Interplay between electromechanical and solid state ... · Valve Losses Useful Work Energy Saving...
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Interplay between electromechanical and solid state switching technologies for meeting cost, sustainability, and safety demands of various applicationsThomas J. Schoepf, Eaton Innovation Center, Milwaukee (WI), U.S.A.
© 2008 Eaton Corporation. All rights reserved.
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(In alphabetical order) Vijay Bhavaraju, Henry Czajkowski, Yakov Familiant, Werner Johler, Bin Lu, Charles Luebke, Peter Meckler, John Merrison, Peter Theisen, Ian Wallace, Gerald Witter, Peter Zeller, Xin Zhou
Special Thanks Is Due To
Thanks to the IEEE Holm operating committee for the invitation!
3 3
Basic requirements for switching devices
Closed state: connection of two conductors with least possible losses, i.e. smallest resistance possible
Open state: best isolation of both conductors possible, i.e. highest resistance and dielectric strength possible
switching state: quick and reversible transfer from one state to the other without generating too high over voltages (not to exceed the insulation limits)
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Change conductivity of switching device by replacing of a very well conducting medium with a very well isolating one, and vice versa:Metal contact – arc plasma –isolating medium (e.g. gas, air)
Switching Principles
Change conductivity of switching device by controlled change of the conductivity of a medium remaining in the current path
electromechanical Solid state
MOSFET transfer characteristic
Electrical conductivity of nitrogen at atmospheric pressure
T (1000 K)
σσσσ (ΩΩΩΩ-1m-1)
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• Electromechanics is dying out• Too slow interruption• Too sensitive (vibrations)• Too old-fashioned• Too noisy• Not precise enough• Standards are electromechanic
centric• …
Electromechanics vs. Solid-State Classics- prejudices
• Too expensive • Too hot• Too big• No proper isolation – leakage
current• No auxiliary contacts• Doesn’t meet the standards• Promises are not being kept –
technology development not fast enough (SiC)
• …
electromechanical Solid-state
To overcome these prejudices: Do not expect the solid-state solutions to behave like traditional electromechanical ones and vice versa.
6 6
Electromechanics vs. Solid-StateCharacteristic
Electromechanical switches
Semiconductor switches
Life 0 + +Power loss + - - Key to ratingsSize + - 0 = satisfactgoryCost + - + = goodSafe interruption + + - - + + = very goodVisible open position + - - - = unfavorableFrequency of operation 0 + + - - = very unfavorableFreedom from maintenance 0 + +Reliability 0 +Breaking capacity + -Susceptibility to overvoltage + - -Voltage drop + -Logic Connection - +Multiplicity of functions 0 +Electromagnetic compatibility + + -Interference - +Effects on environment - +Sensitivity to vibrations - + +Power amplification + 0
Source: Proc. ICEC1988
Are characteristics measured in same units (e.g. life)?
Rating depends on specific technology and application!
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Applications - there are many
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One Example - Comparison RF CharacteristicsFET MEMS EMR
On
StateO
FF StateC
haracteristic
Ids
Vds
Poor Linearity
G DS
Insertion loss ~ 0.43dB
2-D conduction channelSemiconductor
R = 5Ω
G DS
Isolation ~ 17dB @ 6GHz
S-D capacitive coupledSemiconductor
C = 45fF
Icontact
Vcontact
Excellent Linearity
Insertion loss ~ 0.0043dB
R = 0.05Ω
Metal contactsInsulator
Isolation ~ 84dB @ 6GHz
C = 0.015fF
Large air gapInsulator
Icontact
Vcontact
Good Linearity
Insertion loss ~ 0.043dB
R = 0.5Ω
Metal contactsInsulator
Isolation ~ 60dB @ 6GHz
C = 0.23fF
Small air gapInsulator
Johl
erW
., IE
EE H
olm
Con
f. on
EC
, 200
3
9 9
Outline
Let’s discuss electromechanical and solid state switching technologies in the light of therapidly growing dependency on electricity.
