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Transcript of Inquiry into Life Twelfth Edition Chapter 6 Lecture PowerPoint to accompany Sylvia S. Mader...
![Page 1: Inquiry into Life Twelfth Edition Chapter 6 Lecture PowerPoint to accompany Sylvia S. Mader Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062314/56649e575503460f94b506df/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Inquiry into LifeTwelfth Edition
Chapter 6
Lecture PowerPoint to accompany
Sylvia S. Mader
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
![Page 2: Inquiry into Life Twelfth Edition Chapter 6 Lecture PowerPoint to accompany Sylvia S. Mader Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062314/56649e575503460f94b506df/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
6.1 Cells and the Flow of Energy
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6.1 Cells and the Flow of Energy
• Energy is the ability to do work or bring about change.
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6.1 Cells and the Flow of Energy
• Energy is the ability to do work or bring about change.
• Forms of Energy
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6.1 Cells and the Flow of Energy
• Energy is the ability to do work or bring about change.
• Forms of Energy– Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
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6.1 Cells and the Flow of Energy
• Energy is the ability to do work or bring about change.
• Forms of Energy– Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.– Potential energy is stored energy.
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Flow of Energy
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6.1 Cells and the Flow of Energy
• Two Laws of Thermodynamics
– Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be changed from one form to another.
– Energy cannot be changed from one form to another without a loss of usable energy.
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6.1 Cells and the Flow of Energy
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6.1 Cells and the Flow of Energy
• Cells and Entropy
– Entropy refers to the relative amount of disorganization.
![Page 11: Inquiry into Life Twelfth Edition Chapter 6 Lecture PowerPoint to accompany Sylvia S. Mader Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062314/56649e575503460f94b506df/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
6.1 Cells and the Flow of Energy
• Cells and Entropy
– Entropy refers to the relative amount of disorganization.
– Energy transformations in cells increase the amount of entropy.
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6.1 Cells and the Flow of Energy
• Processes in living organisms require an input of energy that is ultimately lost as heat.
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6.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy Transformations
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6.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy Transformations
• Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical reactions that occur in a cell.
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6.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy Transformations
• Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical reactions that occur in a cell.
A + B C + D
(reactants) (products)
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6.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy Transformations
• Free energy (∆G) is the amount of energy available.
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6.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy Transformations
• Free energy (∆G) is the amount of energy available.– Exergonic reactions are ones where energy is
released (∆G is negative)
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6.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy Transformations
• Free energy (∆G) is the amount of energy available.– Exergonic reactions are ones where energy is
released (∆G is negative)
– Endergonic reactions require an input of energy. (∆G is positive)
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6.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy Transformations
• ATP: Energy for Cells
– ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate, the common energy currency for cells.
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6.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy Transformations
• ATP: Energy for Cells
– ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate, the common energy currency for cells.
– ATP is generated from ADP (adenosine diphosphate) + an inorganic phosphate molecule ( P )
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The ATP Cycle
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6.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy Transformations
• Structure of ATP– ATP is a nucleotide that is composed of:
• Adenine (a nitrogen-containing base)
• Ribose (a 5-carbon sugar)
• Three phosphate groups
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6.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy Transformations
• Structure of ATP
– ATP is a “high energy” compound because a phosphate group can easily be removed.
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6.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy Transformations
• Coupled Reactions– The energy released by an exergonic reaction is
used to drive an endergonic reaction.
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Coupled Reactions
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6.3 Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes
• Metabolic pathways are a series of linked reactions.– These begin with a specific reactant and
produce an end product
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6.3 Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes
• Enzymes are usually proteins that function to speed a chemical reaction.– Enzymes serve as catalysts
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A Metabolic Pathway
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6.3 Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes
• The Energy of Activation (Ea) is the energy that must be added to cause molecules to react with one another.
