Industrial Waste Treatment

Contemporary Practice and Vision for the Future

By

Nelson Leonard Nemerow

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Industrial Waste Treatment

Editor

Nelson Leonard Nemerow

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDONNEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO

SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYOButterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier

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Butterworth–Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USALinacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK

Copyright © 2007, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Recognizing the importance of preserving what has been written, Elsevier printsits books on acid-free paper whenever possible.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataNemerow, Nelson Leonard.

Industrial waste treatment : contemporary practice and vision for the future / Nelson Leonard Nemerow.p. cm.

Includes index.ISBN-13: 978-0-12-372493-9 (alk. paper)ISBN-10: 0-12-372493-7 (alk. paper)

1. Factory and trade waste—Purification. 2. Sewage disposal plants. I. Title. TD897.6.N46 2006628.4—dc22

2006021434

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 13: 978-0-12-372493-9ISBN 10: 0-12-372493-7

For information on all Butterworth–Heinemann publications visit our Web site at www.books.elsevier.com

Printed in the United States of America 07 08 09 10 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

∞

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Contents

Prologue ix

List of Tables xi

List of Figures xv

Industrial Environmental History 1

Introduction to Industrial Waste Treatment 9

Part A—Twentieth Century 11

1. Theories and Practices 13

2. Contaminant Concentration Reduction 25

3. Neutralization 35

4. Equalization and Proportioning 45

5. Removal of Suspended Solids 53

6. Removal of Colloidal Solids 79

7. Removal of Inorganic Dissolved Solids 89

8. Removal of Organic Dissolved Solids 105

9. Treatment and Disposal of Sludge Solids 149

10. Joint Treatment of Raw Industrial Waste with Domestic Sewage 175

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11. Hazardous Wastes 245

12. Removal of Industrial Air Contaminants 355

Part B—Twenty-First Century 361

Foreword to the Twenty-First Century i

Preface to the Twenty-First Century iii

13. Prologue to the Twenty-First Century 363

14. Rationale of Environmentally Balanced Industrial Complexes 369

15. Procedure for Industry in Attaining Zero Pollution 373

16. Economic Justification for Industrial Complexes 379

17. Realistic Industrial Complexes 405

18. Potential Industrial Complexes 443

19. Potential Municipal–Industrial Complexes 515

20. Naturally Evolving Industrial Complexes 527

21. Benefit-Related Expenditures for Industrial Waste Treatment 531

22. Summary 545

Index 549

viii Contents

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Prologue

In 1963, one year after Rachel Carson published her last book, Silent Spring, which warnedof the interdependence of industrial waste pollution and human development, I publishedmy first textbook on the subject of industrial waste treatment, Theories and Practices ofIndustrial Waste Treatment. Most of my current readers were not actively participating inthis field at that time. Therefore, I feel impelled to republish—in modified and somewhatupdated form—the considerable amount of historical theories and practices of twentieth-century industrial waste treatment. It is remarkable how much of this technical informationhas remained the same since the publishing of that original book, but it is difficult to locatea book from that long ago. I followed that book with updated books on the subject—LiquidWastes of Industry in 1971, Industrial Water Pollution in 1978, Industrial and HazardousWaste Treatment with Dr. Dasgupta in 1991, Zero Pollution in 1995, and Strategies ofIndustrial and Hazardous Waste Management with Dr. Agardy in 1998. But they too(except for the last two) would be hard to locate in most libraries. In fact, many of the pub-lishers themselves have changed or gone completely out of the business. For an updatedand excellent version of current conventional industrial waste treatment equipment andpractices (including costs), I urge you to consult another Elsevier text, Industrial WasteTreatment Handbook. It was prepared by the collective effort of the firm Woodard andCurran of Portland, Maine. Many of the figures in this book are replicated from the abovetitles with permission from John Wiley and Sons.

I have made a special effort in this book to reference publications that are still inprint and available for purchase. In that way readers may opt to select works that servetheir specific interests.