! Global Energy Situation and GHG
! Efficiency! Impact of Soft Grids
(Safety and Power Quality)
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Energy Outlook
Sources: EIA - Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2008, and International Energy Outlook 2008(http://www.eia.doe.gov)
World Energy-Related CO2-Emissions(Billion Metric Tons)
01020304050
1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2005
History Projections
11 11
World Marketed Energy Consumption
Take-awayThe total world consumptionof marketed energy is projected to increase by50% from 2005 to 2030.
The largest projected increase in energy demand is for the non-OECD economies.
12 12
U.S. Primary Energy Consumption by Source and Sector, 2007
Sources: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 2007, Tables 1.3, 2.1b-2.1f and 10.3.
Take-away72% of total U.S. energy consumed by Residential, Commercial, and Industrial Sectors in 2007.
13 13
Growth of World Electricity
Take-awayOver the next 25 years, the world will become increasinglydependent on electricity to meet its energy needs.
14 14
World Electricity Generation 2005-2030
Take-away
Net electricity generation worldwide is projected to total33.3 trillion kilowatt-hours in 2030, nearly double the2005 total of 17.3 trillion kilowatt-hours.
15
8
54
0.8
7
333
1
15 15
Increase of U.S. Renewable Generation
Take-awayRenewables to increase by70% from 2006 to 2030. Wind and biomass expected to be biggest non-hydroelectric renewable electricity generators.
2006
Source: http://www.eia.doe.gov
16 16
World Energy-Related CO2 Emissions
Take-awayWorld energy-related CO2emissions projected to double from 1990 to 2030.In 2030, CO2 emissions from the non-OECDcountries are projected to exceed those from the OECD countries by 72 %.
Business as usual
17 17
Potential To Reduce World CO2 Emissions
Source: The Institute for Prospective Technological Studies (IPTS) one of the 7 scientific institutes of the European Commission's Joint Research Centre
Technologies that can reduce global CO2 emissions from energy combustion
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
45000
1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Mt C
O2
Energy savings
Fossil fuel switch
Renewable energies
Nuclear energy
Carbon sequestration
Emission of reduction case
avoi
ded
emis
sion
s
Energy Efficiency
Renewable Energies
HEV/PHEV/EVFuel Cells
H2 combustion
•Fossil Fuel Consumption•CO2 and GHG
Reduce
Business as usual
18 18
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
U.S
. Ele
ctric
Sec
tor
CO
2 Em
issi
ons
(mill
ion
met
ric to
ns)
1-3% Heat Rate Improvement for 130 GWe Existing Plants46% New Plant Efficiency
by 2020; 49% in 2030
No Heat Rate Improvement for Existing Plants
40% New Plant Efficiencyby 2020–2030
Advanced Coal Generation
5% of Base Load in 2030< 0.1% of Base Load in 2030DER
10% of New Light-Duty Vehicle Sales by 2017; 33% by 2030 NonePHEV
Widely Deployed After 2020NoneCCS
64 GWe by 203015 GWe by 2030Nuclear Generation
100 GWe by 203055 GWe by 2030Renewables
Load Growth ~ +0.75%/yrLoad Growth ~ +1.05%/yrEfficiency
TargetEIA 2008 ReferenceTechnology
Achieving all targets is very aggressive, but potentially feasible.AEO2008*(Ref)
*Energy Information Administration (EIA) Annual Energy Outlook (AEO)
Technical Potential for U.S. CO2 Reductions
Rev
isJa
mes
, Nat
iona
l Ass
ocia
tion
of R
egul
ator
y U
tility
Com
mis
sion
ers
2008
Sum
mer
Mee
ting,
Por
tland
, OR
Business as usual
Energy Efficiency
Renewable Energies
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Efficiency
20 20
U.S. Annual Electricity Sales per Sector
Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook 2008
Take-awayCommercial Sector
(service industries continue to drive growth)
and Residential Sector(population growth
andshift to warmer regions)
dominate Electricity Demand Growth.
