton

atio

nis

use

dto

sup

po

rtm

ean

ing

L4.u

ses

ara

nge

of

gram

mat

ical

form

san

dvo

cab

ula

ryap

pro

pri

ate

toth

eau

die

nce

,to

pic

and

soci

alco

nte

xtS2

.ad

just

sle

velo

ffo

rmal

ity

and

styl

eo

fsp

eech

tosu

itso

cial

con

text

:fo

rmal

,in

form

al,c

ollo

qu

ial

X2

.rep

airs

inte

ract

ion

asn

eces

sary

10

. su

mm

aris

ean

dev

alu

ate

mai

np

oin

tsin

dis

cuss

ion

mee

tin

gso

nm

atte

rsw

ith

inth

eir

acad

emic

or

pro

fess

ion

alco

mp

eten

ce

[sp

oke

nin

tera

ctio

n]

exte

nd

edd

iscu

ssio

no

rn

ego

tiat

ion

P1

3.a

ble

toga

inan

dh

old

flo

or

P1

4.s

um

mar

yis

accu

rate

L2.i

sre

adily

com

pre

hen

sib

leL3

.in

ton

atio

nis

use

dto

sup

po

rtm

ean

ing

L4.u

ses

ara

nge

of

gram

mat

ical

form

san

dvo

cab

ula

ryap

pro

pri

ate

toth

eau

die

nce

,to

pic

and

soci

alco

nte

xtS2

.ad

just

sle

velo

ffo

rmal

ity

and

styl

eo

fsp

eech

tosu

itso

cial

con

text

:fo

rmal

,in

form

al,c

ollo

qu

ial

11

. en

qu

ire

abo

ut

and

neg

oti

ate

spec

ial

trea

tmen

t

pri

ces

and

con

dit

ion

so

fsa

lera

tes,

term

san

dco

nd

itio

ns

[sp

oke

nin

tera

ctio

n]

exte

nd

edn

ego

tiat

ion

L5.u

sin

gap

pro

pri

ate

tech

nic

alte

rmin

olo

gyL2

.is

read

ilyco

mp

reh

ensi

ble

L3.i

nto

nat

ion

isu

sed

tosu

pp

ort

mea

nin

gP

8.c

on

veys

idea

sw

ith

som

ep

reci

sio

n,d

oes

no

tre

sort

tosi

mp

lific

atio

nL4

.use

sa

ran

geo

fgr

amm

atic

alfo

rms

and

voca

bu

lary

app

rop

riat

eto

the

aud

ien

ce,t

op

ican

dso

cial

con

text

S2.a

dju

sts

leve

lof

form

alit

yan

dst

yle

of

spee

chto

suit

soci

alco

nte

xt:f

orm

al,i

nfo

rmal

,co

lloq

uia

lX

2.r

epai

rsin

tera

ctio

nas

nec

essa

ry


12

. co

mp

lain

and

neg

oti

ate

red

ress

po

or

serv

ice

e.g.

retu

rnin

gfa

ult

y,in

app

rop

riat

eo

ru

nw

ante

dgo

od

san

dn

ego

tiat

ing

for

are

pla

cem

ent

or

refu

nd

serv

ice

agre

emen

ts[s

po

ken

inte

ract

ion

]ex

ten

ded

neg

oti

atio

nL5

.usi

ng

app

rop

riat

ete

chn

ical

term

ino

logy

L2.

isre

adily

com

pre

hen

sib

leL3

.in

ton

atio

nis

use

dto

sup

po

rtm

ean

ing

P8

.co

nve

ysid

eas

wit

hso

me

pre

cisi

on

,do

esn

ot

reso

rtto

sim

plif

icat

ion

L4.u

ses

ara

nge

of

gram

mat

ical

form

san

dvo

cab

ula

ryap

pro

pri

ate

toth

eau

die

nce

,to

pic

and

soci

alco

nte

xtS2

.ad

just

sle

velo

ffo

rmal

ity

and

styl

eo

fsp

eech

tosu

itso

cial

con

text

:fo

rmal

,in

form

al,c

ollo

qu

ial

X2

.rep

airs

inte

ract

ion

asn

eces

sary

13

. ap

olo

gise

and

ask

for

un

der

stan

din

go

fth

eir

po

siti

on

lega

l,re

gula

tory

mat

ters

:in

case

of

infr

inge

men

tso

fre

gula

tio

ns

[sp

oke

nin

tera

ctio

n]

exch

ange

sw

ith

off

icia

lsL2

.is

read

ilyco

mp

reh

ensi

ble

L3.i

nto

nat

ion

isu

sed

tosu

pp

ort

mea

nin

gL4

.use

sa

ran

geo

fgr

amm

atic

alfo

rms

and

voca

bu

lary

app

rop

riat

eto

the

aud

ien

ce,t

op

ican

dso

cial

con

text

S2.a

dju

sts

leve

lof

form

alit

yan

dst

yle

of

spee

chto

suit

soci

alco

nte

xt:f

orm

al,i

nfo

rmal

,co

lloq

uia

lX

2.r

epai

rsin

tera

ctio

nas

nec

essa

ry

infr

inge

men

tsar

em

ino

r

14

. ex

pre

ssre

gret

san

dn

egat

ive

wis

hes

or

inte

nti

on

s

[sp

oke

nin

tera

ctio

n]

L2.i

sre

adily

com

pre

hen

sib

leL3

.in

ton

atio

nis

use

dto

sup

po

rtm

ean

ing

L4.u

ses

ara

nge

of

gram

mat

ical

form

san

dvo

cab

ula

ryap

pro

pri

ate

toth

eau

die

nce

,to

pic

and

soci

alco

nte

xtS2

.ad

just

sle

velo

ffo

rmal

ity

and

styl

eo

fsp

eech

tosu

itso

cial

con

text

:fo

rmal

,in

form

al,c

ollo

qu

ial

X2

.rep

airs

inte

ract

ion

asn

eces

sary

15

. es

tab

lish

solid

arit

yw

ith

inte

rlo

cuto

rsth

rou

ghsy

mp

ath

etic

qu

esti

on

ing

and

exp

ress

ion

so

fag

reem

ent

com

pla

ints

abo

ut

thir

dp

arti

es/

con

dit

ion

s

[sp

oke

nin

tera

ctio

n]

info

rmal

con

vers

atio

n(w

ith

frie

nd

s)

P1

5.c

on

trib

uti

on

sar

ein

tegr

ated

into

the

flo

wo

fth

ed

isco

urs

eu

sin

glin

kin

gw

ord

s,re

pet

itio

no

fw

ord

su

sed

by

oth

erp

arti

cip

ants

S2.a

dju

sts

leve

lof

form

alit

yan

dst

yle

of

spee

chto

suit

soci

alco

nte

xt:f

orm

al,i

nfo

rmal

,co

lloq

uia

lL2

.is

read

ilyco

mp

reh

ensi

ble

L6.u

ses

into

nat

ion

and

wo

rdch

oic

eto

exp

ress

mo

od

,d

isti

ngu

ish

ing

bet

wee

nsh

ades

of

feel

ing

L4.u

ses

ara

nge

of

gram

mat

ical

form

san

dvo

cab

ula

ryap

pro

pri

ate

toth

eau

die

nce

,to

pic

and

soci

alco

nte

xtX

2.r

epai

rsin

tera

ctio

nas

nec

essa

ry


16

. as

kfo

rex

pla

nat

ion

or

clar

ific

atio

nan

dn

ego

tiat

eu

nd

erst

and

ing

com

ple

x,ab

stra

ctid

eas

acad

emic

/p

rofe

ssio

nal

mat

ters

[sp

oke

nin

tera

ctio

n]

