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Transcript of Inside VMNH Research 2008
Touchstones of Life
For the Birds
Clues to Our Past
1
4
7
InsideVirginia Museum of NATUR AL HISTORY RESEARCH
Number 3 • 2008TWO DOLLArS
Allovertheworld,millionsofpeopleenjoyvisitingmuseumswhichdisplayandexplainthediversityandbeautyofthenaturalworld.Butofthatnumber,onlyatinyfractionrealizethattheexhibitshavebeenmadepossiblelargelybyresearchconducted“behindthescenes”inpartsofthebuild-ingsdevotedtothecareanduseofextensivecollectionsofanimal,plant,andmineralspecimens.Whetheramuseumissupportedbypublicorprivatefunding,amajorpartofitsmissionislikelytocombinethecomplementaryrolesofresearch,bywhichknowledgeisincreased,andeducation,bywhichknowledgeisdispersedormadeaccessible.VMNHisnoexceptiontothisgenerality. AsexplainedbyDr.NancyMoncriefintheleadarticleofthisissue,mostresearchconductedinnaturalhistorymuseumsisdescriptiveinthesenseofdistinguishingnaturalobjects,definingtheircharacteristicsandrelationships,andprovidingtheframeworkforsynthesizinginformationaboutthem.Suchknowledgeprovidesthefoundationuponwhichotherkindsofresearcharebased,justasallformsofcommunicationultimatelydependonalphabets.Descriptiveworkisalsocomparative,bywhichthenatureandextentofnaturalvariabilityisdefinedbothwithinandbetweenspecies,andtheabilitytomakesuchdistinctionsrequiresnotjustasinglespecimen,butenoughtoshowtherangeofdiversity.Thus,theaccumulationofreferencecollectionsbecomesessential. Inaveryrealsense,museumcollectionsaresimilartolibraries–individualspecimens,likebooks,are:classifiedbysubjectmatter(relationships),storedpermanentlyinawaythatallowsaccessatneed,andalwaysavailableforfuturereference.Humanknowledgeoftheworldanditsphenomenanotonlyincreasesexponentially,butexistingperceptionsalsoconstantlychangeasresearchprovidesnewinsightsandnewinterpretationsofexistinginformation.Eachmuseumspecimenembodiesnotonlywhatispresentlyknown,butisapackageofstoreddataawaitingnewtechniquesandnewapproachesbywhichstillmoreusefulknowledgecanbeobtained. Farfromsimplybeinglockedawayfrompublicview,museumcollectionsareaccessiblenotjusttoprofessionalscientistsbuttoanymemberofsocietyhavingademonstratedinterestinmuseumresearchorpersonalexpertiseinsomebranchofknowledge.Collectionsareakindofnationaltrust,maintainedbynationalandlocalgovernmentsworldwide,andtheirimportanceaswindowsintotheall-encompassingworldaboutusdeservesunderstandingandappreciationbycitizenryatlarge.
Dr. Richard Hoffman
ThisisourthirdissueofInside VMNH ResearchandIbelievethatitemphasizestheimportantrolesthatwomenplayinscienceattheVirginiaMuseumofNaturalHistory,asallofthearticlesinthisissuearewrittenbywomenscientistsontheVMNHstaff. TheAssociationforWomeninScience(AWIS)envisionsthattherewillbeadaywhenwomenwillparticipatefullyinscience,technology,engineering,andmathematicsasmani-festedthroughequalopportunity,payequity,andrecognitioncommensuratewiththeiraccomplishments.AtVMNH,thatdayishere. OurResearchandCollectionsdepartmentnowtotals14staffincludingninewomen:Dr.NancyMoncrief,curatorof
mammalogy;Dr.ElizabethMoore,curatorofarchaeology;Dr.JudithWinston,curatorofmarinebiology;JulieHoskin,collectionsmanager;JillHarris,registrar;MaryCatherineSantoro,librarian;HaleyCartmell,researchassistant;SusanKirby,labassistantandourneweststaffmember,MaryCarman,SEMlabtechnician.WomenplayanimportantroleinvirtuallyallaspectsoftheVirginiaMuseumofNaturalHistorybutIamespeciallyproudofthewomenscientistsonourstaff.Itismybeliefthatourwomenscientistsserveasrolemodelstothethousandsofyounggirlswhovisitourmuseumandwhooneday,maybethescientistsoftomorrow.
InsideVirginia Museum of NATUR AL HISTORY RESEARCH
From the Director of Research and Collections
From the Executive Director
Published by the Virginia Museum of NaturalHistory, 21 Starling Avenue, Martinsville, VA24112,forVMNHmembers,scholars,educators,libraries,journalistsandsupporters.Formember-ship information, call (276) 634-4141 or visitwww.vmnh.net.
