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Index

absolute entropies, standard valuesfor, 169-171

absorption, definition of, 66absorption of heat, in endothermic

reactions, 11absorption step, in photon activation

of molecules, 139acetate ion (C 2H30Z), 172

as conjugate base of acetic acid, 92,93

acetic acid (HC2H302)

buffering capacity of solutions of,93-95

equilibrium (or dissociation)constant for, 164

van't Hoff factor for, 77as weak acid, 103as weak electrolyte, 78

acid-base conjugate pair. Seeconjugate acid-base pair

acid-dissociation constants. See alsoequilibrium constants

derivation of, 87,163list of, 164-166for polyprotic acids, 90-91, 166

acidic solution, definition of, 83acidity, of natural waters, 84acid rain

calcium carbonate counteraction of,101

causes and effects of, 99-100nitric acid as precursor of,

157

oxidation-reduction reactions information of, 104

acids, 83-103Arrhenius theory of, 85, 86Brensted-Lowry theory of, 86-87characteristics of, 83definitions and concepts of, 83-85dissociation constants of, 87-88as electron acceptors, 88equilibrium constants for, 164-165examples of, 84-85ionic dissociation in, 85Lewis theory of, 88neutralization of, 84pH of solutions of, 89polyprotic type, 90, 166properties of, 85as proton donors, 86-87strengths of, 87-88

activation complex, formation inchemical reactions, 54

activation energycatalyst effect on, 57of chemical reactions, 54rotational and vibrational energies

contribution to, 66temperature effects on, 65

activities, of substances, equilibriumconstant and, 16, 76

adsorption, definition of, 66aerosol cans, Freon use in, 150air

apparent molecular weight of, 70

187

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188 Index

air (cont.)bubbles, 80carbon dioxide in, 6-7chemical reactions in, 59effects of solar radiation on

temperature of, 20-21as a gaseous solution, 68supersaturated, droplet formation

in, 36aircraft, flights in stratosphere, effect

on ozone, 149-150airglow, over Earth, fluorescence as

cause of, 141air pollutant(s)

chlorofluorocarbons as, 150nitramide as, 64

alkali metals, 103oxidation number of, 106-107

alkaline, definition of, 103alkaline earth metals, oxidation

numbers of, 107alkalinity, of natural waters, 84alkalis, as strong bases, 103alloys, as solid solutions, 68aluminum (AI)

atomic weight of, 161residence time in ocean, 61

aluminum hydroxide [AI(OH)3],solubility (or ion) productconstant for, 167

aluminum ion (AI3+), 172equilibrium (or dissociation)

constant for, 165ammonia (NH3)

from ammonium mercaptandissociation, 15

as base, 85base dissociation constant of, 92chemical equation for commercial

production of, 8cloud water pH decrease by, 100rainwater exposure to, 99thermodynamic properties of, 170

ammonium chloride (NH4CI)

decomposition reaction of, 13-14hydrolysis of, 92-93

ammonium hydroxide (NH40H),

thermodynamic properties of,170

ammonium ion (NH~), 172equilibrium (or dissociation)

constant for, 165thermodynamic properties of, 170

ammonium mercaptan (NH4HS),

dissociation reaction of, 15ammonium nitrate (NH4N03)

heat of reaction in water, 81use in instant ice packs, 81

anionsdefinition of, 115-116hydrolysis of, 92

anodedefinition of, 115in electrochemical cell, 115

Antarcticaozone depletion over, 150-154ozone hole formation over,

150-152anthropogenic chemicals,

stratospheric ozone depletion by,146-147, 149-150

antifreeze, 80aqueous solution, definition of, 16archeological artifacts, radiocarbon

dating of, 66-67argon (Ar)

atomic weight of, 161mole fraction in air, 69-70

Arrhenius, S., theory of acids andbases of, 85

Arrhenius relation, for temperatureeffect on reaction rates, 55-57,156

atmospherechemical residence times in, 61as standard pressure unit, 16, 160

atom, structure of, 136atomic weight( s)

derivation of, 2of elements, 161-163

atto (prefix), definition and symbolfor, 159

automobile battery, redox reaction in,135






Index 189

automobile engine exhaustscatalysts for converters of, 58chemical reactions for gases of, 14,

15Avogadro's number, 53, 136, 160

derivation of, 2gram-atomic weight and, 12of photons, 139

bar, 160barium carbonate (BaC03) , solubility

(or ion) product constant for, 167barium hydroxide (BaOH2)

solubility in water of, 75solubility (or ion) product constant

of, 75,167barium ion (Ba 2+), 172barium sulfate (BaS04), solubility (or

ion) product constant for, 167bases, 83-103

Arrhenius theory of, 85, 86Brensted-Lowry theory of, 86-87characteristics of, 83conjugate, 86-87, 93, 101definitions and concepts of, 83-

85dissociation constants of, 87-88

definition, 164as electron acceptors, 88examples of, 84-85ionic dissociation in, 85Lewis theory of, 88neutralization of, 84pH of solutions of, 89properties of, 85as proton acceptors, 86-87strengths of, 87-88

basic solution, definition of, 84batteries

radox reaction in, 135"running-down" process of, 128

bicarbonate. See hydrogen carbonateion

bimolecular reaction(s). See alsosecond-order reaction

of gases, 52-57, 64-65rate law for, 49

binary compounds, ionic, oxidationnumbers for, 106

bismuth sulfide (Bi2S3) , solubility (orion) product constant of, 167

bisulfate. See hydrogen sulfate ionbisulfite. See hydrogen sulfite ionblood, pH of, 101blue light, wavelengths of, 138boiling-point elevation, in solutions,