dis

cuss

ion

L2.i

sre

adily

com

pre

hen

sib

leL3

.in

ton

atio

nis

use

dto

sup

po

rtm

ean

ing

L4.u

ses

ara

nge

of

gram

mat

ical

form

san

dvo

cab

ula

ryap

pro

pri

ate

toth

eau

die

nce

,to

pic

and

soci

alco

nte

xtS2

.ad

just

sle

velo

ffo

rmal

ity

and

styl

eo

fsp

eech

tosu

itso

cial

con

text

:fo

rmal

,in

form

al,c

ollo

qu

ial

X2

.rep

airs

inte

ract

ion

asn

eces

sary

17

. n

ego

tiat

ea

cou

rse

of

acti

on

wit

ha

par

tner

or

gro

up

,re

po

rtin

go

nw

hat

oth

ers

hav

esa

id,

sum

mar

izin

g,el

abo

rati

ng

and

wei

ghin

gu

pm

ult

iple

po

ints

of

view

[sp

oke

nin

tera

ctio

n]

dis

cuss

ion

P1

5.c

on

trib

uti

on

sar

ein

tegr

ated

into

the

flo

wo

fth

ed

isco

urs

eu

sin

glin

kin

gw

ord

s,re

pet

itio

no

fw

ord

su

sed

by

oth

erp

arti

cip

ants

L2.i

sre

adily

com

pre

hen

sib

leL3

.in

ton

atio

nis

use

dto

sup

po

rtm

ean

ing

L4.u

ses

ara

nge

of

gram

mat

ical

form

san

dvo

cab

ula

ryap

pro

pri

ate

toth

eau

die

nce

,to

pic

and

soci

alco

nte

xtS2

.ad

just

sle

velo

ffo

rmal

ity

and

styl

eo

fsp

eech

tosu

itso

cial

con

text

:fo

rmal

,in

form

al,c

ollo

qu

ial

X2

.rep

airs

inte

ract

ion

asn

eces

sary

Table14:C

anDostatementsforSp

okenProductionat

theClevels

Activity

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…To

pic/Setting

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Inputtext

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Outputtext

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Linguistic/

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atic/Sociolin

guistic/

(XStrategic)

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that…

18

. in

terp

ret

spec

ialis

tto

pic

sto

the

layp

erso

n

com

ple

xte

chn

ical

top

ics

[sp

oke

np

rod

uct

ion

]ad

dre

ssin

gau

die

nce

sL1

.ab

leto

spea

kat

len

gth

asre

qu

ired

L2.

isre

adily

com

pre

hen

sib

leL3

.in

ton

atio

nis

use

dto

sup

po

rtm

ean

ing

L4go

od

com

man

do

fn

on

tech

nic

alci

rcu

mlo

cuti

on

,id

iom

atic

exp

ress

ion

san

dco

lloq

uia

lism

sL4

.use

sa

ran

geo

fgr

amm

atic

alfo

rms

and

voca

bu

lary

app

rop

riat

eto

the

aud

ien

ce,t

op

ican

dso

cial

con

text

P2

.man

ipu

late

sth

eo

rder

of

elem

ents

toco

ntr

ol

info

rmat

ion

focu

sS1

.mak

esto

pic

acce

ssib

leto

the

layp

erso

nS2

.ad

just

sle

velo

ffo

rmal

ity

and

styl

eo

fsp

eech

tosu

itso

cial

con

text

:fo

rmal

,in

form

al,c

ollo

qu

ial

S3co

nsi

sten

tre

gist

erX

1ch

ecks

com

pre

hen

sio

n

top

ics

rela

teto

his

/her

fiel

do

fin

tere

stp

rese

nta

tio

np

rep

ared

ind

epen

den

tly

19

. q

ual

ify

asse

rtio

ns

com

ple

xte

chn

ical

/ab

stra

ctto

pic

s[s

po

ken

pro

du

ctio

n]

add

ress

ing

aud

ien

ces

L1.a

ble

tosp

eak

atle

ngt

has

req

uir

edL2

.is

read

ilyco

mp

reh

ensi

ble

L3.i

nto

nat

ion

isu

sed

tosu

pp

ort

mea

nin

g


L4.u

ses

ara

nge

of

gram

mat

ical

form

san

dvo

cab

ula

ryap

pro

pri

ate

toth

eau

die

nce

,to

pic

and

soci

alco

nte

xtL5

.in

dic

atin

gle

vels

of

con

fid

ence

or

un

cert

ain

tyP

1.c

lear

P3

.dem

on

stra

tes

flex

ibili

tyan

dco

ntr

olo

fn

uan

ces

P7

.wel

lst

ruct

ure

dan

dd

evel

op

ed2

0.

def

ine

or

spec

ify

com

ple

xte

chn

ical

/ab

stra

ctto

pic

s[s

po

ken

pro

du

ctio

n]

add

ress

ing

aud

ien

ces

L2.i

sre

adily

com

pre

hen

sib

leL3

.in

ton

atio

nis

use

dto

sup

po

rtm

ean

ing

L4.u

ses

ara

nge

of

gram

mat

ical

form

san

dvo

cab

ula

ryap

pro

pri

ate

toth

eau

die

nce

,to

pic

and

soci

alco

nte

xtP

1.c

lear

P2

.dem

on

stra

tes

flex

ibili

tyan

dco

ntr

olo

fn

uan

ces

P4

.in

det

ail,

dis

tin

guis

hin

gb

etw

een

ob

ject

so

rco

nce

pts

that

clo

sely

rese

mb

leea

cho

ther

P5

.at

len

gth

P7

.wel

lst

ruct

ure

dan

dd

evel

op

ed

top

ics

rela

teto

his

/her

fiel

do

fin

tere

st

21

. gi

vein

stru

ctio

nse

ries

of

com

ple

xp

rofe

ssio

nal

/ac

adem

icp

roce

du

res

[sp

oke

np

rod

uct

ion

][s

ust

ain

edm

on

olo

gue]

L2.i

sre

adily

com

pre

hen

sib

leL3

.in

ton

atio

nis

use

dto

sup

po

rtm

ean

ing

L4.u

ses

ara

nge

of

gram

mat

ical

form

san

dvo

cab

ula

ryap

pro

pri

ate

toth

ein

terl

ocu

tor(

s),t

op

ican

dso

cial

con

text

L5.u

sin

gap

pro

pri

ate

tech

nic

alte

rmin

olo

gyP

1.c

lear

P5

.at

len

gth

P6

.det

aile

dP

7.w

ell

stru

ctu

red

and

dev

elo

ped

P8

.co

nve

ysid

eas

wit

hso

me

pre

cisi

on

,do

esn

ot

reso

rtto

sim

plif

icat

ion

X1

.ch

ecks

com

pre

hen

sio

nas

nec

essa

ry

inst

ruct

ion

sto

aw

ork

colle

agu

eo

rst

ud

ent

wit

hso

me

tech

nic

alkn

ow

led

ge

22

. sp

ecu

late

or

hyp

oth

esis

e,co

mp

arin

gan

dev

alu

atin

ga

nu

mb

ero

fp

oss

ible

dev

elo

pm

ents

[sp

oke

np

rod

uct

ion

][s

ust

ain

edm

on

olo

gue]

P1

.cle

arP

6.

