biology 8 anti-Semitism, biological racial

theory and 75 – 6 biological criteria, race and 8 biologising, process of, cultural

racism and 117 Boas and separation of culture and

85 – 6 , 87 culture and, defi ning features of

race 6 key aspect of racial thinking 63 racial defi nitions based on 5 racial thinking and 65 – 7 , 75 – 6 , 81

bio-power 63 Black Death 33 black Liverpool, geographies of race

in 207 – 10 black reaction to racial theory 79 – 80 blackness as transnational construct

137 blanco (white) 39 blood 20 , 130 , 218

‘clean blood’ 32 – 4 , 41 , 192 kinship and 73 , 122 ‘native blood’ 77 sexuality and 62 – 4 sharing blood 60 symbolics of 62 , 63

Blumenbach, Johann 67 on human classifi cation 67

bodily differences 20 – 1 bodily fl uids, bodies shaped by 42 bodily substance, conceptions of 10 Bolivia

mixed populations in 138 mixed race people in, positivity

about 138 Bonnivard, Odile 198 Bornu (northern Nigeria), black

African Muslim king of 35 Bradford, Asian population of 199 Brazil 44

affi rmative action on racism in 151 – 2

Afro-Brazilian religious practices 137

anthropology academic teaching of 86 culture concept, Boas and 86 – 7 scientifi c racism, critiques from 88

anti-racism in Europe 195 – 7 anti-racist legislation in Europe 107 anti-racist legislation in Europe

adoption of 195 Anti-Semitic League 75 anti-Semitism, biological racial

theory and 75 – 6 appearance, issues related to 7 Argentina, los negros terminology in

127 Aristotle 18 , 29 , 30 Aryan race 87 Asian gangs in London 205 – 7 Asian Leicester 204 – 5 assisted reproductive technologies

(ARTs) 122 – 4 Atlantic slave trade 9 Australia

Aboriginal land in 61 Aborigines in 68 adoption policy in 125 asylum-seekers in 113 censuses in, ‘ethnic’ enumerations

in 108 non-white immigration,

restrictions on 115 racial immigration policies of 113 terminology of racism in 2

Avicenna 34 Aztec empire 38

Baartman, Sara, case study of 69 – 71 Bacon, Francis 54

Baconian science 55 The Bell Curve (Herrnstein, R. and

Murray, C.) 93 Bermuda, censuses in, ‘ethnic’

enumerations in 108 Bidil (heart disease drug) 96 biological determinism 78

notions of 86 biological difference 5 , 20

Abraham, race of 67 advertising difference, Nike campaign

(1995) 212 affi rmative action 2 , 93 , 108 , 151 ,

155 , 160 , 161 , 169 , 184 , 185 , 186 , 188 , 189 , 190

Afonso Arinos Act (Brazil, 1951) 3 Africa

black racial groups in 2 Bushman (Boschiman) 70 , 72 imperialism in 16 independence for nations in 88 ‘scramble for’ 59 see also South Africa

Afro-Cuban brujos (sorcerers, ‘fetishists’) 80

Agassiz, Louis 72 Algerians in France 210 – 13 Amaru, Andrés Tupac 48 Amazonian alterity (otherness) 9 ,

13 – 14 American Anthropological

Association   88 American Declaration of

Independence 16 American Journal of Physical

Anthropology 92 Amerindian facial hair 42 Les Amis des Noirs (The Friends of

the Blacks) 61 anatomy as location of racial

difference 70 ancestry

concerns with 32 English ideas of whiteness and

darkness and 36 genomic diversity and 97 – 8 in Latin America, colonial

emphasis on 47 Andean challenges to Spanish

rule 48 Andean practices of performance and

embodiment 158 – 9 Anguilla, censuses in, ‘ethnic’

enumerations in 108 animism 87

iNDeX

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250 index

independence for 59capitalism, exploitation of labour

and 16Caribbean

British possessions in, indepen-dence for 59

English colonies in 46slave trade in 56

Carmichael, Stokely 169Cashinhua of Brazil 13–14Caspar, King of the Moors 35castas (breeds or types) 38–41

casta paintings 41caste and race

common elements as systems of classification 11

Cox’s perspective on 11castizo (Spanish–mestizo parentage)

41categorisation

categories for ‘colour or race’ in Brazil 128–9

collective categorisation, colour as basis for 39

of race, complex nature of 9censuses

in Anguilla 108in Australia 108in Bermuda 108in Brazil 108in Britain 108in Canada 108census nomenclature in Brazil 2census terminology in United

States 4‘ethnic’ enumerations in 108in Jamaica 108in Latin America 108in Saint Lucia 108in United States 108United States Bureau of Census 2

Césaire, Aimé 118Chile, immigration restrictions,

lifting of 113China

acceptance of validity of race in 92–3

‘barbarians’ and alien groups in 12inter-country adoptees from 125Japanese victory over (1894–5) 73physical composition and cul-

tural disposition in Chinese antiquity 12

stereotypes in, development of 12Western ideas, adoption of 13zu and zhong in 9, 11–13, 14–15

chola (acculturated indigenous woman) in Andes 149, 158–9

‘choleric’ humour (yellow bile) 42Christianity

black African connection with 35

anti-racist objectives of government 109

censuses in, ‘ethnic’ enumerations in 108

Children Act (1989) 125Commonwealth Immigrants Act

(1962) 114conviviality in 198‘driving while black’ (DWB) 112Elizabethan beauty standards 36English classification of Africans 36genomic project: People of the

British Isles 102ghettos in 199–200growth of immigration in 194Human Fertilisation and

Embryology Authority 122–3illegal immigrants, focus on 115immigrants in 195Immigration Act (1971) 114immigration history of 114immigration policies in 194integration in, factors militating

against 198Islamic extremism in, threat of 219Justice Ministry in 111Metropolitan Police, London 111