71-72Boltzmann constant, 6, 16, 34, 53, 144,

160Boyle's law, ideal gas equation

reduction to, 25brain, nitric acid requirement for

function of, 157bromide ion (Br"), 172

residence time in ocean, 61bromine (Br)

atomic weight of, 161as catalyst, 57

Brensted, 1.,86Brensted-Lowry acid, ionization of,

87-88,97,104Brensted-Lowry theory, of acids and

bases, 86-87buffering capacity, definition of, 94buffers

properties of, 93-96of seawater, 101

cadmium chloride (CdCl-}, oxidationnumber of ions, 106

cadmium sulfide (CdS), solubility (orion) product constant for, 167

calcite (CaC03) , thermodynamicproperties of, 169

calcium (Ca)atomic weight of, 161thermodynamic properties of,

169calcium carbonate (CaC03)

rainwater exposure to, 99solubility (or ion) product constant

for, 81,167use of to combat acid-rain effects

in lakes, 101






190 Index

calcium chloride (CaCh), use of tomelt ice, 80

calcium fluoride (CaF2),solubility (orion) product constant for, 167

calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]'solubility (or ion) productconstant for, 167

calcium ion (Ca2+), 172calcium oxide (CaO), as base, 84calcium sulfate (CaS04), solubility (or

ion) product constant for, 167calomel (HgCI), thermodynamic

properties of, 170carbohydrates, as products of

photosynthesis, 113carbon (C), thermodynamic

properties of, 169carbon-12, elemental atomic weights

based on, 2, 161-163carbon-14, use in radiocarbon dating,

67carbonated drinks, carbon dioxide

release from, 71carbonate ion (COj-), 172carbonate rocks, pH of water in

contact with, 128carbon dioxide (C02)

absorption by rain, 89-90, 98in air, 6-7

buffering capacity of, 128atmospheric residence time of, 61dissolution in water, 3in forests, day and night levels of,

132from fossil-fuel burning, 113as greenhouse gas, 113molecular weight of, 3role in photosynthesis, 1-2, 113thermodynamic properties of, 169

carbonic acid (H2C03)


formation from carbon dioxide andwater, 3in rain, 98

molecular weight of, 3as polyprotic acid, 90, 98

successive acid-dissociationconstants for, 166

carbon monoxide (CO)in automobile exhausts, 58

catalytic oxidation, 58thermodynamic properties of, 169

carcinogen, nitric oxide as, 157catalysis, 57-58

heterogenous, 57-58in catalytic converters, 58

homogeneous, 57-58catalyst(s)

definition of, 57in forward and reverse reactions, 61as powders, 61role in stratospheric ozone

depletion, 147catalytic converters, heterogeneous

catalysts in, 58cathode

definition of, 115in electrochemical cell, 116

cation(s)definition of, 116hydrolysis of, 92

cell damage, from UV-B light, 146centi (prefix), definition and symbol

for, 159chain reaction, chemical example of,

142-143Chapman, Sidney, 147Chapman reactions, for steady-state

ozone levels in stratosphere,147-148

charge balance relation, definition of,97

chemical bonds, dissociation energyof, 140, 155, 185

chemical chain reaction, example of,142-143

chemical equations, balancing of, 1-2,108-109

chemical equilibrium, 1-16of aqueous solutions, 68-82definition of, 3in endothermic and exothermic

reactions, 11-12






Index 191

thermodynamic studies of, 17-42chemical kinetics, 43-67chemical potential

definition of, 34difference between vapor and

liquid, 34-35chemical reaction(s)

activation complex formation in,54-55

activation energy of, 54catalysis of, 57-58chain type, 142-143definition of, 1, 133of gases, 5

collision theory, 52-57heat release or absorption in, 17with increased gas molecules, 27intermediates in, 47mechanisms of, 46-50order of, 47overall order of, 44, 62photochemical, 137rate-determining step in, 48rate law for, 44rates of. See reaction ratesrepresentations of, 1,3-4speed of, 2,12,31

chemical thermodynamics, 17-42chemical units

notation for, 6universal gas constant in, 6

chlorate ion (CI03), 172chloride ion (CI-), 172

from electrolytes, 73residence time in ocean, 61thermodynamic properties of, 169

chloride nitrate (CION02),stratospheric formation of, 151

chlorine (CI)atomic

from chlorofluorocarbons inatomosphere,149,152-153

photochemical reaction withhydrogen,142-143

photochemical release of, 152as possible catalyst for ozone

destruction, 148-150

reaction with methane instratosphere, 152

atomic weight of, 161thermodynamic properties of, 169

chlorine dioxide (CI02),157in stratosphere, 152-153

chlorine monoxide (CIO)as catalyst for ozone formation, 152dimer of, 152stratospheric formation of, 151-153,

157chlorite ion (CIOz),172chlorofluorocarbons. See also Freons

(chlorofluorocarbons)atmospheric lifetimes of, 150as source of atmospheric chlorine,

150stratospheric ozone role in

depletion of, 149-154chromate ion (CrO~-), 172chromic ion [Cr(R20)~+], equilibrium

(or dissociation) constant for, 164chromium (Cr)

atomic weight of, 161in oxidation-reduction reaction,

125,127chromium hydroxide [Cr(OR)3]

oxidation-reduction reaction of,111-113

solubility (or ion) product constantfor, 167

chromium (III) ion (chromic ion;Cr3+),172

chromium (II) ion (chromous ion;Cr2+),172

chromium oxide (cr203), use incatalytic converters, 58

cinnabar (RgS), thermodynamicproperties of, 170

citric acid, in lemon juice, 83cleaning agents, Freon use as, 150cloud drops, sulfur dioxide conversion

to sulfuric acid in, 132cloud physics, homogeneous and

heterogeneous processes in, 66clouds. See also polar stratospheric

clouds (PSCs)






192 Index

clouds (cont.)nitrogen pentoxide formation in,

mechanism, 48-49pH of water in, 100sulfuric acid dissolution in water of,

100,102coal burning, atmospheric sulfur

dioxide from, 132cobalt sulfide (CoS), solubility (or

ion) product constant for, 167colligative properties, of solutions, 71

72solute effects, 77

collision theory of gaseous reactions,52-57,66

complex ionsformation constants of, 96, 168properties of, 96-97

concentrations, of solutions, 69-70configurations, of molecules, potential

energy based on, 17conjugate acid-base pairs, 86-87, 101

of weak acids and bases, as buffers,94

conservation, principle of, 17constants, list of, 160conversion factors, list of, 160copper (Cu)

atomic weight of, 161electrode potential of, 120oxidation in air, 135-136thermodynamic properties of, 169use in electrodes, 115-116, 136

copper carbonate (CuC03) , solubility(or ion) product constant for, 167

copper-eopper half-cell, 104, 118copper-hydrogen electrochemical

cell, standard half-cell potentialof, 118-119

copper (II) ion (cupric ion), 172copper (I) ion (cuprous ion), 172copper sulfide (CuS)