det

aile

dP

5.a

tle

ngt

hP

7.w

ell

stru

ctu

red

and

dev

elo

ped

L2.i

sre

adily

com

pre

hen

sib

leL3

.in

ton

atio

nis

use

dto

sup

po

rtm

ean

ing

P8

.co

nve

ysid

eas

wit

hso

me

pre

cisi

on

,do

esn

ot

reso

rtto

sim

plif

icat

ion

L4.u

ses

ara

nge

of

gram

mat

ical

form

san

dvo

cab

ula

ryap

pro

pri

ate

toth

ein

terl

ocu

tor(

s),t

op

ican

dso

cial

con

text


Table15:En

glishProfileCan

DostatementsforSpokenReceptionat

theClevels

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…Text

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Text

characteristics

Characterisedby…

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that…

23

. m

ake

no

tes

toex

trac

tan

dre

con

stru

ctth

em

ain

po

ints

and

key

sup

po

rtin

gd

etai

ls

pre

sen

tati

on

s,le

ctu

res

or

do

cum

enta

ryb

road

cast

s

exte

nd

edm

on

olo

gue

com

ple

xp

ub

lic,a

cad

emic

or

pro

fess

ion

alto

pic

sin

volv

ing

det

aile

dp

rop

osi

tio

nal

info

rmat

ion

that

isn

ewto

the

liste

ner

and

incl

ud

esab

stra

ctco

nce

pts

pro

du

ces

accu

rate

and

det

aile

dsu

mm

ary

or

text

leve

lrep

rese

nta

tio

no

ffa

ctu

alco

nte

nt

sum

mar

ises

the

mai

np

oin

tsac

cura

tely

resp

on

ds

toq

ues

tio

ns

of

det

ail

stan

dar

dac

cen

ts,

fam

iliar

toth

elis

ten

erra

teo

fsp

eech

isn

atu

ral

24

. ex

trac

tth

egi

stan

dd

isti

ngu

ish

bet

wee

no

pin

ion

s

info

rmal

mee

tin

gsan

dd

iscu

ssio

ns

mu

lti

par

tici

pan

td

iscu

ssio

nw

ith

no

nlin

ear

org

anis

atio

n,

freq

uen

tco

lloq

uia

lism

san

do

verl

app

ing

turn

s

per

son

alo

rp

ub

licto

pic

so

fge

ner

alin

tere

stid

enti

fies

the

mai

np

oin

tsb

ein

gm

ade

by

par

tici

pan

tsid

enti

fies

alla

reas

of

agre

emen

tan

dd

isag

reem

ent

bet

wee

np

arti

cip

ants

con

vers

atio

nis

anim

ated

–at

afa

stn

atu

ralr

ate

voic

esar

eea

sily

dif

fere

nti

ated

or

aud

iois

sup

po

rted

by

imag

esla

ngu

age

isst

and

ard

,b

ut

ara

nge

of

acce

nts

are

use

d

25

. id

enti

fyth

eem

oti

on

so

rat

titu

des

of

spea

kers

info

rmal

mee

tin

gsan

dd

iscu

ssio

ns

mu

lti

par

tici

pan

td

iscu

ssio

nm

arke

db

yn

on

linea

ro

rgan

isat

ion

,co

lloq

uia

lism

san

do

verl

app

ing

turn

s

per

son

al,p

ub

lic,a

cad

emic

,p

rofe

ssio

nal

top

ics

accu

rate

lyid

enti

fies

the

atti

tud

eso

rem

oti

on

sco

nve

yed

imp

licit

lyb

yst

ress

,pit

chan

din

ton

atio

n,l

exic

alch

oic

es

con

vers

atio

nis

anim

ated

–at

afa

stn

atu

ralr

ate

voic

esar

eea

sily

dif

fere

nti

ated

or

aud

iois

sup

po

rted

by

imag

esla

ngu

age

isst

and

ard

,b

ut

ara

nge

of

acce

nts

are

use

d

26

. ex

trac

tgi

st,d

etai

l,p

urp

ose

san

dm

ain

po

ints

form

ald

iscu

ssio

ns

on

acad

emic

,pu

blic

or

pro

fess

ion

alto

pic

s

dia

logu

es,m

ult

ip

arti

cip

ant

dis

cuss

ion

wit

hfo

rmal

turn

taki

ng

and

org

anis

atio

n–

may

be

med

iate

db

ya

chai

rper

son

com

ple

xp

ub

lic,a

cad

emic

or

pro

fess

ion

alto

pic

sin

volv

ing

det

aile

dp

rop

osi

tio

nal

info

rmat

ion

that

isn

ewto

the

liste

ner

:fa

cts,

def

init

ion

s

pro

du

ces

accu

rate

and

det

aile

dsu

mm

ary

or

text

leve

lrep

rese

nta

tio

no

ffa

ctu

alco

nte

nt,

sho

win

gre

lati

on

ship

sb

etw

een

idea

sac

cura

tely

resp

on

ds

toq

ues

tio

ns

of

det

ail

con

trib

uti

on

sar

ecl

earl

yp

rese

nte

d–

inte

nd

edfo

ran

aud

ien

ceas

wel

las

fello

wp

arti

cip

ants

stan

dar

dac

cen

t,fa

mili

arto

the

liste

ner

27

. ex

trac

t,se

lect

and

mu

ltip

leso

urc

es:

vari

ety

of

spo

ken

com

ple

x,ab

stra

ctex

trac

tsan

dev

alu

ates

info

rmat

ion

and

op

inio

ns

stan

dar

dac

cen

t,


inte

grat

ed

etai

led

info

rmat

ion

req

uir

edto

carr

yo

ut

rela

ted

task

s

text

typ

es:e

xten

ded

mo

no

logu

es,m

ult

ip

arti

cip

ant

dis

cuss

ion

s

per

son

al,p

ub

lic,a

cad

emic

,p

rofe

ssio

nal

top

ics

fro

md

iffe

ren

tso

urc

esin

tegr

ates

thes

ein

pre

par

atio

nfo

ra

rep

ort

,es

say

or

po

siti

on

pap

eret

c.

fam

iliar

toth

elis

ten

erd

iscu

ssio

ns

are

form

alan

dst

ruct

ure

d

28

. id

enti

fy,a

nal

yse

and

eval

uat

eth

eu

seo

fin

tera

ctiv

esp

oke

nla

ngu

age

for

per

suas

ion

form

ald

ebat

es,

inte

rvie

ws,

bu

sin

ess

inte

ract

ion

s,si

tuat

ion

so

fp

erso

nal

or

pu

blic

con

flic

t

dia

logu

es,m

ult

ip

arti

cip

ant

dis

cuss

ion

s

per

son

al,p

ub

lic,a

cad

emic

,p

rofe

ssio

nal

top

ics

iden

tifi

esh

ow

lingu

isti

cre

sou

rces

(str

ess,

pit

chan

din

ton

atio

n,l

exic

alch

oic

es)

are

use

db

yp

arti

cip

ants

tore

solv

eco

nfl

ict,

bu

ildco

nse

nsu

s,p

rom

ote

view

set

c.an

dev

alu

ates

the

succ

ess

of

thes

est

rate

gies

inan

inte

ract

ion

ind

ialo

gues

/d

iscu

ssio

ns,

voic

esar

eea

sily

dif

fere

nti

ated

or

aud

iois

sup

po

rted

by

imag

esla

ngu

age

isst

and

ard

,b

ut

ara

nge

of

acce

nts

are

use

d

29

. ev

alu

ate

pre

sen

tati

on

sin

rela

tio

nto

thei

rp

urp

ose

and

aud

ien

ce

pre

sen

tati

on

s,sp

eech

es,

exte

nd

edm

on

olo

gue

per

son

al,p

ub

lic,a

cad

emic

,p

rofe

ssio

nal

top

ics

iden

tifi

essp

eake

rp

urp

ose

and

inte

nd

edau

die

nce

eval

uat

esth

eu

seo

fla

ngu

age

inre

lati

on

toth

ese:

sugg

ests

imp

rove

men

ts

lan

guag

eis

stan

dar

d,

bu

ta

ran

geo

fac

cen

tsm

ayb

eu

sed

rate

of

spee

chis

nat

ura

l

30

. in

tegr

ate

info

rmat

ion

and

det

aile

din

stru

ctio

ns

toca

rry

ou

tco

mp

lex

task

sin

volv

ing

mu

ltip

leel

emen

ts

mu

ltip

leso

urc

esex

ten

ded

mo

no

logu

es,

dia

logu

es

per

son

al,p

ub

lic,a

cad

emic

,p

rofe

ssio

nal

top

ics

bri

ngs

toge

ther

info

rmat

ion

fro

md

iffe

ren

tso

urc

esto

des

crib

ea

task

tob

eca

rrie

do

ut

and

step

sto

com

ple

teth

eta

sk

lan

guag

eis

stan

dar

d,

bu

ta

ran

geo

fac

cen

tsm

ayb

eu

sed

rate

of

spee

chis

nat

ura

lu

nfa

mili

arp

roce

sso

rp

roce

du

reth

eco

nte

xtis

fam

iliar

–p

erso

nal

toth

elis

ten

ero

rw

ith

inth

elis

ten

er’s

acad

emic

/p

rofe

ssio

nal

fiel

d


Table16:En

glishProfileCan

DostatementsforWrittenInteractionat

theClevels

Activity

Can

…To

pic/Setting

Concernedwith…

Inputtext

Basedon…

Outputtext

Producing…


Linguistic/

Pragm

atic/Sociolin

guistic

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Provided

that…

31

. W

rite

insu

pp

ort

of

aca

nd

idat

efo

ra

job

or

awar

d

per

son

alo

rp

rofe

ssio

nal

resu

me

[wri

tten

inte

ract

ion

]le

tter

/em

ailo

fre

fere

nce

L1.m

ain

tain

sh

igh

leve

lso

flin

guis

tic

accu

racy

ove

rex

ten

ded

text

L2.m

akes

effe

ctiv

eu

seo

flin

guis

tic

mo

dal

ity

tosi

gnal

the

stre

ngt

ho

fcl

aim

,arg

um

ent,

or

po

siti

on

L5.c

om

ple

xP

1.c

lear

P2

.ap

pro

pri

ate

and

effe

ctiv

elo

gica

lstr

uct

ure

wh

ich

hel

ps

the

read

erto

fin

dsi

gnif

ican

tp

oin

tsP

6.r

each

esa

po

siti

on

or

con

clu

sio

nP

7.w

ell

stru

ctu

red

and

dev

elo

ped

P9

.lo

gica

lP

10

.use

sco

nve

nti

on

alel

emen

tso

fge

nre

stru

ctu

reS1

.sty

leap

pro

pri

ate

toth

ege

nre

ado

pte

dan

dto

the

read

erin

min

d

32

. W

rite

ap

ersu

asiv

eap

plic

atio

nac

adem

ico

rp

rofe

ssio

nal

emp

loym

ent

per

son

alin

form

atio

n[w

ritt

enp

rod

uct

ion

]jo

b/

stu

dy

app

licat

ion

lett

er/

emai

l

L1.m

ain

tain

sh

igh

leve

lso

flin

guis

tic

accu

racy

ove

rex

ten

ded

text

L2.m

akes

effe

ctiv

eu

seo

flin

guis

tic

mo

dal

ity

tosi

gnal

the

stre

ngt

ho

fcl

aim

,arg

um

ent,

or

po

siti

on

L5.c

om

ple

xP

1.c

lear

P2

.ap

pro

pri

ate

and

effe

ctiv

elo

gica

lstr

uct

ure

wh

ich

hel

ps

the

read

erto

fin

dsi

gnif

ican

tp

oin

tsP

6.r

each

esa

po

siti

on

or

con

clu

sio

nP

7.w

ell

stru

ctu

red

and

dev

elo

ped

P9

.lo

gica

lP

10

.use

sco

nve

nti

on

alel

emen

tso

fge

nre

stru

ctu

reS1

.sty

leap

pro

pri

ate

toth

ege

nre

ado

pte

dan

dto

the

read

erin

min

d

emp

loym

ent/

stu

dy

wit

hin

his

/her

fiel

do

fin

tere

st

33

. Ev

alu

ate,

rest

ate

and

chal

len

gean

argu

men

t

pro

fess

ion

alo

rac

adem

ico

nlin

ed

iscu

ssio

n[w

ritt

enin

tera

ctio

n]

on

line

dis

cuss

ion

L1.m

ain

tain

sh

igh

leve

lso

flin

guis

tic

accu

racy

ove

rex

ten

ded

seq

uen

ceo

ftu

rns

P1

.cle

arP

10

.use

sco

nve

nti

on

alel

emen

tso

fge

nre

stru

ctu

reS1

.sty

leap

pro

pri

ate

toth

ege

nre

ado

pte

dan

dto

the

read

erin

min

dX

2.r

epai

rsin

tera

ctio

nas

nec

essa

ry

inre

alti

me

34

. A

skfo

rco

mp

lex,

abst

ract

[wri

tten

inte

ract

ion

]L1

.mai

nta

ins

hig

hle

vels

of

lingu

isti

cac

cura

cyo

ver

inre

alti

me


exp

lan

atio

no

rcl

arif

icat

ion

and

neg

oti

ate

un

der

stan

din

g

idea

sac

adem

ic/

pro

fess

ion

alm

atte

rs

on

line

dis

cuss

ion

exte

nd

edse

qu

ence

of

turn

sP

1.c

lear

P1

0.u

ses

con

ven

tio

nal

elem

ents

of

gen

rest

ruct

ure

S1.s

tyle

app

rop

riat

eto

the

gen

read

op

ted

and

toth

ere

ader

inm

ind

X2

.rep

airs

inte

ract

ion

asn

eces

sary

35

. ex

pre

sssy

mp

ath

yo

rco

nd

ole

nce

and

off

erco

mfo

rt

sen

siti

vep

erso

nal

mat

ters

new

so

fb

erea

vem

ent/

div

orc

e

[wri

tten

inte

ract

ion

]le

tter

of

sym

pat

hy,

con

do

len

ce

L1.m

ain

tain

sh

igh

leve

lso

flin

guis

tic

accu

racy

ove

rex

ten

ded

text

L2.m

akes

effe

ctiv

eu

seo

flin

guis

tic

mo

dal

ity

tosi

gnal

the

stre

ngt

ho

fcl

aim

,arg

um

ent,

or

po

siti

on

L5.c

om

ple

xP

1.c

lear

P7

.wel

lst

ruct

ure

dan

dd

evel

op

edP

9.l

ogi

cal

P1

0.u

ses

con

ven

tio

nal

elem

ents

of

gen

rest

ruct

ure

S1.s

tyle

app

rop

riat

eto

the

gen

read

op

ted

and

toth

ere

ader

inm

ind


Table17:En

glishProfileCan

DostatementsforWrittenProductionat

theClevels

Activity

Can

…To

pic/Setting

Concernedwith…

Inputtext

Basedon…

Outputtext

Producing…


Linguistic/

Pragm

atic/Sociolin

guistic

Restrictions

Provided

that…

36

. in

corp

ora

tein

form

atio

nd

raw

nfr

om

the

wo

rko

fo

ther

sin

toh

is/h

ero

wn

text

com

ple

xac

adem

ico

rp

rofe

ssio

nal

top

ics

pro

fess

ion

alo

rac

adem

icte

xts

[wri

tten

pro

du

ctio

n]

rep

ort

s,ar

ticl

eso

res

says

P1

.cle

arP

2.