Production StaffRyanL.Barber,EditorMelodyCartwright,Art DirectorJessicaDavenport, Managing Editor
Executive StaffTimothyJ.Gette,Executive DirectorGloriaW.Niblett,Director of Administration and ServicesDr.RichardL.Hoffman,Director of Research and CollectionsDr.DennisA.Casey,Director of Education and Public ProgramsRyanL.Barber,Director of Marketing and External AffairsDebraJ.Lewis,Director of Development
Research and Collections Board CommitteeDr.J.JamesMurray,Jr.,Chair Dr.OliverS.Flint,Jr.,Vice ChairBriggsW.AndrewsDr.BruceD.SmithLisaL.Wu
Scientific Advisory BoardDr.WilliamShear,Chair Dr.JohnHolsingerDr.MichaelKosztarabDr.DuncanPorterDr.JanetReidDr.MarySchweitzer
Research and Collections StaffDr.RichardL.Hoffman,Director of Research and Collections, Curator of Recent Invertebrates Dr.JamesS.Beard,Assistant Director of Research and Collections for Earth Sciences,Curator of Earth SciencesDr.NancyD.Moncrief,Assistant Director of Research and Collections for Life Sciences, Curator of MammalogyDr.AltonC.Dooley,Jr.,Assistant Curator of PaleontologyDr.ElizabethA.Moore,Curator of Archaeology Dr.LauckW.Ward,Curator of Invertebrate PaleontologyDr.JudithE.Winston, Curator of Marine Biology
JulieHoskin,Collections ManagerJillK.Harris,RegistrarMaryCatherineSantoro, LibrarianMaryCarman, SEM Lab TechnicianHaleyE.Cartmell,Research Assistant, Biology SusanC.Kirby,Lab Assistant, Earth SciencesJasonLunze, Collections Technician
About the cover: Domesticated dog mandible from the zooarchaeology comparative collection. This modern specimen, as well as the others in the collection, are used to help identify bones and bone fragments found at archaeological sites.Photo by Jessica Davenport.
Number 3 • 2008
The Virginia Museum of Natural History is accredited by the American Association of Museums, and is a member of the Association of Science-Technology Centers, Heritage Preservation, Southeastern Museums
Conference, NSC Alliance, Virginia Association of Museums, andMuseum Store Association. VMNH is an agency of the
Secretary of Natural Resources for the Commonwealth of Virginia.The VMNH Foundation is a 501 (c) 3 nonprofit organization.
Timothy J. Gette
Collections
Touchstones of LifeBy Dr. Nancy D. Moncrief,VMNH Curator of Mammalogy
harlesElton,thefoundingeditoroftheJournal of Animal Ecology,onceremarked,“thereislittleuse
inmakingobservationsaboutananimalifyoudon’tknowitsname.”1Theprimaryfunctionofbiologyandpaleontologycol-lectionsistodocumentpastandpresentorganismsintheirnaturalenvironments.Thespecimensinthesecollectionsarethephysicalbasisfornamingandidentifyingplants,animals,andotherlivingthings. Humanshaveidentifiedandnamedplants,animals,andotherorganismsforthousandsofyears.Knowingwhichplantsdo(anddonot)easepainwasandisvalu-ableinformation.Infact,theorganizedscientificstudyofnatureinBritaintracesitsrootstonaturalistsocietiesthatmettocollectandidentifyplantswithmedicinalproperties.2
Today,namingorganismsispartofthescienceoftaxonomy.Throughaformalprocedure,oftencalled“describinganewspecies,”auniquetwo-partname(usuallyinLatin)isgiventoaspecimeninanaturalhistorycollection.Thedescriptionistypicallypublishedinatechnicaljournalasanarrativephysicaldescriptionofthespecimenaccompaniedbyphotographsanddrawings.Theparticularspecimendescribedinthepublicationisthenthephysicalstandard(typespecimen)forthatuniquename.Other,sufficientlysimilarspecimensarethenlabeledwiththesamename,andthatnameissubsequentlyusedtorefertoalllikespecimens.
Collectionsprovideinformationaboutwhichorganismsoccurredwhereandwhen.Inthisway,collectionsareusedtodeter-minethegeographicdistributionsandabun-danceoforganisms.Mapsinfieldguidesandotherscientificliteratureareultimatelybasedonphysicalevidence:specimensinnaturalhistorycollections.
C
(continued)
Above: VMNH collections are resources for research by scientists in Virginia, other states, and the entire world. This publication is the formal description of a new kind of stonefly. The type specimen pictured here, Acroneuria yuchi, is housed in VMNH’s collections of recent invertebrates.
INSIDE VMNH RESEARCH • 2008 1
“The primary function of
biology and paleontology
collections is to
document past
and present
organisms in their
natural environments.”
Specimensinnaturalhistorycollectionsalsoprovidethemate-rialthatisessentialforstudiesofevolutionaryandecologicalrela-tionships.Collectionsoffossilsallowthedirectstudyofancestralorganisms.Theyalsoallowscientiststocompiletransitionalseriesforunderstandingevolutionaryhistories.Ecologicalrelationshipsofextinctspeciescanbeinvestigatedusingfossilassemblages.Recenttechnologicaladvancesalsoallowscientiststodeterminewhatani-malsateusingchemicalanalysisoffossils. Themuskoxfossilshownabovealsoillustratesanotherfacetoftheuseofnaturalhistorycollections.Often,specimensarecollectedforonepurpose–toanswerquestionslike“whatkindsofanimalslivedinSaltville,Virginia14,000yearsago?”Iftheyareproperlyhousedandmaintained,newtechnologiescanbeusedtore-analyzethesamespecimensandansweranentirelydifferentquestion,inthiscase“whatdidtheyeat?”Inasimilarway,specimensthatwerecollectedbeforethestructureofDNAwasdiscoveredcannowbeusedtoexaminehistoricalchangesingenefrequencies,whichareamongthemostimportantdatainevolutionarybiology.3
Naturalhistorycollectionsprovidethematerialnecessaryforcomparativestudiesoforganismsacrossspaceandtime.Manyareasofappliedresearch–diseasevectors,environmentalcontaminants,biologicalinvasions,climatechange–relyentirely,orinlargepart,onphysicalevidenceandinformationthatcanonlybeprovidedbythesecollections.
