1821Moses Austin receivesland grant in Texas

1833Santa Anna becomespresident of Mexico

March 1836The Alamo falls toMexican troops

September 1836Sam Houston iselected president of Texas

Main IdeaTexans won their independence fromMexico and asked to be admitted tothe United States.

Key TermsTejano, empresario, decree, annex

Reading StrategySequencing Information As youread Section 2, re-create the diagrambelow and, in the boxes, list keyevents that occurred in Texas.

Read to Learn• why problems arose between the

Mexican government and theAmerican settlers in Texas.

• how Texas achieved independenceand later became a state.

Section ThemeGeography and History Mexico’soffers of huge tracts of fertile landbrought American settlers to Texas.

Independencefor Texas

Davy Crockett was a backwoodsman from Tennessee. His skill as a hunter and story-teller helped get him elected to three terms in Congress. But when he started his firstpolitical campaign, Crockett was doubtful about his chances of winning. “The thoughtof having to make a speech made my knees feel mighty weak and set my heart to flut-tering.” Fortunately for Crockett, the other candidates spoke all day and tired out theaudience. “When they were all done,” Crockett boasted, “I got up and told some laugh-able story, and quit. . . . I went home, and didn’t go back again till after the election wasover.” In the end, Crockett won the election by a wide margin.

A Clash of CulturesDavy Crockett of Tennessee won notice for his frontier skills, his sense of

humor, and the shrewd common sense he often displayed in politics. When helost his seat in Congress in 1835, he did not return to Tennessee. Instead he wentsouthwest to Texas.

362 CHAPTER 12 Manifest Destiny

1835 1836

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦ 1820 ✦ 1830 ✦ 1840

Davy Crockett

Oct. Dec.

Feb. Apr. Sept.

Mar. May

Stephen F. Austinearned the name “Fatherof Texas” because of hisleadership in populatingthe Mexican territory ofTexas. After attendingcollege he worked as abusinessperson. Austinorganized the first landgrant colony in Texas in1821. Austin offeredlarge tracts of land to settlers, and his colonygrew quickly.

Austin often played therole of spokesperson withthe Mexican government,sometimes on behalf ofcolonists who were notpart of his settlement. Heserved as their advocate,even when he disagreedwith their opinions. Forexample, he negotiatedfor permission to con-tinue slavery in theprovince of Texas after itwas banned by Mexicanlaw. He also served

nearly a year in prison forpromoting independencefor the Texans.

After Texas won itswar for independence,Austin ran for the officeof president. He wasdefeated but wasappointed secretary ofstate. He died just a fewmonths later. The state ofTexas honored Stephen F.Austin by naming its capi-tal city—Austin—afterits founding father.

363CHAPTER 12 Manifest Destiny

Crockett thought he could make a new startthere. He also wanted to help the Texans wintheir independence from Mexico. Little did heknow his deeds in Texas would bring himgreater fame than his adventures on the frontieror his years in Congress.

Conflict over Texas began in 1803, when theUnited States bought the Louisiana Territoryfrom France. Americans claimed that the land inpresent-day Texas was part of the purchase.Spain protested. In 1819, in the Adams-OnísTreaty, the United States agreed to drop any fur-ther claim to the region.

Land GrantsAt the time, few people lived in Texas.

Most residents—about 3,000—were Tejanos(teh•HAH•nohs), or Mexicans who claimedTexas as their home. Native Americans includ-ing Comanches, Apaches, and Kiowas, alsolived in the area.

Because the Spanish wanted to promote thegrowth of Texas, they offered vast tracts of landto people who agreed to bring families to settle

on the land. The people who obtained thesegrants from the government and recruited thesettlers were called empresarios.

Moses Austin, a businessman who haddeveloped a mining operation in Missouri,applied for and received the first land grant in1821. Before he could establish his colony, how-ever, Moses contracted pneumonia and died.After Mexico declared independence fromSpain, Austin’s son, Stephen F. Austin, askedthe Mexican government to confirm his father’sland grant. Once he received confirmation, hebegan to organize the colony.

Stephen F. Austin recruited 300 Americanfamilies to settle the fertile land along the BrazosRiver and the Colorado River of Texas. The firstsettlers came to be called the Old Three Hun-dred. Many received 960 acres, with additionalacres for each child. Others received largerranches. Austin’s success made him a leaderamong the American settlers in Texas.

From 1823 to 1825, Mexico passed three colo-nization laws. All these laws offered new settlerslarge tracts of land at extremely low prices and

reduced or no taxes for several years. In returnthe colonists agreed to learn Spanish, becomeMexican citizens, convert to Catholicism—thereligion of Mexico—and obey Mexican law.

Mexican leaders hoped to attract settlersfrom all over, including other parts of Mexico.Most Texas settlers, however, came from theUnited States.