I intend for this book to be an overview of the subject of industrial waste treatmentand disposal as used in the twentieth century and how it is evolving into a new conceptualfield as we enter the twenty-first century. Further, I have attempted to provide some histori-cal data of people and concepts of industrial waste treatment for generations to come to lookback on for a more complete understanding of its significance in industrial production andhow we naturally evolved the solutions to which we must resort in the twenty-first century.

It is critical to note that this book not only recounts the past theories and practices,but even more importantly, confronts the present dilemma with innovative solutions toindustrial wastes for the future.

ix

Nelson Leonard Nemerow

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List of Tables

1 Primary Personnel and Fields of Study in U.S. Universities 71.1 Typical Analyses of Sewage Effluents After Conventional Primary

and Secondary Treatment 191.2 Composition of Secondary Treated Municipal Wastewater Effluents

and Irrigation Water 202.1 Wastes from a Textile Mill 283.1 Cost Comparison of Various Alkaline Agentsa 385.1 Rectangular Primary Settling-Tank Data 605.2 Circular Primary Tanks: Long-Term Performance Dataa 625.3 Typical Efficiencies of Dissolved-Gas Flotation Treatment of Wastes 695.4 Results Obtained on Humus Tank Effluent at Eastern Sewage Works,

London, England, December 30, 1966–January 13, 1967 756.1 Types and Characteristics of Colloidal Solids 806.2 Valence and Coagulant Dosage 846.3 Properties of Coal-Derived Granular Carbon for Waste Treatment 867.1 Typical Overall Coefficients in Evaporators 917.2 Elemental Composition of Green Algae 957.3 Occurrence of Cyanophyceae and Chlorophyceae in Massachusetts

Lakes and Reservoirs 967.4 Refractory Containment Removal Techniques 1008.1 Biological Degradation of Organic Constituents in Sewage 1078.2 Materials Potentially Useful for Liners of Ponds Containing

Hazardous Wastes 1108.3 Summary of Disposal Systems 1188.4 Summary of Disposal Systems 12910.1 Industrial Contaminants and General Limiting Values

for Discharge into Municipal Sewerage Systemsa 18710.2 Sewer Use Ordinance City of Palo Alto Regional Water

Quality Control Plant (September 1995) 19110.3 Maximum Allowable Discharge Limits for Wastewater 19210.4 Allocation of Fixed Costs 194

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10.5 Allocation of Operation and Maintenance Costs 19510.6 Summary of Allocation of Fixed and Operating Cost 19610.7 Calculation of Users’ Charges Based on Three Factors 19810.8 Cayadutta Creek Analyses in October 1964 20110.9 Time of Flows from Station 5 Downstream Obtained 1 Week Before

Stream-Sampling Program in October 1964 20310.10 Summary of 7-Day Sampling of Cayadutta Creek in Dry Period,

from 10/8/64 to 10/18/64 20310.11 Minimum Flow Data of Measured Creek Compared with

Cayadutta Creek 20510.12 Normal Probability Distribution Analysis of Data (1927–1960) 20610.13 Summary of Data Required from Cayadutta Creek Analyses in

October 1964 for Churchill Method of Analysis 20710.14 Churchill Analysis Applied to Cayadutta Creek Data 20810.15 Summary of 24-Hour Sampling Results 20910.16 Summary of 24-Hour Sampling Results 21510.17 Composite Analysis (24 Hours) of Gloversville and Johnstown

Wastewater 21610.18 Summary of Total Loads for Treatment 21810.19 Industrial Production During Sampling Days 22010.20 Water Consumption Related to Production Percentagea 22210.21 Industrial Waste Flow 22410.22 Sludge Digestion (Laboratory Study)a 22510.23 Activated-Sludge Pilot Laboratory Studies 22610.24 Prototype Operating Data 23010.25 Prototype Operating Results and Design Parameters 23110.26 Inconsistencies Between Theory of Design and Actual