2 INSIDE VMNH RESEARCH • 2008
Researchers at the University of Maryland drilled a small hole in this fossil bone to
obtain material for a chemical analysis of this muskox’s diet.4
1MarstonBates.The Nature of Natural History.(NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1905)9. 2DavidEllistonAllen.The Naturalist in Britain: A Social History.(NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1994)8. 3JaredM.Diamond.“Olddeadratsarevaluable,”Nature.347(1990):334-335. 4ChristineA.M.France,PaulaM.Zelanko,AlanJ.Kaufman,andThomasR.Holtz.“CarbonandnitrogenisotopicanalysisofPleistocenemammalsfromtheSaltvilleQuarry(Virginia,USA):Implicationsfortrophicrelationships,”Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology.249(2007):271-282.
What is a specimen?
Theobjectsheldbynaturalhistorymuseumsarecalledspecimens.Abiologicalorpaleontologicalspecimen
isanindividualorganism,partofanorganism,oranaturally-occurringmaterialrelatedtoanorganism.Forexample,birdsaretraditionallypreservedasskinswiththefeathersstillattached.Thebirdskinisusuallypositionedonitsbackwiththewingstuckedandthelegsinlinewiththebody.Thistypeofpreservation(asopposedtoalife-likeposewiththewingsspread)isspaceefficient,allowingmorebirdskinstobestoredinagivenamountofspace.Nests,eggs,andfossiltrackwaysareexamplesofnaturally-occurringmaterialsthatarenotorganisms,buttheyarenaturalhistoryspecimens.Aspecimenmayexistinitsoriginalstate,inanalteredform,orsomecombinationofthetwo.Forexample,afossilmaybeleftinitsrockmatrix,oriftime,money,andtechniquespermit,itmayberemovedfromthematrix.Aspecimenmayconsistofonepieceormanyrelatedpieces.Forexample,anindividualmammalistypicallypreservedasaskinwithhairattachedandaskeleton.Theskin,togetherwithalltheindividualbonesandtheskull,areconsideredtobeasinglespecimenbecausetheyallrepresentthesameindividualanimal.Bonesandteetharetheconnectionbetweenlivingmammalsandextinctformsrepresentedonlybyfossilmaterial.
Q & A
INSIDE VMNH RESEARCH • 2008 3
Why do you have so many specimens?
Itisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,topredictwhichspecimenswillbeusedinthefuturebywhomandforwhat
purpose.KeithThomsonobserves,“Itisanoldsayinginbusinessthathalfofallmoneyspentonadvertisingiswasted,butnobodycantellwhichhalf.Similarlyinmuseums,atanyonetimeitmaybeurgentorfashionabletostudyaparticulargroupoforganismsoraparticularphenomenon.Therestofthecollectionsareunused.But25yearsinthefuture,adifferentsubsetofthecollectionswillbeinconstantuse.Whowouldhavethoughtitimportantin1950tosavebrokenbitsofperegrinefalconeggshellcollectedoverthelastcentury?Orthat,afterRachelCarson’sbook‘SilentSpring,’suchfragmentswouldbeessentialfordocumentingthelethaleffectofDDToneggshellthicknessworldwide?”1
Holdingsofaninstitution’snaturalhistorycollectionstypicallyreflecttheresearchinterestsofthescientistswhohaveworkedthere.Forexample,VMNHhasunusuallylargecollectionsoftreesquirrelsandmillipedsbecauseofDr.Moncrief ’sandDr.Hoffman’sefforts.
Why are most specimens never seen by the general public?
Specimensinnaturalhistorycollectionsarestoredinspecialconditionstoreducedamagecausedbyfluctuationsandextremesintemperatureandhumidity.Mostspecimensaresusceptibletodeteriorationduetoexposuretolight.Insectsand
rodentscanalsocauseirreparablephysicaldamagetospecimenssuchasmammalandbirdskins. Properstorageisextremelyimportant,butsoisproperdocumentation.Acommonsayinginmuseumcollectionsis“Alabelwithoutaspecimenismoreusefulthanaspecimenwithoutalabel.”Labelstypicallyincludeinformationaboutwhere,when,andhowaspeci-menwasobtained.Allthisinformationisnecessarytoplacethatspecimenintothecorrectgeographic,ecological,andevolutionarycontext. Withalabel,thespecimenisawealthofinformation;withoutalabel,thesamespeci-menisoflittleornovaluetoscience,althoughitmaybeusefulforexhibitsoreducationalprogramming. Specimensthataredisplayedinexhibitsorusedineducationprogramsaresubjectedtoconditions(excessivelightandhandling)thatdamageanddestroythemovertime.Becauseoftheamountsoftime,money,andeffortrequiredtocollect,preserve,anddocumentaspecimen,mostmuseumsdonotuseproperlydocumentedspecimensintheirexhibitsandprogramming.Forthisreason,thevastmajorityofspecimensinnaturalhistorycollectionsareneverputonpublicdisplay.
Collections storage area for specimens preserved in alcohol.
Q & A
(continued on back cover)
1KeithS.Thomson.“NaturalHistoryMuseumCollec-tionsinthe21stCentury,”ActionBioscience.org.April2005<http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/thomson.html>.Photos pages 1–3 by Melody Cartwright.