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Energy of Activation
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6.3 Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes
• How Enzymes Function– Enzyme binds substrate to form a complex
– E + S ES E + P
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Enzymatic Action
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6.3 Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes
• How Enzymes Function– Enzyme binds substrate to form a complex
– E + S ES E + P
– Induced fit model• Substrate and active site shapes don’t match exactly
• Active site is induced to undergo a slight change in shape to accommodate substrate binding
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Induced Fit Model
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6.3 Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes
• Factors Affecting Enzymatic Speed– Substrate Concentration– Temperature and pH– Enzyme Activation– Enzyme Inhibition– Enzyme Cofactors
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6.3 Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes
• Substrate Concentration• Enzyme activity increases as substrate
concentration increases because there are more collisions between substrate and enzyme
• Maximum rate is achieved when all active sites of an enzyme are filled continuously with substrate
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Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes
• Temperature– Enzyme activity increase as temperature rises– Higher temperatures cause more effective
collisions between enzymes and substrates– High temperatures may denature an enzyme,
inhibiting its ability to bind to substrates
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The Effect of Temperature on the Rate of Reaction
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Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes
• pH• Each enzyme has an optimal pH• Enzyme structure is pH dependent• Extremes of pH can denature an enzyme by
altering its structure
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Effect of pH on the Rate of Reaction
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Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes
• Enzyme Activation– Cell regulates metabolism by regulating which enzymes are
active– Genes producing enzymes can be turned on or off to
regulate enzyme concentration– In some cases a signaling molecule is used to activate an
enzyme
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Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes
• Enzyme Inhibition– Occurs when enzyme cannot bind its substrate– Activity of cell enzymes is regulated by feedback inhibition– Ex: when product is abundant it binds to the enzyme’s active
site and blocks further production– When product is used up, it is removed from the active site– In a more complex type of inhibition, product binds to a site
other than the active site, which changes the shape of the active site
– Poisons are often enzyme inhibitors
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Feedback Inhibition
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Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes
• Enzyme Cofactors– Molecules which help enzyme function– Copper and zinc are examples of inorganic
cofactors– Organic non-protein cofactors are called
coenzymes• Vitamins are often components of coenzymes
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6.4 Oxidation-Reduction and the Flow of Energy
• Oxidation-Reduction– Oxidation is the loss of electrons– Reduction is the gaining of electrons– Ex: when oxygen combines with a metal like Mg,
oxygen receives electrons (becomes negatively charged) and Mg loses electrons (becomes positively charged)
• We say Mg has become oxidized, and oxygen is reduced (has a negative charge) when MgO forms
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6.4 Oxidation-Reduction and the Flow of Energy
• Oxidation-Reduction– The term oxidation is used even when
oxygen is not involved• Ex: Na+ + Cl- NaCl in which sodium is
oxidized and chloride is reduced
– This also applies to covalent reactions involving hydrogen atoms
– Oxidation is the loss of hydrogen and reduction is the gain of hydrogen atoms
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6.4 Oxidation-Reduction and the Flow of Energy.
• Photosynthesis– energy + 6CO2+6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
– Hydrogen atoms are transferred from water to carbon dioxide and glucose is formed
– Energy is required and this comes in the form of light energy from the sun
– Chloroplasts convert solar energy to ATP which is then used along with hydrogen to reduce carbon dioxide to glucose
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Oxidation-reduction and the flow of energy cont’d.
• Cell Respiration– C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy – Glucose is oxidized (lost hydrogen atoms)– Oxygen is reduced to form water– Complete oxidation of a mole of glucose produces 686
kcal of energy– This energy is used to form ATP– The oxidation of glucose to form ATP is done is a
series of small steps to increase efficiency
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6.4 Oxidation-Reduction and the Flow of Energy.
• Organelles and the flow of energy– Cycling of molecules between chloroplasts and
mitochondria allows energy to flow from sun to all living things
– Chloroplasts use light energy from the sun to make carbohydrates
– Mitochondria break down carbohydrates to form ATP – Cell respiration produces carbon dioxide and water
which are used in photosynthesis
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Relationship of Chloroplasts to Mitochondria