‘institutional racism’ charge against 111, 131

moral qualities of black Africans, English theories about 36

Nationality Act (1948) 114Nationality Act (1981) 114, 195naturalisation of culture in 5official discourse of 4racial and ethnic inequality in 197racial disparities in justice system

of 112racial inequality in 197recognition of multiculturalist

difference in 196terminology of ghetto in 200terminology of racism in 2Victorian society in, contradictions

of class and gender in 74–5British Empire, colonialism of 59British Nationality Act (1981) 114, 195Buffon, George

on human classification 67Burakumin in Japan 73Bureau of American Ethnology 86Burgersdicius, Franco 54Burma (Myanmar), independence

for 88Bushman (Boschiman) 70, 72

Canadaanti-racist objectives of

government 109censuses in, ‘ethnic’ enumerations

in 108

Brazil (cont.)Barbarians (social clique) at UERJ

153binary racial difference (white–

black racial binary) 154, 155census nomenclature in 2censuses in, ‘ethnic’ enumerations

in 108consumption habits of rich

students, discriminative aspects of 153–4

demographics, statistics and 150–1descriptive colour terms in 151domestic service in 149genetic ancestry in 97–8independence for 58Latin America 150–5law faculty Athletic Society at

UERJ 154lessons from 155mestiçagem, difference and 151–2mixed populations in 101, 138mixed race people in, positivity

about 138‘money whitens’ in 127Neguinho da Beija Flor: black or

white? 101official discourse of 4official statistics, key points from

150plastic surgery for ‘Negroid nose’

in 127–8race and class, connection of 153race-based affirmative actions,

debates over 151racial difference and racial mixture,

simultaneous coexistence of 151racial discrimination in 150racial immigration policies of 113racial inequality in 150racial quotas in practice 152–4residential racial segregation in 151Rio de Janeiro, State University of

(UERJ) 152–4Secretariat for Policies Promoting

Racial Equality (SEPPIR) 108slavery in

abolition of 138importance of 56

Statute of Racial Inequality (2010) 108

breeding, notion of 27Britain

Adoption and Children Act (2002) 125

Afro-Caribbean immigrants in 199ancestry of, diversity in 102anti-immigration political parties

in 198, 215successes of 198

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exclusion and enumeration by race 110–16

immigration to Europe and 194–5conviviality 198Copernicus, Nicolaus 54criminal justice, control and 111–12criollos (locally born people) 39, 41, 48Cuba 44, 59

Afro-Cuban brujos (sorcerers, ‘fetishists’) 80

immigration restrictions, lifting of 113

independence for 58Independent Party of Colour in 80post-revolutionary racism in 189slavery in, abolition of 138slavery in, importance of 56

cultivated reason, civility and 61cultural background 1‘cultural censorship’ 139cultural essentialism 117

examples of 118–19Négritude 118poverty, culture of 119

cultural fundamentalism 117‘cultural minorities’, racism and 4cultural racism 27

addressing question of 6assisted reproductive technologies

(ARTs) 122–4biologising, process of 117categories for ‘colour or race’ in

Brazil 128–9contesting concept of 117–19control, exclusion and enumerat-

ing by race 110–16criminal justice, control and

111–12culture, everyday world of 117–19definition of race and 9distinction between ladino and

indio in Guatemala 129enumerating by race 131era of 5essentialising, process of 117football racism 106immigration, control and 113–16,

131inheritance and body in Colombia

129–30institutional presence of race 107,

131interracial adoption 125–6Latin America, examples from

126–30medical practice, use of racial

categories in 109mixed-race people 120–2multiculturalism, ‘inclusion’ and

enumerating by race 107–10naturalising, process of 117

‘money whitens’ in 127mulatos, categorisation as 148poverty

regional variations in 146–7structural association of

blackness with 146race

categorical distinctions of 148moral discourse about 147

racial discrimination in 139–43regional processes, direct racial

discrimination and 146–7segregation, patterns of 145settlements in, consolidation of

nuclei in 142–3sexual relations, mestizaje and 148small towns in, racial discrimina-

tion in 139social hierarchy 146social movements in 144–5stereotyping 141, 147structural disadvantage in 145structural inequality 145–7Unguía, locus of mestizaje in 141,

147, 148urban communities in, racial

discrimination in 141–3white domination, process of

colonisation and 141whiteness, moral association of 147

colonialismcolonial categories of race 47–50colonial Europeans 191colonies, empires and racial

thinking 58–9, 81colonised others, division of white

Europeans from 192commodities for Europe, colonial

production of 191‘ethnic’ enumerations and 108Fanon’s perspective on race

and 16innatist racial theories and 68practices of racial thinking and 81regimes in Latin America, nature

of 138role in Foucault’s analysis of

racism 64sexual mixture, narrative of 101Western modernity and 15World War II and post-war decolo-

nisation 87–8coloniality 17, 22Commission for Racial Equality (UK)

196common humanity, ideal of 16concept of race 1, 3Condon, Paul 131conquest 7control

enumeration by race 131

in Europe, anti-Jewish sentiment in 19

Jews as problem for 32unity of humans in, ideas about 58

chronology of race 3–4citizenship in Europe 195–7class and race 136

class differences, racial thinking and 73

in Latin America 145–7, 151, 153

in United States 164classification of race 4–6

comparisons of classificatory practices 9–15

criteria for 20historical perspectives on 8–9

Colombia 139–49Afro-Colombian population,

recognition for 144Antioqueños of 140–1, 142, 143,

147–8black and indigenous communi-

ties, displacement of 145blackness in

positivity about 147public profile of 144–5

Cali, overt racial discrimination in 145

Chocoanos of 140–3, 147Costeños of 140–1, 147country of regions 139direct racial discrimination 145domestic service in 149economic stratification of 140ethnic and racial exclusiveness,

Antioqueños’ tendency towards 140

exploitative development in coastal region 144

family relations, mestizaje and 148¡Hola! magazine, depiction of elite

family life 149housing market, racial discrimina-

tion in 142infant mortality, regional varia-

tions in 146jobs, racial discrimination in

market for 142Law 70 (1993) in 144Medellin, Chocó migration to

141–2, 148mestizaje, domestic service and 149mestizaje (‘mixture’ of origins,

peoples and cultures), racism and 147–9

mixed populations in 101, 138mixed-race people in, positivity

about 138mixture and racism, simultaneity

of 148

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252 index

anti-discrimination legislation, race in 195

anti-racism 195–7anti-racist legislation, adoption

of 195Asian gangs in London 205–7Asian Leicester 204–5black Liverpool, geographies of

race in 207–10Bradford, Asian population of 199British Nationality Act (1981) 195Christian Europe, anti-Jewish

sentiment in 19citizenship 195–7colonial Europeans 191colonised others, division of white