Growing TensionBy 1830 Americans in Texas far outnumbered

Mexicans. Further, these American colonists hadnot adopted Mexican ways. In the meantime theUnited States had twice offered to buy Texasfrom Mexico.

The Mexican government viewed the grow-ing American influence in Texas with alarm. In1830 the Mexican government issued a decree,or official order, that stopped all immigration

from the United States. At the same time, thedecree encouraged the immigration of Mexicanand European families with generous landgrants. Trade between Texas and the UnitedStates was discouraged by placing a tax ongoods imported from the United States.

These new policies angered the Texans. Theprosperity of many citizens depended on tradewith the United States. Many had friends andrelatives who wanted to come to Texas. In addi-tion, those colonists who held slaves wereuneasy about the Mexican government’s plansto end slavery.

Attempt at ReconciliationSome of the American settlers called for inde-

pendence. Others hoped to stay within Mexicobut on better terms. In 1833 General AntonioLópez de Santa Anna became president of

364 CHAPTER 12 Manifest Destiny

The Defenders Had NotStayed at the Alamo?

William Travis and almost 200 other defenders weredetermined to hold the Alamo. Travis wrote severalmessages to the people of Texas and the United Statesasking them for assistance. Travis’s appeal was unsuc-cessful. Texas military forces were not yet well organ-ized and were badly scattered. Travis’s letter ofFebruary 24, 1836, is one of the finest statements ofcourage in American history.

The defenders—mostly volunteers—were free toleave whenever they chose. But they decided to defendthe Alamo for a cause in which they believed.

Santa Anna hoped the fall of the Alamo would con-vince other Texans that it was useless to resist hisarmies. Instead, the heroism of those in the Alamoinspired other Texans to carry on the struggle.“Remember the Alamo!” became the battle cry ofHouston’s army.

To the People of Texas and All Americans in the World–Fellow Citizens and Compatriots:I am besieged by a thousand or more of the Mexicans under Santa Anna. I have sustained a continual Bombardment & cannonade for 24 hours & have not lost a man. The enemy has demanded asurrender at discretion, otherwise the garrison areto be put to the sword if the fort is taken. I haveanswered the demand with a cannon shot, and ourflag still waves proudly from the walls. I shall neversurrender or retreat.

Then, I call on you in the name of Liberty, of patriotism, & of everything dear to the Americancharacter, to come to our aid with all dispatch. The enemy is receiving reinforcements daily & willno doubt increase to three or four thousand in fouror five days. If this call is neglected I am determinedto sustain myself as long as possible & die like a soldier who never forgets what is due to his honor & that of his country.

Victory or DeathWilliam Barret Travis

Lt. Col. Comdt.

Travis’s Appeal for Aid at the Alamo, February 24, 1836

1. Do you think the stand at the Alamo helped the causeof Texas independence even though it was a defeat forthe Texans? Explain.

2. Did history take a different course because of the deci-sion to defend the Alamo? Explain.

CHAPTER 12 Manifest Destiny 365

Mexico. Stephen F. Austin traveled to MexicoCity with the Texans’ demands, which were toremove the ban on American settlers and tomake Texas a separate state.

Santa Anna agreed to the first request butrefused the second. Austin sent a letter back toTexas, suggesting that plans for independenceget underway. The Mexican government inter-cepted the letter and arrested Austin. WhileAustin was in jail, Santa Anna named himselfdictator and overthrew Mexico’s constitution of1824. Without a constitution to protect theirrights, Texans felt betrayed. Santa Anna reor-ganized the government, placing greater centralcontrol over Texas. This loss of local power dis-mayed many people.

Explaining What role did empresariosplay in colonization?

The Struggle for IndependenceDuring 1835 unrest grew among Texans and

occasionally resulted in open conflict. SantaAnna sent an army into Texas to punish the Tex-ans for criticizing him. In October some Mexicantroops tried to seize a cannon held by Texans atthe town of Gonzales. During the battle the Tex-ans decorated the front of the cannon with awhite flag that bore the words “Come and TakeIt.” After a brief struggle, Texans drove back theMexican troops. Texans consider this to be thefirst fight of the Texan Revolution.

The Texans called on volunteers to join theirfight. They offered free land to anyone whowould help. Davy Crockett and many others—including a number of African Americans andTejanos—answered that call.

In December 1835, the Texans scored an impor-tant victory. They liberated San Antonio from thecontrol of a larger Mexican force. The Texas armyat San Antonio included more than 100 Tejanos.Many of them served in a scouting companycommanded by Captain Juan Seguín. Born in SanAntonio, Seguín was an outspoken champion ofthe Texans’ demand for independence.

Despite these victories, the Texans encoun-tered problems. With the Mexican withdrawal,some Texans left San Antonio, thinking the warwas won. Various groups argued over who wasin charge and what course of action to follow. Inearly 1836, when Texas should have been mak-ing preparations to face Santa Anna, nothingwas being done.