Practice in Design 24211.1 Cost of Hazardous Waste Disposal Practices 25011.2 Hazardous Waste Industries 25111.3 List of Hazardous Characteristics 25211.4 RCRA-Regulated Hazardous Wastes 25411.5 Typical Automotive Oil Waste Composition 25511.6 Sources of Asbestos Wastes 26911.7 Hazardous Waste Disposal in United States, circa 1980 27511.8 Organic Chemical Treatment 27611.9 Commercial Hazardous Waste Disposal Methods 27611.10 Emerging Alternative Technologies, circa 1985 27811.11 Incineration 28511.12 Typical Industrial Laundry Wastewater Constituent Concentration 30411.13 Some New Treatments for Hazardous Waste, Many Still

on the Drawing Board 31811.14 Water Quality Limits for Toxic Pollutants for Three Uses 32811.15 Allowable Concentrations for Air Contaminants Resulting from

Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Emissions (EPA) 334

xii List of Tables

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List of Tables xiii

16.1 Comparison of Real Production Costs (1995 Dollars) of FreeStanding Fertilizer and Cement Plants with EBIC Costs (1995 Dollars) per Ton of Fertilizer 382

16.2 Real Production Costsa of Fertilizer and Cement Plants 39116.3 Comparison of Classical Production Costsa of Free-Standing Fertilizer

and Cement Plants with Real Production Costsa per Ton of Product 39116.4 EBIC Costs in a Fertilizera-Cement Industrial Complex 39216.5 Comparison of Classical Production Costsa of Free-Standing Fertilizer

and Cement Plants with EBIC Costsa per Ton of Product 39216.6 Comparison of Real Production Costsa of Free Standing Fertilizer

and Cement Plants with EBIC Costsa per Ton of Product 39216.7 Comparison of Production Costa of a Ton of EBIC Product

(0.22 Ton Fertilizer + 0.78 Ton of Cement) and Equivalent Masses of Free-Standing Plant Productsa 393

17.1 Raw Materials Consumed for Portland Cement in United States 3(Thousands of Short Tons) 407

17.2 External Raw Materials and Manufactured Products in Three-IndustryComplex (Stage 3) 417

17.3 World Production 42117.4 Sugarcane Composition 42117.5 Chemical and Physical Composition of Bagasse and Mudcake (4) 42317.6 Composition of Ash from Cachaza and Bagasse [Dasgupta 1983] 42517.7 Raw Material Balance as Part of Total Production Cost 43318.1 Air Emissions from Model Coke Plants 44718.2 Wood-Preserving Processes 45118.3 Amount of Raw Materials Consumed for Production of Portland

Cement 45719.1 Annual Cost and Environmental Benefits of Successful Synergies 52521.1 Summary of Cost Data of Four Plants 53921.2 Pulp and Paper Industry Treatment Costs, Sales Revenues (1970),

and Sales Indices (Computed) 542

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List of Figures

2.1. Time Elapsed After Start of Equalization 293.1. Neutralization Accomplished by Mixing of Wastes 363.2. Nomograph for Treatment of Acid Wastes: A Chart for Determining

the Amount of Alkaline Agent Needed 393.3. Submerged-Combustion Pilot Unit as Used by Remy and Lauria (1958) 413.4. Acid Required to Neutralize Industrial Wastes in Sewer 424.1. Effect of Equalization 464.2. Top View of an Equalizing Basin, with Perforated Inlet Pipe

and Over-and-Under Baffles 464.3. Side View of an Equalizing Basin, with Mechanical Agitators Instead

of Baffles 474.4. Waste-Metering System 494.5. Effect of Proportioning 505.1. Effect of (A) Doubling the Floor Area and (B) Halving the Depth

of a Settling Basin 555.2. Effect of Overflow Rate on BOD Removal 565.3. Flocculation Increases Settling Rate 565.4. Effect of Turbulence on Particle Path 575.5. (A) Fast and Good Settling Characteristics Typical of Heavy Suspended

Solids. (B) Medium and Normal Settling Characteristics Typical ofHomogeneous Mixture of Solids. (C) Slow and Poor Settling Characteristics Typical of Highly Colloidal and Finely Divided Solids 57

5.6. Inlet Zone of a Circular Tank (A) Occupies 20–40% of Tank Area. InletZone of a Rectangular Tank (B) Occupies only 10–15% of Tank Area 57

5.7. (A) Circulator Tank. (B) Square Tank 585.8. Typical Dispersion Curves for Various Tanks (see text for explanation).