Slow growth in industrial production, particularly in the energy-intensive industries, limits demand.
21 21
Projected Efficiency Gains – U.S. Residential
Take-awayNew energy-efficient appliances and products, especially compact fluorescent and solid-state lighting(lighting efficiency standards in EISA2007) reduce energy use without lowering service levels. Source: http://www.eia.doe.gov
22 22
Projected Efficiency Gains – U.S. Commercial
Take-awayThe long service lives of many kinds of energy-usingequipment limit the pace of efficiency improvements.
Higher efficiency by:• improved heat exchangers
for space heating andcooling equipment
• solid-state lighting• more efficient compressors
for commercial refrigeration
Source: http://www.eia.doe.gov
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SaveEnergy
Pow-R-CommandLighting Controls
According to the New Buildings Institute, lighting controls can reduce lighting energy consumption by 50% in existing buildings and by at least 35% in new construction.
• Program locally to switch loads based on automatic time schedules, analog inputs or digital inputs
• Analog outputs allow for fluorescent dimming and daylight harvesting
Pow-R-Command™Lighting and Load Control
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SaveEnergy
Pow-R-Command™Lighting and Load Control
daykwh
dayhrswattslampsfixtures 256
116322250 =×××
daykwh
dayhrshrswattslampsfixtures 6.129
1)3.056.011(322250 =×+××××
Past Consumption:
New Consumption:
Percent Savings: 49.375%
Greenhouse Gases Averted:40,826 lbs. CO2
(based on eGRID 915 lbs. / MWh)
Typical Office Building Application
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Motor System Energy Use by Application and Horsepower(overall Manufacturing)
0102030405060708090
100
1 - 5 hp 6 - 20 hp 21 - 50 hp 51 - 100 hp 101 - 200 hp 201 - 500 hp 501 - 1000 hp 1000+ hp
Other EnergyAir CompressorPump EnergyFan Energy
TWh/yr
Take-away
In the U.S. motors use 70% of the electrical energy (679 TWh/yr) in a typical industrial facility (≈ 23% of total U.S. electricity sold).
More than 98% of all motors are < 500 hp and they consume 15% of total U.S. electricity sold.
Industrial Motor Populations
26.4%58.8%
0.7% 0.2%2.9%1.8%
9.1%0.1% 1-5
6-2021-5051-100101-200201-500501-10001000+
1-5 hp6-20 hp
21-50 hp
Industrial/Commercial - Motor facts
Sources: DOE 2002 Industrial Electric Motor Systems Market Opportunity Assessment, US Dept of Commerce 2002 Census, Team analysis
< 500 hp
13 Million motors > 1hp
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020406080
100120140160
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Flow (%)
Pow
er (%
)Saved PowerLossesUseful Work
020406080
100120140160
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Flow (%)
Pow
er (%
) Motor LossesPump LossesValve LossesUseful Work
Energy Saving with Solid-State Motor Control
Many motors still run at fixed speeds, power-electronics drives can control the speed of the motor to match output with the needs
• Motors consume energy 100X their cost over the lifetime; $100B annual spend in U.S. alone1
• Energy efficiency standards already in progress in most U.S. States
• 70% of industrial energy is used by electric motors –greatest efficiency opportunity after lighting
Sources: 1 Electrical Information Administration, U.S. Government2 Consortium for Energy Efficiency