The Battle of the AlamoSanta Anna marched north, furious at the loss

of San Antonio. When his army reached SanAntonio in late February 1836, it found a smallTexan force barricaded inside a nearby missioncalled the Alamo.

Although the Texans had cannons, theylacked gunpowder. Worse, they had only about180 soldiers to face Santa Anna’s army of severalthousand. The Texans did have brave leaders,though, including Davy Crockett, who hadarrived with a band of sharpshooters from Ten-nessee, and a tough Texan named Jim Bowie.The commander, William B. Travis, was only 26

years old, but he was determined to hold hisposition. Travis managed to send messages outthrough Mexican lines. He wrote several mes-sages to the people of Texas and the UnitedStates, asking them for assistance. In his lastmessage, Travis described the fighting that hadalready taken place and repeated his request forassistance. He warned that

“the power of Santa Anna is to be met here,or in the colonies; we had better meet themhere than to suffer a war of devastation to ragein our settlements.”

Travis concluded with the statement that heand his troops were determined to hold theAlamo.

For 12 long days, the defenders of the Alamokept Santa Anna’s army at bay with rifle fire.The Mexicans launched two assaults but had tobreak them off. During the siege, 32 volunteersfrom Gonzales slipped through the Mexicanlines to join the Alamo’s defenders.

On March 6, 1836, Mexican cannon firesmashed the Alamo’s walls, and the Mexicanslaunched an all-out attack. The Alamo defenderskilled many Mexican soldiers as they crossed

open land and tried to mount the Alamo’s walls.The Mexicans were too numerous to hold back,however, and they finally entered the fortress,killing William Travis, Davy Crockett, JimBowie, and all the other defenders. Only a fewwomen and children and some servants sur-vived to tell of the battle.

In the words of Santa Anna’s aide, “The Tex-ans fought more like devils than like men.” Thedefenders of the Alamo had killed hundreds ofMexican soldiers. But more important, they hadbought Texans some much needed time.

Texas Declares Its IndependenceDuring the siege of the Alamo, Texan leaders

were meeting at Washington-on-the-Brazos,where they were drawing up a new constitution.There, on March 2, 1836—four days before thefall of the Alamo—American settlers andTejanos firmly declared independence fromMexico and established the Republic of Texas.

The Texas Declaration of Independence wassimilar to the Declaration of the United States,which had been written 60 years earlier. TheTexas Declaration stated that the government ofSanta Anna had violated the liberties guaran-teed under the Mexican Constitution. The decla-ration charged that Texans had been deprived offreedom of religion, the right to trial by jury, theright to bear arms, and the right to petition. Itnoted that the Texans’ protests against thesepolicies were met with force. The Mexican gov-ernment had sent a large army to drive Texansfrom their homes. Because of these grievances,the declaration proclaimed the following:

“The people of Texas, in solemn conventionassembled, appealing to a candid world for thenecessities of our condition, do hereby resolveand declare that ourpolitical connection withthe Mexican nation hasforever ended; and thatthe people of Texas donow constitute a free,sovereign, and inde-pendent republic….”

366 CHAPTER 12 Manifest Destiny

HISTORY

Student Web ActivityVisit taj.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 12—Student Web Activitiesfor an activity on the fightfor Texas independence.

“We must now act or abandon all hope!”

—Sam Houston, before the Battle

of San Jacinto

http://taj.glencoe.com

With Mexican troops in Texas, it was notpossible to hold a general election to ratify theconstitution and vote for leaders of the newrepublic. Texas leaders set up a temporary gov-ernment. They selected officers to serve untilregular elections could be held.

David G. Burnet, an early pioneer in Texas,was chosen president and Lorenzo de Zavala,vice president. De Zavala had worked to estab-lish a democratic government in Mexico. Hemoved to Texas when it became clear that SantaAnna would not make reforms.

The government of the new republic namedSam Houston as commander in chief of theTexas forces. Houston had come to Texas in1832. Raised among the Cherokee people, hebecame a soldier, fighting with Andrew Jacksonagainst the Creek people. A politician as well,Houston had served in Congress and as gover-nor of Tennessee.

Houston wanted to prevent other forts frombeing overrun by the Mexicans. He ordered thetroops at Goliad to abandon their position. Asthey retreated, however, they came face to facewith Mexican troops led by General Urrea. Aftera fierce fight, several hundred Texans surren-dered. On Santa Anna’s orders, the Texans wereexecuted a few days later. This action outragedTexans, who called it the “Goliad Massacre.”

The Battle of San JacintoHouston moved his small army eastward

about 100 miles, watching the movements ofSanta Anna and waiting for a chance to strike. Sixweeks after the Alamo, he found the opportunity.