Europeans from 192Commission for Racial Equality

(UK) 196commodities for, colonial produc-

tion of 191control, immigration and 194–5conviviality 198cultures, people caught between 200diaspora, place and 208, 209foreign-born populations 193‘fortress Europe’ 194geographies of race in black

Liverpool 207–10Germany, immigrants in 195histories of race in 191–2immigration, race and nation in

191, 214–15immigration, tensions created by

192–4intergenerational conflicts 201intermarriage 200internal history to race in 192Leicester, Asian population of 199,

204–5Leicestershire, white Britons in

201–4‘Liverpool-born black’ (LBB) people

208–9London, Asian gangs in 205–7Maritime Museum in Liverpool 208minority groups, integrative

ambitions of 193–4minority reaction to racial

inequality 199multiculturalism 195–7

key debates about 196legislation on 195

Muslim umma (transnational religious community) 201

national security, immigration seen as threat to 192

National Union of Seamen (NUS), efforts against black seamen 208

networks of material and intellec-tual exchange 191

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 90, 94–5, 97, 99

collection and storing of 105, 112forensic genetics 102–3Y-chromosome DNA 100

domestic service in Latin America 149‘domesticity, cult of’ 73domination 7Dominican Republic 59Du Bois, W. E. B. 79Dühring, Eugen 75Durkheim, Émile 26Dutch East Indies 77

economic class, social construction of 91

EcuadorIVF treatment in 124mixed populations in 138mixed-race people in, positivity

about 138pishtaco in, symbol of whiteness,

dominance and rapaciousness 159

race as physical reality, notion in 158racial difference, enactment of

158–9Egypt in antiquity 17, 28elites in Latin America, status

and 44embeddedness of race 218–21

in social processes 160Encyclopædia Britannica (1798

edition), entry for ‘Negro’ in 66English Defence League 110Enlightenment 53

ideals of 16environment

environmental adaptation 6inheritance and 76racial thinking and 65–7

environmentalism 66, 84naturalising form of explanation 66

essentialisation, process of 117Ethiopians 17, 28, 35, 70ethnic diversity, state recognition

of 109ethnic enumerations 107–8ethnicity

‘ethnic group’ and, use of terminol-ogy of 83, 89

Hall on current concepts in 119institutional racial thinking and 107

ethnocentrism 6, 13, 18Ethnological Society of London 86eugenics, era of 53

eugenic practices 18racial thinking 78–9

Europeadoptees in population of 125Algerians in France 210–13

cultural racism (cont.)race in an era of culture, recogni-

tion of 106–7race–kinship congruity 119–20racialised body in Latin America

127–8science, society and 105–6theories of 118–19transnational adoption 125–6

culturalist discourses 83culture

Boas and separation of biology and 85–6, 87

colour and, ties between 5everyday world of, cultural racism

and 117–19nature and racial thinking 76–7people caught between two

cultures 200Cuvier, Georges 66, 70

perspective on classification of humans 66

Damas, Léon 118Darwin, Charles 72, 84, 85

impact of thinking of 69Declaration of the Rights of Man and

the Citizen (1789) 61decoloniality 17definition of race

cultural racism and 9problem of 1, 20–2

Defoe, Daniel 102‘degeneration’, stigma of 77demographic density in Latin

America 44Descartes, René 26, 54Details of Calculation and Recording

(Pacioli, 1494) 55diasporas

place and 208, 209transnational diasporas 201

discriminationBrazil, racial discrimination in 150Cali, overt racial discrimination

in 145Colombia, racial discrimination in

139–43direct racial discrimination in

Colombia 145Europe, racial discrimination in

198institutional prohibition of 107institutional racism 111, 131Israeli discrimination against

Palestinians 20Law Against Racism and All Forms of

Discrimination (Bolivia, 2010) 3diversity

official recognition of 109of racial thinking 64

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gender relations 21racial thinking and 51

genes (genetic particles) 85genetic ancestry 101

race and 98–9genetic difference, question of 95genetic profiles

gene flows and 95social criteria and 100

geneticspopulation and 84–5race and 94–6

genomic data, analysis of 96–7genomic mixture, circulation of

images of 101genomic research on mestizo people

100genomics

nation, gender and sex in racialised genomics 100–3

racialising of populations and 96–9

geographies of race in black Liverpool 207–10

Germanyconcentration camps 88cultural particularity in, ideas

about 75immigrants in 195Nazi ‘Germanisation’ of 87political vocabulary of racism in 4‘race’, use of term in language of

107unification of (1871) 75Volksgeist (folk spirit or soul) 75Volkskunde and Ethnologie in 86

gestational surrogacy 124Ghana 137Gliddon, George 76, 81

types of mankind 67–8globalisation of race 221–3Gould, Stephen J. 93Gove, Michael 219governance, power and 62–3Great Chain of Being 55Greece in antiquity 17, 27–31

acquired characteristics, inheri-tance of 29

black Africans, slavery of 28black Africans, visual images of 28conflicting interpretations from

28–9distinctions based on lifestyles

28–9environmental theories 29heredity, theories about 29lessons from 30–1nomos, rule of 28physis, laws of 28

Guadeloupe, independence for 59Guam 59, 88

cultural difference in, institution-alisation of 211

cultural exclusivity in 210–11Educational Priority Zones (ZEPs)

in 197ghettos in 199–200headscarf controversy in 213Holocaust denial in 195illegal immigrants, focus on 115immigrants in 195immigration policies in 194integration in, factors militating

against 198National Assembly on ‘race’ in

state legislation 107National Front in 219political vocabulary of racism in 4principle of laïcité (secularism) in

213‘race’, use of term in language of

107racial and ethnic inequality

in 197racial inequality in 197rejection of multiculturalism in

196religion in 212–13

Franco-Prussian war (1870) 75Freeman, Cathy 94French Revolution 16, 61, 75Freyre, Gilberto 138Frontex security agency 195further research, suggestions for

biology, culture and genomics 104cultural racism 131–2Europe, immigration and nation

in 215human variation 52Latin America, mixture and racism

in 160race 22race, introduction to 22racial thinking, Enlightenment to

eugenics 82South Africa, segregation and

desegregation in 190United States, segregation and

desegregation in 190future of race 223–4

Gaitskell, Hugh 114Galileo 54Galton, Francis 76, 78–9gender

mixture and regional variation 43–7

social construction of 91gender differences 6

race and 73–5gender dimension in late Victorian

Britain 73

Notting Hill Carnival in London 199

post-colonial migration in, issues of 192–4

Race Relations Act (UK, 1965) 195racial discrimination 198racial inequality in 197–8

minority reaction to 199racial stock 192residential segregation 199–200Schengen Information System 194segregation 199–200seventeenth-century ‘race wars’ 192Solidarité des Français 198South Asian Youth Organisation