The Vertical Axis Shows the Ratio of the Actual Concentration of Contaminant (C) to the Concentration of Contaminant Mixed with the Entire Tank Volume (Co); the Horizontal Axis Shows the Ratio of the Actual Time (t) that a Concentration Takes to Reach the End of the Tank to (T), the Total Detention Period (vol/rate) (Adapted from Camp 1953.) 59

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5.9. Graphical Analysis of Settling Test Results 635.10. Rate of Rise of Air Bubbles in Tap Water (Calculated by Means of

Stoke’s Law) as a Function of Bubble Size 685.11. Solubility of Air in Distilled Water at Various Temperatures 705.12. Methods of Dissolved-Air Flotation. (A) Adhesion of a Gas Bubble

to a Suspended Liquid or Solid Phase. (B) The Trapping of Gas Bubbles in a Floc Structure as the Gas Bubbles Rise. (C) The Absorption and Adsorption of Gas Bubbles in a Floc Structure as the Floc Structure is Formed (Adapted from Vrablik 1960) 71

5.13. Schematic Drawing of Pressure Flotation System 715.14. North Water Filter 725.15. The 48-inch-Diameter Sweco Separator Shown Is Screening Lint from

Wastewater at the Eastern Overall Company, in Baltimore, Maryland. The Wastewater Is Fed onto the 60-Mesh Market-Grade Screen at a Rate of 300 gpm. The Screened Wastewater is Discharged to the Sewer (Photograph Courtesy Sweco, Inc., Los Angeles, California) 73

5.16. Cutaway View of a 71⁄2-Foot-Diameter Microstrainer 746.1. Effect of Colloidal Type on Viscosity 806.2. Stable Colloid 836.3. (A) Granula-Carbon Reactivation Cycle. (B) Adsorber Configuration

for Granular Carbon Waste Treatment 857.1. Typical Dialysis Flow Diagram 927.2. The Desalination Process Using Energy Recovery and Artificial

Intelligence Control 988.1. The Role of Algae in Stabilization Ponds 1088.2. Accelerated-Oxidation Pilot-Plant Basins 1098.3. Schematic Diagram of Step-Aeration Treatment. Step I, High

Sludge Seed (4,000 ppm); Step II, 2,000 ppm; Step III, 1,000 ppm; Step IV, 800 ppm 112

8.4. Sphaerotilus-Like Organism, Sheathed and Unsheathed (×620) 1148.5. Round-Ended Rods in a Capsule of Slime (×620) 1158.6. Effect of Temperature on Average BOD Reduction of a Synthetic

Protein–Glucose Waste, Using a Dispersed-growth Aeration System, After 24 Hours of Aeration and No Settling 115

8.7. Schematic Arrangement of Contact-Stabilization Process 1168.8. Complete-Mixing Activated-Sludge System 1178.9. Changes in Nitrogen Occurring in Filter 1208.10. Diagram of Experimental Controlled-Filtration System 1228.11. Single-Stage Trickling Filter (with Recirculation) 1238.12. Two-Stage Series-Parallel Biofiltration Process 1238.13. Schematic Arrangement of Wet-Combustion–Process Units 1248.14. Typical Cavitator System 1268.15. Typical Surface Equipment for Deep-Well Waste Injection from

Waste Sump Underground 127

xvi List of Figures

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List of Figures xvii

8.16. Typical Injection Well 1288.17. A Column Foam Fractionator 1318.18. Typical Layout of an Oxidation Ditch Treatment Plant 1328.19. A Comparison of Unit Disposal Costs 1338.20. Rotating Biological Contractor (RBC) Disc System 1349.1. Reduction of Volatile Matter in Raw Sludge by Digestion 1539.2. (A) The Coilfilter, a Aatented Machine for the Vacuum Filtration of