Quality,RayandIbeganalong-termstudyofraccoonbiologyontheseislands.First,wesurveyedmostoftheislandstodocu-mentwhichislandshaveraccoonsonthem.Thisinvolvedsystematicallylookingfortracksduringdifferentseasonsoftheyear.Wealsotrappedanimals,fittedthemwithradio-collarstomonitortheirmovements,
andclippedoffasmallpieceofearforgeneticanalysis. Fromoursystematictracksur-veys,wewereabletoidentifyislandsthatalwayshaveraccoonslivingonthem.Severalislandsnever,oralmostnever,hadraccoonsduringourstudy.Fromtheradiotelemetrystud-ies,welearnedthat
raccoonscantravelalmosttwokilometers(about1.2miles)inasingledayonanisland.Manyoftheislandsaremuchclosertogetherthanthat,andthechan-nelsseparatingsomeoftheislandsarefairlynar-rowand/orshallow.Weknewthattheraccoonscouldmovetoandamongtheislands,butwedidn’tknow
nthelate1990s,mygoodfriend,Dr.RaymondDueser,andIlearnedfromanotherfriend,BarryTruitt,whoworks
forTheNatureConservancy,thatpopula-tionsofnestingbirdsweredecliningonVirginia’sbarrierislands.Theseislandsareamongthemostimportantnestingareasforshorebirdsandcolonialwaterbirdsbecausetheycomprisetheonlyundevelopedbarriersystemontheeasternseaboard.Theseislandsserveasthebirds’lastsafehaven.Iftheycan’tnestandsuccessfullyrearyounghere,theyareinserioustroublefromabiologicalconservationperspective. ThosewhoknowmeascuratorofmammalogymaybewonderingwhyI’minvestigatingdecliningpopulationsofbirds.Well,itturnsoutthatraccoonsandredfoxesareoneofthemainreasonsforthosedeclines.Bothofthesepredatorsfeedonavarietyofplantandanimalmaterial,andtheyespeciallyliketoeatbirdeggs.Barryaskedustohelpevaluatethesituationandmakerecommendationsthatwouldresultinreducedpredationoneggs.Becauserac-coonsaremorewidespreadandabundantthanfoxes,andthushavethepotentialtoaffectthepopulationsofbirdsonmoreislands,wedecidedtofocusourtimeandenergyontheraccoons. So,withsupportfromtheVirginiaCoastalZoneManagementProgram,whichisadministeredbytheCommonwealthofVirginia’sDepartmentofEnvironmental
For the BirdsBy Dr. Nancy D. Moncrief,VMNH Curator of Mammalogy
Mammalogy
4 INSIDE VMNH RESEARCH • 2008
Ihowoftentheydidso.Thiswasacriticalquestiontoanswer.Ifalargenumberofanimalsareconstantlymovingtoandfromaparticularisland,therecouldbeaconstantstreamofeggpredatorsarrivingjustbeforethebird-nestingseasoneachspring. Overaseven-yearperiodoftrapping,marking,andreleasingseveralhundred
“Because raccoons are
more widespread and
abundant than
foxes ... we decided
to focus our time
and energy on
the raccoons.”
INSIDE VMNH RESEARCH • 2008 5
(continued)
animals,andradiotelemetryofseveraldozen,wedirectlyobservedonlyfourin-stancesofraccoonsmovingbetweenislands,orbetweenthemainlandandtheislands. Becausedirectobservationofinter-islandmovementsisdifficult,weturnedtoanindirectmeasureofmovement:geneticvariationwithinandamongpopulations.
Populationsthatfrequentlyexchangeindividualsaregeneticallyverysimilartoeachother.Thenumberofgeneticdifferencesbetweenpopulationsisameasureofhowoftenindividualsmovebetweenthosepopulations.Fortheraccoondata,iftheanimalsfrequentlymovedbetweenislands,wewouldexpecttoseeveryfewgeneticdifferencesbetweentheanimalsontheseislands. WhenRayandIdecidedtousegeneticanalysestolookatourislandraccoons,Iaskedacolleague,Dr.RonaldVanDenBusscheofOklahomaStateUniversity,toworkwithus.Ron,aninternationallyre-nownedgeneticist,hasaDNAsequencerinhislab,andoneofhisMaster’sstudentswasfocusingonraccoongeneticsashisthesis
project. WithRon’shelp,wehavesequencedandanalyzeddataforalmosttwohundredraccoons.Wedocumentedgeneticdiffer-encesamonganimalsfromnearbyislandsandconcludedthatmovementamongtheislandsisnotfrequent. Becausethereareonlyafewraccoonsonsomeislands,wewereabletoconsiderabehavioraltechniquecalledconditionedtasteaversiontomanagethoseanimals.Thistechnique“teaches”nestpredators,suchasraccoons,toavoidtheeggsofnestingshore-birdsandcolonialwaterbirds.Ifitworksaswehope,aversiveconditioningholdsthepromiseofbeinganeffectivelow-costmethodtoreducenestpredationbythosefewraccoons.
Above: The soft sand of the islands is an excellent medium for capturing data about an island’s inhabitants. We used systematic surveys of mammal tracks to document the occurrence of several species. These are raccoon tracks; the larger tracks on the right of the photo are the animal’s hind feet.
Top left: This animal is easily identified by the eartag colors and numbers. It is also wearing a radiotransmitting collar.
Opposite page: This untagged animal is handling a chicken egg during a test of methods for deploying the automatic cameras. Photos by Joel D. Martin.
6 INSIDE VMNH RESEARCH • 2008
Note:The views expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Depart-ment of Commerce, NOAA, or any of its subagencies.