(SAYO) 206–7spatial isolation 211–12Switzerland, immigrants in 195translocal and diasporic

connections 211–12transnational connections 194transnational diasporas 201Visa Information System 194see also Britain; France

European colonialism 4, 9Hall’s perspective on 16

European imperialism, second wave of 59

European Union (EU) 194, 215, 222European elections 219Positive/Negative list 194race in, material on 219

Europeans, encounters with new worlds 64

evolutionbiological processes of 86evolutionary history 6organic and ‘super-organic’,

Kroeber and 86‘exotic’ specimens, display of 70explicit naming of race 53exploitation, expendability and 17Eysenck, Hans 93

facial features 6flexible bodies and natures 42–3food

food practices, embeddedness of race in ideas about 136–7

role in Spanish colonies 42–3football racism 106foreign-born populations in Europe

193forensic genetics, race and 102–3‘fortress Europe’ 194France

adoptees in population of 125Algerians in 210–13anti-immigration political parties

in 198, 215successes of Europe 198

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254 index

European ideas of race, impact in 10independence for 88race-like essentialism of caste 11

indios (indigenous peoples)categorisation as 39, 48enslavement of 38–9

Indonesia, independence for 88inequality, justification for 61–2inferiority, group ranking on basis

of 5‘infrahumanity’ 16inheritance and body in Colombia

129–30institutional presence of race 107,

131interbreeding in Latin America 38intergenerational conflicts 201intermarriage in Europe 200International HapMap Consortium

97, 99interracial adoption 125–6interracial sex, prejudices against 120IQ (Intelligence Quotient) 93Irish

English attitudes towards 73linking to Africans 71

Islamic empire 34black African slavery, justification

for 35conquest and enslavement,

practices of 35Israeli discrimination against

Palestinians 20Italy, adoptees in population of 125

Jamaica, censuses in, ‘ethnic’ enumerations in 108

Japanadoption policy in 125imperialism and colonialism of

59, 73influence of European racial theory

on 72Japanese empire 88race-nation concept in 73

Jefferson, Thomas 71, 81perspective on differences between

blacks and whites 65Jensen, Arthur 93Jewish–Christian marriage, laws

banning 32Jewish race, ideas of 20Jewishness 34

racial thinking and 20Judaism, colour in ancient texts of 18

Kamin, Leon 93Kazakhstan, independence for 88King, Martin Luther 169King, Rodney 112kinship–race congruity 119–120

subordination and inferiority, conquest and ideas of 51

human diversityDarwin and understanding of 69engrained notions of 30–1environmental theories of 28Greek ideas about 30historical perspectives on 84ideas about 25intellectual ideas about, changes

in 64moral–cultural traits 30

human genetic variation 95Human Genome Diversity Project

100Human Genome Project 84, 90, 94human rationality 54Hume, David 71, 81

perspective on inferiority of some peoples 65

Huxley, Julian 89Huxley, Thomas 72

Iberians in Latin America, attitudes of 46

Ibn Khaldun 34ideological bases for racism and race

221immigration

Boas’s anthropometric work on immigrants 85

control and, cultural racism and 113–16, 131

DNA testing, use of 116illegal immigrants, focus on 115policy on, legitimisation on basis

of security 116race and nation in Europe 191,

214–15restrictions in Latin America, lifting

of 113tensions created in Europe by

192–4white and non-white, issues in

Latin America of 136imperialism

driven power of 59enslavement and 64imperial culture, inquisitors and 41racial thinking and 59role in Foucault’s analysis of

racism 64‘impurity’, caste status and 10Inca empire 38Incan ideas 48indentured labour 57India

adoption policy in 125British and racial theory in 72caste in 9–11, 14–15caste system and race in 10

Guatemalaanti-racism and cultural difference,

discourse in 157Chimaltenango, Hale’s ethnogra-

phy of 155, 156–7civil war in 156genocidal repression and

‘disciplinary assimilation’ in 156indio permitido (authorised Indian)

156‘insurrectionary Indian’, power of

157ladino dominance, continuity of

156–7ladino victimhood, conception of

157ladinos (local term for a non-

indigenous person) in 155–6Latin America 155–8Maya activism in 157Maya communities in 155, 156Maya movement in 156mixed populations in 138mixed-race people in, positivity

about 138neoliberal multiculturalism in 156racial ambivalence, darker side of

157racial ambivalence in 155–8‘reverse racism’, accusations of 156

Guyane, independence for 59

Haddon, Alfred 89hair type 6Haiti 59

independence for 59Hawaii 59Herder, Johann von 75heredity

bodily differences and 21geography, Darwinian principles

and 84issues related to 7pre-genetic concepts of 7

Herrnstein, Richard 93hierarchy of races, evolutionist

thinking and idea of 69Hinduism 11Histoire naturelle des mammifères (Saint-

Hilaire, G. and Cuvier, G.) 70Hobbes, Thomas 54Homo, racial types defined as species

within genus 68Hong Kong, terminology of racism

in 2‘Hottentot Venus’ 69human biological variation, race

and 90human difference

arguments concerning 50skin colour and 51

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las tres razas (the three races) 99, 101whiteness in 135

Law Against Racism and All Forms of Discrimination (Bolivia, 2010) 3

Lawrence, Stephen 111, 198Le Pen, Marine 219Lebanon, independence for 88Leicester, Asian population of 199,

204–5Leicestershire, white Britons in 201–4liberalism

despotism and 62groups of people, differences of

condition between 62implicit obedience and 62liberal thought, coexistence with

inequalities 61liberty and problem at heart of 61racial thinking and 60–2

life, deployment of power over 63limpieza de sangre (cleanliness of the

blood) 41lineage and racial thinking 67–8Linnaeus, Carolus 55

on human classification 67‘Liverpool-born black’ (LBB) people

208–9Locke, John 54, 61London, Asian gangs in 205–7Lynn, Richard 93

Maimonides 34Malaya, independence for 88Malcolm X 169Mandela, Nelson 187Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The