solubility (or ion) product constantfor, 167

thermodynamic properties of, 169coulomb, definition and symbol for,

159

covalent compounds, oxidationnumbers for, 106

convellite. See copper sulfidecrystallization (precipitation), from

solutions, 68crystals, entropy of, 26cupric ion [copper (II); Cu2+],


cupric oxide (CuO), use in catalyticconverters, 58

cuprite (CU20), thermodynamicproperties of, 169

cuprous chloride (CuCI), dissolutionand equilibrium of, 73-74

cuprous ion [copper (I); Cu'],thermodynamic properties of,169

cylinder-piston example, of first lawof thermodynamics, 18-19

deca (prefix), definition and symbolfor, 159

decimal multiples of units, prefixesfor, 159

deci (prefix), definition and symbolfor, 159

degree Celsius, definition and symbolfor, 159

denitrification, in polar stratisphericclouds, 151

detailed balancing, principle of, 51, 66diamond (C), thermodynamic

properties of, 169dichromate ion (Cr20~-), 172dihydrogen phosphate ion (H2P0 4),

172equilibrium (or dissociation)

constant for, 164dirty-water analogy, of chemical

residence time, 60dissociation constant. See equilibrium

(or acid-dissociation orionization) constant(s) and undervarious chemical species

dissociation energy, of chemicalbonds, 140






Index 193

DNA damage, ozone column relationto, 157

droplet, formation by condensation,35-37

Ehnatural limits to, 130pH compared to, 128as symbol for redox potential, 128

Eh-pH diagram, example of, 131einstein

energy of, 155, 185as unit of photons, 139

electric capacitance, SI unit of, 159electric charge, SI unit of, 159electric current, SI unit of, 159electric potential, generation of, 126electric power plants, atmospheric

sulfur dioxide emission from, 132electric resistance, SI unit of, 159electrical conductivity, of water, 83electrochemical cell

depiction of, 116electric potential difference

generated in, 127electron movement in, 120-121half-reactions in, 115-116pH meter as, 135as powered by chemical reactions,

42electrode potentials. See standard

half-cell potentialselectrodes, in electrochemical cell,

115electrolysis, electrochemical basis for,

133electrolytes, 73

definition of, 115strong and weak, 78-80

electromagenetic (em) radiationfrequency of, 137, 141molecular absorption of, 137wave and particle characteristics of,

137electromagnetic spectrum, 137-138electromagnetic waves

energy of, 138

properties of, 137-139electronegativity, of an element, 106electronic energy state, of a molecule,

transition of, 141electron orbitals, 103electrons

and Avogadro's number, 136charge on, 136consumption of, 128in Earth's upper atmospheric, as

basis of radio communications,141

gain of, in reduction, 104-105loss of, in oxidation, 104-105movement in electrochemical cells,

120-121role in standard cell potential, 118supplying of, 128

electron-volt, 159definition of, 157dissociation energy of chemical

bonds expressed as, 140elementary processes, equilibrium

constant related to rates of,50-52

elementary reactions. See single-stepreactions

elementsatomic weights and symbols for,

161-163oxidation number of, 106-107

endothermic reactiondefinition of, 11for nitric oxide formation, 15solubility and, 81

energyconservation of, principle, 17kinetic. See kinetic energypotential. See potential energySI unit of, 159

enthalpyequation for, 20first law of thermodynamics and,

17-21of reaction and formation, 21-22of a set of chemical reactions, 176standard molar list of, 169-171






194 Index

entropyabsolute, 26-27third law of thermodynamics and,

26-27change in, equation for, 22-23decrease of, in gas dissolution,

70-71as degree of disorder in system, 26as function of state, 23reversible paths and, 38-39second law of thermodynamics

and,22-26,176tendency toward, effect on

solution, 70of universe, 38

environment, redox potentials in,129-130

environmental chemistry,photochemical reactionimportance in, 137

environmental hazards, of increasedUV radiation to Earth, 154

equilibriumin aqueous solutions, 73-78in chemical states, 38criteria for, 27-29

equilibrium (or acid-dissociation orionization) constant(s), 3-8, 12,164-165

for acids, 87-88, 166in aqueous solutions, 73-75for bases, 87-88definition of, 4,164-165free energy change and, 31-33for net reactions, 13pKa as expression for, 165reaction rates and, 50-52for reactions of gases, 5, 7-8for reverse and forward reactions,

13some properties of, 13thermodynamic, 16

equilibrium transformation, definitionof,23

ethane (C2H6)

molar standard enthalpy forcombustion of, 22

thermodynamic properties of, 169ethylene glycol (C2H602) , use as an

antifreeze, 80-81exa (prefix), definition and symbol

for, 159excited molecules

chemical dissociation in, 140pathways taken by, 140-141spectroscopic notation for, 141

excited state, of molecules, 139exothermic reaction

definition of, 11spontaneous nature of, 38

farad, definition and symbol for, 159Faraday constant, 117, 125, 130, 160

definition of, 136femto (prefix), definition and symbol

for, 159ferric ion [Fe(H20)~+]


oxidation-reduction reaction withhydrogen sulfite, 105, 107-108

thermodynamic properties of, 169ferrous ion (Fe2+), thermodynamic

properties of, 169first law of thermodynamics, 17-21, 40

alternate statement of, 19application of, 19

to reversible transformations, 24equations for, 18

first-order reactionof gases, 62half-life of reactant effects on, 65mechanisms of, 48rate coefficient for, 44reactant half-life in, 59

fish, thermal pollution effects on,80

fluorescence, definition of, 141fluoride ion (P-), 172

thermodynamic properties of, 169fluorine (F)

atomic weight of, 161in chlorofluorocarbons, 150thermodynamic properties of, 169






Index 195

force, SI unit of, 159formation

heat of, 22standard free energy of, 30

formation constants, definition andvalues for complex ions, 96-97,168

formic acid (HCOOH), 84-85equilibrium (or dissociation)

constant for, 164forward reaction

definition of, 3entropy changes in, 27equilibrium constant for, 13heat of reaction for, 21-22molar standard Gibbs free energy

of, 30fossil fuels

combustion ofatmospheric carbon dioxide

from, 133role in acid rain formation,

99-100prehistoric formation of, 113

free energy, changes of, 29-31equilibrium constant and, 31-33

free radical, definition of, 156freezing-point depression, in

solutions, 71-72, 80Freons (chlorofluorocarbons)

atomic chlorine release from, 150,152-153

banning of, 154long lifetimes of, 154release into atmosphere, 150uses of, 150

frequencyof radiation, 137SI unit of, 159

frequency factor, for molecularcollisions related to chemicalreactions, 56

fuel combustion, oxidationreduction reactions as basis for,104

function of stateGibbs free energy as, 27

in thermodynamics, 18

galvanic cell. See electrochemicalcell(s)

gamma rays, in electromagneticspectrum, 138

gas(es)from automobile exhausts

catalytic converters for, 58chemical reaction for, 14

bimolecular reaction of, rate, 6465

Boltzmann constant for, 6chemical reactions of, equilibrium

constants, 5, 7-8dissolution of, 70-71ideal gas equation for, 5molarity of, 4partial pressure of, derivation,