Sludge. This Particular Machine, in Use Since 1953 at the Sewage-Treatment Plant at St. Charles, Illinois, has Filtering Media Made up of Two Layers of Alloy Steel Coiled Springs, Each Spring Made Endless by Joining Its Two Ends with a Threaded Plug. These Springs Discharge the Filter Cake After Each Revolution of the Cylinder and Are Then Washed Before They Reenter the Vat for Another Cycle. The Material at the Left, Which Looks Like a Length of Corduroy, Is Actually a Layer of Sludge (adapted from Komline-Sanderson EngineeringCorp.) (B) Schematic Drawing of the Coilfilter Shown in (a) (CourtesyKomline-Sanderson Engineering Corp.) 155

9.3. Effect of Elutriation on FeCl3 Required for Conditioning of Sludge 1569.4. Schematic Diagram of the Zimpro Process for Sewage-Sludge Oxidation 1609.5. Apparatus for the Atomized-Suspension Technique 1629.6. Effect of Stack Temperature on Thermal Efficiency 1639.7. Flow Diagram for Heat Balance for a Flash-Drying and

Incineration System 1649.8. Centrifuge Bowl Schematic 1669.9. Schematic Plan of Thickener Mechanism and Section of Tank 170

10.1. Twelve Alternatives of Industrial-Waste Treatment Systems 17610.2. Allocation of Fixed Charges on the Intercepting Sewers 19610.3. Allocation of Fixed Costs for Treatment Plant 19710.4. Cayadutta Creek 19910.5. Population Growth of Gloversville and Johnstown 20010.6. Laboratory BODs for Stations 5 and 6 at 20˚C. Each Point

Represents an Average of Seven Samples Collected from the Creek on 7 Different Days at Different Times of Day, All During a Drought Flow Period (October 8–18, 1964) 204

10.7. Minimum Flow of Cayadutta Creek and Expected Recurrence of This Level 207

10.8. BOD Reduction Required at Station 5, at 12.4˚C and 2 ppm DO Remaining and Based on a Waste Discharge of 23,750 lb/day 214

10.9. Special Design curve for Computing Treatment Plant Requirements at 12.4˚C and 2 ppm DO at Station 5 214

10.10. Activated-Sludge Treatment: BOD Reduction Related to BOD Loading 22710.11. Field Prototype of the Gloversville–Johnstown Joint Treatment Plant 22910.12. Line Diagram and Hydraulic Profile of the Gloversville–Johnstown

Joint Waste–Water Treatment Plant 23410.13. General View of the Gloversville–Johnstown Joint Treatment Plant 235

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11.1. Definition of a Solid Waste 24611.2. Definition of a Hazardous Waste 24711.3. Special Provisions for Certain Hazardous Waste 24811.4. Regulations for Hazardous Waste Not Covered in Diagram 3 24911.5. Wood-Preserving Processes 26311.6. Mobile PCBX unit 27211.7. Supersorbon Solvent Recovery 27411.8. Thermal Decontamination Process flow Diagram 28211.9. Flameless Thermal Oxidizer 28811.10. Typical System 28911.11. Typical System 29011.12. An Installation 29111.13. Soil and Groundwater Detoxification System 30911.14. Detoxifier System 31011.15. Waste Management Services Listing Form 31311.16. Material Available/Wanted Listing Form 31411.17. Separation of Hazardous Wastes Using Membrane Filtration 31611.18. RCRA TSD Part B Permit Application 32411.19. U.S. EPA Office Locations 32511.20. EPA Process Permit Flowsheet 32612.1 Treatment of Waste Gases 35616.1. Mass Flow Diagram of a Free-Standing Fertilizer Plant 38116.2. Clean Environment Surrounding the Plants 38316.3. Free-Standing Cement Plant 38516.4. Mass Flow Diagram of a Free-Standing Cement Plant 38616.5. Mass Flow Diagram of a Fertilizer-Cement Complex 38616.6. Production of Hydrogen by Electric Disassociation of Water 39717.1A. Dry and Wet Processing 40817.1B. Dry and Wet Processing 40917.2A. Cement–Fertilizer–Municipal Complex 41017.2B. Environmentally Balanced Fertilizer-Cement Plant Complex Phase 41117.3. Schematic Diagram Environmentally Balanced Phosphate–Fertilizer–Cement