Fallacy of Race (Montagu, A.) 89Maritime Museum in Liverpool 208Marr, William and Anti-Semitic

League 75Martinique, independence for 59Marxist theories of class and race 136masking and silencing of race 3materiality of race 158, 217medical genetics 96medical practice, use of racial

categories in 109medicine, genomics and 94–7medieval and early modern Europe

31–2Africans and others, views of 34–7ancestry 32black Africans and Christianity,

linking of 36blackness, ascription to climate

of 36blood and purity, medieval

concepts of 19, 33cultural characteristics, views

on transmission across generations 34

immigration restrictions, lifting of 113

imperial culture, inquisitors and 41

Inca empire 38indios (indigenous peoples)

categorisation as 39enslavement of 38–9

interbreeding in 38limpieza de sangre (cleanliness of

the blood) 41Marxist theories of class and race

136mestizaje, domestic service and 149mestizaje (‘mixture’ of origins,

peoples and cultures) in 138–9mestizaje (sexual and cultural

mixture) 40mestizo people in, genomic

research on 100mestizo (white–indigenous parent-

age) 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 45Mexican Inquisition 40morisco (Mexican description) 40mulato (product of black and white

union) 40, 41nation, gender and sex in racialised

genomics 100–3national identity, attempts to build

distinctiveness in 138negro, categorisation as 40New Granada (Colombia),

classificatory practices in 40parental categories, mixed

offspring of 44–5phlegmatic natures 42places as connected 137–8populations in, racialising of 97–9populations in, responsibility for

racialising of 99–100race in Andes communities 158–9racial categories 46–7

as relational 135racial divide in, bodies and 43racial identities in, definitional

difficulties on 138racial practices as relational 135–7raza cósmica (a ‘cosmic’, mixed

race), concept of 138raza (race) in 38–41regional patterns of gendered

mixture 46sexual relations between

Europeans and indigenous peoples 100

similarities with South Africa and United States 190

slave trade in 56slavery in 44

abolition of 138slaves, legal categorisation of 39

Knox, Robert 64, 81, 217Korea, Japanese colonial control

of 73Kroeber, A. L. 86Ku Klux Klan 110Kultur (culture) 75Kushites 17, 28Kyenge, Cécile 106

Laplanders 67Latin America

Afro-Brazilian religious practices 137

Amerindian facial hair 42ancestry in, colonial emphasis on 47Andean practices 158–9Aztec empire 38blackness as transnational

construct 137blanco (white) 39bodily fluids, bodies shaped by 42Brazil 150–5casta paintings 41castas (breeds or types) in 38–41castizo (Spanish–mestizo

parentage) 41censuses in, ‘ethnic’ enumerations

in 108chola (acculturated indigenous

woman) in Andes 149, 158–9

‘choleric’ humour (yellow bile) 42class and race 136collective categorisation, colour as

basis for 39Colombia 139–49colonial regimes in, nature of 138criollos (locally born people) 39, 41cultural racism, examples from

126–30demographic density in 44domestic service in 149elites in, status and 44flexible bodies and natures 42–3food, role in Spanish colonies 42–3food practices, embeddedness of

race in ideas about 136–7gender, mixture and regional

variation 43–5genomic mixture, circulation of

images of 101genomic research on mestizo

people in 100genomics and racialising of

populations in 97–9Guatemala 155–8‘hijo de tigre sale pintado’ (the son of

a tiger comes out striped) 119Iberians in, attitudes of 46immigration, white and non-white,

issues of 136

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natural selection, impact of theory of evolution by 69

‘natural slavery’, Aristotle’s defence of 29

‘naturalisation’focus on 5process of 27process of, cultural racism and 117

nature 7culture and race, racial thinking

and 76–7Jefferson’s perspective on 65

nature and culture 26–7anthropological perspectives on

26–7culture, emergence of 26–7domains of 26–7human nature 26Lévi-Strauss on 26nature–culture opposition 26–7science, culture and 27

Nazism 87, 88ideologies of 3racial theories of 20, 87racism and 88

anthropological criticism of 89subhuman races, identification of 87

negro, categorisation as 40networks of material and intellectual

exchange 191New Granada (Colombia) 44

classificatory practices in 40rule and classification, system in

48–9see also Colombia

New Worldblack slaves in 56coloniality and 37colonies in, independence for 58colonisation of 37–8race, white colour as key feature

of 37–8Western racial thinking and 19

Newton, Isaac 54optics of 55

Nicaragua 59Nike campaign (1995), advertising

difference 212nineteenth-century changes in racial

thinking 53Nkrumah, Kwame 137Nordic race 87North America

ancestry in United States, legality and 47

‘black’, strict and encompassing definitions of 46

bodies in, distinctive differences between 43

colonial rule in, weight of 49–50concubinage 45

monotheism 87Montagu, Ashley 89Montesquieu, Charles Louis de 71, 81Moors (Muslims) 32moral behaviour, bodily differences

and 21Morgan, Lewis Henry 86morisco (Mexican description) 40Morse, Edward S. 72Morton, Samuel 67

on human classification 67mulato (product of black and white

union) 40, 41multiculturalism

double-edged tool 110Europe 195–7ghettoisation and 110group identities and 110‘inclusion’ and enumerating by

race 107–10institutional domain, racial differ-

ence and 110key debates in Europe about 196legislation in Europe on 195multiculturalist educational

policies 110state multiculturalism, trend

towards 109Munby, Arthur 75

on contradictions of class and gender in Victorian society 74–5

Murray, Charles 93Musée de l’homme in France 70Musée d’ethnographie 86Muséum d’histoire naturelle 70Muslim umma (transnational

religious community) 201

nationgender and sex in racialised

genomics 100–3social construction of 91

‘Of National Characters’ (Hume, D.) 65national identity, attempts to build

distinctiveness in 138national security, immigration seen

as threat to 192National Union of Seamen (NUS),

efforts against black seamen 208nationalism

confrontation with 6development of 60‘organicist’ conception of national

belonging 118racial thinking and 60

nationalities, notion of racial kinship between 73

nationality 1natural phenomena, explanations

for 54natural rights, equality in 16

medieval and early modern Europe (cont.)

gender relations, sex and 32genealogical modes of reckoning 34genealogy, preoccupation with