173-174reactions of

collision theory, 52-57first-order type, 62

standard state of, 30universal gas constant for, 5volume occupied by 1 mole of, 2

gas burning, atmospheric sulfurdioxide from, 132

gas constant, 5Gibbs free energy, 40, 124-125, 128,

134change in

derivation, 171in droplet formation, 35in electrochemical cells, 42as molar standard free energy

change, 30as chemical potential, 34definition of, 27-28of formation, standard values, 169

171state of substance effects on, 29

30as thermodynamic potential at

constant pressure, 29"Gibbs free-energy meter," voltmeter

as, 133






196 Index

Gibbs-Helmholtz equation, 28, 38,40-41,171,176

giga (prefix), definition and symbolfor, 159

global warming, from greenhousegases, 113

glucose (C6H1206)

formation in photosynthesis, 1-2prehistoric conversion of carbon

into, 113gold (Au)

atomic weight of, 161deposition from electrochemical

cell,131-132thermodynamic properties of, 169

gold chloride (AuCI3) ,


gram-atomic weight, definition of, 12gram-equivalent weight, 130-132gram-molecular weight, 12

definition of, 2graphite (C), thermodynamic

properties of, 169greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide as,

113green light, frequency and

wavelengths of, 138

half-cell potentials, in oxidation-reduction reactions, 116-124

half-integer rate laws, 50half-life, definition of, 58half-reaction method, use for

balancing oxidation-reductionreactions, 108

half-reactions, in electrochemicalscells, 115-116

Halley Bay (Antarctica), early ozonestudies at, 150

halogens, oxidation numbers of, 107health hazard, of increased UV

radiation to Earth, 153-154heat

at constant pressure. See enthalpyeffects on work of a system, 19-20release or absorption in chemical

reactions, 17

heat of formation, 21-22heat of reaction, 21heat of solution, definition of, 70heat release, in exothermic reactions,

11hecto (prefix), definition and symbol

for, 159Helmholtz free energy, definition of,

40Henry's law, relation of pressure and

solubility by, 71Henry's law constant, 71hertz, definition and symbol for, 159heterogeneous process chemistry and

physics of, 66homogeneous nucleation, droplet

formation by, 35homogeneous process, chemistry and

physics of, 67hydration

definition of, 73of ions, 86

hydrobromic acid (HBr), 85formation mechanism for, 49-50

hydrochloric acid (HBr), equilibrium(Of dissociation) constant for, 164

hydrochloric acid (HCI)reaction with ammonia, 86stratospheric formation of, 152as strong acid, 84, 88as strong electrolyte, 78-79, 84thermodynamic properties of, 169

hydrocyanic acid (HCN)acid-dissociation constant for, 180pH of solution of, 102

hydrofluoric acid (hydrogen fluoride;HF),85


thermodynamic properties of, 169hydrogen (H, H2)

ammonia production from, 8, 11atomic weight of, 2, 161oxidation number of, 106partial pressure of, near Earth's

surface, 130photochemical reaction with

chlorine, 142-143






Index 197

as possible catalyst for ozonedestruction, 148-149

thermodynamic properties of, 169hydrogen carbonate ion (HC03"),172


hydrogen fluoride. See hydrofluoricacid (HF)

hydrogen iodide (hydroiodic acid;HI),85

energy profile of formation of,54-55

hydrogen ion (H+). See proton(s)hydrogen oxalate ion (binoxalate ion;

HCz0"4),172hydrogen peroxide (HzOz)

conversion to oxygencatalysis, 57free energy change in, 31


oxidation number of oxygen in, 106thermodynamic properties of, 169

hydrogen sulfate ion (bisulfate ion;HS0"4),172


thermodynamic properties of, 171hydrogen sulfide (HzS)

from ammonium mercaptandissociation, 15

dissolution in water, 81equilibrium (or dissociation)

constant for, 165oxidation-reduction reaction with

nitric acid, 107-111thermodynamic properties of, 170

hydrogen sulfide ion (HS-)equilibrium (or dissociation)

constant for, 165thermodynamic properties of, 171

hydrogen sulfite ion (bisulfite ion;HS03)


oxidation-reduction reaction withferric ion, 105

thermodynamic properties of, 171

hydroiodic acid. See hydrogen iodide(HI)

hydrolysis constant, derivation of, 91hydrolysis reactions, definition of,

90-93,103hydronium ion (H30+), 172

formation by carbon dioxidesolution, 90

hydration of, 86-87hydrosulfuric acid (HzS), successive

acid-dissociation constants for,166

hydroxide ion (OH-), 79-80, 83-84,172

as a base, 88equilibrium (or dissociation)

constant for, 165hydrogen ion removal of, 85photons necessary to produce,

156thermodynamic properties of, 170

hydroxides (OH-), residence times inocean, 61

hydroxyl radical (OH)as possible catalyst for ozone

destruction, 148-149tropospheric ozone as source of,

146hypochlorite ion (CIO-), 172

ice, pressure effects on melting pointof, 11

ice packs, ammonium nitrate use in,81

ice-water particles, in polarstratospheric clouds, role inozone formation, 151-152

ideal gasexpansion of, 25-26Joule's law for, 25, 42

ideal gas equation, 5-6, 14reduction to Boyle's law, 25

ideal solution, 4, 33definition of, 16Raoult's law for, 16, 72standard state and, 136

immune system, nitric acidrequirement for, 157






198 Index

"inefficiency" factor, inphotochemical reactions, 142

infrared light (or radiation), 138insoluble substances, definition of, 75interfacial energy, between vapor and

liquid, 35intermediates, in chemical reactions,

47intermolecular energy transfer, of

excited molecules, 140internal energy

of a body, 17Joule's law and, 42

International System of Units. See SIunits

intramolecular energy transfer, ofexcited molecules, 140

iodide ion (1-), 172ionic binary compounds, oxidation

numbers for, 106ionic dissociation, in acids and bases,

85ionic equilibria, in aqueous solutions,

73-78ionization constants. See equilibrium

constantsion (or solubility) product constant

definition of, 74-75for salts, 167for water, 79,160

ionsformation by electrolyte solutions,

73names, formulas, and charges of,

172radius of, 103

iron (Fe)atomic weight of, 161ferric [or iron (III)], 172ferrous [or iron (II)], 172residence time in ocean, 61thermodynamic properties of, 169