app

rop

riat

ean

def

fect

ive

logi

cal

stru

ctu

rew

hic

hh

elp

sth

ere

ader

tofi

nd

sign

ific

ant

po

ints

P3

.wit

ho

ut

infr

ingi

ng

con

ven

tio

nal

lyac

cep

ted

acad

emic

/pro

fess

ion

alst

and

ard

so

fth

eu

seo

fo

ther

s’w

ork

37

. se

to

ut

mu

ltip

lep

ersp

ecti

ves

on

anin

telle

ctu

alis

sue

com

ple

xac

adem

ico

rp

rofe

ssio

nal

top

ics

pro

fess

ion

alo

rac

adem

icte

xts

[wri

tten

pro

du

ctio

n]

rep

ort

s,ar

ticl

eso

res

says

L1.

mai

nta

ins

hig

hle

vels

of

lingu

isti

cac

cura

cyo

ver

exte

nd

edte

xtL2

.m

akes

effe

ctiv

eu

seo

flin

guis

tic

mo

dal

ity

tosi

gnal

the

stre

ngt

ho

fcl

aim

,arg

um

ent,

or

po

siti

on

P4

.mak

escl

ear

auth

or’

so

wn

stan

ceo

nth

eis

sue

P5

.cl

earl

yd

isti

ngu

ish

eso

wn

idea

san

do

pin

ion

sfr

om

tho

seo

f(m

ult

iple

)so

urc

esS1

.sty

leap

pro

pri

ate

toth

ege

nre

ado

pte

d

top

icw

ith

inh

is/h

erfi

eld

of

inte

rest

38

. d

escr

ibe

and

inte

rpre

tco

mp

lex

acad

emic

or

pro

fess

ion

alto

pic

s

emp

iric

ald

ata

fro

mre

sear

ch[w

ritt

enp

rod

uct

ion

]re

po

rts,

arti

cles

or

essa

ysL1

.m

ain

tain

sh

igh

leve

lso

flin

guis

tic

accu

racy

ove

rex

ten

ded

text

L3.a

tle

ngt

h(5

00

wo

rds

plu

s)P

1.c

lear

P6

.rea

ches

ap

osi

tio

no

rco

ncl

usi

on

P7

.wel

lst

ruct

ure

dan

dd

evel

op

edS1

.sty

leap

pro

pri

ate

toth

ege

nre

ado

pte

d

39

. p

rese

nt

spec

ialis

tm

ater

ial

com

ple

xac

adem

ico

rp

rofe

ssio

nal

top

ics

rese

arch

or

pro

fess

ion

al/

acad

emic

text

s

[wri

tten

pro

du

ctio

n]

rep

ort

s,ar

ticl

eso

res

says

for

age

ner

alau

die

nce

L1.

mai

nta

ins

hig

hle

vels

of

lingu

isti

cac

cura

cyo

ver

exte

nd

edte

xtL3

.at

len

gth

(50

0w

ord

sp

lus)

L4.u

ses

suit

ably

no

nte

chn

ical

wo

rds

and

ph

rase

sP

1.c

lear

P7

.wel

lst

ruct

ure

dan

dd

evel

op

edS1

.st

yle

app

rop

riat

eto

the

gen

read

op

ted

and

toth

ere

ader

inm

ind

S2.

acce

ssib

leto

anau

die

nce

that

isn

ot

fam

iliar

wit

hth

eto

pic

top

icw

ith

inh

is/h

erfi

eld

of

inte

rest

op

po

rtu

nit

ies

for

red

raft

ing

and

revi

sio

n

40

. d

efin

eo

rsp

ecif

yco

mp

lex

acad

emic

or

pro

fess

ion

alto

pic

s

Per

son

alex

per

ien

ces/

text

s

[wri

tten

pro

du

ctio

n]

rep

ort

s,ar

ticl

eso

res

says

L3.a

tle

ngt

h(5

00

wo

rds

plu

s)P

8.

ind

etai

l,d

isti

ngu

ish

ing

bet

wee

no

bje

cts

or

con

cep

tsth

atcl

ose

lyre

sem

ble

each

oth

erL1

.m

ain

tain

sh

igh

leve

lso

flin

guis

tic

accu

racy

ove

r


exte

nd

edte

xtP

1.c

lear

L5.c

om

ple

xP

9.l

ogi

cal

P7

.wel

lst

ruct

ure

dan

dd

evel

op

ed

41

. w

rite

anin

tro

du

ctio

nco

mp

lex

acad

emic

or

pro

fess

ion

alto

pic

s

Co

text

[wri

tten

pro

du

ctio

n]

lon

ger

rep

ort

s,ar

ticl

eso

rd

isse

rtat

ion

s

L1.

mai

nta

ins

hig

hle

vels

of

lingu

isti

cac

cura

cyo

ver

exte

nd

edte

xtL3

.at

len

gth

(50

0w

ord

sp

lus)

L5.c

om

ple

xP

1.c

lear

P7

.wel

lst

ruct

ure

dan

dd

evel

op

edP

9.l

ogi

cal

P1

0.u

ses

con

ven

tio

nal

elem

ents

of

gen

rest

ruct

ure

P1

1.

pre

sen

tin

gke

yel

emen

tsto

be

dev

elo

ped

insu

ccee

din

gte

xt

top

icw

ith

inh

is/h

erfi

eld

of

inte

rest

op

po

rtu

nit

ies

for

red

raft

ing

and

revi

sio

n

42

. w

rite

aco

ncl

usi

on

com

ple

xac

adem

ico

rp

rofe

ssio

nal

top

ics

Co

text

[wri

tten

pro

du

ctio

n]

lon

ger

rep

ort

s,ar

ticl

eso

rd

isse

rtat

ion

s

L1.

mai

nta

ins

hig

hle

vels

of

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isti

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cura

cyo

ver

exte

nd

edte

xtL3

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len

gth

(50

0w

ord

sp

lus)

L5.c

om

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xP

1.c

lear

P7

.wel

lst

ruct

ure

dan

dd

evel

op

edP

9.l

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P1

0.u

ses

con

ven

tio

nal

elem

ents

of

gen

rest

ruct

ure

P1

2.

revi

ews

and

sum

mar

ises

anex

ten

ded

exp

osi

tio

no

rar

gum

ent

top

icw

ith

inh

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of

inte

rest

op

po

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red

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revi

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n


Table18:En

glishProfileCan

DostatementsforWrittenReceptionat

theClevels

Activity

Can

…Text

Whenread

ing…

Text

characteristics

Characterisedby…

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Concernedwith…


Restrictions

Provided

that…

43

. d

emo

nst

rate

com

pre

hen

sive

un

der

stan

din

g

arti

cles

inse

rio

us

new

spap

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or

mag

azin

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spec

ialis

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pro

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licat

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s

len

gth

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mp

lex

sen

ten

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equ

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som

etim

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chn

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voca

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lary

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alre

gist

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com

ple

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lic,a

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pro

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sco

nve

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gd

etai

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pro

po

siti

on

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form

atio

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new

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cts,

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init

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det

aile

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mm

ary

or

text

leve

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tio

no

ffa

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on

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rere

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OR

text

sad

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rofe

ssio

nal

/ac

adem

icco

mm

un

ity

tow

hic

hle

arn

erb

elo

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44

. in

tegr

ate

idea

sac

ross

text

s:co

mp

are,

con

tras

t,sy

nth

esiz

e

arti

cles

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rio

us

new

spap

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esal

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of

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dd

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rm

ore

text

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45

. d

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op

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cm

ean

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gat

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eu

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etap

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x/le

xica

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ota

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db

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freq

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po

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tech

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46

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text

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4 English Vocabulary Profile

The main thrust of the EP Programme’s research on vocabulary has resulted in the English Vocabulary Profile(Capel 2011), an interactive online resource which describes the vocabulary which learners of English know at eachlevel of the CEFR. It provides a large searchable database of detailed information on the words and phrases thatare appropriate for learners at each level of the CEFR and is already being used to inform teaching, publishing andassessment activities, with further uses and upgrades planned.