31–2heretical beliefs, passing on of 34inheritance arrangements 31Islam, European preoccupation

with 36marital alliances 31race, emergence of term 32religious modes of reckoning 34

Mediterranean, Christian re-conquest of 35

Menchú, Rigoberta 156, 157Mendel, Gregor 85mestizaje (process of mixing origins

and cultures) 40, 138–9domestic service and 149

mestizo (people of white–indigenous parentage) 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 45

genomic research on 100Mexican–American war 59Mexican Inquisition 40Mexico

mixed populations in 101, 138mixed-race people in, positivity

about 138pre-Columbian populations in 97racial identification and skin colour

in 128Mill, John Stuart 61The Mind of Primitive Man (Boas, F.) 87minority groups in Europe, integrative

ambitions of 193–4minority reaction in Europe to racial

inequality 199minzoku (Japanese notion of

ethnicity) 72mitochondrial DNA 100Mitterrand, François 210, 212mixed-race people

Afrodeutsche (Afro-German) 121Belgian Congo, mulâtres in 121in Britain, narratives on 121China, húnxuer in 121cultural racism 120–2Deutsch–Türken (German–Turkish)

9, 121identification of 121Japan, hafu in 121métis (mixed) in Francophone

populations 121United States, ‘biracial’ or ‘multi-

racial’ people in 121modernity

projects of domination and 21–2race and, links between 16–17

monogamy 87monogenesis 68

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biology and culture as defining features of 6

capitalism, exploitation of labour and 16

caste andcommon elements as systems of

classification 11Cox’s perspective on 11

categorisation of, complex nature of 9

change and racial thinking 21chronology of 3–4class and 136class differences and 73classification of 4–6classificatory criteria 20colonial categories of 47–50colonialism

Fanon’s perspective on 16Western modernity and 15

comparisons of classificatory practices 9–15

concept of 1, 3‘cultural censorship’ on 139definition of, problem of 1, 20–2embeddedness 218–21

in social processes 160in era of culture, recognition of

106–7European colonialism and, Hall’s

perspective 16explicit naming of 53further research, suggestions for 22future of 223–4genetics and 94–6genomics and racialising of

populations 96–7globalisation of race 221–3Hannaford’s restrictive definition

of 31historical perspectives on classifica-

tion of 8–9in history of Western modernity 15ideological bases for racism and

race 221inward-looking history in Europe

of 192IQ (Intelligence Quotient) and 93masking and silencing of 3materiality of 158, 217medicine, genomics and 94–7modernity

links between race and 16–17projects of domination and 21–2

official discourse of 4persistence in science of 92–3post-WWII concept of 5practical bases for racism and

race 221race–kinship congruity 119–20racialising of populations 96–7

The Philadelphia Negro (Du Bois, W. E. B.) 79–80

Philippines 59independence for 88

Phillips, Trevor 196phlegmatic natures 42physical appearance 20

caste status and 10racial definitions based on 5

physical difference 5, 20assumptions of 8physical features, differences in 6racial classification and 6

physiological variation, scientific assessment of 53

Piaroa of Venezuela 13Plato 30Poland, acceptance of validity of race

in 92polygamy 87polygenesis 68polytheism 87populations in Latin America

racialising of 97–9responsibility for racialising of

99–100post-colonial migration in Europe,

issues of 192–4Powell, Enoch 114power

bio-power 63Black Power movement 169black powerlessness, structural

processes and 168governance, power and 62–3human encounters of 7imperialism, driven power of 59institutional life, power of race in

107‘insurrectionary Indian’, power of

157life, deployment of power over 63sovereign power 62

practical bases for racism and race 221Primitive Culture (Tylor, E. B.) 87promiscuity, progressions from 87proto-racism 15, 17, 18, 30, 31public opinion about race and

ethnicity 111public visibility of race 131Puerto Rico 59, 88

independence for 58pukakunga (red-necked bird) 48‘purity’, caste status and 10

q’ara (Quechua word meaning naked or bald) 48

qolla (Inca utopian brotherhood) 48

racein Andes communities 158–9

English colonists in 43gender, mixture and regional

variation 45–6gender ratios among whites 45‘Hispanic’ identity in 47mixture, gendered patterns of 45‘mulatto’ children in 45race and gender, inherent

interweaving of 49–50racial and sexual boundaries,

challenges to 49regional patterns of gendered

mixture 46sexual relations 45slave trade in 56slaves in 45social recognition of mixed

unions 45United States, racial categories in

46–7Norway

adoptees in population of 125inter-country adoptions 125–6

Notes on the State of Virginia (Jefferson, T.) 65, 81

Nott, Josiah 67–8, 76, 81Notting Hill Carnival in London 199Nubians 17, 28

official discourse of race 4Origin of Species (Darwin, C.) 69origins, race and 1Ortiz, Fernando 80

Pacific islands 88Pakistan, independence for 88Palestine

conflicts between Jews and Arabs in 20

Jewish–Arab violence in 88pan-Africanism 137Papua New Guinea 26Paraguay, immigration restrictions,

lifting of 113parental categories, mixed offspring

of 44–5parental genes 7Parisian banlieue (peripheral housing

estates) 199, 211, 212, 215patriarchal order 74Pena, Sergio 97–8permanence and fixity, assumptions

of 8persistence in science of race 92–3Peru 44

domestic service in 149mixed populations in 138mixed-race people in, positivity

about 138phenotypical difference 5, 20phenotypical variation 6

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258 index

natural selection, impact of theory of evolution by 69

nature, culture and race 76–7nineteenth-century changes in 53patriarchal order 74polygenesis 68racial theories

changes in 64pervasive impact of 81spread of 72

science and 54–5sexuality

anatomy, blackness and 71blood and 62–4

slavery, abolition of 57–8slavery and 55–8‘soft inheritance’ and, ideas about

77South East Asia, racial contagion

in 77–8‘survival of the fittest’ 69transition from slavery to abolition

and 58transitions in 54types and 67–8

racial typology theory 85development of 64

racialisation, Mignolo’s perspective on 17

racialised appearance, concerns with 120

racialised body in Latin America 127–8

racialising of populations 96–7racism

anti-Semitism and 19–20biological racism, state-driven 63confrontation with 6European roots of race and

racism 16Foucault’s perspective on 63group identification and 4Isaac’s perspective on 18, 31‘racial democracy’ and, coexistence