iron (III) hydroxide [Fe(OH)3]'solubility (or ion) productconstant for, 167

iron (II) sulfide (FeS), solubility (orion) product constant for, 167

irreversible transformation, 28description of, 23

joule, definition and symbol for, 159Joule's law, for an ideal gas, 25, 42j-values, photolytic rate coefficients,

represented by, 143

Kelvin's formula, 37kilo (prefix), definition and symbol

for, 159kinetic energy

based on molecular motion, 17of gaseous molecules, 53-54

lakes, chemical residence times in, 66Lavoisier, Antoine, 83law of multiple propertions, 12lead (Pb)

atomic weight of, 162thermodynamic properties of, 170in water, oxidation of, 134

lead battery, redox reaction in, 135lead (II) chloride (PbCl-), solubility

(or ion) product constant for, 167lead (II) chromate (PbCr04),

solubility (or ion) productconstant for, 167

lead (II) iodide (PbI2) , solubility (orion) product constant for, 167

lead ion (Pb2+), 172thermodynamic properties of, 170

lead (II) monoxide (PbO),thermodynamic properties of,170

lead (II) sulfate (PbS04)

solubility of, 82, 179solubility (or ion) product constant

for,82,167lead (II) sulfide (PbS), solubility (or

ion) product constant for, 167LeChatelier's principle, 10-11,39, 76,

174,178length, SI unit of, 159Lewis, G. N., 88Lewis theory of acids and bases, 88,

103






Index 199

light, velocity in a vacuum, 137, 160liquid

standard state of, 29-30surface energy of, 35

lithium ion (Li+), 172lithium phosphate (LhP04),solubility

(or ion) product constant for, 167Loschmidt number, derivation of, 6,

160Lowry, T., 86luminescence

definition of, 141of excited molecules, 140

magnesium (Mg)atomic weight of, 162thermodynamic properties of, 170

magnesium carbonate (MgC03),solubility (or ion) productconstant for, 167

magnesium fluoride (MgF2),solubility(or ion) product constant for, 167

magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2]as base, 85solubility (or ion) product constant

for, 167magnesium ion (Mg2+), 172

thermodynamic properties of, 170magnesium phosphate [Mg3(P04)2],


magnetite (Fe304), thermodynamicproperties of, 169

manganese (Mn)atomic weight of, 162in electrochemical cell, 135thermodynamic properties of, 170

manganese (II) ion (manganous ion;Mn2+),172


manganese (II) sulfide (MnS),solubility (or ion) productconstant for, 167

mass, SI unit of, 159mass balance, charge balance

relations and, 97-98

mass balance relation, definition of,97

mega (prefix), definition and symbolfor, 159

mercuric ion [mercury (II); Hg2+], 172thermodynamic properties of, 170

mercurous ion [mercury (I); Hgi+],172

thermodynamic properties of, 170mercury (Hg)

atomic weight of, 162thermodynamic properties of, 170

mercury (I) chloride (Hg-Cl-),solubility (or ion) productconstant for, 167

mercury gas (Hg), thermodynamicproperties of, 170

mercury (II) sulfide (HgS), solubility(or ion) product constant for, 167

metal complex ions, formationconstants of, 96-97

metal ions, as Lewis acids, 96metal oxides, as heterogenous

catalysts, 57metals, as heterogenous catalysts, 57methane (CH4)

atomic chlorine reaction with, instratosphere, 152

thermodynamic properties of, 169micro (prefix), definition and symbol

for, 159milli (prefix), definition and symbol

for, 159mol. See molemolal boiling-point-elevation

constant, 72molal concentration, of a solution, 69molal freezing-point-depression

constant, 72molality, of a solution, 69molar concentration, of a solution, 69molar heat of formation. See molar

standard enthalpy (or heat) offormation

molaritydefinition of, 4of a solution, 69






200 Index

molar standard enthalpy (or heat) offormation, 22,169-171,175

molar standard enthalpy (or heat) ofreaction, 21

molar standard free energy change,definition of, 30

molar standard Gibbs free energy offormation, 30, 169-171

mole, definition of, 2molecular weight(s)

apparentof dry air, 70of a solution, 70

derivation of, 2molecules

collision of, 52, 55, 66configuration of, potential energy

based on, 17kinetic energies of, 54in 1 mole, 2motion of, internal kinetic energy

based on, 17monoatomic substances, oxidation

numbers for, 106monohydrogen phosphate ion

(HPO~-), 172equilibrium (or dissociation)

constant for, 165monomolecular reaction, 46, 48Mt. Pinatubo (Philippines), sulfur

dioxide release from eruption of(1991), 155

multiple proportions, law of, 12

nano (prefix), definition and symbolfor, 159

natural systems, chemical residencetime in, 60-61

natural waters, pH values of, 89Nernst equation, 126-128

use to derive electric potentialdifference, 126-128

neutralization, of acids and bases,84

neutral solution, definition of, 83newton, definition and symbol for,

159

nickel (II) sulfide (NiS), solubility (orion) product constant for, 167

nitramide (02NNH2), decompositionreactions of, 64

nitrate ion (N03), 172thermodynamic properties of, 170

nitric acid (HN03) , 84equilibrium (or dissociation)

constant for, 164formation from nitrogen oxides

(NOy),151

in ice-water particles of polarstratospheric clouds, 151

oxidation-reduction reaction withhydrogen sulfide, 107-111

in polluted rainwater, 99-100as strong acid, 88

nitric acid trihydrate (HN03·3H20)particles, in polar stratosphericclouds, 151

nitric oxide (nitrogen monoxide; NO)as acid rain precursor, 157in aircraft emissions, 150as carcinogen, 157conversion to nitrogen dioxide

free energy change in, 33reaction mechanism, 63

dual nature of, 155formation of, 4-5

from automobile exhaust, 14importance in atmospheric

chemistry, 146as possible catalyst for ozone

destruction, 147-148thermodynamic properties of,

170in troposphere, in stationary state

with nitrogen dioxide and ozone,145-146

nitrite ion (N02:), 172nitrogen (N, N2)

ammonia production from, 8,11atmospheric residence time of, 61atomic weight of, 162ionization energy of, 155mole fraction in air, 69-70thermodynamic properties of, 170