Wearestillconductingexperimentstotestourmethods.Basically,beforetheonsetofthenestingseason,wescattersurrogateeggsthatareinjectedwithanaversive-conditioningcompound.Theaversivecompoundisundetectabletothepredator,andthecompoundproducesasevere,short-term,non-lethalillnessinthepredatorsoonafteriteatsthetreatedeggs.Ifthetechniqueworkscorrectly,predatorswilldevelopanaversiontotreatedeggs,willgeneralizethisaversiontountreatedeggs,andwillstopdepredatingalleggs.Thatis,byeatinganeggandgettingreallysick,theraccoonwill“learn”thatalleggsarenotgoodtoeatandwillavoidtheeggsofthebirdswe’retryingtohelp. RayandhisMaster’sstudent,JoelMartin,haveconductedseveralexperimentsusingJapanesequaileggs,whichareverysimilarinsizeandappearancetotheeggsofmanyshore-birdsandcolonialwaterbirds,assurrogates.Theseexperimentsincludedplacingartificialnestswithtreatedeggsatvariouslocationsononeoftheislands.Joelusedcameratrapstodocumentwhichislandinhabitantsvisitedwhichnests.Becausehehadtrappedandmarkedalltheraccoonsontheisland,hewasabletoidentify,inphotographs,theindividualrac-coonsthatvisitedeachnest. Wehavenotyetconductedafieldtrialofourconditionedtasteaversionmethods.Butourresultstodatehavebeenquitepromising.Duringthecourseofthisstudy,wehavegainedquiteabitofknowledgeabouttheecologyandgeneticsoftheraccoonsthatinhabittheVirginiabarrierislands.So,intheend,thisprojecthasn’tonlybeen“forthebirds.”
This anesthetized animal has been tagged with a unique eartag, marked with black hair dye, and fitted with a radio collar so that it can be identified and its movements can be monitored. Photo by Robert Alonso.
fyoulookthroughthewindowofthearchaeologylaboratoryattheVirginiaMuseumofNaturalHistoryyouarelikely
toseeawidevarietyofobjectslaidoutonthetablesandcounters.Onanygivendayyoucanseesomeofthenineteenarchaeologyvolunteerssortingandidentifyingprojectilepointsandpotsherdsfromthecollectionsorwashingarti-factsrecentlybroughtinfromtheexcavationsofanearlyAfrican-AmericanmedicalbuildinginMartinsville.Mostly,though,whatyouwillseeareanimalbonesandbonefragmentsthatdatetoca.A.D.900–1500. Archaeologyisthestudyofpeopleandtheircultures:howandwhypeoplelivedindifferentplacesandenvironmentsandwhatthatmighttellusabouthumancultureingeneral. Examiningtheanimalbonesfromarchaeo-logicaldepositscanbeusedtoinferhumanbe-haviorinthepast.Animalbonesprovidedirectevidenceofwhichspeciesofanimalswereeatenorhuntedforotheruses.Whencertainspecificbonesandteetharepresentyoucanalsodeduce
Clues to Our PastBy Dr. Elizabeth Moore,VMNH Curator of Archaeology
I
Archaeology
INSIDE VMNH RESEARCH • 2008 7
(continued)
whattimeofyearcertainanimalswerehunted.Iftherearecutmarksorburningonthebonesyoucandeterminehowtheanimalwasbutch-eredandhowitwascooked.Ifyouhaveenoughbonesfromaroundavillagetomatchelementsfromasingleanimal,sometimesyoucantellifpeoplesharedfoodfromtheanimalstheyhunted. CurrentlyunderstudyinthearchaeologylabaretheassemblagesfromseveralIndianvillagesthroughouttheMiddleAtlanticregionthatdatefromca.A.D.900toA.D.1500.Dur-ingthistime,manyIndiantribesintheEasternUnitedStatesbecamemoredependentontheplantfoodstheyweregrowing.Whileseveral
seedcropshadbeendomesticatedandexploitedforthousandsofyears,corn,beans,andsquashwerebecomingmorecriticaltosupportgrow-inghumanpopulations.Whenacultureshiftsfromnomadichuntingandgatheringtomoresettledfarming,manysocioeconomicfactorsotherthandietchangeaswell.Socialchangesmustoccurtoaccommodatethedifferenttypesofworkassociatedwithahorticulturaloragri-culturaleconomicsystem.Withmanyhuntingandgatheringgroups,theentiregrouptravelsthroughoutageographicareaexploitingnaturalresourcesastheybecomeseasonallyavailable.Whendomesticatedcropsareacriticalfoodresourcehowever,somesegmentofthegroupstaysinacentralareatotendandprotectthe
crops.Othersgooffperiodicallytohunt,togatherplants,togetclayforpottery,tocollectspecifictypesofstoneforstonetools,ortofighttheneighboringtribes,buttheyreturntothatmainvillagearea.Theseareverydifferentwaysofliving. ResearchIhaveconductedontheassemblagesfromseveralsitesrepresentingtwoperiodsalongthePotomacRiverindicatedthatthereisachangeinthehuntingstrate-giesbetweenthetwoperiods.Fortheearlieroftheseperiods,knownastheMontgomeryComplex,IselectedassemblagesthatdatetocircaA.D.1200.Assemblagesfromthelaterofthesetwoperiods,theLurayFocus,dateto
Top: Volunteers measure deer bones from archaeological sites. These measurements can be used to compare the size of deer at different points in time and from different geographic areas. Photo by Melody Cartwright.
Using the Scanning Electron Microscope to determine if cut marks on bones are made with stone or metal tools, I can help colleagues determine if an archaeological site was occupied before or after European contact. The photo on the left is a cut mark made on a deer bone with a metal knife; the other is a cut mark made on a deer bone with a stone tool. Photos by Dr. Elizabeth Moore.