After adding some new troops, Houston gath-ered an army of about 900 at San Jacinto (SANjuh•SIHN•toh), near the site of present-dayHouston. Santa Anna was camped nearby withan army of more than 1,300. On April 21 the Tex-ans launched a surprise attack on the Mexicancamp, shouting, “Remember the Alamo! Remem-ber Goliad!” They killed more than 600 soldiersand captured about 700 more—including SantaAnna. On May 14, 1836, Santa Anna signed atreaty that recognized the independence of Texas.

Identifying Who was commanderin chief of the Texas forces?

Gulf of Mexico

Rio Brazos

Rio

Grande

Red R.

Sabine R.

AlamoMarch 6, 1836

San JacintoApril 21, 1836

San AntonioDec. 10, 1835

RefugioMarch 14,1836

San PatricioFeb. 27, 1836

GoliadMarch 20, 1836

GonzalesOct. 2, 1835

SAN

TAAN

NA

UR

REA

HOUSTON 1836HOUSTON 1836

Washington-on-the-Brazos

Brazoria

MEXICO

REPUBLICOF

TEXAS

LA.

INDIAN TERR.

Boundaryclaimed by

Mexico

Boundaryclaimed by

Texas

100 kilometers0Lambert Conformal Conic projection

100 miles0

N

S

EW

In 1836 General Santa Anna led Mexico’s main forces across theRio Grande into Texas.1. Location At which battles did Texans win victories?2. Analyzing Information What battle immediately

followed the Alamo?

The Lone Star RepublicTexans elected Sam Houston as their presi-

dent in September 1836. Mirabeau Lamar, whohad built a fort at Velasco and had foughtbravely at the Battle of San Jacinto, served asvice president. Houston sent a delegation toWashington, D.C., asking the United States toannex—take control of—Texas. The nation’spresident Andrew Jackson refused, however,because the addition of another slave statewould upset the balance of slave and free statesin Congress. For the moment Texas wouldremain an independent country.

CHAPTER 12 Manifest Destiny 367

Texan forces

Mexican forces

Texan victory

Mexican victory

Austin's colony

Disputed territory

Texas War for Independence, 1835–1836

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Write a short history

about events in Texas using the fol-lowing terms: Tejano, empresario,decree, annex.

2. Reviewing Facts Name the fourthings that American settlers agreedto do in exchange for receiving landin Texas.

Reviewing Themes3. Geography and History Why did

Northerners and Southerners dis-agree on the annexation of Texas?

Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information How did the

fall of the Alamo help the cause ofTexas independence, even though itwas a defeat for the Texans?

5. Categorizing Information Re-createthe diagram below. In the boxes, describe two causes of the war betweenMexico and Americans in Texas.

Analyzing Visuals6. Sequencing Study the map on page

367. Place these battles in order,starting with the earliest: Gonzalez,San Jacinto, the Alamo, Goliad.

The Question of AnnexationDespite rapid population growth, the new

republic faced political and financial difficulties.The Mexican government refused to honorSanta Anna’s recognition of independence, andfighting continued between Texas and Mexico.In addition Texas had an enormous debt and nomoney to repay it.

Many Texans still hoped to join the UnitedStates. Southerners favored the annexation ofTexas, but Northerners objected that Texaswould add another slave state to the Union.President Martin Van Buren, like Jackson, didnot want to inflame the slavery issue or riskwar with Mexico. He put off the question ofannexing Texas.

John Tyler, who became the nation’s presidentin 1841, was the first vice president to becomepresident upon the death of a chief executive. Hesucceeded William Henry Harrison, who died inApril, just one month after taking office. Tylersupported adding Texas to the Union and per-suaded Texas to reapply for annexation. How-ever, the Senate was divided over slavery andfailed to ratify the annexation treaty.

Texas Becomes a StateThe situation changed with the 1844 presi-

dential campaign. The feeling of Manifest Des-tiny was growing throughout the country. TheSouth favored annexation of Texas. The Northdemanded that the United States gain control ofthe Oregon country from Britain. The Democra-tic candidate, James K. Polk, supported bothactions. The Whig candidate, Henry Clay, ini-tially opposed adding Texas to the Union. Whenhe finally came out for annexation, it lost himvotes in the North—and the election.

After Polk’s victory, supporters of annexationpressed the issue in Congress. They proposedand passed a resolution to annex Texas. OnDecember 29, 1845, Texas officially became astate of the United States.

Identifying Who was president ofthe Texas Republic?

368 CHAPTER 12 Manifest Destiny

Descriptive Writing Look at thepainting of the Battle of the Alamoon page 365. Write one paragraphthat describes what is happening inthe picture.

Causes

War

Texas Republic, 1839 For its first sixyears, this Lone Star flag symbolizedthe independent nation of the Repub-lic of Texas. Texans kept the LoneStar banner as their official state flag after joining the Union in 1845.

America’s Flags