Charts: Energy Efficiency-The RoleOf Power Electronics, ABB
18-25% efficiency savings with AC Drive2
Electro-mechanicalControl
Adjustable Frequency DriveControl
**No Flow Valve needed
27 27Sources: DOE 2002 Industrial Electric Motor Systems Market Opportunity Assessment, US Dept of Commerce 2002 Census, Team analysis
Motor System Energy Use (GWh/YR)
-
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
1-5 6-20 21-50 51-100 101-200 201-500 501-1000 1000+
CompressorPumpFan
End Users Themes1. Minimize Energy Costs2. Availability & Uptime
• Ensure equipment productivity• Optimal function with system
3. Minimize maintenance costs• Preventative maintenance & Troubleshooting• Declining Pool of Skilled Labor
Motor market perspective – many critical and power-intensive opportunities
Motor energy savings and diagnostics present a large growth potential
HP Ratings
Critical Motor Count
-
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
40,000
1-5 6-20 21-50 51-100 101-200 201-500 501-1000 1000+
Fan
Pump
Compressor
HP Ratings
Drives Employments
1.7%3.2%
7.3%
11.4%
0123456789
Pump Fan Compressor Other0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%Total# drives% with Drives
million motors
Low Employments
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0123456789
10
2003 2007 2011 2003 2007 2011
Solid-state control growth will continue to outpace electro-mechanical
Solid-State = $6.7BElectro-Mech = $4.4B
6.7% CAGR
7.9% CAGR
Global Market Size (2007 Est)
Speed control and energy savings lead the Solid-State Control and AF Drive markets to grow faster than Electro-Mechanical
B U
SD
Sources: Nema Reports, Market Studies & Product Line Estimates
29 29
Data Center Energy Usage
1.2 % of 2005 U.S.electricity sales, U$2.7 B/year
Source – Koomey Report Feb 15th, 2007, Presented at EPA Workshop Feb16th, 2007
Total U.S. and world server electricity use (including cooling and auxiliary)
Tota
l ele
ctric
ity (b
illion
kW
h/ye
ar)
U.S. world
High-end serversMid-range servers
Volume servers
2000 20052000 2005
0.8 % of estimated 2005 worldelectricity sales, U$7.3 B/year
U.S. Data Centers
• 1.2% of U.S. Electricity• 40-76% server growth
2005-2010
• ≈ 50% energy goes to cooling
• 2011 goal of 10% overall U.S. data center energy savings1 by
10.7 billion kWh
Cooling and auxiliaryequipment
20061
1DOE—The Green Grid Goal for Energy Savings, 2008
30 30
DOE—The Green Grid Goal for Energy Savings
• Goal is 10% overall U.S. data center energy savings by 2011 • 10.7 billion kWh• Equivalent to electricity consumed by 1 million typical U.S. homes• Reduces GHG emissions by 6.5 million metrics tons of CO2 per year
Green Grid - DOE Energy Savings Goal; 10.7 billion kWh/yr by 2011
31 31
Intel High Performance Data Center Airflow
Source: Intel
1.2 % of 2005 U.S.electricity sales, U$2.7 B/year
0.8 % of estimated 2005 worldelectricity sales, U$7.3 B/year
32 32
Energy Aware Provisioning - HP
Sou
rce
–K
en B
aker
, “H
P E
nerg
y A
war
e P
rovi
sion
ing
-Brid
ging
the
gap
betw
een
Faci
litie
s an
d IT
with
Dyn
amic
Sm
art C
oolin
g”,
Dat
acen
ter D
ynam
ics
Con
fere
nce
and
Exp
o -N
ew Y
ork,
New
Yor
k , M
arch
23r
d 20
07
33 33
Energy Aware Provisioning - HP
Reducing the energy required to cool a datacenter can result in significant cost savings (and reduction in CO2emissions) or the ability to deploymore IT equipment in the same space -- or a mixture of the two.