Compiling the English Vocabulary Profile

The English Vocabulary Profile research has been substantially but not exclusively corpus informed. We have usedboth the Cambridge English Corpus, a 1.2 billion word collection of written and spoken English, and the CambridgeLearner Corpus, a unique corpus of written learner English, currently standing at 45 million words and whichincludes student writing at all six CEFR levels, and from over 200 countries. Work is now underway to construct aspoken learner corpus of 2 million words, which will further inform future iterations of the English VocabularyProfile by providing evidence of vocabulary in L2 speech, in both testing and other contexts.

In combination with this corpus evidence, we have monitored a range of classroom based sources, includingwordlists from leading coursebooks, readers’ wordlists and the content of vocabulary skills books. We have alsoreferred to the Vocabulary Lists for Cambridge ESOL’s Key English Test (KET) and Preliminary English Test (PET)examinations, which have been in use since 1994 and have been regularly updated to reflect language change andpatterns of use. Finally, even though it was published thirty years ago, the Cambridge English Lexicon by RolandHindmarsh (1980) has proved invaluable as a checking source, where the language has not evolved over time; ittoo was organised at meaning level.

Many people will already be familiar with the working title of the project, which was English Profile Wordlists.However, the resource is much more than a list of words for each CEFR level. The current English VocabularyProfile:

contains words, phrases, phrasal verbs and idioms

presents the level of each meaning of a word in CEFR order, to suggest learning priorities

provides detailed dictionary style entries with clear definitions, grammatical information and guidewords tomeanings

includes audio and written pronunciations

contains many real examples, from dictionaries and from actual learners at an appropriate level

can be searched according to different filters, including parts of speech, grammar, usage, topic and affixes

contains both British English and American English versions which users can easily switch between.

What does it mean to “know” a word?

The core objective of the English Vocabulary Profile project has been to establish which words and phrases arecommonly known by learners around the world. What is meant by “know” in this context? We have not attemptedto separate receptive competence from productive as, in reality, so much will depend on learning styles andpriorities. In general, communicative classrooms in the 21st century provide more consistent opportunities forusing new language than a generation ago. Added to that is the unlimited access that most students have to theInternet, where they will be browsing but also actively participating through English. For us, ‘knowing’ a word is acumulative process, which implies lifelong learning, as further meanings and uses are acquired.

Take for example the word know. The English Vocabulary Profile entry for this word stretches from A1 to C2 level,with figurative and idiomatic uses coming in at the higher CEFR levels, suggesting that there are additional


meanings and phrases containing know that are not acquired until the C levels, see the core results for know inBritish English below:

Key features of the English Vocabulary Profile

There are several key features of the English Vocabulary Profile, starting with its presentation of differentmeanings for the same word. The English Vocabulary Profile operates at the level of individual meanings, unlikemost vocabulary resources as some meanings are quite distinct from the core meaning of a word, and will beencountered by learners at different CEFR levels. The English Vocabulary Profile team have evaluated each senseof a word, starting from its frequency for first language users and comparing that with learner data through CUP’scorpus informed dictionary database, which is the only monolingual English dictionary resource to flag frequencyat sense level.

The EVP also includes extensive information about phrases based on state of the art research on phrasalexpressions, for example make your way, which has a B2 sense of literally get to a place versus the C2 figurativesense of make your way in a career:


Similarly, learner knowledge of phrasal verbs is being investigated by an EP Network partner in Japan who isconducting a large scale test to evaluate the relative difficulty of 100 of the 442 phrasal verbs that are currentlyincluded in the A1 to B2 levels. This test, which is being replicated in other regions, will enable us to compareknowledge of phrasal verbs across different first language backgrounds.

Here is an extract from the entry for the word cool (showing A1 to B2 level) that illustrates some of meaningsavailable and key phrasal verbs including cool:

The English Vocabulary Profile also provides information on groups of words with a common root (word families).The different parts of speech in a word family will often be at different CEFR levels according to their frequency.

Guide words in capitalletters for each meaninghelp the user navigatethrough long entries

Phrasal verbs are listed atthe end of an entry


Another key area of research within the vocabulary strand is the investigation of affixation. Here too, nativespeaker frequency has played a part in the decision making process as to CEFR level, along with a consideration ofthe transparency of the different parts of speech in relation to the base word. When an affix is attached to a word,it may be transparent in meaning – for example, it is not difficult to understand downloadable from the verbdownload but it is less easy to work out the meaning of changeable, as in changeable weather, formed fromchange.

We are currently developing the English Vocabulary Profile for levels C1 and C2. This entails looking again at theless frequent meanings of words that are already included in the A1 to B2 levels, and adding new words andphrases.

Accessing the English Vocabulary Profile

You can see a three letter Preview version for the complete English Vocabulary Profile on the EP website. Thecurrent online resource covers A1 B2 levels; click on the thumbnail on the homepage to access the EVP atwww.englishprofile.org

You can use the English Vocabulary Profile to:

check the level of words, phrases and meanings

produce lists of words at certain levels for a particular topic, or with certain grammatical features, etc.

see how the different meanings of words fit across CEFR levels

get real examples of how words and phrases are used – by native speakers and by learners at different levels

compare American English and British English

get more information on collocations

get an overview of word families.

For further information about how to use the EVP, visit the EP website and explore the Information Booklet underResources. To find out more about the compilation of the EVP see Capel (2010a, 2010b).


5 How to use the English Profile

This section suggests ways in which ELT professionals such as teachers, curriculum planners and materials or testwriters can use the English Profile resources contained in this booklet, specifically to enable them to makedecisions about which English language points are suitable for teaching, learning and assessing at each CEFR level.There are four areas listed below which can benefit from the English Profile, with exemplification of how differentgroups of ELT professionals might use English Profile resources within these areas.

A Deciding whether particular English language points are relevant for a specific purpose, learner groupand CEFR level A teacher checking whether some key vocabulary for a lesson is suitable for their class. A test developer checking whether a particular grammatical point is suitable for an A2 test. An author checking what aspects of a grammatical area (e.g. past tense) are suitable for a B1 course.

B Identifying suitable English language points for a specific purpose, learner group and CEFR level A curriculum planner is drawing up the vocabulary list for an A1 course. An author wants to identify language points that are particularly difficult for Spanish speakers at B1

level. A test developer has to decide which structures to include in the assessment syllabus for a C1 exam. An author is producing an exercise of prefixes/suffixes for a particular set of words. A teacher is looking for a range of examples of ‘refusing a request’ suitable for B2 learners.

C Obtaining authentic learner language to illustrate language points at a specific CEFR level A teacher is putting together an exercise on a particular language point, using examples produced by

learners at the same level as their class. A test writer is looking for a suitable sentence for a particular test item. A curriculum planner wants to add to the syllabus examples of particular structures that are suitable

for the level. An author is writing a unit on health at B1 level and wants a list of suitable words and phrases to

include. A teacher is looking for examples of ‘asking for permission’ in a formal work context suitable for a B2

class.

D Gaining a deeper understanding of English language points within and across CEFR levels An author wants to know how an understanding of countable/uncountable nouns progresses from A1

to B1 CEFR levels to work out what should be included in an A1 or B1 level course. A teacher wants to see how the different meanings of keep are normally acquired across the CEFR

levels. It is in the top 500 words for English, but which meanings should students learn first? A test writer needs to know what verbs are most suitable for an item on the passive voice at B2 level. A curriculum planner wants to make sure the C2 curriculum covers the language of ‘presenting a

counter example’ in both formal and informal contexts.