Index 201

nitrogen dioxide (NO z)

in atmospheredissociation of, 139production rate, 143-145residence time of, 143-145as source of cloud-water nitrate,

63breakdown of, rate coefficient,

56-57role in stratospheric nitrogen

depletion, 148-149as source of cloud-water nitrate,

63thermodynamic properties of, 170in troposphere, in stationary state

with nitric oxide and ozone,145-146

nitrogen oxide(s) (NO x)

in automobile exhaustcatalytic reduction, 58as photochemical smog agents,

58from fossil-fuel combustion, role in

acid rain formation, 99-100thermodynamic properties of, 170

nitrogen pentoxide (NzOs)conversion to nitrogen dioxide

rate coefficients, 65reaction mechanism, 48-49reaction rate, 43-44

formation of, 63equilibrium constant, 51-52

nitrous acid (HNOz), equilibrium (ordissociation) constant for, 102,164

nitrous oxide (NzO)atmospheric composition of, 6dissolution in water, heat release

by,80photodissociation of, 155thermodynamic properties of,

170noble metals, as catalysts, 58normality, 130-132

definition of, 131Northern Hemisphere, stratospheric

ozone depletion in, 153-154

oceanschemical reactions in, 59chemical residence times in, 59sulfate in air over, 100, 102

"odd" nitrogen (NO y) , in air vortex instratosphere, 151

ohm, definition and symbol for, 159organic material, radiocarbon dating

of, 66-67overbar notation, use of, 21oxalate ion (CzO~-), 172oxalic acid (HzCz0 4)

as polyprotic acid, 90successive acid-dissociation

constants for, 166oxidant(s)

atmospheric oxygen as, 129definition of, 104persistence of, 133standard half-cell potentials for,

122-123strengths of, 116-124water as, 129-130

oxidation, definition of, 104, 135-136oxidation half-cell, in electrochemical

cell,115-116oxidation half-reaction, in

electrochemical cell, 115-116oxidation-number method, use for

balancing oxidation-reductionreactions, 108

steps in, 108-109oxidation numbers, 105-108

definition and use of, 105derivation of, 106-108electrons and, 136general rule for, 107ionic binary compounds, 106list of, 107for monoatomic substances, 106of polyatomic molecules, 106rules for assignation of, 106

oxidation-reduction reactions, 104-136

aqueous proton notation for, 136balancing of, 108-115definitions used in, 104-105






202 Index

oxidation-reduction reactions (con!.)electron transfer in, 104, 115half-reactions in, 121normality use in, 130-132processes based on, 104spontaneous process of, 124statement of, 121, 123

oxidation states. See oxidationnumbers

oxidizing agent. See oxidant(s)oxygen (0, O2)

atmosphericmole fraction in, 69-70as oxidant, 129, 133residence time of, 61

atomic, nitrogen dioxidedestruction of, 148-149

atomic weight of, 2, 162dissolution in water, heat release

by, 80ground and excited state notation

for, 141ionization energy of, 155oxidation number of, 106as photosynthesis product, 1-2, 113thermodynamic properties of, 27,

170ozone (03)

as air pollutant, 146conversion to oxygen, mechanism,

62-63depth of, 157DNA damage and, 157in stratosphere, 137

atomic chlorine role indestruction, 150

Chapman reactions for, 147depletion, 146-154generation, 147ozone hole formation, 150-154photochemistry, 137, 145-154steady-state concentrations, 147UV-B light absorption by, 146volcanic eruption effects, 155

thermodynamic properties of, 170total ozone column, definition of,

157

in tropospherechemical mechanism for, 146downward transport from

stratosphere, 146levels, 146, 155

ozone hole, 137, 157over Antarctic, 150-153

explanation, 152formation, 150-151

over Arctic, possible formation of,153

partial pressure, of a gas, 5, 7, 173-174pascal, definition and symbol for, 16,

159perchlorate ion (CI04), 172perchloric acid (HCI04) , 85periclase (MgO), thermodynamic

properties of, 170permanganate ion (Mn04), 172peroxides, oxidation number of

oxygen in, 106peta (prefix), definition and symbol

for, 159pH, 88-90

buffer effects on, 93-96of cloud water, 102derivation of, 89, 103Eh compared to, 128of human blood, 101of hydrocyanic acid solution, 102natural limits to, 130of natural systems, 128of natural waters, 89of rainwater, 89-90, 98-100of seawater, 89, 101

phases, notation for, 15pH meter, electrochemical basis for,

135phosphate ion (PO~-), 172phosphorescence, definition of, 141phosphoric acid (H3P04) , 85



constants for, 166






Index 203

phosphorous acid (H3P03) , successiveacid-dissociation constants for,166

photochemical smog, nitrogen oxiderole in, 58

photochemistry, 137-157absorption step in, 138"inefficiency" factor in, 142quantum yields in, 141-143terminology and principles of,

139-143photodissociation

of chlorine in stratosphere, 152of chlorofluorocarbons by, UV

radiation-induced, 150photoionization

definition of, 141of excited molecules, 140

photolysis, definition of, 137photolytic rate coefficient, 143-145

derivation and representation of,143

photon(s)of electromagnetic waves, 138energy of, 138-139

photostationary state, definition of,145-146

photosynthesis, 133balanced equation for, 1energy stored in, 155equation for, 113-115oxidation-reduction reactions with,

104, 113physical equilibrium, chemical

equilibrium constant applicationto,I4-15

pico (prefix), definition and symbolfor, 159

Planck constant, 139, 160plastic foams, Freon use in

manufacture of, 150polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs),

role in ozone hole formationover Antarctic, 151-152over Arctic, 153

pollution, effect on pH of rainwater,99-100

polyatomic molecules, oxidationnumbers of, 106

polyprotic acidsacid-dissociation constants for, 166definition and properties of, 90

potassium (K)atomic weight of, 162thermodynamic properties of, 170

potassium hydroxide (KOH), as base,85

potassium ion (K+),172residence time in ocean, 61thermodynamic properties of, 170

potential energy, based on molecularconfiguration, 17

power, SI unit of, 159precipitation, from solutions, 68, 70prefixes, for decimal muliples of units,