8 INSIDE VMNH RESEARCH • 2008
A.D.1400-1500. DuringtheMontgomeryFocus,alargevarietyofanimalswerehuntedfrommanyhabitats.White-taileddeer,themostimportantanimalinthediet,werehuntedwithaspecificstrategythatmaximizedmeatreturn.Theindividualspresentwereprimarilythoseofprimemeat-bearingageandsize.Finally,seasonallyavailableresourcessuchasfishandmigratingbirdsweretargetedastheybecameavailable.Asanoverallpattern,thehumanoccupantsofthesesitesappeartohavebeenmaximizingtheexploitationofmanyoftheanimalresourcesfoundinthearea. Incontrast,duringtheLurayFocusonlyalimitednumberoftaxawerebeinghunted.Manyofthoseanimalsweretheonesthatwereprob-ablyfoundfeedinginthefields.FewaquaticspecieswereutilizedalthoughthesitesareadjacenttothePotomacRiverandidealforfishing.OneLu-rayFocussite,theHughesSite,islocatedneartheFallLine.Itislikelythatseveralspeciesoflargeanadromousfishwouldhavebeenavailableatleastonaseasonalbasisduringspawningrunsbutdonotappearinthefaunalassemblage.Overall,seasonallylimitedresourcesappeartohavebeenhuntedorcollectedmuchlessthanduringtheMontgomeryFocus. WecanconcludethatbetweenthetwoperiodsrepresentedbytheMontgomeryFocusandtheLurayFocus,therewasaconcentrationintheuseofveryproductivespeciessuchasdeerandturkey.(Seetheaccompanyinglistofanimalspresentineachperiod.Notethatthistabledoesnotgivefrequency,justsimplepresence.)Thespeciesbeingfocusedonnotonlyhavearelativelyhighbodyweightrelativetotheotheravailableanimalsintheirclass,butcanalsobefoundingardensorgardenborders. IamcurrentlyanalyzingofthefaunalassemblagesfromthreevillageslocatedinthemountainsofWesternPennsylvaniaandtwoadditionalassemblagesfromtheMarylandCoastalPlaintoexaminewhetherthistrendindecreaseddiversityisseeninotherareasbeyondthePotomacValleyorifitisageographicallyspecificadaptation.OverthepasttwentyyearsIhaveanalyzedoverhalfofamillionanimalbonesorbonefragmentsfromarchaeologicalsitesinVirginia,Maryland,the
DistrictofColumbiaandPennsylvania.Whiletherearesomeanimalsthatareimportantthroughoutthatgeo-graphicareaovertime(almosteveryonereliedheavilyondeerandtosomedegree,turkeyandsquirrel)thereareclearregionaldifferencesthatmaynotbedirectlytiedtoenvironmentalavailability.Closeexaminationofsuchdifferencesmayindicatewhenanimalswerebeinghuntedsimplybecausetheywerepresentinanarea(forexample,elkarefoundinassemblagesfromthemoun-tainsofPennsylvaniabutnotintheVirginiaCoastal
Plain)orbecausethereweremoresubtleculturalreasonsthatguidedthosehuntingdecisions. Someinterestingques-tionswereraisedbywhatIhavenotfoundinthearchaeologicalrecord.Inspiteofhearingfrommanypeople,readingonmanyWebsites,andhearinginmanypresenta-tionsthatbisonwerehuntedforthousandsofyearsinVirginia,Ihaveneveridentifiedabisonbonefromaprehistoricarchaeologicalsite.NorhavetheotherzooarchaeologiststhatIhavecontacted.North
Carolinaresearchersconductedastudythatgatheredinformationonalloftheplantandanimalremainsrecoveredfromallarchaeologicalsitesinthestate;thereisnotasinglebisonbonelisted.IfbisonwerepresentinVirginia,theirbonesshouldbeinthearchaeologi-calrecord.Thesebonesarelarge,dense,andnoteasilybrokenintosmallunidentifiablefragments.DidtheoccasionalbisonmakeitswayintoVirginiathroughamountainpassandprovideagoodenoughhuntingstorytolastforgenerations?CouldEuropeanexplorershaveseenoneoftheseinfrequentbisonandexaggeratedtheirpresencetoencouragecoloniststocomewherethefoodwasplentiful?OrweretherebisoninVirginiaandwejusthaven’texcavatedtherightsitestofindtheirre-mains?Astatewidesurveyofanimalremains,similartotheonedoneinNorthCarolina,wouldprovideamoreaccuratelistingoftheanimalsidentifiedinarchaeologi-calassemblages.Itwouldalsoprovidedatatomakemorein-depthregionalcomparisonsofanimaluseovertime.Thistypeofsurvey,aswellascontinuedanalysisofmoreassemblagescanbeusedtoanswerthisandotherquestionsabouthowpeoplehaveusedVirginia’snaturalresourcesovertime.
“Archaeology is the
study of people and
their cultures: how and
why people lived in
different places and
environments and what
that might tell us about
human culture in general.”
Montgomery Focusfrogs/toadsbullfrogsnappingturtlecommonmuskturtleeasternpaintedturtleeasternspinysoftshelleasternboxturtleboxandpondturtleslizardscoralsnakesnon-poisonoussnakesindeterminatesnakecommonloonwhistlingswangeesemergansersruffedgrousecommonbobwhitewildturkeypassengerpigeonpileatedwoodpeckerred-belliedwoodpeckerwoodpeckersnorthernhogsuckershortheadredhorsegoldenredhorsesilverredhorsebrownbullheadstripedbasssunfishesminnowsperch-likefishtroutandalliescatfishessnowshoehareeasterncottontailwoodchuckeasternchipmunkeasterngraysquirreleasternfoxsquirrelsquirrelbeavermuskratporcupineopossummountainlionbobcatdogredfoxgrayfoxfoxlongtailweaselminkriverotterstripedskunkblackbearraccoonwhite-taileddeerelk
Luray Focusfrogs/toadssnappingturtleeasternspinysoftshelleasternboxturtlewhistlingswanred-tailedhawkwildturkeycommonshinereasterncottontailwoodchuckeasterngraysquirrelsquirrelbeavermuskratbobcatdogredfoxgrayfoxfoxlongtailweaselblackbearraccoonwhite-taileddeerelk
VMNH Books and Publications
Special Publications:ProceedingsoftheSecondSymposiumonSoutheasternFoxSquirrels,Sciurus niger.N.D.Moncrief,J.W.Edwards,andP.A.Tappe,eds.Pp.1-84.1993.