The English Profile describes what learners know and can do at each CEFR level. ELT professionals will make use ofthat information in different ways according to their situation and requirements as there is no single English Profilecurriculum that is right for all learners in all contexts. To help ELT professionals, the English Profile will share somesample curricula based on English Profile tools, but ELT professionals will always need to make decisions abouthow these examples apply to their own context. We welcome your feedback on whether the resources presentedhere are of potential or actual use in your specific context, together with any examples of how you have alreadyused, or plan to use them.


6 What is English Profile based on?

The English Profile Programme has set out to provide the definitive guide to what learners of English know at eachCEFR level. It has done this by combining:

Leading educational organisations Cambridge ESOL

Cambridge University Press

The British Council

English UK

World leading research institutions University of Cambridge

University of Bedfordshire

University of Nottingham

and other EP Network Partners

Extensive data about real English language use Cambridge English Corpus

Cambridge Learner Corpus

A range of other corpora from around the world

A wide range of coursebooks

Exam specifications and wordlists

English Profile researchers use an innovative methodology for describing English which is both empirical in that itis based on real language as produced by speakers of English worldwide; and international in that it will not solelybe concerned with English as it is spoken in the UK, or in other English speaking countries. They can achieve thislargely because they have access to unique and valuable databases of English language in use.

Previous attempts to describe English at different CEFR levels have been produced bylanguage specialists largely using their insight as expert users and teachers of the language.However, English Profile's results are based on observed data, providing concrete evidence ofwhat learners throughout the world can do at each CEFR level. Two of the main corpora usedto date are the Cambridge English Corpus (formerly known as the Cambridge InternationalCorpus) and the Cambridge Learner Corpus. The Cambridge English Corpus contains over 1.2billion words and comprises materials from a huge variety of sources from the UK the USA, Australia and Singaporeamong others that include real and up to date examples of native speaker language. Researchers use this corpus(and others like it) to discover how native speakers use English. For English Profile we also want to look at hownon native speakers use English.

The Cambridge Learner Corpus has been at the centre of EP research work to date (see Section 2 for anintroduction), although as it consists entirely of exam data it required complementary non examination learnerdata. Sometimes learners may try to avoid language they find difficult and stick to “safe” vocabulary, grammar orfunctions in exams, rather than risk trying out language they’re unsure of. This, among other reasons, is why weare currently collecting non exam data from learners all over the world for the Cambridge English Profile Corpus(CEPC). We are working to build the Cambridge English Profile Corpus with the collaboration of a network ofeducational establishments across the world, including state schools, universities, private language schools,research centres, government bodies (including ministries of education) and other ELT professionals. Togetherwe’re collecting a wide variety of data types from a number of contexts, such as classroom work, conversations,homework, and so on. The corpus will be balanced across a number of variables, including the first language oflearners, the country where data are collected, the age of learners and their CEFR level.

For current information on our corpus related activities, visit the EP website and click on the Corpus page.


7 How to get involved with English Profile

Getting involved with English Profile is your opportunity to shape the CEFR for English. You can submit data forour research, get involved in research itself, or you can simply join the network community and keep in touch withdevelopments. As this publication goes to press we are preparing for the publication of the inaugural volumes ofthe English Profile Studies series (Green 2011; Hawkins & Filipovi 2011) and following that, we will be writing anEnglish Profile Handbook full of practical applications, anticipated publication date early 2012. On the events side,EP team members will be presenting at major events in China, Australia and the Czech republic in the comingmonths (amongst others), do check out our Events webpage for more details and we hope to see you there.

Join the EP Network

Joining the EP Network as a data contributor or researcher is straightforward; to submit data please contact usthrough our website by filling in the form ‘Get involved in data collection’ under Community. Learners submit theirdata via an online data collection portal which has been developed especially for English Profile.

The benefits of joining the EP Network:

1. Online access to the CEPC (which would include the contributor's own data) in a searchable format. Teacherscan use this to help them understand their students' needs better, and to develop teaching materials whichcater to those needs.

2. Free access to the English Vocabulary Profile, a fantastic online interactive vocabulary resource developed aspart of English Profile.

3. Free tickets to English Profile workshops, which will include training relevant to teachers, such as how to rate astudent's work by CEFR level.

4. Advance notice of English Profile related publications and automatic subscription to English Profile Journal.5. A 'certificate of participation' (on request) for your school, and listing of your school's name, with thanks, on

our data contributors webpage.6. Invitations to English Profile research seminars and other English Profile events.

Give feedback on this booklet

We welcome your feedback on this publication:

Does it provide the information you need?

Does the presentation of the information work for you?

How do you think you could make use of English Profile?

What else would you like to see from English Profile?

Please go to www.englishprofile.org to send us your feedback, mentioning English Profile Version 1.1 .


8 References

Here you will find key references mentioned in this publication. A fuller bibliography can be found on the EnglishProfile website under Researchers: www.englishprofile.org English Grammar Profile Hawkins, J A & Buttery, P (2010) Criterial Features in Learner Corpora: Theory and Illustrations. English ProfileJournal 1, e5 doi:10.1017/S2041536210000103

Hawkins, J A & Buttery, P (2009) Using learner language from corpora to profile levels of proficiency: Insights fromthe English Profile Programme. In L Taylor & C J Weir (Eds) Language Testing Matters: Investigating the widersocial and educational impact of assessment, Studies in Language Testing, vol. 31, (pp. 158 175). Cambridge:UCLES/Cambridge University Press.

Hawkins, J A & Filipovi , L (2011) Criterial features in L2 English: Specifying the Reference Levels of the CommonEuropean Framework. English Profile Studies, vol. 1, Cambridge: UCLES/Cambridge University Press. O'Keeffe, A & Mark, G (in preparation) The English Grammar Profile. To be available online at:www.englishprofile.org

Salamoura, A & Saville, N (2010) Exemplifying the CEFR: Criterial features of written learner English from theEnglish Profile Programme. In I Bartning, M Maisa & I Vedder (Eds) Communicative proficiency and linguisticdevelopment: Intersections between SLA and language testing research, Eurosla Monographs Series, vol. 1, (pp.101 132). Available online at: http://eurosla.org/monographs/EM01/101 132Salamoura_Saville.pdf

Salamoura, A & Saville, N (2009) Criterial features across the CEFR levels: Evidence from the English ProfileProgramme. Research Notes 37, 34 40, Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL. Available online at:www.CambridgeESOL.org/rs_notes/rs_nts37.pdf

Saville, N & Milanovic, M (2011) Series Editors’ Note in Hawkins, J A & Filipovi , L Criterial features in L2 English:Specifying the Reference Levels of the Common European Framework. English Profile Studies, vol. 1, Cambridge:UCLES/Cambridge University Press.

English Functions Profile

Online survey: www.beds.ac.uk/research/bmri/crella/cando

Green, A (2011) Language functions revisited: Theoretical and empirical bases for language construct definitionacross the ability range. English Profile Studies, vol. 2, Cambridge: UCLES/Cambridge University Press.

Green, A (2010) Requirements for Reference Level Descriptions for English. English Profile Journal 1, e6doi:10.1017/S204153621000005X

Lenz, P & Schneider, G (2004) Introduction to the bank of descriptors for self assessment in European LanguagePortfolios. Available online at:www.coe.int/T/DG4/Portfolio/?L=E&M=/documents_intro/Data_bank_descriptors.html

Saville, N & Milanovic, M (2011) Series Editors’ Note in Green, A Language functions revisited: Theoretical and


empirical bases for language construct definition across the ability range. English Profile Studies, vol. 2, Cambridge:UCLES/Cambridge University Press.