(X 1000 USD)
Source – Ken Baker, “HP Energy Aware Provisioning - Bridging the gap between Facilities and IT with Dynamic Smart Cooling”, Datacenter Dynamics Conference and Expo - New York, New York , March 23rd 2007
34 34
Electro-Mechanic – Motor StartingAC Contactors
1. Magnetic Full Voltage Motor Starters
2. Magnetic Full Voltage Reversing Motor Starters
3. AC Automatic Transfer Switches
4. Part Winding Starters5. Wye-Delta Starters6. Reduced Voltage Starters7. Multi Speed Starters8. Combination Starters9. Combination Multi Speed
Starters
700350300600300--4002001504002001506
30015015035015015012010075200100755
15075601507575100504010050404
7550407550405030255030253
4025204025202515102515102
151010151010107.57.5107.57.51
------------------5330
------------------21.51.50
460V
230V
200V
460V
230V
200V
460V
230V
200V
460V
230V
200V
NEMA
Size
StartingStartingStartingStarting
WYE - DeltaPart WindingAuto TransformerFull Voltage
Maximum HORSEPOWER 3 PHASE MOTORS
Take-awayMaximum horsepower of 3 phase motors to be started/operated with AC contactors in different configurations is limited by code. Higher powers require soft-start or drive.
35 35
Starting Motors “Across the Line”
Take-awayInduction Motors can have starting inrush currents of 10-12 times full load amps (12xFLA). These inrush currents can cause significant voltage distortions, which may require soft-starter or motor drives.
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5-800
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
800
Curr
ent (
A)
Time (sec)
Three-Phase Motor Currents
Starting Current
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5-1000
-500
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Torq
ue (N
m)
Time (sec)
Electromagnetic Torque
Starting Torque
Voltage Distortion Tolerance of Electronic Loads
Potential voltage sag during a motor start, e.g. ≈≈≈≈20%
36 36
Soft Starter
M
L1 L2 L3
A typical soft-starter combines electro-mechanics and solid state technologies. Inrush current limit is adjustable, e.g. 3.5 - 4.5 x (Full Load Amps).
Up-stream Breaker
Bypass Contactor
SCR’s
Soft Starter
Line Voltage
Motor Voltage
Motor Current
Motor Torque
Starting at 50% load
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Soft Grids- Impact of Inverter Fed Power Systems
X
House, facility, hospital
38 38
Electrical Safety and Protection- Soft Grids
Stand-by generator Applications:
• PV arrays• DC Data Center• Hybrid Vehicles• Ship Power Systems• Fuel Cells• Telecom• Soft grids
X
House, facility, hospital
fuse
Inverter-fed power systems
Grid-tied Power
Systems
39 39
feature DC and power converters
–1000Vdc for distribution, 2000Vdc for propulsion
–High fault current is not available
•Supplies current limit (e.g 2 x rated)•Long fault clearing time for conventional circuit breakers•Loads can see long outages – UPS, ABT (automatic bus transfer)
⇒ Fast acting solid state breakers offer a solution
–Current limiting and energy limiting
Circuit Breaker Technologies for Advanced Ship Power Systems
use electromechanical circuit breakers for AC and limited DC applications
–High fault current is available (e.g. 85kArms)
–DC applications generally use de-rated AC circuit breakers or fuses
Conventional power systems New power systems
Source: Slobodan Krstic, Edward Wellner, Ashish Bendre, Boris Semenov,“Circuit Breaker Technologies for Advanced Ship Power Systems”, Electric Ship Technologies Symposium, 2007. ESTS apos;07. IEEE Volume , Issue , 21-23 May 2007 Page(s):201 - 208
40 40
Arc management is a key feature of electromechanical breakers
–High energy absorption capability–Limited HVDC capability (e.g. 6kV for future ships)–Overall response time of 10 to 100 ms–Current limiting is slow relative to power converters