AmphibiansandReptilesofAssateagueandChincoteagueIslands.J.C.MitchellandJ.M.Anderson.Pp.1-120.1994.
ScaleInsectsofNortheasternNorthAmerica:Identification,Biology,andDistribution.MichaelKosztarab.Pp.1-650.1996.
DevelopingStaffResourcesforManagingCollec-tions.P.S.Cato.Pp.1-71.1996.
TheBiologyofTigerBeetlesandaGuidetotheSpeciesoftheSouthAtlanticStates.C.B.KnisleyandT.D.Schultz.Pp.1-210.1997.
EcologyandEvolutionaryBiologyofTreeSquir-rels.M.A.Steele,J.F.Merritt,andD.A.Zegers,eds.Pp1-310.1998
ProceedingsoftheAppalachianBiogeographySymposium.R.P.Eckerlin,ed.Pp.1-258.1999.
ChecklistoftheMillipedsofNorthandMiddleAmerica.R.L.Hoffman.Pp.1-564.1999.
IdentificationofWaterfowlBreastbonesandAvianOsteology(Sterna)ofNorthAmericanAnseriformes.D.W.Oates,E.D.Boyd,andJ.S.Ramaekers.Pp.1-51.2003.
AClassificationandChecklistoftheGenusPseu-danophthalmusJeannel(Coleoptera:Carabidae:Trechinae).T.C.Barr,Jr.Pp.1-52.2004.
AFieldGuidetoMothsofEasternNorthAmerica.C.V.Covell,Jr.Pp.1-496.2005.
TheHispineBeetlesofAmericaNorthofMexico(Chrysomelidae:Cassidinae).C.L.Staines.Pp.1-178.2006
Memoirs:EvolutionofEnvironmentsandHominidaeintheAfricanWesternRiftValley.N.T.Boaz,ed.Pp.1-356.1990.
MolluscanBiostratigraphyoftheMiocene,MiddleAtlanticCoastalPlainofNorthAmerica.L.W.Ward.Pp.1-159.2001.
MolluscanAssemblagesoftheChowanRiverFormation,PartA.L.W.WardandN.L.Gilinsky.Pp.1-40.1993.
TheMegaflorafromtheQuanticoLocality(UpperAlbian),LowerCretaceousPotomacGroupofVirginia.G.R.Upchurch,P.R.Crone,andA.N.Drinnan.Pp.1-57.1994.
ASynopsisoftheNorthAmericanCentipedesoftheOrderScolopendromorpha(Chilopoda).R.M.Shelley.Pp.1-108.2002.
SystematicsofthefreshwateramphipodgenusCrangonyx(Crangonyctidae)inNorthAmerica.J.ZhangandJ.R.Holsinger.Pp.1-274.2003.
Re-descriptionandrevisionofSmitt’s“FloridanBryozoa”intheCollectionoftheMuseumofComparativeZoology,HarvardUniversity.J.E.Winston.Pp.1-160.2005.
ANewSpeciesofSqualodon(Mammalia,Cetacea)fromtheMiddleMioceneofVirginia.A.C.Dooley,Jr.Pp.1-17.2005.
GeologyandPaleontologyoftheLeeCreekMine,NorthCarolina,IV.C.E.Ray,D.J.Bohaska,I.A.Koretsky,L.W.Ward,andL.G.Barnes.Pp.1-517.2008.
Guidebooks:EarlytoMiddleCarnian(Triassic)FloraandFaunaoftheRichmondandTaylorsvilleBasins,VirginiaandMaryland,U.S.A.B.CornetandP.E.Olsen.Pp.1-83.1990.
GeologicEvolutionoftheEasternUnitedStates.A.SchultzandE.Compton-Gooding.Pp.1-304.1991.
StratfordHallPlantationandWestmorelandStatePark:PhysicalandCulturalGeology,andPaleon-tology.L.B.Rohr,M.E.Lewis,andL.W.Ward.Pp.1-93.2002.
EoceneandOligoceneStratigraphyofSoutheast-ernNorthCarolina.L.W.Ward.Pp.1-25.2003
GeologyandPaleontologyoftheStratfordHallPlantationandWestmorelandStatePark.L.W.WardandA.C.DooleyJr.,Pp.1-87.2005.
GeologyintheSouthsideVirginiaPiedmont.W.S.Henika,J.Hibbard,J.S.Beard.Pp.1-30.2006.LeeCreek,Aurora,NorthCarolina.L.W.WardandI.K.Gilmore.Pp.1-138,2007.
Insects of Virginia:SeedbugsofVirginiaHeteroptera:Lygaeoidea:Lygaeidae.R.L.HoffmanPp.i-vi,1-111.1996.
AssassinbugsofVirginia(Heteroptera:Reduvi-idae).R.L.Hoffman.Pp.1-73.2006.
Popular Publications:MountainLakeRegionanditsBirdLife.D.W.Johnston.Pp.1-90.2000.
Books listed may be ordered online at www.vmnh.net or by calling 276-634-4141. Other options include fax: 276-634-4199 or e-mail: [email protected].