159pressure

lack of effect on solubility, 71partial, 5, 7, 173-174SI unit of, 16, 159standard, 2, 16

primary photochemical steps, 140-141principle of detailed balancing, 51products, in chemical reactions,

representation of, 3-4proton(s) (H+), 78-80, 83-84

Brensted-Lowry theory of, 86-87,104

hydration of, 86from polyprotic acids, 90radius of, 103

protonation, complete, 88PSCs. See polar stratospheric clouds

(PSCs)pseudo first-order reaction, rate

coefficient for, 45-46pyrite (FeS2), thermodynamic

properties of, 169pyrolusite (Mn02), thermodynamic

properties of, 170

quanta. See photonsquantum mechanics, as basis for

molecular energy transitions, 141






204 Index

quantum yielddefinition of, 142in photochemical reactions,

142-143a-quartz (SiOz) , thermodynamic

properties of, 170quenching, of excited molecules, 140

radical, definition of, 157radiocarbon dating, of artifacts, 65-67radio communications, electrons in

Earth's upper atmosphere asbasis of, 141

radio waves, in electromagneticspectrum, 138

rainwateras acid rain, 99-100pH of, 89-90, 98-100

Raoult's law, for ideal solutions, 16,71-72

rate coefficientfor chemical reactions, 44

temperature effects, 56-57for photolysis, 143-145

rate equation, for chemical reactions,44

rate law, for chemical reactions, 44rates, of chemical reactions, 43-46reactant(s)

in chemical reactionsfast type, 43representation of, 3-4

half-life of, 58reaction, chemical. See chemical

reaction(s)reaction mechanisms, 46-50

definition of, 46determination method for, 48

reaction quotient, 8-10definition of, 8

reaction rates, 43-46, 62equilibria and, 50-52pressure effects on, 61temperature effects on, 55-57, 65

red lightenergy needed to produce oxygen

by, 156

wavelengths of, 138redox potential(s), 128-130

definition of, 128Eh as symbol for, 128in natural environments, 129-130

redox reactions. Seeoxidation-reduction reactions

reducing agent. See reductant(s)reductant(s)

definition of, 105standard half-cell potentials for,

122-123strengths of, 116-124

reduction, definition of, 104reduction half-cell, in electrochemical

cell,116reduction half-reaction, example of,

104refrigerants, Freon use as, 150relative humidity

above water-droplet surface,37-39

definition of, 37reservoir analogy, of chemical

residence time, 59-61"reservoir" species, effect on catalysts

in stratosphere, 149residence time

of a chemical, 59perfect mixing role, 59-61

of gases and their spatialvariability, 61

respiration, as reverse ofphotosynthesis, 113

reverse reactiondefinition of, 3equilibrium constant for, 13

reversible transformationdefinition of, 23free energy change in, 31

rotational energy, contribution toactivation energy, 66

rotational energy state, of a molecule,transition of, 141

salt. See also sodium chloridesolution of, 69






Index 205

salt bridge, in electrochemical cell,115,136

salts, 83formation by acid-base reactions,

84solubility (or ion) product

constants for, 167satellites, use in atmospheric ozone

studies, 151saturated solutions, definition of, 68saturation vapor pressure, definition

of, 34seawater

as buffered solution, 101chemical reactions in, 59oxidation half-cell reduction in, 184pH of, 89, 101

second law of thermodynamics, 17,22-26

entropy and, 22-26of universe, 38

two parts of, 24validity of, 25-26

second-order reaction. See alsobimolecular reactions

half-life and, 65mechanisms of, 46-49rate coefficient for, 45, 62, 160

sediments, oxidation-reductionreactions in, 104

significant figures, 16silicates, pH of water in contact with,

128silicon dioxide (a-quartz; Si02),


silicon (Si)atomic weight of, 160thermodynamic properties of, 170

silver (Ag)in electrochemical cell, gold

deposition from, 131-132thermodynamic properties of,

170use in electrodes, 115-116

silver ammonium ion [(AgNH3)!], ascomplex ion, 96

silver bromide (AgBr), solubility (orion) product constant for, 167

silver carbonate (Ag2C03),solubility(or ion) product constant for, 167

silver chloride (AgCI)in Lewis acid-base interaction, 96

97solubility (or ion) product constant

for, 167thermodynamic properties of, 170

silver chromate (Ag2Cr04)molar solubility of, 76-77solubility (or ion) product constant

for, 167silver-copper reaction,

oxidation-reduction in, 104-105,115,117-118

silver iodide (AgI)solubility of, 82solubility (or ion) product constant

for, 167silver ion (Ag"), 172

thermodynamic properties of, 170silver sulfate (Ag2S04),solubility

(or ion) product constant for,167

silver sulfide (Ag2S),solubility (orion) product constant for, 167

single-step reactions, mechanisms of,46

sinks, for removal of trace chemicals,59

SI units, 16ideal gas equation given in, 5-6list of, 159

skin cancer, from human exposure toUV-B light, 146

sodium (Na)atomic weight of, 162thermodynamic properties of, 171yellow light emission in flames of,

141sodium acetate (NaC2H302),reaction

in water, hydrolysis constant for,91-92

sodium carbonate (Na2C03), as base,83,85






206 Index

sodium chloride (NaCl)as electrolyte, 73solution of, 69as strong electrolyte, 78thermodynamic properties of, 171van't Hoff factor for, 77-78

sodium hydroxide (NaOH), as base,85

sodium ion (Na+), 172residence time in ocean, 61thermodynamic properties of, 171

soil water, pH of, 89solar radiation

effects on air temperature, 20-21role in stratospheric ozone

depletion, 152, 154shortest wavelength of, 155

solidssolution of, 72standard state of, 29-30

solubilityfactors affecting, 70-71of solute in solvent, 68

solubility (or ion) product constants.See also under individual salts

definition of, 75for salts, 167of slightly soluble substances, 75

solubility product. See solubility (orion) product constants

solute, definition of, 16, 68solution(s)

acidic, 83aqueous, 15, 73-74basic, 83colligative properties of, 71-72concentrated, 68concentration of, 68-70crystallization (precipitation) from,

68definition of, 16, 68dilute, 68ideal, 4, 16,30,33,71-72neu tral, 83, 89saturated, 68solid, 68standard state of, 30

supersaturated, 68types of, 68unsaturated, 68

solution chemistry, 68-82solvation, definition of, 73solvent(s)

definition of, 16, 68Freon use as, 150

Serensen, S., as originator of term"pH", 103

Southern Hemisphere, stratosphericozone depletion in, 150-151

specific heat, at constant pressure,20

specific reaction rate coefficient, forchemical reactions, 44

spontaneous transformationscriteria for, 27-29description of, 23exothermic reactions and, 38

standard cell potentialsconvention for, 119definition of, 117, 124free-energy change and, 124-126in oxidation-reduction reactions,