•Load center outages can be “long”
Circuit Breaker Technologies for Advanced Ship Power Systems
Solid state breakers offer fast response
–But energy absorption and voltage clamping are vital–Thermal losses are always higher
electromechanical breakers Solid state breakers
Source: Slobodan Krstic, Edward Wellner, Ashish Bendre, Boris Semenov,“Circuit Breaker Technologies for Advanced Ship Power Systems”, Electric Ship Technologies Symposium, 2007. ESTS apos;07. IEEE Volume , Issue , 21-23 May 2007 Page(s):201 - 208
41 41
Current Limiting
A
B
C D
A
B
C Dii
iiii
A
Snubber
B
Snubber
C
Snubber
Clamp
Clam
p Clamp
Line Load
Clamp
Clam
p Clamp
Military AC Solid State InterrupterDifferent types of Electromechanical
current limiting breakers
EM Breaker
SS Breaker
42 42
Circuit Breaker Technologies for Advanced Ship Power Systems
2000Vdc, 800A rated42 x 16.5 x 7.5 inches, 250 lbsWater cooled drawer type enclosure
electromechanical breaker Solid state breakers
Source: Slobodan Krstic, Edward Wellner, Ashish Bendre, Boris Semenov,Electric Ship Technologies Symposium, 2007. ESTS apos;07. IEEEVolume , Issue , 21-23 May 2007 Page(s):201 - 208
1800Vdc, 2300A rated35 x 25 x 10 inches, 200 lbs
High-Speed DC Circuit-Breakersfor Rolling StockType UR26, UR36 & UR40
43 43
Impact of trip current on clamp energy• Series circuit with clamp
across a fast switch• 1000 Vdc source• 1 ms time constant (L/R)• 1350 Vdc clamp
Clamp Energy vs Available Current
100 1 .103 1 .104 1 .1050.1
1
10
100
1 .103
1 .104
1 .105
Trip at 100A200A500A1kA2kA5kA10kA20kA50kA100kA
Available Current (Amps)
Ener
gy (J
oule
s)
100 1 .103 1 .104 1 .1051 .10 6
1 .10 5
1 .10 4
1 .10 3
0.01
Trip at 100A200A500A1kA2kA5kA10kA20kA50kA100kA
Available Current (Amps)
Inte
rrup
tion
Tim
e (s
ec.)
Interruption Time vs Available Current
Source: Slobodan Krstic, Edward Wellner, Ashish Bendre, Boris Semenov,Electric Ship Technologies Symposium, 2007. ESTS apos;07. IEEEVolume , Issue , 21-23 May 2007 Page(s):201 - 208
Clamp
44 44
Electronic DC Circuit Breaker.Physical Isolation at OFF-State
MOSFET Technology
Source: Meckler, P.; Ho, W.: “Does an electronic circuit breaker need electrical contacts?”,Electrical Contacts, 2004. Proceedings of the 50th IEEE Holm Conference on Electrical Contacts and the 22nd International Conference on Electrical Contacts, Volume , Issue , 20-23 Sept. 2004 Page(s): 480 - 487
45 45
Electronic Switching in a 24V DC Power Distribution System
Electronic Circuit Breakercurrent limited by electronicsSmall current peak, small i2t-valuesNo voltage sag
Mechanical Circuit BreakerHigh short circuit currentHigh i2t-valuesSignificant voltage sag
Source: Meckler, P.; Ho, W., ICEC2004
46 46
Electromechanics vs. Solid-State Trends- conclusions
electromechanical Solid-state
! Focus on total cost of ownership
! Think system – A components play is no longer good enough
! Higher integration, closed loop controls
! Increasing number of hybrid solutions
47 47
Electromechanics vs. Solid-State Trends- conclusions
electromechanical Solid-state
! EM and SS technologies should not be treated as competitors
! Both have there strengths and weaknesses
! Electromechanics is far from extinction
48 48
Electromechanics vs. Solid-State Trends- the good news
electromechanical Solid-state
Over the next 25 years, the world will become increasingly dependent on electricity to meet its energy needs –We need more of Electromechanics, Solid-State-Technologies and combinations of both for new innovative solutions to meet energy efficiency, economics, sustainability and safety challenges.
© 2008 Eaton Corporation. All rights reserved.
This is a photographic template – yourphotograph should fit precisely within this rectangle.
Thank you very much for your kind attention
Thomas J. [email protected]