of 159‘scavenger ideology’ of 22Shanklin’s definition of 5terminology of 2

racist thinkingAfro-Cuban leadership against

racism 80scientific racism, retreat of 84

Ray, John 55raza cósmica (a ‘cosmic’, mixed race),

concept of 138raza (race) in Latin America 38–41relationality, race and 218–21religion, race and 1Renaissance 35reproductive success, traits

for 84–5

spread of, racial thinking and 72racial thinking 25, 30

anatomy as location of racial dif-ference 70

anti-Semitism, biological racial theory and 75–6

Baartman, Sara, case study of 69–71biology and 65–7, 75–6, 81biology as key aspect of 63black reaction to racial theory 79–80Blumenbach and human

classification 67Buffon and human classification 67class differences, race and 73colonial practices and 81colonies, empires and 58–9, 81culture, nature and race 76–7Cuvier’s perspective on classifica-

tion of humans 66Darwin, impact of thinking of 69‘degeneration’, stigma of 77diversity of 64‘domesticity, cult of’ 73environment and 65–7environment, inheritance and 76eugenics, era of 78–9gender differences, race and 73–5gender dimension in late Victorian

Britain 73gender relations and 51Gliddon’s types of mankind 67–8hierarchy of races, evolutionist

thinking and idea of 69Homo, racial types defined as

species within genus 68Hume’s perspective on inferiority

of some peoples 65identification of, difficulties with

106imperialism and 59inequality, justification for 61–2in institutional domain 106Japan, influence of European racial

theory on 72Jefferson’s perspective on differ-

ences between blacks and whites 65

liberalism and 60–2lineage and 67–8Linnaeus and human

classification 67minzoku (Japanese notion of

ethnicity) 72monogenesis 68Morton and human classification 67Munby and contradictions of class

and gender in Victorian society 74–5

nationalism and 60nationalities, notion of racial

kinship between 73

race (cont.)relational assemblages and 220relationality 218–21‘scientific facts’ about 27as social construction 90–1, 218spheres of, overlapping of 83sport and 93–4term and concept, power in institu-

tional life of 107terminology of 1theorisation of 217–18US racial categories 2in Western antiquity 17–19Western/Euro-American context

3, 9Western projects of modernity and

domination and 21–2see also class and race

Race and Culture Committee (UK) 88Race Differences in Intelligence

(Lynn, R.) 93Race Relations Act (UK, 1965) 195Race Relations Act (UK, 1976) 1race studies, analytical thinking in 15‘race wars’, European discourses

about 63‘race wars’ in Europe (seventeenth

century) 192Races of Europe (Ripley, W. Z.) 72, 76racial categories

in Latin America 46–7as relational 135

racial democracy, critiques of 139racial determinism, notions of 86racial difference

disadvantage and, reproduction of 131

perception of 103–4racial discrimination in Europe 198racial divide in Latin America, bodies

and 43racial hierarchy, post-war shift in

ideas about 88racial identification, flexible aspects

of 127racial identities in Latin America,

definitional difficulties on 138racial inequality

class inequality and 189in Europe 197–8in Europe, minority reaction to 199

racial markers 21racial matching in ART practice 123racial practices as relational 135–7racial profiling 112racial stock in Europe 192racial theories

pervasive impact of 81racial thinking and changes in 64religion, ethnicity, class differences

and 72–6

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racial formation in 161racial inequality after apartheid

186Rugby World Cup (1995) 187rural reserves (‘Bantustans’ or

homelands) 185separate development, policy of

185Separate Representation of Voters

Act 185similarities with Latin America and

United States 190Skills Development Act (1998) 185Transvaal, gold and diamond

mining in 184Truth and Reconciliation

Commission (1996–8) 187universities in, race and inequality

in 188–9South Asian Youth Organisation

(SAYO) 206–7South East Asia, racial contagion in

77–8sovereign power 62Soviet Union 88Spain

adoptees in population of 125Agricultura cristiana (Juan de

Pineda) 33blood purity laws 33gamete donorship law in 123Jewish pogroms in 19limpieza de sangre (cleanliness of

the blood) 33Muslim–Christian conflict in 33racism in, considerations of 34raza (race) lineage in 19, 32,

33, 37Spanish–American war 59spatial isolation in Europe

211–12species and body, importance of

movement between 63Spencer, Herbert 69, 72spheres of race, overlapping of 83Spirit of the Laws (Montesquieu) 65sport and race 93–4Sri Lanka, independence for 88Statute on Racial Equality (Brazil,

2010) 2subordination 7superiority, group ranking on basis

of 5‘survival of the fittest’ 69Sweden, adoptees in population

of 125Switzerland, immigrants in 195Syria, independence for 88

Taiwan, Japanese colonial control of 73

slaveryabolition of 57–8

in Latin America 138causes of abolition of 57in Latin America 44as normal practice 17questioning of moral legitimacy

of 58racial thinking and 55–8replacement by wage labour 57transition from slavery to

abolition 58slaves, legal categorisation of 39Smith, Samuel Stanhope 66social construction

definition of 91race as 90, 218

social criteria, genetic profiles and 100social Darwinism 80social life, regulation of 62social meanings, attribution of

physical variations to 8socially inherited characteristics 5Société ethnologique de Paris 86socio-biological indeterminism,

notions of 86‘soft inheritance’, ideas about 77Solidarité des Français 198South Africa

African middle class, growth of 186

African National Congress (ANC) 185, 187–8

Afrikaner nationalism 185Anglo-Boer Wars (1899–1902) 185apartheid in 4, 184–5Black Economic Empowerment

affirmative action and 185policies of 4

‘Cape Coloureds’ in 184censuses in, ‘ethnic’ enumerations

in 108economic inequality 186

post-apartheid situation 185–7Employment Equity Act (1998) 185Group Areas Act 185historical perspective 184identity and difference post-

apartheid 187–8Natives Land Act (1913) 184Natives (Urban Areas) Act (1923)

185Office for Race Classification in 4‘pass-book’ system 185political control in, radical change

in 183Population Registration Act (1950)

108, 185poverty 186

blackness and, structural link between 186

residential segregation in Europe 199–200

Rome in antiquity 17, 27–31attitudes to black people in 18black Africans, slavery of 28black Africans, visual images of 28conflicting interpretations from