116-124standard electrode potentials. See

standard half-cell potentialsstandard enthalpies (or heats) of

formation, list of, 169-171standard free energy of formation, 30,

169-171. See also molar standardGibbs free energy of formation

standard half-cell potentials, 121definition of, 118list of, 122-123

standard stateof a gas, 30of a liquid, 30of a solid, 29-30of a solution, 30temperature of, 42

standard temperature and pressure(STP), for a gas, 2,15

Stark-Einstein law, 142ST~ See standard temperature and

pressure (STP)






Index 207

stratosphereozone formation in, 137region covered by, 146

streams, pH of, 89strontium carbonate (SrC03),


strontium sulfate (SrS04), solubility(or ion) product constant for, 167

subsaturation, definition of, 75successive acid-dissociation constants,

90values for, 166

sulfate ion (SO~-), thermodynamicproperties of, 171

sulfate particles, rainwater exposureto, 100

sulfide ion (S2-),thermodynamicproperties of, 171

sulfure (S)atomic weight of, 163oxidation numbers of, 105, 108rhombic, thermodynamic properties

of, 171thermodynamic properties of, 171

sulfur dioxide (S02)in atmosphere

from coal or gas burning, 133residence time, 61

in automobile exhaust, undesiredcatalytic conversion to sulfuricacid, 58

equilibrium reaction with oxygen,9,13-14

rainwater exposure to, 100release by volcanic eruptions, 155thermodynamic properties of, 27,

171sulfur gas (S2),thermodynamic

properties of, 171sulfuric acid (H2S04),84

atmospheric formation of, 132from catalytic conversion of sulfur

dioxide, 58equilibrium (or dissociation)

constant for, 164in ocean air, 100

in polluted rainwater, 99-100as strong acid, 88, 100successive acid-dissociation

constants for, 166sulfurous acid (H2S03)


formation from atmospheric sulfurdioxide, 132


constants for, 166sulfur oxides, from fossil-fuel

combustion, role in acid rainformation, 99-100

sulfur trioxide (S03)equilibrium reaction of, 9-10thermodynamic properties of, 27,

171supersaturated solutions, definition of,

68supersaturation

of air, droplet formation in, 36definition of, 36

supersonic aircraft, effect onstratospheric ozone levels, 149150

surface energy, of a liquid, 35surface waters, pH values of, 128sylvite (KCI), thermodynamic

properties of, 170

temperatureeffect on

equilibrium chemical reaction, 11reaction rates, 55-57, 65solution, 70

increase of, due to molecularmotion, 17

SI unit of, 159tera (prefix), definition and symbol

for, 159thermal pollution, effects on fish, 80thermodynamic equilibrium constant,

definition of, 16thermodynamic properties, of

selected substances, 169-171






208 Index

thermodynamics, 17-42first law of, 17-21functions of state in, 18microscopic properties in

interpretation of, 26second law of, 17, 22-26third law of, 17, 26-27working substance in, 18

third law of thermodynamics,absolute entropies, 26-27

third-order reaction, rate coefficientfor, 46

time, SI unit of, 159tin (IV) ion (stannic ion; Sn4+), 172tin (II) ion (stannous ion; Sn2+), 172tin (II) sulfide (SnS), solubility (or

ion) product constant for, 167total ozone column, definition of, 157trace chemicals, role in stratospheric

ozone depletion, 147transition-metal oxides, as catalysts,

58trimolecular reactions

mechanisms of, 46rate coefficient for, 46

tropics, lack of ozone level trends in,154

tropospherechlorofluorocarbon lifetimes in, 150nitric oxide formation in, 4-5

ultraviolet (UV) light (or radiation),138

photodissociation ofchlorofluorocarbons by, 150

unimolecular reaction. Seemonomolecular reaction

unitsdecimal multiples of, 159international system of (SI), 159

universal gas constant, 5-6universe, reversible transformations

and entropy of, 23unsaturated solutions, definition of, 68uraninite (U02) , thermodynamic

properties of, 171uranium (U)

atomic weight of, 163

thermodynamic properties of, 171UV-B light

harm from exposure to, 146ozone absorption of, 146

valence states. See oxidation numbersvan't Hoff factor, definition of, 77-78vapor, equilibrium with liquid, 3vapor pressure

decrease of, in solutions, 71Henry's law for, 71Raoult's law for, 71at saturation, 34

velocity of light, 137, 160vibrational energy, contribution to

activation energy, 66vibrational energy state, of a

molecule, transition of, 141visible light, in electromagnetic

spectrum, 137-138volcanoes

bromine in plumes of, 49-50eruption of, effect on stratospheric

ozone depletion, 155low pH of areas around, 128

volt, definition and symbol for, 159voltaic cell. See electrochemical

cell(s)voltmeter

as "Gibbs free-energy meter," 133use for measuring electric potential

difference, 116vortex circulation, of air, role in

stratospheric ozone holeformation, 151-152

water (H20)

atmospheric residence time of, 61bonding energy of hydroxy group

in, 156definition of solution of, 16electrical conductivity of, 83equilibrium (or dissociation)

constant for, 165equilibrium vapor pressure

equation for, 14-15ion-product constant for, 79,88,98,

160






Index 209

ions in pure samples of, 79-80as Lewis base, 96molal boiling-point-elevation

constant for, 72molal freezing-point-depression

constant for, 72molecular weight of, 2natural, pH values of, 89-90as oxidant, 129pure, pH of, 89thermodynamic properties of,

169as weak electrolyte, 79-80

watt, definition and symbol for,159

wavelength, of radiation, 137wave number, definition of, 138waves, electromagnetic radiation as,

137wet batteries. See electrochemical

cellsworking substance, in

thermodynamics, cylinder-pistonexample, 18-19

X-ray radiation, in electromagneticspectrum, 138

zero-order reaction, 62zinc (Zn)

atomic weight of, 163electrode potential of, 120in oxidation-reduction reaction,

130thermodynamic properties of,

171zinc-copper electrochemical cell,

electron movement in, 120-121zinc gas (Zn), thermodynamic

properties of, 171zinc-hydrogen electrochemical cell,

standard half-cell potential of,119

zinc ion (Zn2+), 172thermodynamic properties of, 171

zinc oxide (ZnO), thermodynamicproperties of, 171

zinc sulfide (ZnS), solubility (or ion)product constant for, 167






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