VirginiaMuseumofNaturalHistoryAttention:PublicationsOrder21StarlingAvenueMartinsville,VA24112
VMNH Senior Fellows
Dr. Mitchell ByrdCollege of William & MaryWilliamsburg, Virginia
Dr. Oliver S. Flint, Jr.Smithsonian InstitutionWashington DC
Dr. William J. Hargis, Jr.Virginia Institute of Marine ScienceGloucester Point, Virginia
Dr. William A. ShearHampden Sydney CollegeHampden Sydney, Virginia
Dr. E-An ZenUniversity of MarylandCollege Park, Maryland
VMNH Research Associates
Dr. Brian J. AxsmithUniversity of South AlabamaMobile, AL
Dr. Michael B. BarberU. S. Forest Service-Jefferson and Washington ForestsSalem, Virginia
Dr. Donna Boyd Radford UniversityRadford, Virginia
Dr. R. P. Stephen Davis, Jr.Univ. of North Carolina-Chapel HillChapel Hill, North Carolina
Dr. Raymond D. Dueser Utah State UniversityLogan, Utah
Dr. Ralph P. EckerlinNorthern Virginia Community CollegeAnnandale, Virginia
Dr. Arthur V. Evans Richmond Virginia
Dr. Nicholas C. FraserNational Museums ScotlandEdinburgh, Scotland
Dr. Steven J. Hageman Appalachian State UniversityBoone, North Carolina
Mr. William S. Henika Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityBlacksburg, Virginia
Dr. Thomas J. HenrySystematic Entomology LaboratoryPlant Sciences Institute, USDA-- ARSWashington, DC
Dr. Richard HightonProfessor EmeritusUniversity of MarylandCollege Park, Maryland
Dr. John R. Holsinger Old Dominion UniversityNorfolk, Virginia
Dr. Patricia H. Kelley University of North Carolina- WilmingtonWilmington, North Carolina
Dr. Michael John Klein Richmond, Virginia
Dr. Boris C. Kondratieff Colorado State UniversityFort Collins, Colorado
Ms. Marilyn R. LondonSmithsonian InstitutionNational Museum of Natural History
University of MarylandBethesda, Maryland
Dr. Jerry N. McDonaldGranville, Ohio
Dr. Frank K. McKinney Appalachian State UniversityBoone, North Carolina
Dr. Joseph C. Mitchell University of RichmondRichmond, Virginia
Dr. Andrew L. MooreKent State UniversityKent, OH
Dr. Karen MudarNational Park ServiceWashington, DC
Dr. Paul E. OlsenLamont-Doherty Geological ObservatoryPalisades, New York
Dr. John F. Pagels Virginia Commonwealth UniversityRichmond, Virginia
Dr. Charles R. ParkerUSGS Biological Resources Division- Great Smoky Field StationGatlinburg, Tennessee
Dr. John H. Porter University of VirginiaCharlottesville, Virginia
Dr. Janet ReidVirginia Museum of Natural HistoryMartinsville, Virginia
Dr. Edwin S. RobinsonEmeritus ProfessorDepartment of Geological SciencesVirginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityBlacksburg, Virginia
Dr. Steven M. Roble Virginia Department of Conservation and RecreationDivision of Natural HeritageRichmond, Virginia
Dr. Christopher M. Stevenson Virginia Department of Historic ResourcesRichmond, Virginia
Dr. Hans-Dieter Sues Smithsonian InstitutionNational Museum of Natural HistoryWashington, DC
Dr. Richard P. Tollo George Washington UniversityWashington, DC
Dr. Robert J. Tracy Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityBlacksburg Virginia
Dr. Christopher TudgeAmerican UniversityWashington, DC
Dr. William David Webster University of North Carolina- WilmingtonWilmington, North Carolina
Dr. Robert M. WoollacottHarvard UniversityCambridge, MA
Affiliated Researchers
Ms. Carole L. NashJames Madison UniversityHarrisonburg, Virginia
INSIDE VMNH RESEARCH • 2008 9
10% TOTAL RECOVERED FIBERALL POST-CONSUMER FIBER
Bydefinition,museumsareinstitutionsthatcollect,document,preserve,display,andinterpretobjects(specimens)forthepublicbenefit.Itisthecollectionsofspecimensheldbymuseumsthatdistinguishthemfromothereducationalandscientificinstitutions.
InsideVirginia Museum of NATUR AL HISTORY RESEARCH
Number 3 • 2008
Q & A
What is a museum?
Virginia Museum of Natural History21StarlingAvenueMartinsville,Virginia24112
www.vmnh.netADDRESSSERVICEREQUESTED
Non-ProfitOrganizationU.S. Postage
P A I DMartinsville, VAPermit No. 456
Naturalhistoryisthescientificstudyofnature,naturalobjects,andnaturalphenomena.Naturalhis-
toryresearchofteninvestigateshoworganismsevolve,wheretheylive,andhowtheyinteractwitheachother. VMNH’sofficialcharterpurposes,asstatedintheCodeofVirginiaare:toinves-tigate,preserve,andexhibitthevariousele-mentsofnaturalhistoryfoundinVirginiaandotherpartsoftheUnitedStatesandtheworld;tofosteranunderstandingandappreciationofhowmanandtheearthhaveevolved;toencourageandpromoteresearchinthevariednaturalheritageofVirginiaandotherpartsoftheworld;toencourageindividualsandscholarstostudyVirginia’snaturalhistoryandtoapplythisunderstandingofthepasttothechallengesofthefuture;toestablishastatemuseumofnaturalhistoryinVirginiawherespecimensofnaturalhistory,especiallythoseofVirginiaorigin,canbeproperlyhoused,caredfor,cataloged,andstudied,ensuringthatthereisapermanentrepositoryforthestate’snaturalheritage;and,tocoordinateanefficientnetworkinVirginiawhereresearch-ersandthepubliccanreadilyusenaturalhistorymaterialoftheMuseum,itsbranches,Virginia’sinstitutionsofhighereducation,andothermuseums.
What is natural history?
(continued from page 3)
Photo by Jay Rosenblatt.