Trim, J L M (2009) Breakthrough. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Available online at:www.englishprofile.org

van Ek, J A (1975) The Threshold Level in a European Unit/Credit System for Modern Language Learning by Adults.Strasbourg: Council of Europe.

van Ek, J A & Trim, J L M (2001) Vantage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

van Ek, J A & Trim, J L M (1998a) Waystage 1990 (revised and corrected edition). Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress.

van Ek, J A & Trim, J L M (1998b) Threshold 1990 (revised and corrected edition). Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress.

Wilkins, D (1976) Notional Syllabuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

English Vocabulary Profile

Cambridge ESOL examination vocabulary lists (KET and PET):www.teachers.CambridgeESOL.org/ts/digitalAssets/113295_ket_vocablist09.pdfwww.teachers.CambridgeESOL.org/ts/digitalAssets/113298_pet_vocablist09.pdf

Capel, A (2011) The English Vocabulary Profile. Available online at: www.englishprofile.org Capel, A (2010a) Insights and issues arising from English Profile Wordlists project. Research Notes 41, 2 7,Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL. Available online at: www.CambridgeESOL.org/rs_notes/offprints/pdfs/RN41p27.pdf

Capel, A (2010b) A1–B2 vocabulary: insights and issues arising from the English Profile Wordlists project. EnglishProfile Journal, 1, e3 doi:10.1017/S2041536210000048

Hindmarsh, R (1980) Cambridge English Lexicon: a graded word list for materials writers and course designers.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Corpus Development

Alexopoulou, T (2008) Building new corpora for English Profile. Research Notes 33, 15 19, Cambridge: CambridgeESOL. Available online at: www.CambridgeESOL.org/rs_notes/offprints/pdfs/RN33p15 19.pdf

Briscoe, E, Carroll, J, & Watson, R (2006) The Second Release of the RASP System. In Proceedings of theCOLING/ACL 2006 Interactive Presentation Sessions, Sydney, Australia.

Nicholls, D (2003) The Cambridge Learner Corpus error coding and analysis for lexicography and ELT. In Archer, D,Rayson, P, Wilson, A & McEnery, T (Eds), Proceedings of the Corpus Linguistics 2003 Conference, UCREL technicalpaper number 16, UCREL, Lancaster University.


General English Profile references

Coste, D (2007) Contextualising uses of the common European framework of reference for languages. Paperpresented at Council of Europe Policy Forum on use of the CEFR, Strasbourg 2007. Available onlinewww.coe.int/T/DG4/Linguistic/Source/SourceForum07/D Coste_Contextualise_EN.doc

Council of Europe (2005) Reference Level Descriptions for National and Regional Languages. Guide for theproduction of RLD. Version 2. Strasbourg: Language Policy Division. Available online at:ww.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/DNR_Guide_EN.pdf

Council of Europe (2001) Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching,Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

English Profile Bibliography www.englishprofile.org

English Profile Glossary www.englishprofile.org

Little, D (2007) The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Perspectives on the Making ofSupranational Language Education Policy. The Modern Language Journal 91 (4): 645 55.

McCarthy, M (2010) Spoken fluency revisited. English Profile Journal 1, e4 doi:10.1017/S2041536210000012

Milanovic, M (2009) Cambridge ESOL and the CEFR, Research Notes 37, 2 5, Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL. Availableonline at: www.CambridgeESOL.org/rs_notes/offprints/pdfs/RN37p2 5.pdf

Saville, N & Hawkey, R (2010) The English Profile Programme – the first three years. English Profile Journal 1, e7doi:10.1017/S2041536210000061

Trim, J L M (2010) The Modern Languages Programme of the Council of Europe as a background to the EnglishProfile Programme. English Profile Journal 1, e2 doi:10.1017/S2041536210000097


9 The English Profile Network

Founding Partners

EP Network Partners

The following institutions are involved in data collection or research activities for English Profile:

ATL Coop Lombardia, Cantù

Babe Bolyai University www.ubbcluj.ro

Banat University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine www.usab tm.ro

Colegio Newlands, Buenos Aires www.colegionewlands.com

Cologne University of Applied Sciences www.fh koeln.de

El Colegio Leonardo Da Vinci, Madrid www.colegio leonardodavinci.es

Escuela Oficial de Idiomas de Burgos www.eoiburgos.es

Escuela Oficial de Idiomas de Madrid Moratalaz (Extensión Puente de Vallecas)

www.educa.madrid.org/web/eoi.moratalaz.madrid/vallecask.html

FON University www.fon.edu.mk

Hogeschool Universiteit Brussel www.hubrussel.be

International Programmes Center “EF Penza” www.efpenza.ru

International University of Novi Pazar www.uninp.edu.rs

Kaplan International Colleges www.kic.org.uk

Kragujevac University www.ekfak.kg.ac.yu and www.filum.kg.ac.rs

Mary Immaculate College www.mic.ul.ie

Masaryk University www.muni.cz

Megatrend University www.megatrend.edu.rs

Metropolitan University Belgrade www.fit.edu.yu

Moscow Institute of Foreign Languages www.gaudeamus.ru

Novi Sad University www.uns.ac.rs


Parhamergymnasium www.parhamer.at

Palacký University www.upol.cz

Prešov University www.unipo.sk

The Romanian Ministry of Education Research and Innovation www.edu.ro

Shannon College of Hotel Management www.shannoncollege.com

Singidunum University www.singidunum.ac.yu

Talk Tefl Support Centre, Gorgan, Iran

Technical College a ak www.vstss.com

Tokyo University of Foreign Studies www.tufs.ac.jp

Universidad Chileno Británica de Cultura www.ubritanica.cl

Universidad Complutense de Madrid www.ucm.es

Universidad Politècnica de València (Campus de Alcoy) www.upv.es

Universitatea Babe Bolyai www.ubbcluj.ro

University of Kragujevac www.kg.ac.rs

University of Niš www.ni.ac.rs

Vilnius Pedagogical University www.vpu.lt

Wy sza Szko a Lingwistyczna www.wsl.edu.pl

EU funded EP Network Project Members Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org/uk

Cambridge ESOL www.CambridgeESOL.org

CRELLA, University of Bedfordshire www.beds.ac.uk/research/bmri/crella

Banat University www.usab tm.ro

Cologne University of Applied Sciences www.international office.fh koeln.de

Complutense University, Madrid www.ucm.es

Masaryk University www.muni.cz

Presov University www.unipo.sk

The Dublin Institute of Technology www.dit.ie


EnglishProfile


The English Profi le Programme is an elaboration of the reference level descriptions of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) that is concerned specifi cally with the English language.

Since its publication, the CEFR has become infl uential in building a shared understanding of performance levels for foreign language learners. However, there is a considerable gap between the broad descriptions of levels provided in the CEFR, which cover a range of languages and learning contexts, and the level of detail required for applications such as syllabus or test design, which English Profi le addresses.

English Profi le has applications in English language pedagogy and assessment, curriculum design, materials development and test construction.

This booklet introduces the theoretical and empirical bases of English Profi le, setting out the ambitions of the Programme and presenting emerging fi ndings. It is for teachers, curriculum planners, writers, test developers and other ELT professionals. It will help them make decisions about which English language points are suitable for learning at each level of the CEFR.

EnglishProfile


Version 1.1

www.englishprofi le.org

EMC/7624/1Y08

Introducing the CEFR for English · 2015-07-02 · English Profile Introducing the CEFR for English...

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Transcript of Introducing the CEFR for English · 2015-07-02 · English Profile Introducing the CEFR for English...