Industrial Complex 41317.4A. Three-Industry Complex: Tannery–Slaughterhouse–Rendering 41517.4B. Three-Industry Complex: Tannery–Slaughterhouse–Rendering 41617.5. Raw Sugar Manufacturer-Flow Diagram 41917.6. Sugarcane Refinery-Based EBIC (Sugarcane–Power–Alcohol Complex) 42017.7. Sugarcane Production 42217.8. Current Sugar–Mill Situation 42417.9. Environmentally Balanced Sugarcane Complex 42817.10. Diagram of the Integrated Five-Plant Industrial Complex 43117.11. Pulp and Paper Mill Complex 43517.12. Paper Mill Complex 43918.1. Wood–Paper Mill Complex 445

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18.2. Steel Mill–Coke and Gas Plant Complex 44718.3. Metal Parts–Plastic Plant Complex 44818.4. Metal Finishing–Plastic Manufacturing Complex 44918.5. Organic Chemical–Wood Preserving Plants Complex 45018.6. Organic Chemical–Wood Preserving Plants Complex 45118.7. Biomass Power Plant–Municipal–Forestry–Agriculture Complex 45218.8. Steel Mill–Fertilizer–Cement Complex 45418.9. Schematic Diagram of a Typical Rotary Steam Kiln Boiler 45718.10A. Schematic Flow Diagram of the EBIC for Power Plant Industry 45818.10B. Simple Coal Power Plant Complexes 46018.11. Flowchart for Polystyrene Production 46318.12. Tubular Reactor Process for Low-Density Polyethylene Production 46418.13. Philips Process for High-Density Polyethylene Production 46518.14. Plastic Manufacturing Industrial Complex 46718.15. Fluosolids System (Dorr-Oliver, Inc.) 46818.16. Cement, Power, and Lime Flowchart 46918.17. Lumber Mill Complex—Four Products 47118.18. Power Plant-Agriculture Complex 47218.19. Cannery-Agriculture Complex 47418.20. Nuclear Power–Glass Block Complex 47518.21. Feedlot–Food Production Complex 47818.22. Gas-Producing Plants 48018.23. Flow Chart of Dilute Alcohol Production 48118.24. Water, Electricity, Chlorine, and Lye Plants Complex 48318.25. Power-Aluminium-Red Brick Plants Complex 48418.26. Corn Food–Alcohol Production Complex 48618.27. Restaurant-Paint Manufacturing Complex 48818.28. Oil Drilling Offshore-Seashore Recreation Complex 49018.29. Metal Plant-Dry Cleaning-Coffee Plant Complex 49118.30. Electrical Storing/Converting Voltage–Wax Plant Complex 49318.31. Nuclear Power–Waste Recovery–Cannery Complex 49518.32. Coal Power Plant-Desalination Water Plant Complex 49718.33. Vegetable Pickling Cannery–Inorganic Chemical Complex 49818.34. Sugar–Ethanol–Gasoline Complex 50018.35. Reclaimed Wireless Phones–Cement Plant–Concrete Products Plant 50218.36. Sugarcane-Fuel Briquette Complex 50418.37. Hog Production–Animal Feed Energy-Environmental Complex 50518.38. Seawater Desalination Plant–Borax Plant Complex 50618.39. Cow Feed lot–Power Plant–Fertilizer Complex 50718.40. Reused Plastic Waste–Consumer Products Complex 50818.41. Lumbar–Textile–Corngrowing–Alcohol Producing Industrial Complex 51019.1. Schematic Diagram of One Type of Municipal-Industrial Complex 51619.2. Municipal Waste Water–Agriculture (Food) Complex 51719.3A. Lake Industry–Village Complex 519

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19.3B. Food-Electricity and Water Production Plant 52120.1 The Industrial Ecosystem at Kalundborg, Denmark 52821.1. Unit Price Calculation 53621.2. Sales Values, Treatment Costs, and Sales Indices of the Pulp and

Paper Industry 541

xx Twentieth Century

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