28–9lessons from 30–1

Rose, Steven 93Royal Anthropological Institute 86Rushdie, Salman 206Rushton, J. Philippe 93Russia

anti-immigrationist lobby in 115Federal Migration Service 116immigrant population of 115–16imperialism and colonialism of 59inter-country adoptees from 125Japanese victory over (1904–5) 73Soviet Union and empire of 88

Saint-Hilaire, Geoffroy 70Saint Lucia, censuses in, ‘ethnic’

enumerations in 108Saint Maurice 35Sartre, Jean-Paul 118Satanic Verses (Rushdie, S.) 206Schengen Information System 194science

advance of 54basis for 54evolutionary approaches 55natural world and 55persistence of race in 92–3racial thinking and 54–5‘scientific facts’ about race 27social context and 105society and 105–6truth and 54

scientific racism 105battles against 92

segregation in Europe 199–200self-identification 106Senghor, Léopold 118sexual relations

between black and white people 43

between Europeans and indigenous peoples in Latin America 100

sexual reproduction 7, 21sexuality

analytics of 62anatomy, blackness and 71blood and 62–4

Sheba, Queen of 35sickle-cell anaemia 96skin colour 6, 7, 10, 18, 28, 51, 127,

128–9, 180, 209slave trade 56

in Latin America 56

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260 index

Mexican Americans 162–3, 179–80

Mexican workers in Chicago factory 181–3

Natchez, Mississippi, ethnographic studies in 164–6

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) 168, 169

national unity, racial segregation and determination of 164

Native Americans in 162neighbourhood improvement

associations 171New York City decentralisation

policies 173New York Public Housing

Authority 174non-European migration 115North Kenwood-Oakland, Chicago

176–7official discourse of 4Operation Wetback (1954) 113policing of black population,

lynchings and 166political disenfranchisement 167Puerto Rican ‘nation’ in Chicago

181race

as key divide in South, criticisms of 167

resonance of theme in 168race riots in Harlem and Watts 169racial binaries and Latino identity

183racial categories 2racial demography of (1860) 162racial disparities in justice system

of 112racial etiquette, ritual of 166racial formation 161

‘Jim Crow’ segregation and 168racial identities, deep-rootedness

of 170racial segregation 4, 164

pressures for maintenance of 172racialised aesthetics, Dominican

women and 180–1racist immigration policies 61segregated nation, construction of

163–4segregation

maintenance of 166–8in practice, ghettoisation and

170–3sexual relations, caste system and

emotive domain of 165similarities with Latin America and

South Africa 190

caste and class in segregated Southern towns 164–6

census terminology in 4censuses in, ‘ethnic’ enumerations

in 108Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) 163civil rights, mobilisation for 169Civil Rights Act (1964) 2, 169Civil War in (1861–5) 163class and race, complex nature of

combinations of 172–3class differences within caste sys-

tem 165–6class factors in racial segregation

164colour-blind practice, liberal

democracy and 170Declaration of Independence

(1776) 61demographic change in 161–3desegregation in, economic gains

of 169Dominican women and racialised

aesthetics 180–1educational inequities 167Elmhurst, New York 173–4exclusion, mechanisms of 166Fair Housing Act (1968) 171Federal Housing Administration

171gentrification 177Great Depression (1930s) 167Hispanic population in 162–3‘hyperghettos’ 172illegal aliens in 115Immigration and Nationality Act

(1965) 113imperialism of 59independence for 59Indianola, Mississippi, ethno-

graphic studies in 164–6interracial marriage, prohibition

of 165‘Jim Crow’ system, imposition in

South of 164–5Ku Klux Klan 164landowners, dependence on 166Latino-Americans 163Latinos

brownness and 179demographic and economic

position of 179impact of black–white binary

on 180US racial binaries and Latino

identity 183Lefrak City housing complex

175–6liberal democracy in 17

Tay–Sachs disease 96telegony, belief in 120theories of cultural racism 118–19theorisation of race 217–18Tokutomi Soho 73tolerance, religious and racial 19topology 219trait selection 85transitions in racial thinking 54translocal and diasporic connections

211–12transnational adoption

cultural racism 125–6original culture, concerns

with 126transnational connections 194transnational diasporas 201las tres razas (the three races) in Latin

America 99truth, science and 54Tylor, Edward B. 86, 87types, racial thinking and 67–8Types of Mankind (Gliddon, G.) 67–8

Ukraine, independence for 88UNESCO 88–90

scientific statements on race 89, 92, 93

United Nations (UN) 88, 89United States

adoptees in population of 125adoption policy in 125‘Anglo-Saxonism’ in 163anti-discrimination legislation 172anti-racist objectives of govern-

ment 109Asian population in 163avoidance of use of term ‘race’ in

107ban on Chinese immigration 113‘birth culture’ of adoptees in,

question of 126black Corona, New York 174–6black families, barriers to moving

to white neighbourhoods 171Black Power movement 169black powerlessness, structural

processes and 168black reaction and desegregation

168–70black–white North–South

difference 161–2Bracero programme (1942–64) 113Briggs, Detroit 177–8Brown v. Board of Education

(Supreme Court, 1954) 168Bureau of American Ethnology 86Bureau of the Census 2California Proposition 187 in 115

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Wari of Brazilian Amazon 14Warner, W. Lloyd 89Weismann, August 77Western/Euro-American context,

race and 3, 9Western projects of modernity

and domination, race and 21–2

whiteness in Latin America 135World War II, post-war

decolonisation 87–8

xenophobia 6, 118

Zapotec community in Mexico 97, 99

Zidane, Zinedine 212

whiteness in 135‘Yankee City’ (W. Lloyd Warner

study) 89Uruguay, immigration restrictions,

lifting of 113

Vargas, Getúlio 113, 138varna (original castes) 10Vasconcelos, José 138Venezuela

mixed populations in 138racial immigration policies

of 113Venter, Craig 94Vietnam, independence for 88virachoca (Incan deity) 48Visa Information System 194Volk (people) 75

slavery in, importance of 56Southern Christian Leadership

Conference 169Southern ‘Reconstruction’, post-

Civil War 164Southern Tenant Farmers’ Union

167Student Non-Violent Coordinating

Committee (SNCC) 169tenant farming, economy of 166trade unionism, resistance to 167upward mobility, education and

pressures for 167US–Mexico border, racialised differ-

ence on 163Voting Rights Act (1965) 169, 174‘welfare moms’ 172‘white flight’ phenomenon 172

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